NATURE OF MATERIALS - Ability to control alloying accurately, ability to make thin

lms.
Materials science
- it involves investigating the relationships that exist 6. Future
between the structures and properties of materials. • Nanotechnology - Synthesis and characterizations of nano
materials and nanostructure
Materials engineering • Biotechnology - biomimetics and biomaterials
- on the basis of these structure–property correlations, • Energy/Environmental - Next generation energy conversion
designing or engineering the structure of a material to • Information Technology - Materials informatics
produce a predetermined set of properties.
Four Components of Materials Science
Materials Development - when utilizing a material, one needs to understand that
- transportation, housing, clothing, communication, the structure, properties, processing, and performance of
recreation, and food production—virtually every segment the material are interrelated.
of our everyday lives is in uenced to one degree or - if one alters the processing, there is a direct connection
another by materials. with the structure, properties, and performance of the
- the development and advancement of societies have material.
been intimately tied to the members’ ability to produce - adjusting any one of the factors will have varying degrees
and manipulate materials to ll their needs. of impact on the other three factors.
- early civilizations have been designated by the level of
their materials development (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Characterization
Age). - is the heart of the tetrahedron, signifying its role in
monitoring the four components.
1. Stone Age (beginning life – 3000 BC)
- using naturally occuring materials with only changes in
shape.
2. Bronze Age (3000 BC – 1200 BC) – Copper and Tin Alloy
- Ability to modify materials by re ning (using heat),
chemical modi cations (alloying) and mechanical
deformation (cold working).
3. Iron Age (1200 BC – Present)
- Casting and alloying weren’t perfected until 16th century Material Science Tetrahedron
Mastery of Steel (Iron alloy) technology enables Industrial
Revolution in the 18th and 19th century Ability to heat
treat at high temperature, control microstructure at The Materials Selection Process
different length scale and ability to design speci c 1. Pick Application - determine the required properties
microstructures for speci c properties. (Properties: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic,
optical, deteriorative)
4. Plastic Age (1940 – Present)
- Discovery of polymers, and the ability to synthesize and 2. Properties - identify candidate material(s)
process polymers. (Materials: structure, composition)
5. Silicon Age (1950 - Present)
- Commercialization of silicon technology (integrated 3. Material - identify required processing
circuits, electronic devices, etc.) leads to the information (Processing: changes in structure and overall shape. e.g.
age, which gives boost to human productivity casting, forming, joining, annealing)
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 Choosing of Materials ➢ferrous include steel, cast iron, wrought iron, malleable
• In service requires cast iron and iron-base metal
- strength, hardness
- thermal ➢Non-ferrous include all other metals and their
- resistant, ductility combination such as copper, tin, zinc, aluminum,
• Economic requires magnesium and titanium
- materials cost, machine cost, process time
Ceramics - compounds between the non-metallic and non-
• Industrial requires
- easily parts assemble, machine ability of running, cast metallic elements chemically bounded together.
➢ Most frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides
properties
➢ Composed of clay minerals, cement, and glass
• Detedorate of materials
- wear, oxidation, corrosion ➢Can be crystalline and non-crystalline but some consists of
mixture of both
Engineering materials ➢Advantages in engineering application include light
- refers to the group of materials that are used in the
construction of manmade structures and components. weight, high strength and hardness, good heat and wear
- primary function is to withstand applied loading without resistance, reduces friction and insulative properties
breaking and without exhibiting excessive de ection. ➢Typically, insulative to the passage of electricity and heat
➢ materials have been extensively tested for their properties and are more resistant to high temperature and harsh
and classi ed into broad groups. From this grouping one can environment than polymers and metal
know about the gross property of any group of material. ➢ Hard bu not brittle

Major types of Engineering Materials are metals, ➢Use ceramic tile for the space shuttle comes from the
polymers, ceramics, and composites. Greek word “κεραμικός" (keramikos), "of pottery" or
"for pottery", from "κέραμος" (keramos), "potter's clay,
Materials are classi ed as:
1. Metallic tile, pottery” which is said to derive from the Indo-
- those material that exhibit electrical and thermal European word *cheros (unattested), meaning heat.
conductivity. Play a most signi cant role in the industrial
operations with which the engineer is concerned Polymers - include familiar plastics and rubber materials
2. Non-metallic ➢Chemically based on carbon, hydrogen and another non-
- include wood, stone, brick, cement, resins (plastics), metallic element
rubber, leather, ceramics and so forth
➢ Low density and may be extremely exible
Metals - normally combinations of metallic element ➢The word polymer is derived from the Greek words πολύ-
➢quite strong, yet deformable which account for their - poly- meaning “many"; and μέρος - meros meaning
extensive use in structural applications "part".
➢ forms cations and ionic bonds with non-metals ➢Polymeric material is non-crystalline but some consists of
➢have a crystalline structure in which the atoms are mixture of crystalline and non-crystalline
arranged in orderly manner ➢ The strength and ductility of materials vary greatly
➢relatively strong and ductile at room temperature and ➢Some of materials are good insulator and are used for
maintain good strength even at high temperature electrical insulation application

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 ➢A variety of other natural polymers exist, such as cellulose, ➢This means conductivity roughly in the range of 103 to
which is the main constituent of wood and paper. The list 10−8siemens per centimeter.
of synthetic polymers includes synthetic rubber, Bakelite, ➢Are the foundation of modern electronics, including radio,
neoprene, nylon, PVC, polystyrene, polyethylene, computers, telephones, and many other devices
polypropylene, polyacrylonitrile, PVB, silicone, and many ➢Such devices include transistors, solar cells, many kinds of
more. diodes including the light-emitting diode, the silicon-
➢Synthetic polymer materials such as nylon, polyethylene, controlled recti er, and digital and analog integrated
Te on, and silicone have formed the basis for a circuits.
burgeoning polymer industry ➢Silicon is used to create most semiconductors
commercially. Dozens of other materials are used,
Composite materials including germanium, gallium arsenide, and silicon
➢ Mixture of two or more materials carbide.
➢Consists of selective ller or reinforcing material and a
compatible resin binder to obtain speci c and properties Biomaterial
desired ➢Employed in components into the human body for
➢Fiberglass is a familiar example (properly known as ber- replacement of diseased or damage body parts
reinforced polymer (FRP) or glass-reinforced plastic) ➢These materials that does not produce toxic substances
(acquire strength from the glass and exibility from the and must be compatible with body tissues
polymer ➢All the above materials can be used as biomaterials can
➢Designed to display a combination of the best generally be produced either in nature or synthesized in
characteristics of each of the component materials the laboratory using a variety of chemical approaches
➢ Plywood is a commonly encountered composite material utilizing metallic components or ceramics

Semiconductor materials Biomaterials are used in:

➢Solid or liquid material which is able to conduct electricity • Joint replacements
at room temperature more readily than an insulator but • Bone plates
less easily than a metal • Bone cement
➢Have electrical properties that are intermediate between • Arti cial ligaments and tendons
the electrical conductors and insulator • Dental implants for tooth xation
➢At low temperatures, pure semiconductors behave like • Blood vessel prostheses
insulator • Heart valves
➢The common semi-conductors include chemical elements • Skin repair devices (arti cial tissue)
and compounds such as silicon, germanium, selenium, • Cochlear replacements
gallium, arsenide, zinc selenide and lead telluride • Contact lenses
• Breast implants
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 for uranium, the highest of the naturally occurring

Nanoengineered Materials elements.
➢materials of which a single unit is sized (in at least one
atomic mass (A)
dimension) between 1 and 1000 nanometers (10−9 - may be expressed as the sum of the masses of protons
meter) but is usually 1—100 nm. Materials with structure at and neutrons within the nucleus.
the nanoscale often have unique optical, electronic, or - the number of protons is the same for all atoms of a given
mechanical properties. element, the number of neutrons (N) may be variable.
- atoms of some elements have two or more different
➢to develop mechanical, electrical, magnetic, and other
atomic masses, which are called isotopes.
properties that are not otherwise possible. We call this the - the atomic weight of an element corresponds to the
“bottom-up” approach, and the study of the properties of weighted average of the atomic masses of the atom’s
these materials is termed “nanotechnology”; the “nano” naturally occurring isotopes.
pre x denotes that the dimensions of these structural
atomic mass unit (amu)
entities are on the order of a nanometer (10- 9 m)—as a
- may be used for computations of atomic weight.
rule, less than 100 nanometers (equivalent to - 1 amu is de ned as 1/12 of the atomic mass of the most
approximately 500 atom diameters) common isotope of carbon, carbon 12 (12C) (A =
➢One example of a material of this type is the carbon 12.00000).
nanotube. In the future we will undoubtedly nd that - the masses of protons and neutrons are slightly greater
than unity.
increasingly more of our technological advances will utilize
these nanoengineered materials.
atomic weight of an element
- or the molecular weight of a compound may be speci ed
Engineering Materials Composition on the basis of amu per atom (molecule) or mass per
mole of material.
- In one mole of a substance there are 6.023 x 10 23 atoms
Atomic Structure
or molecules. These two atomic weight schemes are
- Each atom consists of a very small nucleus composed of
related through the following equation:
protons and neutrons, which is encircled by moving
1 amu/atom (or molecule) = 1 g/mol
electrons.
- Both electrons and protons are electrically charged, the
e.g. the atomic weight of iron is 55.85 amu/atom, or 55.85 g/
charge magnitude being1.60 x10 -19 C, which is negative
mol. Sometimes use of amu per atom or molecule is
in sign for electrons and positive for protons; neutrons are
convenient; on other occasions g (or kg)/mol is preferred.
electrically neutral.
- protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass,
Chemical Bonding
1.67 x 10 -27 kg, which is signi cantly larger than that
PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS
of an electron, 9.11 x10 -31 kg.
1. Ionic Bonding
- Each chemical element is characterized by the number of - the easiest to describe and visualize.
protons in the nucleus, or the atomic number (Z). - It is always found in compounds that are composed of
- For an electrically neutral or complete atom, the atomic
both metallic and nonmetallic elements, elements that
number also equals the number of electrons. This atomic
number ranges in integral units from 1 for hydrogen to 92
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 are situated at the horizontal extremities of the periodic
table.
- Atoms of a metallic element easily give up their valence
electrons to the nonmetallic atoms.
- In the process all the atoms acquire stable or inert gas
con gurations and, in addition, an electrical charge; that
is, they become ions.
In the process all the atoms acquire stable or inert gas
con gurations and, in addition, an electrical charge; that is,
they become ions.
Ionic bonding is termed nondirectional; that is, the
magnitude of the bond is equal in all directions around an
ion. It follows that for ionic materials to be stable, all positive
ions must have as nearest neighbors negatively charged ions
in a three-dimensional scheme, and vice versa. The
predominant bonding in ceramic materials is ionic.
2. Covalent Bonding
- stable electron con gurations are assumed by the sharing
of electrons between adjacent atoms. Two atoms that are
covalently bonded will each contribute at least one
electron to the bond, and the shared electrons may be
considered to belong to both atoms.
The carbon atom has four valence electrons, whereas each of
the four hydrogen atoms has a single valence electron. Each
hydrogen atom can acquire a helium electron con guration
(two 1s valence electrons) when the carbon atom shares with
it one electron. The carbon now has four additional shared
electrons, one from each hydrogen, for a total of eight
valence electrons, and the electron structure of neon. The
covalent bond is directional; that is, it is between speci c
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atoms and may exist only in the direction between one atom
and another that participates in the electron sharing.
Schematic representation of covalent bonding in a molecule
of methane (CH4).
3. Metallic Bonding
- the nal primary bonding type, is found in metals and
their alloys. A relatively simple model has been proposed
that very nearly approximates the bonding scheme.
- Metallic materials have one, two, or at most, three valence
electrons. With this model, these valence electrons are not
bound to any particular atom in the solid and are more or
less free to drift throughout the entire metal. They may be
thought of as belonging to the metal as a whole, or
forming a “sea of electrons” or an “electron cloud.” The
remaining nonvalenced electrons and atomic nuclei form
what are called ion cores, which possess a net positive
charge equal in magnitude to the total valence electron
charge per atom.
- is found in the periodic table for Group IA and IIA
elements and, in fact, for all elemental metals. Some
general behaviors of the various material types (i.e.,
metals, ceramics, polymers) may be explained by bonding
type. For example, metals are good conductors of both
electricity and heat, as a consequence of their free
electrons. By way of contrast, ionically and covalently
bonded materials are typically electrical and thermal
insulators, due to the absence of large numbers of free
electrons.
 SECONDARY BONDING OR VAN DER WAALS BONDING
- Secondary, van der Waals, or physical bonds are weak in
comparison to the primary or chemical ones; bonding
energies are typically on the order of only 10 kJ/mol (0.1
eV/atom).
- exists between virtually all atoms or molecules, but its
presence may be obscured if any of the three primary
bonding types is present.
- is evidenced for the inert gases, which have stable
electron structures, and, in addition, between molecules
in molecular structures that are covalently bonded.
Secondary bonding forces arise from atomic or molecular
dipoles. In essence, an electric dipole exists whenever there
is some separation of positive and negative portions of an
atom or molecule. The bonding results from the coulombic
attraction between the positive end of one dipole and the
negative region of an adjacent one. Dipole interactions occur
between induced dipoles, between induced dipoles and
polar molecules (which have permanent dipoles), and
between polar molecules. Hydrogen bonding, a special
type of secondary bonding, is found to exist between some
molecules that have hydrogen as one of the constituents.
These bonding mechanisms are now discussed brie y.
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Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds
A dipole may be created or induced in an atom or molecule
that is normally electrically symmetric; that is, the overall
spatial distribution of the electrons is symmetric with respect
to the positively charged nucleus. All atoms are experiencing
constant vibrational motion that can cause instantaneous and
short-lived distortions of this electrical symmetry for some of
the atoms or molecules, and the creation of small electric
dipoles, One of these dipoles can in turn produce a
displacement of the electron distribution of an adjacent
molecule or atom, which induces the second one also to
become a dipole that is then weakly attracted or bonded to
the rst; this is one type of van der Waals bonding. These
attractive forces may exist between large numbers of atoms
or molecules, which forces are temporary and uctuate with
time.
The liquefaction and, in some cases, the solidi cation of the
inert gases and other electrically neutral and symmetric
molecules such as H2 and Cl2 are realized because of this
type of bonding. Melting and boiling temperatures are
extremely low in materials for which induced dipole bonding
predominates; of all possible intermolecular bonds, these
are the weakest.

 Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds
Permanent dipole moments exist in some molecules by
virtue of an asymmetrical arrangement of positively and
negatively charged regions; such molecules are termed polar
molecules.
Polar molecules can also induce dipoles in adjacent nonpolar
molecules, and a bond will form as a result of attractive forces
between the two molecules. Furthermore, the magnitude of
this bond will be greater than for uctuating induced dipoles
Permanent Dipole Bonds
Van der Waals forces will also exist between adjacent polar
molecules. The associated bonding energies are signi cantly
greater than for bonds involving induced dipoles. The
strongest secondary bonding type, the hydrogen bond, is a
special case of polar molecule bonding. It occurs between
molecules in which hydrogen is covalently bonded to
uorine (as in HF), oxygen (as in H2O) and nitrogen (as in
NH3). For each H—F, H—O, or H—N bond, the single hydrogen
electron is shared with the other atom. Thus, the hydrogen
end of the bond is essentially a positively charged bare
proton that is unscreened by any electrons. This highly
positively charged end of the molecule is capable of a strong
attractive force with the negative end of an adjacent
molecule. In essence, this single proton forms a bridge
between two negatively charged atoms. The
magnitude of the hydrogen bond is generally greater than
that of the other types of secondary bonds and may be as
high as 51 kJ/mol (0.52 eV/molecule), as shown in Table 1.
Melting and boiling temperatures for hydrogen uoride and
water are abnormally high in light of their low molecular
weights, as a consequence of hydrogen bonding.
CRYSTAL STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES
Crystalline material - is one in which the atoms are
situated in a repeating or periodic array over large atomic
distances —that is, long-range order exists, such that upon
solidi cation, the atoms will position themselves in a
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repetitive three-dimensional pattern, in which each atom is
bonded to its nearest neighbor atoms.
e.g. sugar, salt, diamond, graphite (all minerals)
Non-crystalline/Amorphous Material
- do not crystallize and the long-range atomic order is
absent. e.g. rubber, glass
Crystal structure - Some of the properties of crystalline
solids depend on the crystal structure of the material, the
manner in which atoms, ions, or molecules are spatially
arranged.
Crystallographic Direction - It is de ned as a line
between two points, or a vector.
Allotropy - when more than one crystal structure is found in
elemental solids.
Crystal Systems - It is more convenient to divide crystal
structures according to unit cell con gurations or atomic
Crystallography - it is the science of measuring the crystal
structure of a crystal. One widely used crystallography
technique is X-ray diffraction.
Crystalline Solids - depends on temperature and external
pressure
Atomic hard-sphere model - where spheres representing
nearest-neighbor atoms touch one another.
Lattice - lattice means a three-dimensional array of points
coinciding with atom positions (or sphere centers).
Unit Cells
- small groups of atoms form a repetitive pattern.
- small repeat entities and are parallelepipeds or prisms; the
basic structural unit.

 METALLIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURES top and bottom planes. The atoms in this midplane have
Three relatively simple crystal structures are found for most of as nearest neighbors atoms in both of the adjacent two
the common metals: planes.
1. face-centered cubic,
2. body centered cubic, and Shottky Defect - This is a paired set of cation and anion
3. hexagonal close-packed vacancies.

The Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure Valency - All else being equal, a metal will have a greater
- some of the familiar metals having this crystal structure tendency to dissolve a metal of higher valency than one of
are copper, aluminum, silver, and gold. lower valency
- discovered by Sir Thomas Harriot
- he predicted that atoms in crystalline solids where also Vacancies - These exist in ceramics for both cations and
arranged in same ef cient manner anions. The simplest of the point defects.

Voids (hexagonal closed packing in 2D) Grain re ner - This is added to make smaller, more uniform,
- empty spaces between layers equiaxed grains
- triangular in shape
Solidi cation - Result of casting of molten material
Two other important characteristics of a crystal structure are
the coordination number and the atomic packing factor Crystallites - This is necessary to observe with a microscope
(APF).
Catalyst - This increases the rate of a chemical reaction
coordination number - number of nearest-neighbor or without being consumed
touching atoms
Linear Defects - These are one-dimensional defects around
atomic packing factor (APF) which atoms are misaligned
- is the sum of the sphere volumes of all atoms within a unit
cell (assuming the atomic hard-sphere model) divided by the Impurities - Speci cation of composition
unit cell volume—that is,
Point Defects - This are defects due in part to chain packing
APF = volume of atoms in a unit cell / Total unit cell volume errors and impurities such as chain ends and side chains.

body-centered cubic (BCC) crystal structure Frenkel Defect - This is a cation vacancy-cation interstitial
- atoms located at all eight corners and a single atom at the pair
cube center.
Grains - This can be equiaxed (roughly same size in all
The Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal directions) - columnar (elongated grains)
- close packing in one dimension and two dimension
- The top and bottom faces of the unit cell consist of six Imperfections in metal - Two outcomes if impurity added
atom that form regular hexagons and surround a single to host
atom in the center. Another plane that provides three
additional atoms to the unit cell is situated between the

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 solid solution - forms when, as the solute atoms are added twist boundary - when the angle of mis orientation is
to the host material, the crystal structure is maintained and parallel to the boundary and can be described by an array of
no new structures are formed. Also a compositionally screw dislocations.
homogeneous; the impurity atoms are randomly and
uniformly dispersed within the solid. Phase boundaries - exist in multiphase materials, in which
a different phase exists on each side of the boundary and
Impurity point defects - are found in solid solutions, of play an important role in determining the mechanical
which there are two types: substitutional and interstitial. characteristics of some multiphase metal alloys.

Interstitials - These are not normally observed for anions twin boundary- is a special type of grain boundary across
because anions are large relative to the interstitial sites which there is a speci c mirror lattice symmetry

Self-Interstitials - “Extra" atoms positioned between Volume defects - are defects in 3-dimensions. These defects
atomic sites are normally introduced during processing and fabrication
steps. (e.g. pores, cracks, foreign inclusions and other
Dislocations - This is a slip between crystal planes result phases.)
when dislocations move
atomic vibrations - may be thought of as imperfections or
Edge dislocation - is a linear defect that centers on the line defects. Every atom in a solid material is vibrating very
that is de ned along the end of the extra half-plane of atoms. rapidly about its lattice position within the crystal.
Sometimes termed the dislocation line.
MICROSCOPIC TECHNIQUES
Screw dislocation - Spiral planar ramp resulting from shear Optical Microscopy
deformation - useful up to 2000X magni cation.
- the light microscope is used to study the microstructure;
Burgers vector -the magnitude and direction of the lattice optical and illumination systems are its basic elements.
distortion associated with a dislocation. denoted by b.
Electron Microscopy
- upper limit to the magni cation possible with an optical
Interfacial defects - are boundaries that have two microscope is approximately 2000.
dimensions and normally separate regions of the materials
that have different crystal structures and/or crystallographic transmission electron microscope (TEM)
orientations. - image seen is formed by an electron beam that passes
(e.g. external surfaces, grain boundaries, phase boundaries, through the specimen.
twin boundaries, and stacking faults.) - Magni cations approaching 1,000,000 are possible with
transmission electron microscopy, which is frequently
Grain Boundaries - these are more susceptible to etching. used to study dislocations.

tilt boundary - One simple small-angle grain boundary is scanning electron microscope (SEM)
formed when edge dislocations are aligned in a manner. - a more recent and extremely useful investigative tool
- Magni cations ranging from 10 to in excess of 50,000 are
possible, as are also very great depths of eld.
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 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM)

- atoms can be arranged and imaged

scanning probe microscope (SPM)

- differs from optical and electron microscopes in that neither
light nor electrons
are used to form an image.

Some of the features that differentiate the SPM from other

microscopic techniques are as follows:
• Examination on the nanometer scale is possible inasmuch
as magni cations as high as 109 are possible; much better
resolutions are attainable than with other microscopic
techniques.
• Three-dimensional magni ed images are generated that
provide topographical information about features of
interest.
• Some SPMs may be operated in a variety of environments
(e.g., vacuum, air, liquid); thus, a particular specimen may
be examined in its most suitable environment.

grain size
- is often determined when the properties of polycrystalline
and single phase materials are under consideration.
- may be speci ed in terms of average or mean grain
diameter, and a number of techniques have been
developed to measure this parameter.

two common grain-size determination techniques

1. linear intercept - ounting numbers of grain boundary
intersections by straight test lines
- l i n e s a re d ra w n ra n d o m l y t h ro u g h s e v e ra l
photomicrographs that show the grain structure (all taken
at the same magni cation). Grain boundaries intersected
by all the line segments are counted.
2. comparison — comparing grain structures with
standardized charts, which are based upon grain areas
(i.e., number of grains per unit area).

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