Construction and Building Materials 158 (2018) 535–548

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Construction and Building Materials

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Review

Global perspective on application of controlled low-strength material

(CLSM) for trench backfilling – An overview
Tung-Chai Ling a,b,c, Senthil Kumar Kaliyavaradhan a, Chi Sun Poon b,⇑
a
College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, Hunan, China
b
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
c
Key Laboratory for Green & Advanced Civil Engineering Materials and Application Technology of Hunan Province, China

h i g h l i g h t s

 Recent research developments and applications of CLSM for trench backfilling are overviewed.
 CLSM specifications, practical applications and materials used by different countries are discussed.
 Long-term site experiences and technical limitations of using CLSM are highlighted.
 CLSM could be a beneficial way for recycling waste materials and industrial by-products.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Controlled low-strength material (CLSM) is known as a self-leveling and self-compacting cementitious
Received 9 August 2017 backfill material used for backfilling. The aim of this paper is to give an overview of the research devel-
Received in revised form 3 October 2017 opment and practical application of CLSM for trench backfilling. Widespread application of CLSM is found
Accepted 10 October 2017
around the world including in the United States of America (USA) as well as in other developed and devel-
oping countries. The main specifications and guidelines used in the USA and referenced by most of the
other countries are highlighted in this paper. In addition, long-term site performance and technical lim-
Keywords:
itations to be considered before application of CLSM are also discussed. Based on 115 globally sourced
Controlled low-strength material (CLSM)
Trench backfilling
literature articles, it is suggested that the materials used for the production of CLSM are varied from
Waste materials country to country which in turn could have a significant influence on the resulting properties and its
Specification application in the field. It is also demonstrated that use of high volume by-products or/and waste mate-
Flowability rials is an effective way to control the low strength requirement of CLSM and minimize the environmen-
Excavatability tal concerns related to the disposal of these waste materials.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
2. Mix design, properties, and specifications of CLSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
2.1. Mix design of CLSM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
2.2. Key properties of CLSM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
2.2.1. Flowability of CLSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
2.2.2. Re-excavatability of CLSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
2.2.3. Compatibility of CLSM with buried metal materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
2.2.4. Other properties of CLSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
2.3. Specifications of CLSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
3. Research and practices of CLSM in different countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
3.1. United States of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
3.2. Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: tcling@hnu.edu.cn, tcling611@yahoo.com (T.-C. Ling), senthilkumark13@yahoo.com (S.K. Kaliyavaradhan), cecspoon@polyu.edu.hk (C.S. Poon).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.10.050
0950-0618/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
536 T.-C. Ling et al. / Construction and Building Materials 158 (2018) 535–548

3.3. United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541

3.4. Australia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
3.5. Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
3.6. Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
3.7. Taiwan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
3.8. China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
3.9. Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
3.10. Malaysia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
3.11. Other Asian countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
4. Practical applicability of CLSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
4.1. Long-term site experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
4.2. Technical limitation of using CLSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
4.3. Other considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
5. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546

1. Introduction sented in Figs. 2 and 3. It can be seen that about one-third of the
studies were conducted and published by the USA, and an average
Controlled low-strength material (CLSM) is a self-compacting of 5 articles are published globally per year for the past 25 years.
and self-leveling cementitious backfill material used in lieu of con-
ventional compacted fill [1]. The other terms used to describe this 2. Mix design, properties, and specifications of CLSM
backfilling material includes flowable fill, controlled density fill,
flowable mortar, self-compacted backfill material, plastic soil- In 1985, the ACI Committee 229 was set up with the aim of
cement or slurry etc. [1–3]. CLSM has a wide range of applications establishing a comprehensive report covering the applications,
(see Fig. 1) due to its unique characteristics and properties. The proportioning, handling, placement, and performance (i.e. sam-
principal applications of CLSM include trench backfilling, structural pling, fresh properties, in-service properties) of CLSM for various
fills, pavement bases, void filling and conduit bedding [4]. Table 1 applications. The ACI Committee 229 report was first published
summarizes the criteria requirements and the essential properties in 1994 and became effective on April 26, 1999.
need to be achieved for each different application of CLSM.
In general, CLSM costs slightly higher than the conventional
2.1. Mix design of CLSM
compacted soil or granular backfill materials, however, the
potential advantages associated with its use include: less on-site
Generally, the mix design of CLSM was established based on
labor and equipment requirement (due to its flowable nature,
past experience or trial and error. Mostly, it was designed for high
self-leveling and easy placement with no vibration needed), fast
flowability (>200 mm spread) and low compressive strength 2.1
construction speed (from order to the delivery of materials and
MPa that allows for re-excavation in future, yet strong enough for
clean up), ability for use in tight or restricted-access areas (where
backfilling needs [1,4,8,12]. Fig. 4 shows a mix proportion (% of
compacting soil is difficult or even impossible in some cases), safer
total mass) and typical materials being used in CLSM for trench
for labors working in excavated narrow trenches, and could utilize
backfilling [13]. As it can be seen, it is usually a mixture of fly
high volume of waste materials in the mixture [4–7]. CLSM usually
ash, fine aggregate (or other waste materials), water, and a small
has a sufficient load-carrying capacity and serve as a strong and
amount of Portland cement (25–59 kg/m3) and chemical admix-
durable backfill material for utility conduits, structural fill, and
tures. According to American Concrete Institute (ACI 229), the
pavement applications. More importantly, it can be designed with
upper and lower limits 28 days unconfined compressive strength
sufficient early strength to support traffic loads within several
of CLSM are limited to 8.3 MPa and 0.3 MPa respectively [1,4,12].
hours after placement [8–11].
A total of 115 research articles are found (for trench backfilling
2.2. Key properties of CLSM
only) in the literature in English dating from 1990 to 2017. Based
on this globally sourced literature, an overview of CLSM in terms
CLSM offers a number of advantages over compacted soils in
of specifications, materials adopted in different countries and its
burying underground utilities or pipelines. The key properties of
influence on the properties for trench backfilling are reviewed.
CLSM include the flowability/self-compacting ability, re-
The number of articles published in country-wise and year is pre-
excavatability (unconfined compressive strength), chemical stabil-
ity (corrosion) and other properties are discussed in the following
sub-sections.

2.2.1. Flowability of CLSM

High flowability with a slump flow value more than 200 mm is
usually required for CLSM to achieve self-flowable characteristic
for placement and backfilling. Due to its self-leveling and high
flowability, no compaction is required at the bottom of the trench,
making it easier to maintain the pipe alignment as well as less
chance for settlement [10,11,15]. In addition, it minimizes the
working area required within the trench and perhaps, more
importantly, improves labor safety [11]. Depending on the type
and location of the trench to be filled, it can be placed by a chute,
Fig. 1. Different applications of CLSM. a conveyor, a pump or buckets, and thereby can speed up the
 T.-C. Ling et al. / Construction and Building Materials 158 (2018) 535–548 537

Table 1
Criteria requirements for different CLSM application.

CLSM application Criteria to be fulfilled

General backfilling (Void fillings, filling abandoned underground structures, etc.) High degree of flowability (>200 mm spread)
Durability properties
Setting time and early strength is not critically essential
28-day compressive strength should be 0.5 MPa
Excavatable backfilling (Underground pipelines-water, sewer, and storm- High degree of flowability
drainage pipelines, roadway trench, conduit bedding, etc.) Self-compacting and self-leveling
Less subsidence and quick setting time
Durability properties
Easy for re-excavation – Manually or mechanically
28-day compressive strength 2.1 MPa
Structural backfilling (Bridge approach, foundation support, retaining walls etc.) Good flowability (at least 200 mm spread)
Self-compacting and permanent fill
Uniformity, stability and durability properties
28-day compressive strength should be controlled within 0.7–8.3 MPa
(depends on its application)
Pavement backfilling (Sub-bases, subgrades of flexible pavement) Good flowability
Self-compacting and self-leveling
Early strength and short hardening time are essential
Wearing and freeze-thaw resistance
Durability properties
28-day compressive strength should be controlled within 2.8–8.3 MPa
(depends on its application)
Thermal backfilling (Underground power cables) High degree of flowability
Self-compacting and self-leveling
Early strength and durability properties
High density and low porosity
High thermal conductivity
28-day compressive strength 2 MPa
Anticorrosion backfilling (Underground metal pipelines) High degree of flowability
Self-compacting and self-leveling
Early strength, uniformity and durability properties
High electrical resistivity
28-day compressive strength 2 MPa

Fig. 2. Country-wise analysis of articles published related to CLSM.

construction time and reduce the labor requirements [1,11,12]. The
water content and properties of the materials used are the critical
factors affecting the flowability of CLSM. The flowability of CLSM
increases with an increase of water content; however, more water
content can lead to segregation and bleeding. The presence of a
high volume of fine particles and porous materials could increase
the demand for water and reduce the flowability of CLSM. There-
fore, the selection of suitable materials and design a proper mix
design is important to achieve the desired flowability (>200 mm)
without segregation.
538 T.-C. Ling et al. / Construction and Building Materials 158 (2018) 535–548

Fig. 3. Number of related articles of CLSM published in the past 25 years.

2.2.2. Re-excavatability of CLSM
Re-excavatability is one of the critical properties for backfilling
utility trenches. Generally, CLSM with an unconfined compressive
strength of 0.3 MPa or less can be excavated manually [1,12]. How-
ever, the strength limits for future excavation are somewhat arbi-
trary. For instance, mixtures with high quantities of coarse
aggregate can be difficult to remove by hand even at low strength,
while CLSM prepared with fine sand or only fly ash as an aggregate
can be excavated with a backhoe up to the strength of 2.1 MPa
[1,12]. However, a special concern is always needed when the
CLSM mixtures are prepared with a high volume of fly ash because
they can keep gaining strength even after 1 year [1,12].
2.2.3. Compatibility of CLSM with buried metal materials
Risk of corrosion would be a major concern in buried metal
materials (e.g. water pipes, drainage pipes, etc.) [15]. The potential
to initiate corrosion of embedded metal is related to the electrical
resistivity of the backfill material along with its pH and drainage
characteristics, stray current, reactive chemicals, etc. [15]. A few
studies [15,16,34–37] were conducted on the corrosion activity
of steel coupons placed in simulated soil with steel coupons cov-
ered with a cement-based CLSM placed in simulated soil. The steel
coupons were evaluated at various times to determine the corro-
sion rate. Table 2 shows the corrosion rate at different ages, which
demonstrated that the CLSM had a better corrosion resistance than
sand compacted backfill [15]. Severe surface pitting was identified
in the control samples (placed directly in the simulated soil), but
no signs of corrosion were observed for the steel samples covered
by CLSM. This was mainly due to the thin layer of cement-based
material adhering to the steel specimens that had created a passi-
vating environment to protect the embedded steel from corrosion
[15]. They concluded that the CLSM could significantly improve the
corrosion performance of carbon steel in underground applications
[15,16].

2.2.4. Other properties of CLSM

Another important property for utility trench backfilling is the
thermal resistivity. Installation of underground electric transmis-
Fig. 4. Typical mix proportions of a CLSM mixture for trench backfilling (data sion and distribution systems involves digging a trench, laying
sourced from [13]). cable, pipe or conduit, and then backfilling the trench. The systems

Table 2
Corrosion rates for sand and CLSM [15].

Time (days) 13 27 48 71 99
Corrosion rate (lm/yr) Sand 377.2 412.8 426.4 349.2 249.7
CLSM 1.6 0.0 0.2 0.7 0.0
 T.-C. Ling et al. / Construction and Building Materials 158 (2018) 535–548 539

Table 3
Test methods and acceptance criteria for determining fresh properties and in-service properties of CLSM mixtures [1,43–52].

Property Method Description Standard Limit

Flowability ASTM D6103 [43] 75  150 mm open-ended cylinder modified flow test Low flowability: <150 mm
Normal flowability: 150–200 mm
High flowability: >200 mm
Hardening time ASTM C403 [44] A penetration-resistance test or approximate bearing Hardening time can be as short as 1 h but generally, takes
capacity can be used to measure the hardening time and 3–5 h under normal conditions.
early strength development of CLSM Penetration numbers of 500–1500 psi (3.5–10 MPa) are
normally required to assure adequate bearing capacity.
Density ASTM D6023 [45] Test method for unit weight, yield, and air content Wet density of normal CLSM in place is in the range of
(gravimetric) of CLSM 1840–2320 kg/m3, which is greater than most
compacted materials. However, a CLSM mixture with
only fly ash, cement, and water should have a density
of 1440–1600 kg/m3.
Strength The compressive strength of CLSM can be measured by several methods. Unconfined compressive strength test is the most common; however,
other methods, such as penetrometer devices or plate load tests, can also be used. CLSM is used in a variety of applications requiring different
load-carrying characteristics.
ASTM D4832 [46] This test method covers procedures for the preparation, Maintaining strengths at a low level and allow for
curing, transporting and testing of the cylindrical excavation is an important consideration for CLSM.
specimen (150  300 mm) of CLSM for the determination Strengths between 0.3–2.1 MPa are allowed for future
of compressive strength. Special care may be needed excavation. The upper limit of 8.3 MPa allows use for
because the specimens are often very low-strength and applications where future excavation is unlikely, such as
fragile. structural fill under buildings.
ASTM D6024 [47] Test method for the ball drop on CLSM is used to If the diameter is equal or less than 76 mm then the CLSM
determine the suitability of load application. A standard is suitable and ready for load application.
cylinder weight is dropped five times from a specific When the diameter is greater than 76 mm it is not strong
height onto the surface of in-place CLSM. The diameter of enough to support the load, such as backfill or pavement.
the resulting indentation is measured.
Sampling ASTM D5971 [48] Practice for sampling freshly mixed CLSM. Sampling CLSM that has been delivered to the project site
should be performed in accordance with ASTM D5971
Potential for corrosion California Test 643 The potential for corrosion on metals encased in CLSM can A rough indication of soil corrosivity vs. resistivity [16]:
[49] be quantified by an electrical resistivity test method in the Very corrosive: <500 ohm cm
same manner that is natural soils are compared for their Corrosive: 500–1000 ohm cm
corrosion potential on corrugated metal culvert pipes Moderately corrosive: 1000–2000 ohm cm
(California Test 643) Mildly corrosive: 2000–10,000 ohm cm
Progressively less corrosive: >10,000 ohm cm
Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity can be measured by different methods and devices. A few High thermal conductivity of CLSM is desired as in backfill
common tests have been widely used are BS EN 1934 (Hot box) [50], Lee’s disc for underground power cables. Thermal conductivity of
method (Hot plate), for example ASTM C1113 [51], ASTM C518 [52]. The most 1.1 W/°C-m has become ingrained in the cable engineering
important parameters to be considered are moisture content and density. As the practice [17]
moisture content and dry density increase, the thermal conductivity also
increases.

are often designed to last for 30 years in service but an improper properties of CLSM in its fresh and hardened state and provides a
installation of backfilling could lead to premature field failures useful advice to purchasers of ready-mixed and site mixed con-
[17]. The effects of poor installation in burying electrical lines crete on how CLSM should be specified in relation to specific ASTM
may not be revealed for many years, until the cable loads increase standards. Table 3 shows the test methods (mainly from ASTM),
and temperatures rise beyond the allowable levels, resulting in and the acceptance criteria of a quality CLSM mixture specified
cable failures. The selection of a good backfill material (with low in the document.
thermal resistivity) particular for underground circuit and suitable
method of installation is therefore very important. The crucial
3. Research and practices of CLSM in different countries
aspect of using moist soil or sand as backfilling material with
low thermal resistivity is that their moisture would easily be dried
To better understand the research and practices of CLSM used as
when subjected to cable heat, resulting in less effective or even
a backfilling material in different countries, research articles pub-
inhibition of heat dissipation and thus might cause a failure of
lished in the past 25 years concerning the specifications, selection
the cable. Totally dried CLSM has higher thermal stability and
of local waste materials for the production of CLSM, as well as its
therefore might be a better option as backfilling materials compar-
influence on the resulting properties and the application of trench
ing with sand. The self-leveling nature also eliminates the forma-
backfilling for underground utilities are detailed as follows (in
tion of large voids, which decrease the possibility of thermal
country-wise).
runaway in CLSM [17–19].

3.1. United States of America

2.3. Specifications of CLSM
The ACI Committee 229 document is not only the main guide-
line used in the USA but also has been widely referenced by many
countries. To the best of our knowledge, except the USA there is no
specific standard and CLSM specification published by other coun-
tries. The ACI Committee 229 document has clearly described the
CLSM was first introduced in the United States of America
(USA), as an alternative for traditional soil backfilling [1,2]. In the
USA, this material was particularly used for backfilling abutments,
retaining walls, filling up abandoned pipelines and utility vaults,
cavities, settled areas, as well as large voids such as old tunnels
and sewers [1,2]. Although most of the States in the USA had lim-
540 T.-C. Ling et al. / Construction and Building Materials 158 (2018) 535–548
Fig. 5. Different applications of CLSM in the USA (Reprinted from Trejo et al. [4], with permission from authors).
ited experience on the use of CLSM in the early 1970s, for many
years the material performed satisfactorily with little or no
reported problems.
In 1995, a survey ascertained that 90% of the 3000 ready-mix
concrete producers in the USA were supplying various types of
flowable fill [4]. In 1998, the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) published an ASTM STP 1331 entitled ‘‘The
Design and Application of Controlled Low-Strength Materials
(flowable fill)”. After several years, the American Concrete Institute
(ACI) 299 committee published a revised edition of ACI 229 R-99
with more detailed guidelines and practices that should be fol-
lowed for use of CLSM. Currently, more than 20 States (e.g. Color-
ado, Ohio, Florida Georgia, California, Illinois, Wisconsin, Indiana,
Massachusetts, North Carolina, Texas, Washington, etc.) have their
own local specifications for CLSM (see Fig. 5) [4]. At present, there
are five ASTM testing standards ASTM D6103 [43], ASTM D6023
[45], ASTM D4832 [46], ASTM D6024 [47], and ASTM D5971 [48]
available for CLSM across the US.
Since the CLSM is designed as a comparatively low-strength
material, therefore, the quality requirements for materials used in
the mixture are low. Many research works have been carried out
in the USA to use various industrial by-products/waste materials
as an alternative cementing material and aggregate in CLSM [3–10,
13–16,20–42]. Typically, the coal fly ash (i.e. Class C, Class F, and high
carbon fly ash) which are available in large quantities in the USA was
found to be well suited for use in CLSM mixtures [4–7,10,14,15].
The fine aggregates in CLSM normally account for more than
two-third of the total weight of constituents, and the recycled
materials such as foundry sand [8,9,22], limestone screenings
[20], crushed recycled glass [21] were successfully utilized in CLSM
for a number of civil engineering applications. For example,
unwashed colored glass crushed with the size of 12.5 mm or smal-
ler has been used as 100% aggregate in CLSM by contractors in the
Boulder, Colorado area [21]. The mix design was prepared with a
cement: fly ash: glass ratio of 1:2:50 and water-to-total solids ratio
of 0.078. A small amount of air entraining agent was used to control
the flowability. Field test results for flowability indicated that the
glass-CLSM performed better than that of CLSM produced with nat-
ural aggregates. With the similar specific gravity of the fine aggre-
gates, the density of glass-CLSM produced was found to be close to
the standard CLSM. The Colorado Department of Transportation has
now allowed the use of crushed glass as partial or full replacement
for natural aggregates in CLSM [21]. Several State’s Departments of
Transportation (DOT) had accepted or are considering CLSM pro-
duced with recycled materials from different sources. The ACI spec-
ification has also encouraged the use of non-standard materials as
long as it satisfies the purpose and criteria of application [1].
3.2. Canada
In 1985, Toronto carried out utility trench works using the flow-
able fill [53]. In 1993, field experimental studies were carried out
by National Research Council of Canada in Edmonton aimed to
reduce the frost penetration problem. Several Canadian municipal-
ities found that flowable fill could be potentially solved some of the
existing problems of traditional soil compacted method for trench
backfilling. Further studies were also done at universities to inves-
tigate the feasible use of mine tailings, fly ash, acid mine drainage
sludge, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), cement kiln
dust (CKD), and recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) as potential
materials for use in CLSM [54–60]. The main motivation of using
such waste materials is because they are currently available in
 T.-C. Ling et al. / Construction and Building Materials 158 (2018) 535–548
Fig. 6. CLSM Field trials (a) BOS Slag discharge to the conveyor, (b) CLSM discharge to the trench, (c) inspecting the trench (Reprinted from Claisse et al. [64], with permission
from authors and Bentham OPEN).
large quantities in Canada. Among the byproduct or waste materi-
als, fly ash, cement kiln dust, steel slags, and RCA are the most
commonly used materials [57–60]. Lachemi et al. [57] investigated
the properties of CLSM prepared with CKD (without cement) and a
mix combination of CKD and cement. It was found that an increase
of CKD content increased the water demand of CLSM. However,
CLSM prepared with a small amount of cement and CKD enhanced
the compressive strength and bleeding. In terms of freeze-thaw
and wetting-drying cycles resistance, the CLSM with only CKD
showed better performance. They suggested that suitable CLSM
mixtures with acceptable properties could be developed using a
maximum of 15% CKD by mass or a combination mix of 2% cement
and 10% or 15% CKD [57].
Due to the increasing generation of construction and demolition
(C&D), Achtemichuk et al. [59] work’s aimed to combine the uti-
lization of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) with slag or fly ash
to produce CLSM without the use of cement. The work demon-
strated that CLSM combined fine RCA or fine/coarse RCA with slag
was suitable for permanent structural fill, road bases, bedding for
conduits etc. The CLSM mixes also exhibited a sufficient low
strength, high resistance to freeze-thaw and wetting-drying cycles
and short hardening time [59].
3.3. United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom (UK), lean concrete was commonly used
for road bases and trench backfill till 1990. In 1991, New Roads and
Street Works Act 1991 [61] was published by the Department of
Transportation (DOT), England, prescribed the materials use and
standards of workmanship to be observed during reinstatement
of openings in streets, highways etc. Research studies at Coventry
University, University of Birmingham, Imperial College and other
541
institutions targeted to use secondary materials (e.g. by-product
or recycled materials) to produce CLSM [62–64]. ‘‘Red” titano-
gypsum which was a by-product of titanium dioxide production
and basic oxygen slag (BOS) process of steel production was used
as the solid materials in CLSM [64]. The initial trial mixes with
varying amounts of red gypsum and steel slag were prepared and
tested. Based on its physical properties (permeability and poros-
ity), a mix with 60% red gypsum and 40% BOS at a water-to-
solids ratio of 0.19 was selected for site trial filling a trench of
approximately 5 m long by 1 m wide by 2 m deep (see Fig. 6). It
should be noted that the side of the trench was not supported
and the surrounding soil was clay. The prepared mix for site trial
showed excellent properties for placing (with flow spread value
of 545 mm) and resistance to segregation. The initial and final
set of about 1.5 h and 7 h from the time of discharge the mix
was recorded. The average compressive strength of 50 mm cubes
samples (taken from the top middle and the bottom of the truck
mixer load) of 1 day, 7 days and 28 days were 0.15 MPa, 0.7 MPa,
and 1.8 MPa, respectively. It was concluded that the use of red gyp-
sum and BOS without other components except for water were
unsuitable for use in structural concrete but was well suited for
trench backfilling. Other types of wastes used for CLSM in the UK
were fly ash, lytag, ochreous minewater sludge, jarosite residue
sludge and CKD [62–64]. Fig. 7 shows the process of recycling exca-
vated materials and reutilize in CLSM for backfilling [65]. This
practice has been introduced in the City of Leeds, City of Bradford,
Wakefield Metropolitan Borough, Kirklees Metropolitan Borough.
3.4. Australia
Limited information was found in Australia for CLSM applica-
tion in underground utility trench backfilling. Only few construc-
542 T.-C. Ling et al. / Construction and Building Materials 158 (2018) 535–548
Fig. 7. Recycled materials in trench reinstatement in the UK (a) excavated material, (b) recycling of excavated material, (c) CLSM prepared with recycled excavated material
[65].
tion works on bridges and road bases were using CLSM in Victoria,
Melbourne and South Australia. It was reported that roads built
over poor subgrade (CBR < 3) would generally require a rock work-
ing platform to help distribute traffic loads [66]. However, the
main problem of pumping subgrade fines through the pavement
materials was the breakdown of the pavement. A research was ini-
tiated at the University of Southern Queensland to evaluate the
benefits of using CLSM as a backfill (grout penetration) for an open
rock working platform [67]. The CLSM was prepared with a dry
lagoon ash (furnace bottom ash from Swanbank Power Station),
cement and water at a mass ratio of 41.2, 1.4, and 27.4, respec-
tively. The 28 days unconfined compressive strength and modulus
value of sample cured in a Standard Tropical Zone were found to be
0.3 MPa and 0.18 GPa respectively. In Australia, the materials used
for CLSM are relatively limited [68,69]. The test results show that
the CLSM prepared with mine tailings attained a constant spread
diameter of 229 ± 10 mm [68]. The mix proportions with low
cement content (up to 5 wt% solids) and high mine tailings content
(up to 80 wt% solids) can achieve a compressive strength of 2 MPa
for future excavation [68].
3.5. Japan
The use of CLSM is a relatively new material in Japan when
compared to the western countries like USA, Canada, and UK. The
main reason may be of limited understanding concerning the
mix design for use of local materials and achieve the requirements
properties for trench backfilling [70,71]. Horiguchi et al. [70] con-
ducted laboratory experiments and used an in-situ backfill con-
struction trial to investigate the applicability of a new backfilling
material prepared with incinerated sewage sludge ash, crushed-
stone powder and blast furnace slag cement type B (see Fig. 8).
In comparison, the strength of the backfill construction was lower
than the laboratory test results. One of the reasons was that the
strength development at the backfill construction site might be
affected by the cold weather on site. A flow value of 200 ± 10 m
m and a bleeding rate of less than 5% was obtained on site, which
meets the target values stated in the Japanese standards for lique-
fied soil stabilization. Their study also confirmed that blast furnace
slag cement type B was useful to minimize the leaching of hexava-
lent chromium below the permissible value of 0.05 mg/L.
3.6. Korea
In Korea, studies demonstrated that the use of various industrial
by-products including fly ash, bottom ash, foundry sand, crumb
rubber, red mud, pond ash and cement kiln dust etc. was an effec-
tive way to control the low strength requirement for the produc-
tion of CLSM [71–81]. They found that geopolymeric materials
which was known as an alkali-activated aluminosilicate material
 T.-C. Ling et al. / Construction and Building Materials 158 (2018) 535–548
Fig. 8. CLSM backfill with incinerated sewage sludge ash construction in Sapporo
City (Reprinted from Horiguchi et al. [70], with permission from ASCE).
might be another option for the production of CLSM. A recent study
carried out by Lee et al. [74] investigated the characteristics of
alkali-activated CLSM utilizing industrial by-products through a
series of characterization tests. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was
used to activate the fly ash and slag to produce a bottom ash aggre-
gated CLSM. The test results showed that NaOH did not signifi-
cantly affect the flowability, whereas an increase in the bottom
ash content resulted in a considerable reduction in the flowability
of the CLSM mixture. Both the slag and solid NaOH enhanced the
strength of CLSM; but the NaOH played a more important role in
the early age, whereas the content of slag used would determine
the final strength of CLSM.
Red mud is the by-product generated during the production of
alumina from bauxite by the Bayer process with an annual produc-
tion of 200,000 tons in Korea [78]. Do et al. [78] studied the incor-
poration of red mud (5–30%) as a replacement for Portland cement
in CLSM prepared with fly ash and pond ash. They found that
flowability decreases with an increase of red mud, and all the CLSM
mixtures showed sufficient flow (>200 mm). In fact, the increase of
Table 4
Comparison of CLSM and normal concrete mix proportions [82].
Materials Type 1 cement Fly ash Water
Normal concrete 250–450 0–100 180–220
CLSM 100–200 50–100 180–220
CLSM* 230 – 240
*
Mix ratio specially designed for burying streetlight cable at Xinyi Road.
543
red mud content can reduce the bleeding as well as accelerate the
setting time and strength of CLSM due to the presence of Al2O3 and
Na2O. The maximum initial setting time for red mud CLSM was
observed to be less than 10 h.
3.7. Taiwan
The annual excavation area for construction of pipe trenches in
Taipei was over 260,000 m2, which accounts for 1.3% of the total
city road area [82]. Table 4 shows a mix design of CSLM to achieve
a 200-mm slump value with a density of 2269 kg/m3 for trench
backfilling work in Taiwan. It was noted that a small amount of
CaCl2 was used in that project as an accelerator to achieve a suffi-
cient early strength for traffic. A total of 12 m3 CLSM was produced
to backfill a trench of size 0.75 m in depth, 0.30 m in width and
62.0 m in length, and proven to be fast (backfilling a total volume
of 12 m3 CLSM in 30 min) and low labor cost (only one manpower
was required for the backfilling). Table 5 summarizes the penetra-
tion resistance measured over the time together with the work
progress status of CLSM on site in accordance with ASTM C403.
According to ASTM C403 [44], penetration numbers of 500–1500
psi (3.44–10.34 MPa) are normally required to assure adequate
bearing capacity for flowable fill. As seen in the table, the penetra-
tion numbers of 480 psi and 560 psi (3.31–3.68 MPa) were
recorded at 4 h and 4.5 h respectively, which met the minimum
bearing capacity requirement for paving. After 28 days, an average
compressive strength of 107.8 kg/cm2 was achieved which
exceeded the maximum target value of 90 kg/cm2 for general back-
filling applications in Taiwan.
Taiwan has specified several material properties and acceptance
criteria for CLSM for trench backfilling [82], they are: (i) Strength:
<0.69 MPa at 12 h, <8.8 MPa at 28 days; (ii) Initial setting time:
<3.5 h; (iii) Flowability: 150–200 mm, with no water bleeding;
and (iv) Coarse aggregate ratio: <400 kg/m3.
They are a wide range of by-products or waste materials used in
Taiwan for CLSM, include fly ash, printed circuit board, crumb rub-
ber, LCD glass, waste oyster shell, slag, stainless steel reducing slag,
steel slag, desulfurization slags and reservoir silt lightweight
aggregate [83–92]. Most of these materials suited and satisfied
the above-mentioned criteria requirement in Taiwan. It is worth
noting that the use of LCD glass as a replacement for sand (0%,
10%, 20% and 30%) in CLSM can attain the fresh (flow up to 410
mm) and hardened (2.87–2.40 MPa at age of 28 days) properties
requirements. Increase the glass content decreased the water/bin-
der ratio which led to a better electrical resistivity of CLSM [85].
Another study of Kuo et al. [87] replaced sand with waste oyster
shells (WOS) (5%, 10%, 15% and 20%) to produce CLSM, and found
that the flowability decreased with an increase of WOS (due to
its high-water absorption characteristic). However, the flow and
the compressive strength of all mix proportions with WOS were
meeting the requirement for CLSM application [87].
3.8. China
An un-shrinkable backfill material prepared with a rapid curing
agent had been developed and introduced in some provinces
across China [93]. However, a slight compaction (20–30 s of vibra-
W/B Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate Additive
0.4–0.55 700–1100 700–1000 Superplasticizer
1–1.5 200–400 1280–1480 Calcium chloride, CaCl2
1.04 400 1250 5 kg/m3 of CaCl2
544 T.-C. Ling et al. / Construction and Building Materials 158 (2018) 535–548
Table 5
Penetration resistances measured over time and work progress status [82].
Time (h) 0 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Penetration 0 0 4 40 112 216 384
resistance
(psi)
Remark – Begin of Completion – – – –
CLSM of backfilling
backfilling
tion) was required once the un-shrinkable backfill material was
backfilled in the utility trenches. An in-situ heat radiation treat-
ment technology was proposed as an option to accelerate the solid-
ification process of the backfilled materials. For such application, a
special mix design was required to achieve the desired properties.
The compressive strength of the materials at 24 h was greater than
0.3 MPa (without heat treatment) and 0.8 MPa (with heat treat-
ment), but the 28th-day strength was less than 4.5 MPa [93]. The
high long-term strength posed limitations for the use of the mate-
rial in utility trench backfilling applications as manual re-
excavation was not possible in the future. Also, the materials could
not be classified as a self-compacting fill as compaction was
required for filling. Recently, waste materials like sewage sludge,
incineration bottom ash, dewatered sludge, bottom ash, dredged
sediment, fly ash, stainless steel reducing slag, blast furnace slag,
water treatment sludge, paper sludge and RCA has been studied
and utilized in China for trench backfilling [93–101].
Wu et al. [98] investigated the feasibility of using fly ash, bot-
tom ash and paper sludge for the production of CLSM. The use of
fly ash as cement replacement improved the flowability, however,
the presence of bottom ash in the mixture (as a sand replacement)
demands more water to achieve the desired flowability. The high
percentage of fly ash content could effectively control the strength
development of CLSM, but the bottom ash showed a significant
effect on strength development due to its pozzolanic activity (if
compared with sand). Therefore, the amount of cement could be
further reduced when a high percentage of bottom ash was used
to replace sand in the CLSM mixtures. It is also important to note
that the addition of paper sludge reduced the flowability and
strength of the CLSM due to its high-water absorption, and thus
the amount of usage should be limited to below 10% in CSLM appli-
cations [98].
Recently, Ran and Zhang [101] studied the properties of rapid
hardening CLSM prepared with fine RCA from red brick construc-
tion waste. A total of 16 CLSM mixtures with different water/solid
ratios were prepared by incorporating rapid hardening sulphoalu-
minate cement, fly ash and fine RCA as a replacement for sand.
The rapid hardening CLSM achieved compressive strength of
0.08–0.12 MPa at the first 2 h and 0.43–3.17 MPa at 7 h. It was sug-
gested that for the densely populated countries like China, the rapid
hardening CLSM is highly useful for emergency backfill construc-
tion [101].
3.9. Singapore
In Singapore, all construction materials are basically imported
[108]. In order to reduce dependency on imports and consumption
of virgin materials, Singapore has committed to developing novel
concrete products that can address the principles of 3R (resources,
recovery, and reuse). One of the ‘‘Green” products is controlled
low-strength concrete [102]. This is to reuse and recycle sludge
waste material from local wastes. According to their experience,
CLSM could be ideal for backfilling operations to minimize settle-
ment, especially under restricted access for compaction equip-
ment. The CLSM produced had a compressive strength below 5
MPa after a prolonged period, which implies that it can be re-
3.75 4 4.15 4.5 5.75 6.5 9 9.5
392 480 540 560 1120 1760 2720 3120
– Achieve – Begin of Completion Elevation – Done
carrying paving of paving measurement
capacity
excavated (if required) even after a prolonged period [102]. The
CLSM mixture can achieve up to 500 mm flow to provide very high
fluidity for various applications including backfilling of utility
trenches, pile excavations, and road cuts. It is also suitable for
structural fill of foundation sub-base, pavement bases, and conduit
bedding.
3.10. Malaysia
Malaysia government has promoted sustainable development
to achieve economic growth and a comfortable living for the next
future generations [108]. In Malaysia, agricultural and industrial/-
municipal waste materials including incineration bottom ash (IBA),
quarry dust, fly ash, bottom ash, waste paper sludge ash, and RCA
are generated in large quantities. The utilization of waste materials
in CLSM application can reduce the environmental impact [103–
108]. In Malaysia, around 25,000 tons of incineration bottom ash
(IBA) was produced every year. Razak et al. [103] used IBA as
100% aggregate in the production of CLSM with fresh density val-
ues of 1528–1560 kg/m3. The results indicated that by varying
the cement content (20–97 kg/m3), a low compressive strength
could be attained (0.1–1.7 MPa), which in turn facilitating for
future excavation without using any mechanical equipment. All
the CLSM did not show corrosive characters as evidenced by the
pH values (measured from bleed and leachate collected from the
produced CLSM). In addition, all the heavy metals tested on the lea-
chate samples were well within the acceptable limits as stipulated
by the US Environmental Protection Agency.
Another study by Naganathan et al. [104] reported that the 28
days compressive strength could be improved by decreasing IBA-
to-cement ratio. The compressive strength of CLSM increased from
0.24 MPa to 9.86 MPa as the IBA-to-cement ratio was decreased
from 19.9 to 2.5. As a result, the CLSM mixtures with different
designed IBA-to-cement ratios could be used in a wide range of
structural and non-structural filling applications. The experimental
results also suggested that the use of quarry dust (as a replacement
of IBA) could enhance the performance of CLSM with respect to its
stability, strength and California Bearing Ratio (CBR).
3.11. Other Asian countries
Research studies on CLSM for trench backfilling had also been
carried out in other Asian countries. Many studies demonstrated
that the use of various industrial by-products and local wastes in
the production of CLSM could be an effective way to manage and
reduce the waste problem. In India, researchers utilized fly ash, rice
husk ash, quarry dust, blast furnace slag, powdered gypsum wall-
board, pond ash, and bagasse ash in CLSM [109–117]. Other coun-
tries in Asia are also looking for suitable local waste materials for
use in CLSM production, for example: Vietnam studied the steel
slag [99,100], Israel examined the CKD, dust from asphalt plant,
fly ash, bottom ash and quarry waste [118], Oman used the CKD,
copper slag and domestic incinerated ash [119,120], Iran utilized
the waste electric arc furnace dust [121], and finally Turkey inves-
tigated the class C Fly ash, silica fume, class F fly ash [122–124].
 T.-C. Ling et al. / Construction and Building Materials 158 (2018) 535–548
Fig. 9. Excavation difficulty rating of EFF mixtures (data sourced from [126]).
4. Practical applicability of CLSM
4.1. Long-term site experience
Brinkley and Mueller [125] reported a 10-year performance of
non-shrink slurry backfills for utility trench installation used in
the City of Prescott, Arizona. The mix design was composed of
cement (43 kg), water (421 kg), concrete sand (800 kg) and fine
aggregate (1179 kg). It should be noted that no fly ash was incor-
porated in the mixture because it was not readily available in the
Prescott area. 5% entrained air had been added to improve flowa-
bility. They found that the amount of cement and water were far
more critical in influencing the flow and strength characteristics
than the type and size of aggregate used. Some recycled materials,
including crushed glass, porcelain wastes had been considered to
be used in the non-shrink slurry. The slurry had been proven to
be a fast and effective tool for backfilling underground utility.
One outstanding advantage using non-shrink slurry was it allowed
the roadway reopened to traffic within 7 h and resulted in time and
cost saving. A number of buried trenches (including sewer, natural
gas, electric, telephone, cable, and fiber optic) had been re-
excavated, and the hardened slurry from around the pipe systems
was easily removed using standard equipment. Most re-excavation
began with a backhoe breaking up the hardened slurry in the vicin-
ity of the pipes. Once the pipe system was exposed, bars and small
hand-held lightweight chipping hammers were used for a
cleaning-off process. The performance of the slurry material used
in the City of Prescott had been positive over the past 10-year, with
a failure rate of less than 1%.
Another study conducted in the Tennessee Technological
University campus (TTU) [126] was aimed to investigate the
long-term excavatability of flowable mixtures. Different excavat-
able flowable fill (EFF) were prepared by varying the amount of
Portland cement, Class F fly ash, high unburned carbon content
fly ash, and five different types of aggregates (e.g. crushed sand-
stone, manufactured limestone sand, masonry sand, limestone
screenings and foundry sand). In total, 23 ready mixes CLSM were
produced and placed in different trenches with the size of 0.9 m
depth, 0.9 m width, and 4.9 m length. 5 EFF mixtures were placed
on 12th March 2001 and the remaining 18 mixtures were placed
545
during 14–16th May 2001. All the EFF trenches were excavated
two years after placing using a Case 580E backhoe, to assess the
excavation difficulty by rating from 1 to 10 (the easiest to the most
difficult for excavation). The results show that all EFF mixtures
were excavatable; however, excavation difficulty rating varied
with the design mixtures (see Fig. 9). The authors reported that
the air-entrained EFF mixtures were easier to excavate than with-
out air-entrained mixtures for the same compressive strength. The
excavation difficulty rating was found to be closely correlated with
the two years compressive strength results [126].
4.2. Technical limitation of using CLSM
For the construction of CLSM in the field, a few practical con-
struction considerations had been recommended [127]. First, if a
high amount of water content is used in the mixtures, it is
expected that most of the CLSM fly ash slurries may require a
longer time to harden (in some cases 8–24 h). Second, care must
be exercised when backfilling polyethylene-coated-steel natural
gas pipelines to prevent scratching or damage to the pipe coatings.
Ramme et al. [128] suggested that the use of high volumes of fine
grade materials in CLSM can aid in minimizing scratching. Third,
because the CLSM is placed as a liquid, hydrostatic pressure would
need to be considered when backfilling around pipes, conduits and
power lines. The utilities may be floated if they are not secured
before the beginning of backfilling. Therefore, it is suggested that
CLSM slurry should be poured in multiples lifts and let one lift
hardens before the next is poured. Soil anchors could also be
adopted to prevent misalignment.
4.3. Other considerations
Thermal stability of material should be considered when back-
filling the underground power cables. It has been generally
accepted that fluidized thermal backfills (FTB) could be formulated
to meet thermal resistivity, thermal stability, strength, and flow
criteria. FTB is an improvement of CLSM by modifying the material
proportions and constituents. Depending on the mix design, the
thermal resistivity of FTB can be minimized to 30–40 °C-cm/W
(wet) and 70–100 °C-cm/W (dry), with excellent thermal stability
546 T.-C. Ling et al. / Construction and Building Materials 158 (2018) 535–548
[17]. It also offers mechanical protection for the underground
cables and provides support for underground and surface facilities
(road pavement) [19]. Although the material cost of FTB may be
higher than traditional thermal backfills (native soils), it is recom-
mended for general usage because of its assured quality and quick
installation that could speed up the construction process and
reduce the overall costs of construction. This is particularly an
important factor to be considered when working in busy city
streets like Hong Kong, New York, Tokyo, etc.
5. Conclusions
CLSM was first introduced in the US in 1964 and now has been
widely used as a backfill material for utility trenches by many
other countries. ACI Committee 229 Report is the main design
manual and guideline used in the USA and referenced by most of
the countries. A few testing methods published by ASTM are also
used to assess the properties of CLSM. The advantages of CLSM over
traditional soil-compacted method are less on-site labor and
equipment requirements, fast construction speed as well as feasi-
ble to use in tight or restricted-access areas.
Up to now, there is no standard method used for proportioning
CLSM, and it is generally based on previous experiences and trial-
error methods. The characteristics of the constituent materials and
their proportions in the mixtures are the main parameters control-
ling the properties of CLSM including the high flowability and con-
trolled low strength. Since the CLSM is designed with a
comparatively low-strength material, therefore, the quality
requirements for materials used in the mixture are low. Most of
the literature studies have demonstrated that high volume of var-
ious industrial by-products and waste materials can be utilized in
CLSM to control the low strength and reduce the environmental
concerns related to the disposal of these waste materials.
Overall, it is suggested that CLSM is an excellent high flowable
material for backfilling utility trenches; however, more research is
still needed to refine the mix designs for different kinds of applica-
tion (in particular incorporating with various kind of wastes) and
standardized the testing methods for CLSM.
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