PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

LANGUAGE PRODUCTION

THE LECTURER:
Dr. SHOLIHATUL HAMIDAH DAULAY, M.Hum

ARRANGED BY: GROUP 2

AHMAD RIZKI AMRIZAL 0304183231
DEA INDRIA 0304182058
FEBRI ANGGRAINI 0304181237
RIZKY VIOLA 0304182059
SEPTIANA AZAHRA 0304183222
ZAHRATUL HAFIZAH DAULAY 0304183219
WINDI WIDYASRI 0304183236

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

FACULTY OF TARBIYAH SCIENCE AND TEACHER TRAINING
STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY OF NORTH SUMATERA
MEDAN
2021
 PREFACE

Praise and gratitude the authors say to the presence of Allah SWT who has given His
blessings, so that the author can complete the paper entitled "Language Production" correctly
and in accordance with the allotted time.

The author also thanks Mrs. Dr. Sholihatul Hamidah Daulay, M.Hum as a lecturer in
the Psycholinguistics course at TBI-3 who has given her trust to the author in compiling this
paper. The preparation of this paper aims to improve the ability to enrich and expand our
knowledge of Language Production.

The author realizes that the preparation of this paper still has errors and is not perfect.
Therefore, the authors expect input in the form of constructive criticism and suggestions for
the improvement of the next paper. The author hopes that this paper can be useful for all
readers.

Thank you.

Medan, 27 September 2021

Group 2

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE....................................................................................................................................... i

TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................................................. ii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Background ................................................................................................................................ 1

1.2 Problem Formulation ................................................................................................................. 1

1.3 Purpose Of Writing .................................................................................................................... 1

CHAPTER II DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................ 2

2.1 Definition Of Language Production ........................................................................................... 2

2.2 Stage Of Language Production .................................................................................................. 3

2.3 The Tool of Language Production ............................................................................................. 4

2.4 Ways of Producing Language .................................................................................................... 8

2.5 Research into Producing Language ............................................................................................ 10

CHAPTER III CLOSING ............................................................................................................ 12

3.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 12

3.2 Suggestion .................................................................................................................................. 12

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 13

ii
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Language is one of the behaviours of human abilities, the same as the ability and
behaviour to think, converse, speak, or whistle. Language is an activity and process of
understanding using communication cues called language. Language is a sequential
combination of two processes, namely the productive and receptive processes. The
productive process takes place in the speaker which produces meaningful and useful language
codes. While the receptive process takes place in the listener who receives meaningful and
useful language codes conveyed by the speaker through the means of articulation and is
received through the means of hearing. The production process is called encoding while the
process of receiving, recording, and understanding is called decoding

The production of spoken or written language is referred to as language production in

psycholinguistics. It describes the entire process of developing a concept and converting it
into language form. Natural Language Generation (NLG) is a more prevalent word in
computational linguistics/natural language processing and artificial intelligence, and these
models may or may not be psychologically driven. This paper will discuss about how
language produced, we will provide a stages explanation.

1.2 Problem Formulation

1. What is language production?
2. What are the stages of language production?
3. What tools used in language production?
4. How is the way of language production?
5. What is the research of language production?
1.3 Purpose of Writing
1. To get an understanding about language production
2. To understand every stage of language production
3. To understand which tools used in language production
4. To understand the process or the way of language production
5. To understand the research of language production

1
 CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION

2.1 Definition Of Language Production

Language production may be described because the method of making and expressing
meaning through language, both written or spoken, it's far summary and physical. (Richards
&Schmidt, 2013). Nonetheless, every now and then we have a tendency to confuse the idea
of language manufacturing with speech manufacturing. Therefore, a difference have to be
clearly established. As we've got said above, language manufacturing refers to each speak me
and writing forms, at the same time as speech manufacturing refers totally to the articulation
of language, that is, it's far physical, to place it simply, it refers back to the speech shape of
language. Furthermore, some of theories in psycholinguistics and cognitive psychology tries
to account for the specific approaches worried in language manufacturing.

Language is a tool of how human communicate with others. Language is a

communication media that connect one another. Language produce from our mind in oral and
written form, The function of language is to share our idea with other by oral or written
language that human can understand. To make our idea can be understand by other, we need
to produce a good language. A good language consist of a good words choice and
arrangement that easily understand by people. Instead of that conclusion, there come a
question how we can produce a good language weather verbal or written?

Language production in psycholonguistic is how people produce their language, how

they talk, how they convey the information to be a language, in a syntactic, semantic and
conceptual structure. It is a study of how people produce each words from their mind into
verbal language and non-verbal language and the way how they arrange words into a good
sentence from their mind. In contemporary psycholonguistic language production, language
production center on how and what the motives of people talk and utterance their ideas.1

1
Yessy Marzona, Spoken Language Production : A Psycholonguistic Approach. (Ekasakti University
of Padang, Padang, 2017). p. 378

2
 2.2 Stage Of Language Production

Nonetheless, sometimes we tend to blend up">to blend up the concept of dialect

generation with discourse generation. In this manner, a qualification ought to be established.
As we have expressed over, dialect generation alludes to both talking and writing forms,
whereas discourse generation alludes exclusively to the enunciation of dialect, that is, it is
physical, to put it basically, it alludes to the discourse frame of dialect. Furthermore, several
speculations in psycholinguistics and cognitive brain research endeavor to account for the
diverse forms involved in dialect generation. Subsequently, in this paper we are planning to
center on the hypothesis proposed by Levelt (1989).

2.2.1 Conceptualization

According to David McNeil, conceptualization is the exceptionally starting of talked

utterance. In expansion, he claims that there are two concurrent and parallel modes of
thought, which are; syntactic considering and imagistic considering. Besides, this organize is
also known as message-level where the speaker chooses what to specific. Traditionally,
considered pre-linguistic and dialect impartial (Garret, 1975; Levelt, 1988). What is more, it
is the primary and most unique organize of dialect generation, where a speaker makes the
choice approximately how to outline a thought into dialect. Fundamentally, this level
involves deciding what to say, the deliberate to be conceived, determination of relevant
information in preparation for construction of expecting an expression, and the item could be
a preverbal message. In this way, message level is exclusively concept not word however,
and in this stage the concept of the referent is actuated, that's, whom and what to say (Menn,
2017).

2.2.2 Formulation

This is the moment organize of discourse generation when the messages are
surrounded into words, expressions, and clauses by the speaker. This preparation includes
translating the conceptual representation into a phonetic shape. Furthermore, this organize
incorporates the method of lexicalization; where the words that the speaker serious to say are
selected, includes the method of language structure arranging; where words are combined to
form a sentence, involves point by point phonetic and articulatory arranging and incorporates
the method of phonological encoding; where words are turned into sounds. In brief, this
process involves; syntactic encoding, morphological encoding, and phonetic encoding.

3
2.2.3 Articulation

This is the third and exceptionally vital organize of discourse generation, that's, the
physical state of sounds discourse, where words are interpreted into the sounds and syllables
of actual discourse. Furthermore, in this organize our considerations and phonetic arrange are
sent from the brain to the discourse frameworks to execute the specified movements and
produce the craved sounds. Subsequently, this is often in any case the beginning point for the
speech comprehension.

2.2.4 Self-Monitoring Or Self-Repair

This is the ultimate arrangement of discourse generation when the speaker alters
his/her message and corrects any mistakes. In this organize the speaker checks their dialect
generation to ensure that they are; precise in terms of sentence structure, lexes and
phonology, fittingness in terms of enrollment, uproar and accuracy, and probability to be seen
by the listener/reader, and likely to have the specified explanatory effect. To demonstrate,
´the final I knew almost it(I cruel knew almost it), she was so drinking (I cruel intoxicated),
that we choose to drive her home.2

2.3 The Tool of Language Production

A person's ability to speak a language is due to their willingness and desire to do so.
The desire to communicate with other people is the driving force behind the desire to learn a
language. However, without the necessary technology, the urge to talk will remain merely a
wish. This linguistic equipment then takes an active role in describing the desire using sound
symbols, allowing him to tell or communicate his heart's desire to others, resulting in a
communication process.3

Brain is mostly involved in cognitive working, thus it brings the origin of language in
an abstract form. This abstract form is then brought forward in concrete form through
different body organs which receive messages from brain. These body organs give rise to
spoken language which was once in form of neurons or signals in mind. Such organs are
known as speech organs. All of the sounds we produce are because of muscle contraction or
expansion. The muscles in the chest that we use for breathing produce the flow of air that is

2
Huila Isced,” Psycholinguistics: The Process Of Language Production By Artur Josias”, 2019.page3-4
3
Alif Cahya Setiyadi, Bahasa dan Berbahasa Perspektif Psikolinguistik. At-Ta'dib, 4(2). 2009, pg. 184

4
needed for almost all speech sounds; muscles in the larynx produce many different
modifications in the flow of air from the chest to the mouth. After passing through the larynx,
the air goes through what we call the vocal tract, which ends at the mouth and nostrils. Here
the air from the lungs escapes into the atmosphere. We have a large and complex set of
muscles that can produce changes in the shape of the vocal tract, and in order to learn how
the sounds of speech are produced it is necessary to become familiar with the different parts
of the vocal tract. These different parts are called articulators, and the study of them is
called articulatory phonetics.

Speech Organs that belong to Articulatory system:

a. Lips:

Lips include upper lip and lower lip. They serve for creating different sounds - mainly
the labial, bilabial e.g. /p/, /b/, /m/, and /w/, labio-dental consonant sounds e. g. /f/ and
/v/rounded to produce the lip-shape for vowels like /u/ and thus create an important part of
the speech apparatus.

b. Teeth:

The small whitish structures found in jaws in front of mouth, immediately after lips
are teeth. They are responsible for creating sounds mainly the labio-dental (tongue touching
the front teeth) e.g. /f/and /v/and lingua-dental e.g. /ð/and/θ/.

c. Alveolar Ridge:

Alveolar ridge is basically hard ridge behind the upper front teeth. It is between the
roof of the mouth and the upper teeth. You can feel its shape with your tongue. Its surface is
really much rougher than it feels, and is covered with little ridges. For the sound /s/, air from
the lungs passes continuously through the mouth, but the tongue is raised sufficiently close to
the alveolar ridge to cause friction as it partially blocks the air that passes. Moreover, sounds
made with the tongue touching here (such as t and d) are called alveolar.

d. Hard Palate:

Hard palate is a thin horizontal bony plate of the skull, located in the roof of the
\mouth. It is often called the "roof of the mouth". Its smooth curved surface can felt with the
tongue. The interaction between the tongue and the hard palate is essential in the formation of
certain speech sounds, notably /t/, /d/, and /j/.

5
e. Velum (Soft Palate):

The velum or soft palate is in a position that allows air to pass through the nose and
through the mouth. Often in speech it is raised so that air cannot escape through the nose. Its
main’s function is to separate the nasal cavity from oral cavity in order to produce the oral
speech sounds. If this separation is incomplete, air escapes through the nose during speech
and the speech is perceived as hyper nasal. The other important thing about the velum is that
it is one of the articulators that can be touched by the tongue. When we make the sounds k
and g the tongue is in contact with the lower side of the velum, and we call these velar
consonants.

f. Uvula:

The hanging ball's full name is the “palatine uvula,” referring to its location on your
soft palate. It functions in tandem with the back of the throat, the palate, and air coming up
from the lungs to create a number of guttural and other sounds. In many languages, it closes
to prevent air escaping through the nose when making some sounds.

g. Glottis:

The combination of vocal folds and space in between the folds is known as glottis. As the
vocal folds vibrate, the resulting vibration produces a “buzzing” quality to the speech called
voice or voicing or pronunciation. Sound production involving only the glottis is called
glottal. Example is the sound /h/. The vibration produced is an essential component of voiced
consonants as well as vowels. If the vocal folds are drawn apart, air flows between them
causing no vibration, as in the production of voiceless consonants.

The glottis is also important in the Valsalva maneuver.

Voiced consonants include /v/, /z/, /ʒ/, /d͡ʒ/, /ð/, /b/, /d/, /ɡ/, /w/.

Voiceless consonants include /f/, /s/, /ʃ/, /t͡ʃ/, /θ/, /p/, /t/, /k/, /ʍ/, and /h/.

h. Tongue:

The tongue is a very important articulator and it can be moved into many different places and
different shapes. Its movement in oral cavity plays important part in production of almost
every speech sound. Usually, it is divided into different parts: tip, blade, front, back and root.

Besides these articulatory organs, other major parts of the body also play an important
role in the production of speech sounds which are following:

6
 a. The Lungs:

The function of all of the above mentioned body parts is to produce Speech sounds
and speech requires some sort of air source. We produce a majority of speech sounds by
forcing air upwards from the lungs, an action that is used in normal breathing. But it is
necessary that in order to produce a speech, sound the outward moving airstream must be
modified by manipulation of the larynx and articulators in the oral and nasal cavities.

The larynx ("voice box") containing the vocal folds and the glottis

The larynx, more commonly known as the voice box or the Adam's apple, is crucial
in the production and differentiation of speech sounds. The larynx is located at exactly the
point where the throat divides between the trachea (the windpipe), which leads to the lungs,
and the esophagus (the tube that carries food or drink to the stomach).

Over the larynx is a flap called the epiglottis that closes off the trachea when we
swallow. When the epiglottis is folded back out of the way, the parts of the larynx that are
involved in speech production can be seen.

b. The Vocal Folds:

There are two thin sheets of tissue that stretch in a V-shaped fashion from the front to
the back of the larynx. These are called the vocal folds. (You'll often hear vocal "cords,"
which is doesn't accurately convey the way the muscle works.) The space between the vocal
folds is known as the glottis. The vocal folds can be positioned in different ways to create
speech sounds.

Air passes through the vocal folds. If the vocal folds are open and air passes
unobstructed, the vocal folds do not vibrate. Sounds produced this way are called voiceless.
But if the vocal folds are held together and tense and air doesn't pass unobstructed, the sounds
produced this way are call voiced.

c. Nasal Cavity:

In oral sounds most air is expelled via the oral cavity (mouth). Typically,
the velum is raised at the back of the mouth to block the passage of air into the nasal cavity.
In nasal sounds, on the other hand, the velum is lowered, to allow airflow through
the nasal cavity. In English, nasal consonants are accompanied by the blocking of airflow
through the oral cavity.

7
2.4 Ways of Producing Language

The way of producing language can be divided into two process. Firstly, Grammatical
Encoding which we refer to as how the brain process the message that we will say. The
selection of acceptable lexical concepts (items in the speaker's vocabulary) and the
construction of a syntactic framework are both part of grammatical encoding. Secondly,
Phonological Encoding, on the other hand, entails the assembling of sound shapes and the
formation of intonation. In this process we will comprehending how the speech organs
produce the sound. 4These methods produce a specification of an utterance that is appropriate
for directing the articulation or speech production processes, rather than speech itself.

2.4.1 The brain process the message that we will say

Speaking is one of the most difficult cognitive activities that humans can accomplish.
In English, a normal speech rate is roughly 150 words per minute. This suggests that a
speaker can retrieve two or three words per second from a 30,000-word everyday vocabulary.
The goal of speech production research has been to discover the steps that a speaker goes
through when putting together a speech. According to introspection and research, models of
speech production should include the following stages:

• A conceptual stage at which the to-be-expressed proposition is identified, but only in

abstract form.
• A syntactic stage in which a suitable framing for the words to be introduced is chosen.
• A lexical stage in which a meaning-driven search of the lexicon is carried out, aided by
indications about the target word's form.
• A phonological stage, in which the abstract data collected thus far is transformed into a
speech-like form.
• A phonetic stage, in which assimilation is introduced and instructions to the muscles that
govern the articulators are prepared.

Levelt (1989) has produced the most detailed model of speech production. It
incorporates three major processes – conceptualising, formulating and articulating.5 The
Conceptualiser chooses a particular proposition, selects and orders the appropriate
information and relates it to what has gone before. The Formulator translates this conceptual
structure into a linguistic one. It first engages in a process of grammatical encoding which

4
K. Bock, & W. J. Levelt, Language production: Grammatical encoding, (Academic Press,1994), pg.
945.
5
R. N . Indah, Language Production and Speech Error, (2017).

8
builds an abstract syntactic structure. This is followed by phonological encoding, in which
the syntactic structure is tagged for inflection and is then given phonological form. Other
processes specify the form and duration of the syllables as they are to occur in connected
speech and add rhythm and prosody. The outcome of these operations is a phonetic or
articulatory plan, a representation of how the planned utterance is to be articulated. It is
temporarily stored in an articulatory buffer. The articulator then retrieves chunks of internal
speech from the buffer, unpacks them into sets of motor commands and issues the commands
to the muscles controlling the larynx, the articulators and the respiratory system.

2.4.2 The speech organs produce the sound

It is important to note that speech does not begin in the lungs. It all begins in the
brain, which is then investigated by Psycholinguistics. We require a representation of the
sound sequence and a number of commands to be performed by our speech organs to make
the utterance once we have created the message and the lexico-grammatical structure in our
minds. As a result, we require a phonetic and motor plan (Belinchón, Igoa y Rivière, 1994:
590). Following these metal actions, we arrive to the physical creation of sounds. The lungs'
air stream travels through the trachea, oral and nasal cavities, and produces speech. Initiation,
phonation, oro-nasal process, and articulation are the four processes that are involved. When
the air is released from the lungs, it is called the initiating process. Although this is not true in
all languages, speech sounds in English are produced by "a pulmonic egressive air stream"
(Giegerich, 1992).

The larynx is where the phonation happens. The vocal folds are two horizontal tissue
folds in the larynx that allow air to pass through. The glottis refers to the gap between these
folds. The glottis can be closed. Then no air can get through. It could also have a small
opening that causes the vocal folds to vibrate, resulting in "voiced sounds." Finally, it can be
wide open, as in normal breathing, causing the vocal folds to vibrate less, resulting in
"voiceless sounds." The air might enter the nasal or oral cavities after passing through the
larynx and pharynx. The velum is the portion responsible for that selection. We can
distinguish between nasal consonants (/m/, /n/, /ƞ/) and other sounds via the oro-nasal
process.

Finally, the articulation process is the most visible: it occurs in the mouth and is the
means by which we can distinguish most speech sounds. The oral cavity works as a
resonator, and the articulators, which can be active or passive, include the upper and lower

9
lips, upper and lower teeth, tongue (tip, blade, front, back), and roof of the mouth (alveolar
ridge, palate and velum). As a result, speech sounds differ from one another in terms of
where they are articulated and how they are articulated.6

2.5 Research into Producing Language

One type of research into speech production is focus on using the analysis of speech
errors. The scientific analysis of speech errors, commonly called ‘‘slips of the tongue,’’
reemerged in the early 1970s with the seminal publication of an article by Fromkin (1971)
that examined the way speech errors may be used in the construction of linguistic arguments.
There are eight types of speech errors, namely:

1. Anticipation, the kind of error occurs as the appearances of sounds which comes later
word inappropriately appear in the first. Carroll (1986) argued that anticipations occur
when a later segment takes the place of an earlier segment. For example, “Takes the
places become Pakes the places” and “A reading list become a leading list”.
2. Perseverations, the error occurs as the appearance of sounds which is come first word
inappropriately also appears in the later word. According to Carroll (1986), perseveration
happens when an earlier segment replaces a later item. For example: “Waking Wabbits”
for “waking rabbits”
3. Exchange, there is double shift, in which two linguistic units exchange places. For
example: Fancy getting your nose [nǝʊz] remodeled [rɪˈ mɒdled] becomes Fancy getting
your model [ˈmɒdl] renosed [rɪnǝʊzd].
4. Blends, a kind of slip of the tongue refers to a fusion of two words. Blends are found
where the words concerned mean more or less the same thing and when either word
would have been appropriate (Jaegar, 2005). For examples: Fried [fraɪd] + potatoes
[pǝˈteɪtǝʊs] becomes fries [fraɪs]
5. Shift, the addition of a linguistic unit that is deleted elsewhere. In other words, the speech
unit moves to a deferent location, as in saying “she decide to hits it” instead of saying
“she decides to hit it”.
6. Substitutions, this type of slips occurs when a word is substituted by a different word.
According to Carroll (2008), substitutions occur when one segment is replaced by an

6
F. Trujillo, English Phonetics and Phonology, (2010).

10
 intruder. For example: “Before the place close [klǝʊs] becomes before the place open
[ˈǝʊpǝn].
7. Addition, the addition is an additional linguistics material such as related to phoneme,
prefix and suffix, articles, prepositions, conjunctions, words, or phrases. For example: “I
didn’t explain this carefully [keǝ(r)fʊli] enough becomes I didn’t explain this clarefully
[kla(r)fʊli] enough.
8. Deletion, the deletions is leaving something out. According to Levelt, deletion is a unit
which is missed out from the intended target. For example: “I’ll just get up and mutter
unintelligibly [Λnɪnˈtelɪdʒǝblɪ] becomes I’ll just get up and mutter intelligibly
[ɪnˈtelɪdʒeblɪ].”7

Fromkin (1971) has shown that many of the segments that change and move in speech
errors are precisely those postulated by linguistic theories, lending support to the notion that
linguistic units such as phonetic features, phonemes, and morphemes constitute planning
units during the production of an utterance. One view of language production is that we
produce utterances by a series of stages, each devoted to a different level of linguistic
analysis.8

7
Tri Ayu S. Naibaho, Mazrul Aziz, & Barnabas Sembiring, Slips of the Tongue Made by the English
Study Program Students, (Journal of English Education and Teaching (JEET), 2018), Vol.2, No.4, Pg. 34.
8
David W. Carroll, Psychology of Language Fifth Edition, (USA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2008), Pg.
195.

11
 CHAPTER III
CLOSING

3.1 Conclusion

Language production in psycholonguistic field define as how people produce their

language, how they talk, how they convey the information to be a language, in a syntactic,
semantic and conceptual structure. The way of producing language can be divided into two
process. Firstly, Grammatical Encoding which we refer to as how the brain process the
message that we will say. Secondly, Phonological Encoding, on the other hand, entails the
assembling of sound shapes and the formation of intonation. There are some stages of
language production, there are conceprualization, formulation, articulation and Self-
Monitoring Or Self-Repair

The tool to produce language is by our body muscle especially mouth muscle, because
every sounds come from our mouth. Mouth is the place to produce vocal language that we
usually use in our life to communication. There are several part of our body that produce
sounds, there are; lips, teeth, hard palate, soft palate, uvula and etc. Type of research into
speech production is focus on using the analysis of speech errors. There are eight types of
research in langauge production; anticipation, perserevation, exchange, blends, shifts,
substitution, addition, deletion.

3.2 Suggestion

Language production is an important lesson to learn because language production

related to how we produce our language, especially vocal language. This papeelr serve the
information of what is language production to make us understand what is it. We hope this
paper could help us learn about language production as a tool for communication.

12
 REFERENCES

Bock, K., & Levelt, W. J. (1994). Language production: Grammatical encoding. Academic
Press.

Carroll, David W. (2008). Psychology of Language Fifth Edition. USA: Thomson

Wadsworth.

Huila Isced,2019."PSYCHOLINGUISTICS: THE PROCESS OF LANGUAGE

PRODUCTION BY ARTUR JOSIAS”.Huila Isced,2019."PSYCHOLINGUISTICS:
THE PROCESS OF LANGUAGE PRODUCTION BY ARTUR JOSIAS”.

Indah, R. N. (2017). Language Production and Speech Error.

Naibaho, Tri Ayu S., Mazrul Aziz, & Barnabas Sembiring. (2018). Slips of the Tongue Made
by the English Study Program Students. Journal of English Education and Teaching
(JEET), Vol.2. No.4.

Setiyadi, A. C. (2009). Bahasa dan Berbahasa Perspektif Psikolinguistik. At-Ta'dib, 4(2).

Trujillo, F. (2010). English Phonetics and Phonology.

Yessy Marzona, Spoken Language Production : A Psycholonguistic Approach. (Ekasakti

University of Padang, Padang, 2017)

13