HISTORY

Assignment 6 - Roman Civilization- The

Empire

INDEX

1. The beginning of 'The Empire' in ancient Rome

2. The Roman Forums.
3. the Tuscan and Composite styles in Roman
architecture
4. The Colosseum.
5. The Pantheon.
6. Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli.
7. The portraiture during the empire period.
8. The Ara Pacis Augustae.
9. The Arch of Titus.
10. The column of Trajan.
11. The Domus and Insula.
12. The Basilica of Maxentius.
13. The Dioclatian's palace.
 1. Describe the events the led to the beginning of 'The Empire' in
ancient Rome.

 The history of the Roman Empire covers the history of ancient Rome from the fall
of the Roman Republic in 27 BC until the abdication of Romulus Augustulus in AD
476 in the West, and the Fall of Constantinople in the East in AD 1453.
 Ancient Rome became a territorial empire while still a republic, but was then
ruled by Roman emperors beginning with Augustus (r. 27 BC – 14 AD), becoming
the Roman Empire following the death of the last republican dictator, the first
emperor's adoptive father Julius Caesar.
 A period of unrest and civil wars in the 1st century BC marked the transition of
Rome from a republic to an empire. This period encompassed the career of Julius
Caesar, who eventually took full power over Rome as its dictator.
 After his assassination in 44 BCE, the triumvirate of Mark Antony, Lepidus, and
Octavian, Caesar’s nephew, ruled. It was not long before Octavian went to war
against Antony in northern Africa, and after his victory at Actium (31 BCE) he was
crowned Rome’s first emperor, Augustus. His reign, from 27 BCE to 14 CE, was
distinguished by stability and peace.
 Augustus established a form of government known as a principate, which
combined some elements from the republic with the traditional powers of a
monarchy.
 The Senate still functioned, though Augustus, as princeps, or first citizen,
remained in control of the government. Under Augustus, Rome began to prosper
 once again, and the emperor came to be looked upon as a god. Thereafter, all
good emperors were worshiped as gods after death.

2. Write a note on the Roman Forums.

 The Roman Forum,
known as Forum
Romanum in Latin,
was a site located at
the center of the
ancient city of Rome
and the location of
important religious,
political and social
activities.
 Historians believe
people first began
publicly meeting in
the open-air Forum
around 500 B.C., when the Roman Republic was founded.
 The rectangular-shaped area, sited on low-lying land between Palatine Hill and
Capitoline Hill, was home to many of the ancient city’s most impressive temples
and monuments.

Roman Forum Functions

 The Forum was considered the heart of Rome. While there were many other
forums in ancient Rome, the Roman Forum was the most significant.
 It was a multi-purpose site that accommodated various functions. Events taking
place in the Forum included:
1. Elections
2. Public speeches
3. Criminal trials
4. Gladiator matches (before the Colosseum was built)
5. Social gatherings
6. Business dealings
7. Public meetings
8. Religious ceremonies
9. Educational events
10. Buying, selling and trading of items

Important Sites in the Forum

 Several important buildings, statues and monuments were located in the Forum.
Some temples were built to honor men, and others were dedicated to gods or
goddesses.
 Some of the most well-known structures in the Roman Forum include:
 Senate House: The senate house, known as the “Curia,” served as the council
house for the Roman Senate and a site for various political events. It was rebuilt
several times, and in the 7th century, the Curia was converted into a church.
 Temple of Saturn: The first Temple of Saturn was built around 498 B.C. and is
considered one of the earliest temples in the Roman Forum. But it was rebuilt
years later, and the current ruins date back to roughly 42 B.C. This building was
dedicated to Saturn, the god of agriculture, and was used as a treasury—where
Rome’s money was managed and kept.
 Arch of Titus: This first-century arch was constructed in 81 A.D. by the Emperor
Domitian to honor his brother, emperor Titus, who was victorious in the Siege
of Jerusalem.
 Temple of Vesta: The Temple of Vesta was a circular-shaped temple that was
dedicated to Vesta, the goddess of hearth, home and family.
 The Rostra: The Rostra was a platform that people could stand on to give
speeches.
 Temple of Castor and Pollux: Historians believe this temple was completed in
about 484 B.C. It was dedicated to the Roman twin demi-gods, Castor and Pollux,
and underwent several construction phases.
 The Sacra Via: This was the main road that ran through the Roman Forum and
connected the various important sites. This famous street also stretched to
the Colosseum, which was within walking distance of the Forum. It primarily served
as a pathway for ceremonies and processions.
Decline of the Roman Forum
 The last major expansion to the Roman Forum, the Basilica of Maxentius, took
place during the reign of Constantine in 312 A.D.
 But most of the ancient buildings and sites in the Roman Forum were destroyed
in 410 A.D., around the time that the entire Roman Empire began to fall.

3. What are the Tuscan and Composite styles in Roman

architecture?
 To the ancient Romans, the sizes of columns varied according to the extent of
the building, so the Classical orders were not based on a
fixed unit of measurement. Rather, the intention was to ensure that all parts of
any building were proportionate and in harmony with one another.

The Tuscan Classical order

 The Tuscan Classical order was a hybrid style that took the Greek Doric order of
the seventh century BC a nd the Greek Ionic order of the sixth century BC and
merged them with the E truscan architectural tradition
that developed in Tuscany concurrently with its Greek
counterparts.
 The Tuscan Classical order first appeared in early Roman
times (as seen in the Roman Amphitheatre in Verona,
initially built in 30 AD). It re-emerged more widely in the
mid-16th century.
 It also incorporated elements of Etruscan architecture,
which often used wooden columns that were
decoratively painted. Instead of carved stone, bases
and capitals of Etruscan columns incorporated painted terracotta decorations.
 The omission of carving was one of the most easily identifiable aspects of
the Tuscan Classical order (which included simplistic entablatures that
lacked triglyphs or other ornamental carvings).
 The style was identified by the unadorned rounded cap at the top of
the columns and the plain bottom base, which was either round or square.
 Due to its strength, the Tuscan order was frequently incorporated into
the designs for castles, fortresses, military buildings and other places that needed
to project a sense of fortification. It was also commonly used
in Georgian architecture and gardens, and it is often seen in fence posts or gates
where only two columns are required.

Composite Classical order

 The Roman Composite Classical order was based on the
Greek Classical orders (Ionic and Corinthian) that appeared in
the fifth century BC. It got its name because
its capital design merges Ionic scrolls (or volutes) with
ornate Corinthian acanthus leaves.
 Composite capitals differ from their Ionic counterparts
because the volutes appear as two separate elements (rather
than as a single Ionic scroll) emerging from the leaves in the
base. Also, Composite volutes often appear as four thin, separate angled entities.

4. Describe the Colosseum.

 The Colosseum is an oval amphitheatre in the
centre of the city of Rome, Italy, just east of
the Roman Forum and is the largest ancient
amphitheatre ever built, and is still the largest
standing amphitheater in the world today,
despite its age.
 Construction began under the
emperor Vespasian (r. 69–79 AD) in 72 and was
completed in AD 80 under his successor and
heir, Titus (r. 79–81).
 Further modifications were made during the reign of Domitian (r. 81–96). The
three emperors that were patrons of the work are known as the Flavian dynasty,
and the amphitheatre was named the Flavian Amphitheatre by
later classicists and archaeologists for its association with their family
name (Flavius).
 The biggest building of its kind, it had the following features:
1. four stories.
2. a height of 45 metres high (150 feet).
3. a width of 189 x 156 metres.
4. an oval arena measuring 87.5 m by 54.8 m.
5. a roofed awning of canvas.
6. capacity for 50,000 spectators.
 The theatre was principally built from locally quarried limestone with internal
linking lateral walls of brick, concrete and volcanic stone (tufa). Vaults were built
of lighter pumice stone.
 Measuring some 620 by 513 feet
(190 by 155 meters), the
Colosseum was the largest
amphitheater in the Roman
world. Unlike many earlier
amphitheaters, which had been
dug into hillsides to provide
adequate support, the Colosseum
was a freestanding structure
made of stone and concrete.
 The first floor carried Doric
columns, the second Ionic and the third level Corinthian. The top floor had
Corinthian pilasters and small rectangular windows.
 There were no less than eighty entrances, seventy-six of these were numbered
and tickets were sold for each.
 Two entrances were used for the gladiators, one of which was known as the Porta
Libitina (the Roman goddess of death) and was the door through which the dead
were removed from the arena.
 The other door was the Porta Sanivivaria through which victors and those allowed
to survive the contests left the arena. The final two doors were reserved
exclusively for the Emperor’s use.
 Inside, the theatre must have been even more impressive when the three tiers of
seats were filled with all sections of the populace.
 Encircling the arena was a wide marble terrace (podium) protected by
a wall within which were the prestigious ring-side seats or boxes from where the
Emperor and other dignitaries would watch the events.
 Beyond this area, marble seats were divided into zones: those for richer private
citizens, middle-class citizens, slaves and foreigners and finally wooden seats and
standing room in the flat-roofed colonnade on the top tier reserved
for women and the poor.

5. Describe the Pantheon.

 The Pantheon is a former Roman temple,
now a Catholic church (Basilica di Santa
Maria ad Martyres or Basilica of St. Mary
and the Martyrs), in Rome, Italy, on the site
of an earlier temple commissioned
by Marcus Agrippa during the reign
of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD).
 It was rebuilt by the emperor Hadrian and
probably dedicated about 126 AD. Its date
of construction is uncertain, because Hadrian chose not to inscribe the new
temple but rather to retain the inscription of Agrippa's older temple, which had
burned down.
 The building is cylindrical with a portico of large granite Corinthian columns (eight
in the first rank and two groups of four behind) under a pediment. A
rectangular vestibule links the porch to the rotunda, which is under
a coffered concrete dome, with a central opening (oculus) to the sky.
 Almost two thousand years after it was built, the Pantheon's dome is still the
world's largest unreinforced concrete dome.

Exterior: The Porch

 The whole building stands on a 1.3 metres high base which originally extended a
further 7 metres in front of the colonnade.
 Steps in Numidian yellow marble extended from the outer ends of this base. The
building consists of two principal parts - the porch, which is very Classical Greek in
 presentation, and the circular main building which is much more Roman in style
and reminiscent of the architecture of the large Roman baths.
 The circular building is built using brick and concrete but was originally faced with
white marble stucco to match the porch in appearance.
 The dome is concrete with the external surface originally covered in sheets of
bronze but these were removed by Constans II in 663 CE.
 The porch measures 33.1 x 13.6 metres and presents a front colonnade of eight
Corinthian columns 11.8 metres high.
 The interior of the porch measures 34 x 20 metres and has four rose-pink
columns creating three aisles.

Interior: the dome

 The 4,535-tonne weight of the Roman
concrete dome is concentrated on a
ring of voussoirs 9.1 metres (30 ft) in
diameter that form the oculus, while
the downward thrust of the dome is
carried by eight barrel vaults in the
6.4-metre-thick (21 ft) drum wall into
eight piers.
 The thickness of the dome varies
from 6.4 metres (21 ft) at the base of
the dome to 1.2 metres (3.9 ft)
around the oculus.
 The materials used in the concrete of the dome also vary. At its thickest point,
the aggregate is travertine, then terracotta tiles, then at the very
top, tufa and pumice, both porous light stones. At the very top, where the dome
would be at its weakest and vulnerable to collapse, the oculus actually lightens
the load.
 The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same, 43.3
metres (142 ft), so the whole interior would fit exactly within a cube (or, a 43.3-m
sphere could fit within the interior).
 Interior
 The oculus at the top of the dome was never covered, allowing rainfall through
the ceiling and onto the floor. Because of this, the interior floor is equipped with
drains and has been built with an incline of about 30 centimeters (12 in) to
promote water run off.
 The interior of the dome was possibly intended to symbolize the arched vault of
the heavens.
 The oculus at the dome's apex and the entry door are the only natural sources of
light in the interior. Throughout the day, the light from the oculus moves around
this space in a reverse sundial effect. The oculus also serves as a cooling and
ventilation method. During storms, a drainage system below the floor handles the
rain that falls through the oculus.
 Circles and squares form the unifying theme of the interior design. The
checkerboard floor pattern contrasts with the concentric circles of square coffers
in the dome.

6. Describe Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli.

 The villa was constructed at Tibur (modern-
day Tivoli) as a retreat from Rome
for Roman Emperor Hadrian during the
second and third decades of the 2nd
century AD.
 Hadrian is said to have disliked the palace
on the Palatine Hill in Rome, leading to the
construction of the retreat. It was
traditional that the Roman emperor had
constructed a villa as a place to relax from
everyday life.
 During the later years of his reign, Hadrian actually governed the empire from the
villa. Hadrian started using the villa as his official residence around AD 128.
 Hadrian's Villa is a vast area of land with many pools, baths, fountains and
classical Greek and Roman architecture set in what would have been a mixture of
landscaped gardens, wilderness areas and cultivated farmlands.
 Due to Hadrian's travels, he also commissioned Egyptian style buildings and
statues, even naming some of the buildings after Egyptian cities or temples.
 The buildings are constructed in travertine, brick, lime, pozzolana, and tufa.
 The complex contains over 30 buildings, covering at least a square kilometre (250
acres, an area larger than the city of Pompeii), of which much is still unexcavated.
 Villas were typically sited on hilltops, but with its fountains, pools and gardens,
Hadrian's villa required abundant sources water, which was supplied by
aqueducts feeding Rome, including the Aqua Anio Vetus, Aqua Anio Novus, Aqua
Marcia, and Aqua Claudia.
 The complex of the villa contains many structures from different cultures. For
example, the villa has a small Nile river
running through it that relates back to
the Egyptian Nile river.
 Also, the villa had Poikilos, which are
Greek figures that were seen in ancient
Greece. Within all the structures in the
villa, there is also a grotto called Hades.
All these structures relate back to
where Emperor Hadrian visited during
his reign.
 Hadrian's Pecile located inside the Villa
was a huge garden surrounded by a
swimming pool and an arcade. The
pool's dimensions measure 232 by 97
metres (761 by 318 ft).
 One structure in the villa is the so-called "Maritime Theatre". It consists of a
round portico with a barrel vault supported by pillars. Inside the portico was a
ring-shaped pool with a central island. The large circular enclosure 40 metres
(130 ft) in diameter has an entrance to the north. The Maritime Theater includes
a lounge, a library, heated baths, three suites with heated floors, washbasin, an
art gallery, and a large fountain.
 Hadrian’s Villa was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1999.
 7. Write a note on the portraiture during the empire period.
 The development of Roman portraiture is characterized by a stylistic cycle that
alternately emphasized realistic or idealizing elements.
Each stage of Roman portraiture can be described as
alternately “veristic” or “classicizing,” as each imperial
dynasty sought to emphasize certain aspects of
representation in an effort to legitimize their authority or
align themselves with revered predecessors.
 Beginning with Augustus, the emperors of the imperial
period made full use of the medium’s potential as a tool
for communicating specific ideologies to the Roman
populace.
 Augustan and Julio-Claudian portrait types emphasized the
youth, beauty, and benevolence of the new dynastic
family, and in doing so, Augustus set a stylistic precedent
that had lasting impact on Roman portrait sculpture up to
the reign of Constantine the Great.
 Classicizing idealization in portraiture allowed emperors to
emphasize their loyalties to the imperial dynasty, and even legitimize their
authority by visually linking themselves to their predecessors.
 Tiberius (r. 14–37 A.D.) (1994.230.7) was not actually related to Augustus, but his
portraits portray a remarkable, and fictionalized, resemblance that connected
him to the princeps and helped substantiate his position as successor.
 Even Tiberius’ successor Caligula (r. 37–41 A.D.) (14.37), who had no interest in
continuing Augustus’ administrative ideals and was much more concerned with
promoting his own agenda, followed the Augustan and Tiberian portrait tradition
of classical and idealized features that carried a strong “family” resemblance.
However, during the reign of the emperor Claudius (r. 41–54 A.D.), a shift in the
political atmosphere favored a return to Republican standards and so also
influenced artistic styles. Portraits of Claudius reflect his increasing age and
strongly resemble veristic portraits of the Republic. This trend toward realism
eventually led to the characteristic styles of the second imperial dynasty:
the Flavians.
 Roman portraiture of the Imperial period includes works created
throughout the provinces, often combining Greek, Roman, and
local traditions, as with the Fayum mummy portraits.
 Hellenistic Greek style and leadership expectations carried over
into Roman leadership portraiture. One significant example is
the Severan Period marble portrait of the emperor Caracalla.
 Nearly all representations of Caracalla reflect his military
prowess through his frighteningly aggressive expression. Caracalla borrowed the
precedent Alexander set; the piercing gaze. His arresting confidence exudes from
his features to show that he is not a man to be trifled with. The intense sculptural
execution of this piece in particular reflects a shift toward more geometric
renderings of the human face to better convey messages to the public, often
strong implications of power and authority to keep peace in the Roman Empire.

8. Describe the Ara Pacis Augustae.

 The Ara Pacis Augustae ; commonly
shortened to Ara Pacis is
an altar in Rome dedicated to Pax,
the Roman goddess of Peace.
 The monument was commissioned by
the Roman Senate on July 4, 13 BC to
honour the return of Augustus to Rome
after three years in Hispania and Gaul
and consecrated on January 30, 9 BC.
 Originally located on the northern
outskirts of Rome, a Roman mile from
the boundary of the pomerium on the west side of the Via Flaminia, the Ara Pacis
stood in the northeastern corner of the Campus Martius, the former flood plain
of the Tiber River and gradually became buried under 4 metres (13 ft) of silt
deposits.
 The altar reflects the Augustan vision of Roman civil religion. The lower register of
its frieze depicts vegetal work meant to communicate the abundance and
prosperity of the Roman Peace.
 Voted for by the Senate in 13 BCE the monument was completed within four
years using Italian Luna marble and dedicated on 30th January 9 BCE.
 The structure has a central altar set on a podium surrounded by high walls (11.6 x
10.6 m) composed of large rectangular slabs. There are two entrances, one on the
east and the other on the west (back) side, the latter having a short flight of steps
due to the lower ground elevation on that side in its original position.
 The 3 m tall altar itself stands on a 6 x 7 m podium and has relief scenes depicting
Vestal Virgins, priests and sacrificial animals.
 The interior sculpture of the surrounding walls depicts fruit and flower garlands
hanging from ox heads (bucrania) above fluting. The lower portion of the exterior
walls has richly sculpted acanthus scrolls whilst the upper portions carry relief
figures.
 On the east and west sides of the exterior
walls are panels with mythological scenes
including a version of the she-wolf
nursing Romulus and Remus, Roma .
 The relief figures on the north and south
exterior walls are arranged in two groups.
On the south side are Augustus and the
Imperial family. On the north side are
officials such as magistrates, senators, priests and their families. All are captured
in a single moment as they participate in a procession.

9. Write a note on the Arch of Titus.

 The Arch of Titus is a 1st-century AD honorific arch, located on the Via
Sacra, Rome, just to the south-east of the Roman Forum.
 It was constructed in c. 81 AD by
the Emperor Domitian shortly after the death
of his older brother Titus to commemorate
Titus's official deification or consecratio and the
victory of Titus together with their
father, Vespasian, over the Jewish rebellion in
Judaea.
 The arch contains panels depicting the triumphal procession celebrated in 71 AD
after the Roman victory culminating in the fall of Jerusalem, and provides one of
the few contemporary depictions of artifacts of Herod's Temple
 It became a symbol of the Jewish diaspora, and the menorah depicted on the
arch served as the model for the menorah used as the emblem of the state of
Israel.
 The arch is large with both fluted and unfluted columns, the latter being a result
of 19th-century restoration.

Size
 The Arch of Titus measures: 15.4 meters (50 ft) in height, 13.5 meters (44 ft) in
width, 4.75 meters (15.5 ft) in depth. The inner archway is 8.3 (27 ft) meters in
height, and 5.36 (17.5 ft) in width.

Decorative sculpture
 The spandrels on the upper left and right of the arch contain personifications of
victory as winged women. Between the spandrels is the keystone, on which there
stands a female on the east side and a
male on the west side.
 The soffit of the axial archway is
deeply coffered with a relief of
the apotheosis of Titus at the center. The
sculptural program also includes two panel
reliefs lining the passageway within the
arch. Both commemorate the
joint triumph celebrated by Titus and his
father Vespasian in the summer of 71.
 The south inner panel depicts the spoils taken from the Temple in Jerusalem. The
golden candelabrum or Menorah is the main focus and is carved in deep relief.
 Other sacred objects being carried in the triumphal procession are the Gold
Trumpets, the fire pans for removing the ashes from the altar, and the Table of
Shewbread. These spoils were likely originally colored gold, with the background
in blue.
 The other relief panel is carved in three-quarter view and has Titus riding a four-
horse chariot (quadriga) and shows him being crowned by a personification of
Victory. The goddess Roma stands in front, holding the bridle of one of the
horses. The two figures to the right of the chariot are personifications of the
people of Rome (naked torso) and the Senate (wearing a toga).
 The two relief panels are significant in the history and development of Roman art,
as they are the first full attempt by Roman sculptors to create the illusion of
space.
 This is successfully achieved in several ways; the figures are portrayed in three-
quarter view, the background figures are so rendered that they recede gradually
into the distance, the central figures are carved in higher relief than those on the
edges, and the whole panel is curved slightly inwards.
 Running around the whole arch is a small frieze which depicts the whole
triumphal procession, and above the intrados winged victories each stand on a
globe and hold banners, trophies, laurel wreaths, and palm fronds.
 Set in the centre of each side of the archway is a keystone representing Roma
and the Genius of the Roman People. The interior vault is coffered with a central
representation of the deified Titus (apotheosis) being carried to the heavens by
an eagle. Originally, the whole arch was finished off in customary style with a
huge bronze quadriga which would have stood on top of the arch.

10. Describe the column of Trajan.

 Trajan's Column is a Roman triumphal
column in Rome, Italy, that commemorates Roman
emperor Trajan's victory in the Dacian Wars.
 It was probably constructed under the supervision of the
architect Apollodorus of Damascus at the order of
the Roman Senate.
 It is located in Trajan's Forum, north of the Roman Forum.
Completed in AD 113, the freestanding column is most
famous for its spiral bas relief, which artistically
represents the wars between the Romans and
Dacians (101–102 and 105–106).
 The structure is about 30 metres (98 feet) in height, 35 metres (115 feet)
including its large pedestal.
 The shaft is made from a series of 20 colossal Carrara marble drums, each
weighing about 32 tons, with a diameter of 3.7 metres (12.1 feet). The 190-metre
(620-foot) frieze winds around the shaft 23 times. Inside the shaft, a spiral
staircase of 185 steps provides access to a viewing platform at the top. The
capital block of Trajan's Column weighs 53.3 tons, which had to be lifted to a
height of c. 34 metres (112 feet).
 The irregular perspective and presence of over 2,600 figures carved in low relief
spiralling around the column create a lively 200 m long narrative of 155 key
scenes from the campaigns in Dacia with Trajan himself present in many diverse
situations such as leading the army, judging
prisoners, and holding councils of war.
 The interior of Trajan's Column is
hollow: entered by a small doorway at one
side of the base, a spiral stair of 185 steps
gives access to the platform above, having
offered the visitor in antiquity a view over
the surrounding Trajan's forum; 43 window
slits illuminate the ascent.
 The column stands 38.4 m (126.0 ft)
high from the ground to the top of the
statue base: Located immediately next to the large Basilica Ulpia, it had to be
constructed sufficiently tall in order to function as a vantage point and to
maintain its own visual impact on the forum.
 The column proper, that is the shaft without the pedestal, the statue and its
base, is 29.76 metres (97.64 feet) high, a number which almost corresponds to
100 Roman feet; beginning slightly above the bottom of the base, the helical
staircase inside measures a mere 8 cm (3 in) less.
 The column is composed of 29 blocks of Luni marble, weighing in total more than
1100 t.
 The spiral stair itself was carved out of 19 blocks, with a full turn every 14 steps;
this arrangement required a more complex geometry than the more usual
alternatives of 12 or 16.
 The quality of the craftsmanship was such that the staircase is practically even,
and the joints between the huge blocks still fit accurately.
 Despite numerous earthquakes in the past, the column today leans at an angle of
less than half a degree.
 Trajan's Column, especially its helical stairway design, exerted a considerable
influence on subsequent Roman architecture. While spiral stairs were before still
a rare sight in Roman buildings, this space-saving form henceforth spread
gradually throughout the empire.
 The base also has a lengthy inscription on the southeast side which uses 10cm
high capital letters to indicate that the monument is dedicated in honour of
Trajan by the Senate and People of Rome (SPQR) in 113 CE.
 The inscription also indicates that the monument was designed to show how the
surrounding site had been cleared for such great works as the column itself and
Trajan’s Forum in general.

11. Write a note on the Domus and Insula.

Domus
 Domus, private family residence of modest to palatial proportions, found
primarily in ancient Rome and Pompeii. In contrast to the insula , or tenement
block, which housed numerous families, the domus was a single-family dwelling
divided into two main parts, atrium and peristyle.
 It also served as a place of business and a religious center for worship. The size of
a domus could range from a very small house to a luxurious mansion.
 All domus were free-standing structures. Some were constructed like modern-
day townhouses with common walls between them, while others were detached.
 Because safety was a primary concern in ancient Rome, domus did not face the
streets. Similarly, there were rarely outside-facing windows for this reason, but
most domus did have two front rooms open to the street.
 Some families ran their own stores from these rooms, while others leased them
out to others.
 Atrium: The atrium was the central hall, almost like a modern-day foyer, and it
was the most conspicuous room in a Roman domus.
 It was open at the
roof, which let in light
and air for circulation,
and also allowed
rainwater for drinking
and washing to collect
in the impluvium, a
small draining pool in
the middle of the
atrium.
 Cisterns were also located throughout the domus to collect rainwater, which
acted as the primary water supply in the absence of running water.
 The atrium was one of the most richly decorated rooms in the domus.
 Lararium (household shrine): Honoring the household gods was an
important part of daily life for Romans. Each domus contained a lararium, or
shrine, in the atrium, which was where offerings were left for the household gods
(the Lares), spirits of the ancestors, and spirits of the underworld.
 Tablinum (office): Roman men often conducted business out of
their domus from a home office known as the tablinum. It was also the room
where clients would go to meet their patron for the salutatio, a formal renewal of
their patron-client relationship.
 Triclinium (dining room): Dinner parties were very popular in ancient Rome.
These were held in the triclinium, which translates to “three couch room”
because it had three couches arranged in a U-shape. While eating, Romans
reclined on these couches and they always dined barefoot. There were no fixed
tables in the Roman triclinium; food was served on portable tables, sometimes by
a high-ranking slave.
 Communal dinner parties and public banquets were very common in the Roman
world, and helped to strengthen social ties within the city.
 Hortus (garden): Unlike most modern gardens, the Roman hortus was located
at the back of the domus. Peristyle gardens with walkways to access other rooms
in the house were also very common. When the weather was nice, the garden
may have been used for dining and socializing or as a place for Roman children to
play.
 Insula
 Insula, in architecture, block of
grouped but separate buildings or a
single structure in ancient Rome
and Ostia.
 The insulae were largely tenements
providing economically practical
housing where land values were high and population dense. Distinct from
the domus, the upper-class private residence, they were inhabited primarily by
the labouring class.
 Insulae were constructed of brick covered with concrete and were often five or
more stories high despite laws limiting them to 68 feet (21 metres),
under Augustus, and then 58 ft, under Trajan.
 The street level characteristically housed artisans’ workshops and commercial
establishments.
 The residences above were reached by an interior common staircase, receiving
light and air from the street and an inner court. Many insulae were encircled with
open or enclosed balconies of wood or concrete.
 Pumping devices could raise water only to lower apartments; tenants of higher
apartments had to use public water and sanitary facilities. Cheap construction
and a limited water supply caused frequent collapses and serious fires.

12. Describe the Basilica of Maxentius.

 The Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine sometimes known as the Basilica
Nova—meaning "new basilica"—
or Basilica of Maxentius, is an
ancient building in the Roman
Forum, Rome, Italy.
 It was the largest building in the
Forum, and the last Roman basilica
built in the city.
 In ancient Rome, a basilica was a
rectangular building with a large
 central open space, and often a raised apse at the far end from the entrance.
Basilicas served a variety of functions, including a combination of a court-house,
council chamber and meeting hall.
 During the 6th century, the building was called "templum Romae".
 The colour of the building before it was destroyed was white. The basilica stood
on a 100-by-65-metre (328 ft × 213 ft) concrete and rectangular platform.
 The thickness of the platform is not known/communicated. The central nave was
80 metres (260 ft) long, 25 metres (82 ft) wide, 35 metres (115 ft) high, with side
aisles 16 metres (52 ft) wide and 24.5 metres (80 ft) high.
 Eight massive marble columns 14.5 metres (48 ft) high and 5.4 metres (18 ft) in
circumference stood at the corners of the nave. They were all destroyed except
one that was removed by Paul V in 1613 to the Santa Maria Maggiore where it
still stands.
 The building consisted of a central nave covered by three groin vaults suspended
39 metres (128 ft) above the floor on four large piers, ending in an apse at the
western end containing a colossal statue of Constantine (remnants of which are
now in a courtyard of the Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Musei Capitolini).
 The lateral forces of the groin vaults were held by flanking aisles measuring 23 by
17 metres (75 ft × 56 ft).
 The aisles were spanned by three semi-circular barrel vaults perpendicular to the
nave, and narrow arcades ran parallel to the nave beneath the barrel vaults. The
nave itself measured 25 by 80 metres (82 ft × 262 ft) creating a 2,000-square-
metre (22,000 sq ft) floor.[citation needed] Like the great imperial baths, the
basilica made use of vast interior space with its emotional effect. Running the
length of the eastern face of the building was a projecting arcade. On the south
face was a projecting (prostyle) porch with four columns (tetrastyle).
 All that remains of the basilica today is the north aisle with its three concrete
barrel vaults. The ceilings of the barrel vaults show advanced weight-saving
structural skill with octagonal ceiling coffers.
 On the outside wall of the basilica, facing onto the via dei Fori Imperiali, are
contemporary maps showing the various stages of the rise of the Roman Empire
which were added during the Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini.
 13. Describe the Dioclatian's palace.
 Palace of Diocletian, ancient Roman palace built between 295 and 305 CE at Split
(Spalato), Croatia, by the emperor Diocletian as his place of retirement (he
renounced the imperial crown in 305 and then lived at Split until his death in
316).
 The palace constitutes the main part of a UNESCO World Heritage site that was
designated in 1979. It is the largest and best-preserved example of Roman
palatial architecture, representing a transitional style half Greek and
half Byzantine.
 It was built as an imperial city-palace and a sea fortress, as well as a country
house of vast proportions and magnificence, covering an area of 7 acres (3
hectares).
 The north-south walls extended 705 feet (215 metres), with walls measuring 7
feet (2 metres) thick and 72 feet (22 metres) high on the Adriatic side and 60 feet
(18 metres) high on the north.
 There were 16 towers (of which 3 remain) and 4 gates: Porta Aurea (Golden
Gate) in the north, Porta Argentea (Silver Gate) in the east, Porta Ferrea (Iron
Gate) in the west, and Porta Aenea (Bronze Gate) in the south.
 The roughly rectangular ground plan was like that of a Roman military camp—i.e.,
with four arcaded avenues 36 feet (11 metres) wide meeting in the middle.
 Guards, slaves, and household servants were accommodated in the northern
quadrants. The imperial apartments (state rooms) were in the two southern
quadrants, along the width of which ran a 524-foot-long and 24-foot-wide
arcaded grand gallery (probably for promenades and the display of art) that was
open to scenic views of the sea and the Dalmatian coast. The Temple of Jupiter
and the mausoleum of Diocletian were located in courts of the imperial section.
 The Palace is built of white
local limestone and marble of high
quality, most of which was from the
Brač marble quarries on the island
of Brač, of tuff taken from the nearby
river beds, and of brick made
in Salonitan and other factories.