Introduction

• Name : Alok Jain

• Company : Jindal Stainless Limited

• Academic
Qualification : B.E. (Mech)

• Current Job
Description : Working as Associate Vice-President.
Previously Head, Steel Melt Shop,
Presently - Corporate Projects & Head Hot
Rolling and Long Products

• Experience : 21 years

• Paper : Making, Refining & Casting of Stainless Steel

Hot Rolling of Stainless Steel

`
 Developments in
Making, Refining & Casting of
Stainless Steel
 Steel vs. Stainless Steel

Standard Ford Modell 1986 Stainless Ford Modell 1936

 Development of Stainless Steel

Cogs set in motion by Englishmen Stoddard and Farraday in 1820

Frenchman Pierre Berthier in 1821, worked on low Cr content
alloys

In 1872, Woods and Clark, filed for patent of an acid and

weather resistant iron alloy [30-35% Cr and 2% W]

In 1875, Frenchman Brustlein pointed out for an alloy with a

high % of Cr, C % must remain < 0.15%

In 1895, Hans Goldschmidt of Germany developed the

aluminothermic reduction process for C-free chromium
 Development of Stainless Steel

In 1904 French Scientist Leon Guillet researched on ferritic

steels 410, 420, 442, 446 and 440-C

In 1909 Englishman Giesen published work on Cr-Ni steels,

while French national, Portevin, 430 stainless steel.

In 1911, Germans P. Monnartz and W. Borchers pointed

minimum Cr Content for stainless steel [10.5%]

In 1913 Brearley created a steel with 12.8% chromium and

0.24% carbon, argued to be the first ever stainless steel.
 History of Stainless Steel Making

 Three Step Process used for initial 40 years [EAF]:

• Load arc furnace with low P steel scrap, mill

Melting scale, or iron ore.

• Remove oxidizing slag & replace with a

Decarburizing reducing slag of lime and fluorspar
• Add fine ferro silicon

• Add ferrochromium (high or low carbon) in

Alloying two or three batches.
• Remove slag and pour.
 The RUSTLESS Process

A. I. Field developed the RUSTLESS PROCESS at Canton, Ohio, in 1926

• For making low-carbon stainless steel, much less expensive than existing process

Started with 2 MT Heroult Type electric arc furnace in 1927

In 1929, produced RUSTLESS IRON commercially in a six ton furnace at
Lockport, New York

 Outstanding due to:

1. use of chromite (chromium ore) as a hearth liner

2. superheating to high temperatures to produce a major reduction of carbon with a minimum
loss of chromium
3. Returning chromium, which would otherwise be lost in the slag, to the melt by the addition of
ferrosilicon
 Tonnage Oxygen

GASEOUS OXYGEN was used to improve rate of decarburization

Oxygen was injected into liquid steel using WATER COOLED LANCE

The faster oxidation of carbon was accompanied by extensive oxidation of

chromium to the slag.

A well-defined reduction period was given in which ferrosilicon was used to

reduce the chromium from the furnace slags
 Stainless Steel Making in EAF
 Until 1970 bulk of SS was manufactured via EAF:

PROCESS

• Decarburisation by lancing the bath with pure Oxygen.

• Less Cr in Charge Mix
• Silicon added to revert half of oxidized Cr
• Expensive Low Carbon Ferro Chrome added

DISADVANTAGES

• Less SS scrap usage

• High refractory cost.
• Expensive Low Carbon Ferro Chrome additions
• Poor Cr yield
• Long process time – up to 8 hours.

ADVANTAGES

• It was the only way to make stainless steel!

 Stainless Production -
Present Process Routes &
Associated Equipments
 Selection of Process Route

Raw Material Availability

Desired Product Mix

Downstream Processing

Existing Shop Logistics

Capital Economics
 Typical Stainless Process Routes
[0.8 to 1mtpa Capacity]

EAF AOD-L LRF CCM

Electric Arc Furnace AOD - Converter Ladle Refining Furnace Continuous Casting Machine
• Tapping weight 140 t • Tapping weight 150 t • Tapping weight 150 t Casting speeds
• Trans.. Cap. 155 MVA • Tap-to-Tap 60 mins. • Argon Stirring • Austenitic 1.6 m / min.
• Tap-to-Tap 65 Min. • Vessel Volume : • Wire Injection • Ferritic 1.5 m / min.
• Power Consumption 0.55 m3/ ton • Auto-Alloying System • Width 600 - 1,600 mm
470 kWh/t • Oxygen blowing rate: • Thickness 155 - 240 mm
• Shell Diameter 7.5 m 1.4 Nm3/min/ ton • Max. Weight 35 t / Slab
• Electrode Dia 710 mm • Met. Length 24.6 m
 Stainless Process Lines
DUPLEX LINE
DDD

BF
EAF Continuous caster
AOD-L LTS

TRIPLEX LINE
DDD

MRP-L VOD
BF Continuous caster
EEAF
 Modern Steelmaking Methods

Process Route (%)

Production EAF – EAF – Other
Year
Worldwide EAF - AOD Converter - EAF - VOD Converter EAF
(MT) VOD (CLU, ASM)

1983 6,550,000 71.8 10.4 9.2 4.4 4.2

1996 15,000,000 68.7 19.5 6.8 5 -

2002 20,400,000 72 18 4 6 -

2012 33,878,000 76 14 4 6 -
Section & Plan view of EAF
 Developments in EAF steelmaking

Process Usage of
Furnace Carbon
operating chemical
Design injection
technologies energy
 Furnace Design

Split Shell Design

• Larger tonnage charge
• Lower heat losses
• Improved thermal efficiency

Transformer Power
• Increase transformer power for increased capacity

DC Arc Furnace
• Reduced electrode consumption
• Lower noise levels
• Lower maintenance costs claimed
• refractory costs are less for sidewall but more for the furnace bottom
 Optimum Furnace Size

 Diameter of the Furnace depends upon the effect of arcing on furnace wall
 Optimized furnace diameter limits wear of furnace refractory & effect of arc on wall.
 Computation optimizes sizing
Process operating technologies
Bottom stirring
• Eliminates temperature and concentration gradients
• Shortens tap-to-tap times
• Reduces refractory, electrode and power consumption
• Savings of 12-24 kWh/MT of steel

Foamy slag practice

• Reduces refractory, electrode and power consumption
• Improves yield of iron and alloys

Scrap preheating
• Shortens tap-to-tap times
• Reduces refractory, electrode and power consumption
• Can save 0.016 to 0.2 GJ/t-steel
 Chemical energy
Oxidation reaction
• Reactions produced by oxidation reactions [Si - ~8.7 kWh per Kg]
• Increased heat transfer to bath

Post combustion
• Generate additional energy for melting steel
• Use extra oxygen to combust CO and H2 which evolve within the EAF

Oxy fuel burner

• Use natural gas or oil with pure oxygen, Reduce melting time
• Reduce power consumption [0.14 GJ/Mt steel at O2 injection rates of 18
Nm3/MT]

Carbon injection
• For foamy slag
• To produce CO for post combustion
 Future of EAF steelmaking

latest ultra high

Ultra high
oxygen and shell design,
power input
carbon heavy mill
(up to1500
injection type
kVA/t)
technology components
 Development of AOD & VOD Process
CO gas bubbles form easily at low pressure, while not affecting Cr oxidation.

Based on this VOD process was developed by Witten in Germany between

1962 & 1967.

In 1954 W Krivsky of Union Carbide did research to determine the levels of Cr

/C oxidation at a series of set temperatures.

AOD & VOD developed between 1954 -1968 revolutionised stainless

steelmaking

October 1967 first AOD heat was made in a modified 15t ladle.
First commercial AOD installation at Joslyn (now Slater Steel) in July 1968.

AOD + VOD account for 94% of all the stainless made today & remaining 6%
are similar & based on the same principles.
Process Routes for Making SS
 AOD – Argon Oxygen Decarburization
AOD converters are SIDE BLOWN [through 2-8 tuyeres]

Centre tube is made of Cu and outer tube is of SS

Mixture of O2 and either Ar or N2 is blown through centre

tube, Ar or N2 through outer tube

Gas in outer is for knurdle control and safety for outer SS

tube

Most modern AODs have top lance [1.0-1.5 Nm3/min/MT

flow of oxygen]

Top lance can be operated in two ways – Hard Blowing or

Soft Blowing.
 AOD Steel Making - Process
FLUX ADDITIONS

• AOD refractory lining is basic

• Sufficient dolomite should be added for DUAL
saturation of slag
• A slag basicity ratio (CaO /SiO2) of 1.8 :1 is desirable
to protect the lining.

DECARBURIZATION

• C removal starts after Al and Si oxidation

• Top lance is used till C% is reduced to ~0.4%
• Ratio of O2:Ar/N2 is gradually reduced for
achieving better CRE at lower C%
 AOD Steel Making - Process
GAS RATIOS as various C%
Oxygen : Inert (Ar or N2)
Start C – 0.4% C 5 : 1
0.4% C – 0.18% C 1 : 1
0.18% C – 0.03% C 1 : 2
0.03% C - lower 1 : 5

REDUCTION

• Cr & Mn are oxidized along with C.

• Fe-Si &/or Al are used to revert them from slag
• FeSi being cheaper and Al2O3 inclusions being
abrasive is preferred over Al.
• Al is used in certain ‘clean’ steel grades
 AOD Steel Making - Process

DESULPHURIZATION
• Bath has to be deoxidized and at higher
temperature
• Double slag practice for low S grades
• Slag should have a high dissolved lime content –
i.e. high sulphide capacity (Cs)
• Slag should be liquid & fluid
• The total reducible oxides in the slag, i.e Cr2O3,
MnO, FeO etc, should be low < 2%.
• kinetics of mass transfer at slag/metal interface)
 AOD REFRACTORY
200mm
(tempered or fired low quality
doloma) Cone
Eg DovalT, SFT, RBD

300mm
(fired standard doloma)
eg Doval D, KD, YFD
Tap
550mm
Side
Slag
(fired magnesia-doloma)
Line
eg F343, KD65, 65D

1000mm
(highest quality)
eg F627, KD65VT,DF8 Tuyere Zone
350mm
(fired standard doloma) Floor
eg Doval D, KD, YFD
Objectives of Secondary Metallurgical
Processes
 AOD - VCR

Developed at Daido (Japan)

Combines AOD and VOD in same vessel

Operates as conventional AOD down to 0.1%C followed by

vacuum process for decarburization & reduction

Reduced Ar & Si consumption

Higher refractory consumption, decreased ability to melt

scrap, increased process time & maintenance costs associated
with steam production
 Vacuum Melting & ESR
VIM – VACUUM INDUCTION MELTING
for producing super alloys [Ni & Cu base]

VAR – VACUUM ARC REMELTING

originally used for Ti,
eliminates H2, A and V segregates and also the large Typical vacuum arc remelting furnace
silicate inclusions

ESR – ELECTROSLAG REFINING

a larger form of the original welding process.
Re-melts a pre-formed electrode of alloy into a
water-cooled crucible
Uses the electrical resistance heating in a molten
pool for heat source
Electroslag remelting furnace
New Advancements in AOD
TRUNNION RING DESIGN
 CONVERTER SUSPENSION SYSTEM

SWING BOLT: HYDRAULIC CLAMPING DEVICE:

Easily detachable automated system
Preferred for AOD upto 180t fast converter exchange

Converter Drive System

Simulation of dynamic flow processes during AOD process

 Blowing rate has a higher impact on vibrations than the filling model
 Highest strain occurs at the end of decarburization with highest argon flow-rate
Automation
LRF (Ladle Furnace) Construction
Electrode Arms
Alloy addition
port

Electrodes Electrode Masts

Mast Support
Furnace Roof

Tapped steel in LF Station

the ladle

Stirring bubbles

Ladle Car
Ladle Furnace : Design Type

Stationary type Twin station

 Ladle Furnace
AIM

• Temperature control
• Thermal and Chemical homogenisation
• Precise alloying

PRODUCTION EFFICIENCY

• Cycle difference between the melting unit and the casting

facility can be easily be accommodated
• Increased availability in the melting unit
• Increased proportion of sequence casting
• Reduced overall idle time for the melting process
• Use of process models for process control
• Increased number of on-target heats
 Ladle Furnace
QUALITY IMPROVEMENT

• Inert gas stirring for thermal and chemical homogenisation

• Lance or wire injection for deoxidisation and desulphurisation
• Inclusion shape control
• Precise alloying systems

COST REDUCTION

• Shorter heat times

• Less energy due to increased thermal efficiency
• Reduced consumption of electrodes, refractory material and
refractory gunning material
• Higher alloying recovery rates
• Higher yields due to increased number of CCM sequence
heats & fewer heats lost
VOD Vacuum Tank Degassing Plant

• HIGH QUALITY STAINLESS STEEL

PRODUCTION
• DECARBURISATION
• DEGASSING
• DESULPHURISATION
• CHEMICAL HEATING
• ALLOYING / FINE TRIMMING
• SLAG MANAGEMENT
• SHAPE CONTROL
VOD – Vacuum Oxygen Decarburization
PROCESS

• Based on readily formation of CO bubbles at lower pressures

• Start Carbons can be up to 0.8% but are typically 0.3 –0.4%.

ADVANTAGES

• Low C (0.003 –0.005%) & N2 (0.006 –0.007%) can be achieved /

guaranteed.
• Low Silicon 3.0 Kgs /LST & Ar (0.6 m3/t – 304) consumption

DISADVANTAGES

• Triplex route is slow

• Overall refractory consumption high
• Not much flexibility with start conditions
 INCEPTION OF CCS
1840 - 1940: The Pioneer Development

• Grant of the first continuous casting patent

• Twin wheel strip casting process
• Tundish, ladle, vertical and banding type billet casting
• Mold oscillation, strand inline sizing, and cooling, were proposed and
studied.

1940 - 1970: Full Range Industrial Development

• Installation of pilot plant for steel casting

• Intensive development in whole industry
• By 1970, about 4% of the steel was continuously casted

Since 1970: Extensive Industrial Application

• Metal industrial revolution due to the continuous casting and related

technologies (e.g. Near-Net-Shape casting).
• Steel continuous casting ratio jumped from 4% in 1970 to 90% today
 INCEPTION OF CCS

1856 – Henry Bessemer patents continuous casting of malleable iron

1933 - Siegfried Junghans patented Mould Oscillation System
1950 - V. Tarquinee and R.J. Scovill published a caster design
1951 – First stainless steel slab caster installed at Krashy Oktubri (USSR)
1952 - O. Schaaber patented curved, oscillating mould
 INCEPTION OF CCS

Substantial improvement in yield

Average 1975 Continuous Casting % Ingot Casting %

Billets 95.57 81.29
Blooms 95.87 82.93
Slabs 94.74 84.45
Total 95.01 83.45

Reduction in number of subsequent processing

stages required
Advanced Slab Caster Technology
Continuous Casting – Quality Benefits
Mould Design & Floatation of NMI
Distribution of Non-Metallic inclusions
SLAB CASTER TECHNOLOGY
Slab caster technology
 JINDAL STAINLESS LIMITED
Casting Machine Configuration
Type of Machine Bow-type with straight mold

Caster Vertical height approx. 2.5m (effective height)

Caster Basic Radius ~8m

Metallurgical Length ~ 22 m

Section sizes 900 to 1600mm wide x 200mm thick

Strand Support Equipment Mould with wide and narrow side foot rolls
Bender unit
Bow segments
Straightener segments

Mold Oscillation Hydraulic oscillation

Dummy Bar Handling Bottom feeding side shifting type

TURRET with ladle cover handling system

FEATURES
• RIGID DESIGN
• HIGH LOAD IMPACT & SAFELY FACTORS
• REDUCED NUMBER OF MOVING PARTS
• HYDRAULIC EMERGENCY DRIVE

BENEFIT
• SHORT OPERATIONAL DOWNTIME
• SHORT INSPECTION TIMES
• LOW MAINTENANCE & OPERATING
COST
T/D-Cars on casting platform

FEATURES
• CAR WITH 2 LIFTING ELEMENTS
• SAFE WORKING CONDITIONS
• EXCELLENT ACCESS FOR INSPECTION &
MAINTENENCE
• HYDRAULIC DRIVE & LIFTING

BENEFIT
• EASE OF SEN CENTERING
• OPTIMIZED MOULD CONDITIONS
• LOW MAINTENANCE & OPERATING
COST
FLOW CONTROL IN TUNDISH
FLOW & LEVEL CONTROL
 Mould Sticker Detection
Cu Cassette Plate
Typical Readings
Thermocouple Thermocouple Pairs

• Reduces breakouts
• Increased production
• PC based
• Real time
• Historical review
• Process optimisation

Sticker
ELECTROMAGNETIC STIRRER
Integrated Caster Automation
 Caster Process Control
Typical Hardware Configuration
Process Computer Functions & Models
 EUROSTRIP®, KREFELD
Ladle turret Heat Size: 90 t
Tundish Size: 17 t
Strip Width: 1100 -1450 mm
As Cast Strip
Thickness: 1.5 - 4.5 mm
Casting Speed: 15 - 140 m/min
Tundish

Recoiler Drumcoiler

Casting machine

Loop Rolling mill Shear Down coiling system

 Steel Conditioning
Removal of :
• Scale
• Surface defects
• Inclusions…etc
From :
Billets
Bloom
Slabs
Prior to :
• Rolling and Forging
 SHOT BLASTING – Removes Scale and exposes surface defects for
touch / full grinding

 GRINDING – for removal of scale & rest surface defects

 SHOTBLASTING

SLAB SHOTBLASTING SLAB SHOTBLASTING

64
 Why GRINDING ?
Steel Conditioning
• Flexible process hence, localized machining possible
• Effective removal of surface defects
• Variable depth of cut across the area to be ground
• Very high MRR (200 – 500 kg/hr) compared to any
other machining process
• Very good control over “yield loss”
• Finish can be controlled.
 GRINDING Process Flow
Slabs from caster

Grinding wheels Personnel

Electrical power

GRINDING
Water PROCESS

Scrap Swarf
wheels Dust
Slabs to
downstream
operations
66
 Types of Auto Grinders
CONSTANT POWER

• Vary pressure to keep power constant

• MRR constant
• Less over grind
• Less metal waste

CONSTANT PRESSURE

• Constant grinding pressure

• MRR varies
• More tendency to over grind
 Slab conditioning process – Grinding Angle
Grinding Angle
90° grinding. It is used for:
• Finishing grinding due to its best surface roughness
• Corner grinding
• Advantages: lower wheel consumption
• Disadvantages: lower productivity

45° grinding. It is used for:

• Rough grinding due to its high productivity
• Advantages: high productivity
• Disadvantages: higher wheel consumption

68
GRINDING Key Parameters
Effect of Grit on Conditioning
 Slab grinding process: Grinding procedure
Grinding procedure
• Skin grinding (Full automatic, 100% quality assurance, low productivity)
• Pattern grinding (Full automatic, higher productivity)
• Spot grinding (Higher productivity and yield, manual, no quality assurance)
• Edge grinding (lateral edge grinder allows to condition the slab narrow surface)
• Corner grinding (long corner is grinded on all its length by means of several passes to
obtain the desired fillet radius)
Slab grinding process: grinding temperature
Grinding temperature Hot grinding advantages
• Cold grinding ( < 200°C) • Higher productivity
• Warm grinding (200°C < T < 500°C) • Lower operation cost
• Hot grinding (500°C < T < 1000°C) • Lower investment cost
Waste Management
Waste Management
Future Near Net Shape – Ca(r)sting ?

Stainless
THANK YOU!