Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Chapter 10
Fundamentals of Metal Casting
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Solidification of Metals
3. Fluid Flow
4. Fluidity of Molten Metal
5. Heat Transfer
6. Defects
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

10.1 Introduction
One of the oldest processes used to shape metals

is the casting process (CP) which basically
involves:
• Pouring molten metal into a mold cavity
(patterned after the part to be manufactured),
• Allowing it to solidify (cool), and
• Removing the part from the mold.
10.1 Introduction
Casting processes are most often selected over other
manufacturing methods, for the following reasons:
1.Casting can produce complex shapes with internal cavities
or hollow sections.
2.Very large parts can be produced in one piece.
3.It can utilize materials that are difficult or uneconomical to
process by other means.
4.Casting is competitive with other processes.
5.Usually is the quickest way to shape metal into a part.
6.Almost all metals can be cast in the final shape desired
(net-shape), often with only minor finishing operations
required.
10.1 Introduction
Casting processes developed over the years can be classified into:
1.Expendable mold/Reusable pattern: sand-, plaster-, and ceramic-
mold casting.
2.Expendable mold/Expendable pattern: investment (lost wax),
evaporative-foam casting.
3.Permanent mold/No Pattern: die, centrifugal, squeeze, and semisolid.
As in all manufacturing, each casting process has its own characteristics,
applications, advantages, limitations, and costs.
The casting process to choose depends on:
1.Part size,
2.Part configuration,
3.Part quantity,
4.Required tolerances, and
5.Metal specified.
10.1 Introduction
Important considerations in casting operations:

1.Flow of the molten metal into the mold cavity.
2.Solidification and cooling of the metal in the mold.
3.The influence of the type of mold material.
•Metal fundamentals are discussed in this chapter.
10.2 Solidification of Metals
• After pouring molten metal into a mold, a series

of events takes place during the solidification of
the metal and cooling to room temperature.
• These events greatly influence the size, shape
uniformity, and chemical composition of the
grains formed throughout the casting, which in
turn influence its over all properties.
10.2.1 Solidification of Pure Metals
• A pure metal solidifies at a constant
temperature because it has a clearly defined
melting (or freezing) point (see table 3.1 and Fig.
10.1).
• After the temperature of the molten metal drops
to its freezing point, its temperature remains
constant while the latent heat of fusion is given
off.
• The solidification front (solid-liquid interface)
moves through the molten metal, solidifying from
the mold walls in toward the center.
Solidification of Pure Metals
Figure 10.1 (a) Temperature as a function of time for the solidification of pure metals. Note
that the freezing takes place at a constant temperature. (b) Density as a function of time
The grain structure of a pure metal cast in a square mold

is shown in Fig 10.2a:
• At the mold walls (usually at room temp), the metal cools
rapidly and produces a solidified skin (or shell) of fine
equiaxed grains (approx. equal dims. in all dirs.)
• The grains grow in a direction opposite to that of the heat
transfer out through the mold. Those grains that have
favorable orientations grow preferentially away from the
surface of the mold producing columnar grains (Fig.
10.3).
• As the driving force of the heat transfer is

reduced away from the mold walls, the grains
become equiaxed and coarse. Those grains
that have substantially different orientations are
blocked from further growth. Such grains
development is known as homogeneous
nucleation, meaning that the grains grow upon
themselves, starting at the mold wall.
Cast Structures of Solidified Metals
Figure 10.3 Development of a

preferred texture at a cool mold
wall. Note that only favorably
oriented grains grow away from
Figure 10.2 Schematic illustration of three cast the surface of the mold
structures of metals solidified in a square mold: (a)
pure metals; (b) solid-solution alloys; and (c)
structure obtained by using nucleating agents.
Source: After G. W. Form, J. F. Wallace, J. L.
Walker, and A. Cibula
Alloy Solidification
Figure 10.4 Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and temperature distribution in the
solidifying metal. Note the formation of dendrites in the mushy zone.
10.2.2 Solidification of Alloys
• Solidification begins when the temperature drops below the
liquidus, TL, and is complete when it reaches the solidus, TS
(Fig.10.4).
• Within this temperature range, the alloy is in a mushy or
pasty state with columnar dendrites (close to tree). Note
the liquid metal present between the dendrite arms.
• Dendrites have 3-D arms and branches (secondary arms)
which eventually interlock, as can be seen in Fig. 10.5
• The width of the mushy zone (L & S) is an important factor
during solidification. It is described by the freezing range as:
• Freezing range = TL - TS (10.1)
10.2.2 Solidification of Alloys
• It can be seen in Figure 10.1 that pure metals have no

freezing range, and that the solidification front moves
as a plane front without forming a mushy zone.
• For alloys, a short freezing range generally involves a
temperature difference < 50o C, and a long freezing range
> 110o C.
• Ferrous castings generally have narrow mushy zones,
whereas aluminum and magnesium alloys have wide mushy
zones.
Effects of cooling rates
• Slow cooling rates – long solidification time- result in
coarse dendritic structures with large spacing between the
dendrite arms.
• For higher cooling rates –short solidification times- the
structure becomes finer with smaller dendrite arm spacing.
• For still higher cooling rates, the structures developed are
amorphous.
• As grain size decreases, the strength of the cast alloy
increases, microporosity (interdendritic shrinkage voids) in
the casting decreases, and the tendency for the casting to
crack (hot tearing, see Fig. 10.12) during solidification
decreases.
Effects of cooling rates
• Lack of uniformity in grain size and grain
distribution results in casting with anisotropic
properties.
• A criterion describing the kinetics of the liquid-solid
interface is the ratio:
• G/R = thermal Gradient (K/m) / Rate at which the
liquid-solid interface moves (m/s)
• Dendritic type structures (Figs. 10.6a and b)
typically have a G/R ratio in the range of 105 to
107, whereas ratios of 1010 - 1012 produce a plane-
front, nondendritic liquid-solid interface (Fig. 10.7).
Solidification of Iron and Carbon Steels
Figure 10.5 (a) Solidification patterns for gray cast iron in a 180-mm (7-in.) square casting. Note that after 11
minutes of cooling, dendrites reach each other, but the casting is still mushy throughout. It takes about two
hours for this casting to solidify completely. (b) Solidification of carbon steels in sand and chill (metal) molds.
Note the difference in solidification patterns as the carbon content increases. Source: After H. F. Bishop and
W. S. Pellini
Basic Types of Cast Structures
Figure 10.6 Schematic illustration of three basic types of cast structures: (a) columnar
dendritic; (b) equiaxed dendritic; and (c) equiaxed nondendritic. Source: Courtesy of D. Apelian
Cast Structures
Figure 10.7 Schematic illustration of cast structures in (a) plane front, single
phase, and (b) plane front, two phase. Source: Courtesy of D. Apelian
10.3 Fluid Flow
• Successful casting requires proper design and control
of the solidification process to ensure adequate fluid
flow in the system.
• For example, an important function of the gating system
in sand casting is to trap contaminants (oxides and
other inclusions) in the molten metal by having the
contaminants adhere to the walls of the gating system,
thereby preventing them from reaching the mold cavity.
• Furthermore, a properly designed gating system
avoids or minimizes problems such as premature
cooling, turbulence, and gas entrapment.
10.3 Fluid Flow
Two basic principles of fluid flow are relevant to gating design:

Bernoulli’s theorem, and the law of mass continuity.
• Bernoulli’s theorem:
p v2
h   constant (10.2)
g 2 g
Where
• h = elevation above a certain preference plane (datum)
• p = pressure that elevation
• v = velocity of the liquid at that elevation
•  = density of the fluid (assuming incompressible)
• g = gravitation constant
10.3 Fluid Flow
Conservation of energy requires that (between 2 different
elevations) the following relationship be satisfied as:
When the metal is poured into the pouring cup and overflows down
the sprue, its initial velocity at the top is zero (v1 =0). Hence, Eq.
(10.3) further simplifies to
10.3 Fluid Flow
Mass Continuity:
• For incompressible liquids and in a system with impermeable
walls, the rate of flow is constant. So, considering two
different locations in the system:
Q  A1v1  A2v2
Where
• Q = volume rate of flow m3/s
• A = cross-sectional area of the liquid stream
• v = the average velocity of the liquid at that cross-
sectional location
10.3 Fluid Flow
• The permeability of the walls of the system is important because
otherwise some liquid will permeate through the walls (as occurs in
sand molds) and the flow rate will decrease as the liquid moves
through the system. Coatings often are used to inhibit such behavior
in sand molds.
Sprue design:
• The shape of the sprue by using Eqs. (10.3) and (10.4). Assuming
that the pressure at the top of the sprue is equal to the pressure at the
bottom and that there are no frictional losses, the relationship between
height and cross-sectional area at any point in the sprue is given by
the parabolic relationship:
A1 h2

A2 h1 (10.5)
10.3 Fluid Flow (Sprue Design)
• Where, for example, the subscript 1 denotes the top of the
sprue and 2 denotes the bottom. Cross-sectional area of
the sprue decreases moving downward. Depending on
the assumptions made, expressions other than Eq. (10.5)
can also be obtained.
• If we design a sprue with a constant cross-sectional area
and pour the molten metal into it, regions may develop
where the liquid loses contact with the sprue walls.
• As a result aspiration (a process whereby air is sucked in
or entrapped in the liquid) may take place.
• A common alternative to tapered sprues is to use a
straight-sided sprues with a chocking mechanism at the
bottom. The choke slows flow sufficiently to prevent
aspiration in the sprue.
10.3 Fluid Flow (Sprue Design)
Straight Vs. Tapered Sprue

Choke mechanism
10.3 Fluid Flow
• Modeling: Another application of the above equations (10.3-10.4) is in the
modeling of mold filling.
• Therefore, the velocity of the molten metal leaving the gate is obtained
from Eq. (10.3) as:
(10.5a)
Where
• h = the distance from the sprue base to the liquid metal height
• c = a friction factor (between 0 and 1). For frictionless flow, c = 1.
  c 2gh
10.3 Fluid Flow
• The magnitude of c varies with mold material, runner layout, and channel size
and includes energy losses due to turbulence, as well as viscous effects.
• If the liquid level has reached a height of x, then the gate velocity
  c 2g hx (10.5b)
• The flow rate through the gate will be the product of this velocity and the gate
area according to Eq. (10.4).
• Integrating Eq. (10.4) gives the mean flow rate and dividing the casting volume
by this mean flow rate gives the mold fill time.
• Simulation of mold filling assists designers in the specification of the runner
diameter, as well as the size and the number of sprues and pouring basins.
• To ensure that the runners stay open, the fill time must be a small fraction of
the solidification time, but the velocity should not be so high as to erode the
mold material (called mold wash) or to result in too high of a Reynold number
(see next). Otherwise, turbulence and associated air entrainment results.
• Many computational tools are now available to evaluate gating designs and assist
in the sizing of the components.
10.3 Fluid Flow
Flow Characteristics
• An important consideration of the fluid flow in gating systems is the
presence of turbulence, as opposed to the laminar flow of fluids.
• The Reynolds, Re = inertia forces / viscous forces, is used to quantify
this aspect of fluid flow. Defined as follows:
(10.6)
Re 
 D
Where 
• v = the velocity of the liquid , = the density of the liquid 
• D = the diameter of the channel ,  = the viscosity of the liquid
where TMF = mould filling time, s (sec); V = volume of mould cavity,
cm3; and Q =volume flow rate
10.3 Fluid Flow (Flow Characteristics)
• The higher the Re, the greater the tendency for turbulent flow to
occur.
• In gating systems:
– Laminar flow: 0 ≤ Re ≤ 2000
– Transition flow: 2000 ≤ Re ≤ 20,000

• A mixture of laminar and turbulent flow; considered harmless.
– Turbulent flow: Re > 20,000,

• Result in air entrainment and the formation of dross (the scum that
forms on the surface of molten metal) from the reaction of the liquid
metal with air and other gases.
Example
HEATING THE METAL
(Section 11.4.1) are used to heat the metal to a molten
temperature sufficient for casting. The heat energy required is the
sum of (1) the heat to raise the temperature to the melting point,
(2) the heat of fusion to convert it from solid to liquid, and (3) the
heat to raise the molten metal to the desired temperature for
pouring. This can be expressed:
Example
10.3 Fluid Flow (Flow Characteristics)
• Techniques for minimizing turbulence generally involve avoidance of

sudden changes in flow direction and in the geometry of channel
cross-sections in gating system design.
• Dross or slag can be almost completely eliminated only by vacuum
casting.
• Conventional atmospheric casting reduces dross or slag: a) by
skimming, b) by using properly designed pouring basins and runner
systems, or c) by using filters, which also can eliminate turbulent flow in
the runner system.
• Filters are usually made of ceramics, mica, or fiberglass, and their
proper location and placement are important for effective filtering of
dross and slag.
10.4 Fluidity of Molten Metal
• Fluidity is the capability of the molten metal to fill mold
cavities. Fluidity is influenced by (consists of) two basic
factor:
• Characteristics of the Molten Metal
• Casting Parameters.
1) Characteristics of Molten Metal:
1. Viscosity: As viscosity and its sensitivity to temperature
(viscosity index) increase, fluidity decreases.
2. Surface tension: A high surface tension of the liquid metal
reduces fluidity. Oxide films on the surface of the molten
metal have a significant adverse effect on fluidity.
3. Inclusions: As insoluble particles, inclusions can have a
significant adverse effect on fluidity. For example, liquid
with sand in it has a higher viscosity and hence lower
fluidity than a liquid without sand.
4. Solidification pattern of the alloy: The manner in which

solidification takes place can influence fluidity. Fluidity is
inversely proportional to the freezing range. The shorter the
range (as in pure metals and eutectics), the higher the
fluidity. Conversely, alloys with long freezing ranges have
lower fluidity.
2) Casting Parameters:
1. Mold design. The design and dimensions of sprue, runners
and risers all influence fluidity.
2. Mold material and its surface characteristics. The higher
the thermal conductivity of the mold and the rougher the
surfaces, the lower the fluidity of the molten metal. Although
heating the mold improves fluidity, it slows down
solidification of the metal. Thus casting develops coarse
grains and hence lower strength.
3. Degree of superheat: Defined as the increment of

temperature above the melting point of an alloy, superheat
improves fluidity by delaying solidification. The pouring
temperature often is specified instead of the degree of
superheat.
4. Rate of pouring. The slower the rate of pouring molten
metal into the mold, the lower the fluidity because of the
higher rate of cooling when poured slowly.
5. Heat transfer. This factor directly affects viscosity of the
liquid metal (see below).
6. Castability: is the ease with which a metal can be cast to
obtain a part with good quality. This term includes not only
fluidity but casting practices as well.
10.4.1 Test for fluidity

• Figure 10.9 A test method for fluidity using a spiral mold.
The fluidity index is the length of the solidified metal in the
spiral passage. The greater the length of the solidified
metal, the greater is its fluidity.
Casting Design and Fluidity Test
Figure 10.9 A test method for fluidity using a spiral mold.

The fluidity index is the length of the solidified metal in
the spiral passage. The greater the length of the
solidified metal, the greater is its fluidity.
10.5. Heat Transfer
• The heat transfer during the complete cycle (pouring,

solidification, and cooling) is another important
consideration in metal casting.
• Heat flow is a complex phenomenon and depends on
several factors relating to material cast and the mold and the
process parameters.
• For instance, in casting thin sections, the metal flow rates
must be high enough to avoid premature chilling and
solidification. On the other hand, the flow rate must not be
so high as to cause excessive turbulence – with its
detrimental effects on the casting process.
10.5. Heat Transfer
• A typical temperature distribution at the mold liquid-metal

interface is shown in Fig. 10.10. Heat from the liquid metal is
given off through the mold wall and to the surrounding air.
• The temperature drop at the air-mold and mold-metal
interfaces is caused by the presence of the boundary layers
and imperfect contact at these interfaces.
• The shape of the curve depends on the thermal properties of
the molten metal and the mold.
• Figure 10.10 Temperature distribution at the interface of the
mold wall and the liquid metal during the solidification of
metals in casting
Temperature Distribution during Metal Solidification
Figure 10.10 Temperature

distribution at the interface
of the mold wall and the
liquid metal during the
solidification of metals in
casting
10.5.1 Solidification Time
• During the early stages of solidification, a thin, solidified
skin begins to form at the cool mold walls and, as time
passes, the skin thickness (Fig. 10.11).
• With flat mold walls, this thickness is proportional to the
square root of time.
• The solidification time is a function of the volume of a
casting and its surface area (Chvorinov's rule);
(10.7)
Where C is a constant that reflects: (a) mold material, (b) metal properties
(including latent heat), and (c) temperature.
The parameter n has a value between 1.5 and 2 but usually is taken 2.
What Chvorinov's Rule Tells Us
• Casting with a higher volume-to-surface area ratio

cools and solidifies more slowly than one with a
lower ratio
– To feed molten metal to the main cavity, TTS for
riser must be greater than TTS for main casting
• Since mold constants of riser and casting will be
equal, design the riser to have a larger
volume-to-area ratio so that the main casting
solidifies first
– This minimizes the effects of shrinkage
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
EXAMPLE l0.l Solidification Times for Various Shapes
• Three metal pieces being cast have the same volume, but different
shapes: One is a sphere, one a cube, and the other a cylinder with its
height equal to its diameter Which piece will solidify the fastest, and
which one the slowest? Assume that n = 2.
Solution The volume of the piece is taken as unity. Thus from Eq. (10.7)
Solidification time
The respective Surface areas are as follows:
EXAMPLE l0.l Solidification Times for Various Shapes
• The respective solidification times are therefore
• Hence, the cube-shaped piece will solidify the fastest, and the spherical
piece will solidify the slowest.
10.5.2 Shrinkage:
• Because of their thermal expansion characteristics, metal

usually shrink during solidification and while cooling to
room temperature. Shrinkage, which causes dimensional
changes and (sometimes) cracking, is the result of the
following three sequential events:
a) Contraction of the molten metal as it cools prior to its
solidification.
b) Contraction of the metal during phase change from liquid
to solid (latent heat of fusion).
c) Contraction of the solidified metal as its temperature drops
to ambient temperature, which is the largest potential
amount of shrinkage.
10.5.2 Shrinkage:
• The amount of contraction during the solidification of

various metals is shown in Table 10.1.
• Gray cast iron expands, because graphite has a relatively
high specific volume, and when it precipitates as graphite
flakes during solidification, it causes a net expansion of
the metal.
Shrinkage during Solidification and Cooling
• (0) starting level of molten metal immediately after
pouring; (1) reduction in level caused by liquid
contraction during cooling
Solidification Shrinkage
• Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid phase has

a higher density than the liquid phase
• Thus, solidification causes a reduction in volume per unit
weight of metal
• Exception: cast iron with high C content
– Graphitization during final stages of freezing
causes expansion that counteracts volumetric
decrease associated with phase change
Shrinkage Allowance
• Patternmakers correct for solidification shrinkage and

thermal contraction by making the mold cavity oversized
• Amount by which mold is made larger relative to final
casting size is called pattern shrinkage allowance
• Casting dimensions are expressed linearly, so
allowances are applied accordingly
Directional Solidification
• To minimize effects of shrinkage, it is desirable for

regions of the casting most distant from the liquid metal
supply to freeze first and for solidification to progress
from these regions toward the riser(s)
– Thus, molten metal is continually available from
risers to prevent shrinkage voids
– The term directional solidification describes this
aspect of freezing and methods by which it is
controlled
Achieving Directional Solidification
• Directional solidification is achieved using Chvorinov's

Rule to design the casting, its orientation in the mold,
and the riser system that feeds it
– Locate sections of the casting with lower V/A
ratios away from riser, so freezing occurs first
in these regions, and the liquid metal supply
for the rest of the casting remains open
– Chills - internal or external heat sinks that
cause rapid freezing in certain regions of the
casting
External Chills
• (a) External chill to encourage rapid freezing of the

molten metal in a thin section of the casting; and (b) the
likely result if the external chill were not used
10.6 Defects
• Because different names have been used in the past to
describe the same defect, the International Committee of
Foundry Technical Associations has developed a
standardized nomenclature, consisting of seven basic
categories of casting defects:
1. Metallic projections (extra metal): consisting of fins and
flash (are thin projections at the parting line), or massive
projection such as swells (localized enlargement of
casting) and rough surfaces (due to coarse molding sand).
2. Cavities: consisting of rounded or rough internal or
exposed cavities, including blowholes (internal voids
because of entrapped gases, excessive moisture of sand,
poorly backed cores), pinholes (oxygen or hydrogen
absorbed by molten metal especially hydrogen) , and
shrinkage cavities.
10.6 Defects
4. Discontinuities: such as cracks, cold or hot tearing, and
cold shuts. If the solidifying metal is constrained from
shrinking freely, cracking and tearing can occur. Coarse grain
size and the presence of low melting point segregates along
the grain boundaries (intergranular) increase the tendency for
hot tearing. Cold shut is an interface in a casting that lacks
complete fusion because of the meeting of two streams of
liquid metal from different gates.
5. Defective surface: such as surface folds, laps, scars
(shallow cavity), blister (shallow blow), adhering sand layers,
and oxide scale.
Hot Tears in Castings
Figure 10.12 Examples of hot tears in castings. These defects occur because the casting
cannot shrink freely during cooling, owing to constraints in various portions of the molds and
cores. Exothermic (heat-producing) compounds may be used (as exothermic padding) to control
cooling at critical sections to avoid hot tearing
10.6 Defects
5. Incomplete casting: such as misruns (due to
premature solidification), insufficient volume of the
metal poured, and runout (due to loss of metal from
mold after pouring). Incomplete castings can result
from the molten metal being at too low a temperature
or from pouring the metal too slowly.
6. Incorrect dimensions or shape, due to factors such
as improper shrinkage allowance, pattern-mounting
error, irregular contraction, deformed pattern, or
warped casting.
10.6 Defects
5. Inclusions: which form during melting, solidification,
and molding; generally nonmetallic. They act as
stress raisers and reduce the strength of the casting.
Inclusions may form during melting when the molten
metal reacts with the environment (usually oxygen)
or with crucible or mold material.
Common Casting Defects
Figure 10.13 Examples of common defects in castings. These defects can be

minimized or eliminated by proper design and preparation of molds and control of
pouring procedures. Source: After J. Datsko.
10.6.1 Porosity
• Porosity may be caused by shrinkage or gases or both.
• Thin sections in a casting solidify sooner than thicker
regions; as a result, molten metal flow into the thicker
regions that has not yet solidified. Porous regions may
develop at their centers because of contraction as the
surfaces of the thicker region begin to solidify first.
• Porosity is detrimental to the ductility of a casting and its
surface finish, making it permeable and, thus, affecting the
pressure tightness of a cast pressure vessel.
10.6.1 Porosity (ways to reduce porosity)
Porosity caused by shrinkage can be reduced or eliminated
by various means such as:
a)Adequate liquid metal should be provided to avoid
cavities caused by shrinkage.
b)Internal or external chills, used in sand casting (Fig.
10.14), also are an effective means of reducing shrinkage
porosity.
10.6.1 Porosity (ways to reduce porosity)
3. The function of chills is to increase the rate of
solidification in critical regions. Internal chills are
usually made of the same material as the casting and
are left in the casting. External chills may be made of
the same material or may by iron, copper, or graphite.
4. With alloys, porosity can be reduced or eliminated by
making the temperature gradient steep. For example,
mold materials that have higher thermal conductivity
may be used.
5. Subjecting the casting to hot isostatic pressing is
another method of reducing porosity
Types of Internal and External Chills used in Casting
Figure 10.14 Various types of (a) internal and (b) external chills (dark areas at corners)
used in castings to eliminate porosity caused by shrinkage. Chills are placed in regions
where there is a larger volume of metal, as shown in (c).
Casting of an Aluminum Piston
Figure 10.16 Aluminum piston for an Figure 10.17 Simulation of mold filling
internal combustion engine: (a) as- and solidification. (a) 3.7 seconds after
cast and (b) after machining. start of pour. Note that the mushy zone
has been established before the mold is
filled completely. (b) Using a vent in the
mold for removal of entrapped air, 5
seconds after pour.
Example
• In casting experiments performed using a certain alloy and type of sand
mold, it took 170 sec for a cube-shaped casting to solidify. The cube
was 50 mm on a side. (a) Determine the value of the mold constant in
Chvorinov's rule. (b) If the same alloy and mold type were used, find the
total solidification time for a cylindrical casting in which the diameter =
50 mm and length = 50 mm.
• Solution: (a) Volume V = (50)3 = 125,000 mm3
• Area A = 6 x (50)2 = 15,000 mm2
• (V/A) = 125,000/15,000 = 8.333 mm
• Cm = TTS /(V/A)2 = 170/(8.333)2 = 2.448 s/mm2
• (b) Cylindrical casting with D = 50 mm and L = 50 mm.
• Volume V = D2L/4 = (50)2(50)/4 = 98,175 mm3
• Area A = 2D2/4 + DL = (50)2/2 + (50)(50) = 11,781 mm2
• V/A = 98,175 /11,781 = 8.333
• TTS = 2.448 (8.333)2 = 170 s = 2.833 min

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Chapter 10

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

One of the oldest processes used to shape metals

Important considerations in casting operations:

• After pouring molten metal into a mold, a series

The grain structure of a pure metal cast in a square mold

• As the driving force of the heat transfer is

Figure 10.3 Development of a

• It can be seen in Figure 10.1 that pure metals have no

Two basic principles of fluid flow are relevant to gating design:

Straight Vs. Tapered Sprue

– Transition flow: 2000 ≤ Re ≤ 20,000

– Turbulent flow: Re > 20,000,

• Techniques for minimizing turbulence generally involve avoidance of

4. Solidification pattern of the alloy: The manner in which

3. Degree of superheat: Defined as the increment of

10.4.1 Test for fluidity

Figure 10.9 A test method for fluidity using a spiral mold.

• The heat transfer during the complete cycle (pouring,

• A typical temperature distribution at the mold liquid-metal

Figure 10.10 Temperature

• Casting with a higher volume-to-surface area ratio

The respective Surface areas are as follows:

• The respective solidification times are therefore

• Because of their thermal expansion characteristics, metal

• The amount of contraction during the solidification of

• Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid phase has

• Patternmakers correct for solidification shrinkage and

• To minimize effects of shrinkage, it is desirable for

• Directional solidification is achieved using Chvorinov's

• (a) External chill to encourage rapid freezing of the

Figure 10.13 Examples of common defects in castings. These defects can be

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