Teaching Preparation

English Teaching
Hicham El-Azizi
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Dedication
From the bottom of my heart, I
dedicate this work to the people
who dream to become teachers
of English language and to those
who aspire to be successful in
their teaching careers.
I just love you.
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Outline
1- Learning theories
2- Teaching methods & approaches
3- Lesson plan
4- Learning styles
5- Multiple intelligences
6- Learning levels
7- Gender equality
8- Teaching materials
9- Four skills
10- Aspects of language
11- Classroom management
12- Teacher’s roles
13- Qualities of a good teacher
14- Assessments & tests
15- Error & mistake
16- Teacher’s documents
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Learning theories
A learning theory describes how students receive, process, store, and retain
knowledge during learning.
There are five education learning theories that educators can utilize to help
them enhance their classroom and make it a better learning environment
for all students.
1- Behaviourism
2- Cognitivism
3- Constructivism
4- Social constructivism
5- Humanism
Behaviourism
1- Definition
Behaviourism is the theory that students can learn language through the
process of stimulus and response.
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Here is an example. The teacher asks a question – stimuli – and then the
student gives an answer – response. If the answer is correct, the teacher
praises him – positive feedback. Based on this feedback, whenever someone
else asks the student the same question, the student gives the same answer
– repetition. This happens again, again, and again until it becomes a habit.
If the answer is incorrect, the teacher warns or punishes the student –
negative feedback. Having received such feedback, the student will not give
the same answer the next time – change of behaviour. Instead, he will try
to find the right answer to avoid punishment.
2- History of Behaviourism
John B. Watson is known as the father of behaviourism within
psychology. John B. Watson(1878–1958) was an influential American
psychologist whose most famous work occurred during the early 20th
century at Johns Hopkins University.
Watson's behaviourist theory focused not on the internal emotional and
psychological conditions of people, but rather on their external and
outward behaviours. He believed that a person's physical response provided
the only insight into internal actions.
3- The role of the teacher
Behaviourists believe that if the teacher provides positive reinforcement, or
rewards, whenever students perform a desired behaviour, they will learn to
perform on their own. The same thing applies to punishments. The teacher
can take away some privileges from students who misbehave.
4- The role of the student
From a behaviourist perspective, the role of the learner is to be acted upon
by the teacher-controlled environment. The teacher’s role is to manipulate
the environment to shape behaviour. Thus the student is not an agent in
the learning process, but rather an animal that instinctively reacts to the
environment.
5- Application of Behaviourism in classroom
The teacher can apply the behaviourist theory in his classroom in different
ways. This may include:
Drills Students learn new things, such as vocabulary, by means of repeated
exercises.
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Question and answer The teacher can use a question as a stimulus and
answer as a response, gradually getting harder with questions to help
students.
Positive reinforcement Positive reinforcement is a type of behaviour
management that focuses on rewarding what is done well by students. You
might give verbal praise to a student who is doing the process correctly to
reinforce the behaviour you want to see.
6- Positives of Behaviourism
One of the advantages of Behaviourism is the fact that when the teacher
rewards positive behaviour, other students are more likely to copy that
behaviour to earn the reward. The rewarded student is also more likely to
repeat that behaviour because of the positive feedback.
7- Negatives of Behaviourism
It only focuses on the external behaviour of human and thus ignores the
mental processes that are involved in learning.
This theory also has been criticised for the use of animals in applying the
laws of learning, since humans are more complex than animals.
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Cognitivism
1- Definition
Cognitivism is a learning theory that focuses on the processes involved in
learning rather than the observed behaviour. As opposed to Behaviourists,
cognitivists do not require an outward exhibition of learning, but focus
more on the internal processes and connections that take place during
learning.
2- History of Cognitivism
Cognitive theory is a learning theory of psychology that attempts to explain
human behaviour by understanding the thinking process. It is emphasized
in the conscious thought. The theory was born in the 1950s. The main goal
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of its application is to create an environment in which the students can be
active in the teaching and learning process.
In a classroom where cognitivist strategies are used, the teacher fulfils a
pivotal role. He bridges the gap between the student and the content and
skill to be learned.
The learner according to cognitivists is active participants in the learning
process. He uses various strategies to process and construct his personal
understanding of the content to which they are exposed.
5- Application of Cognitivism in classroom
Since the Cognitivism focuses largely on thinking and not just on
memorizing, here are some strategies you can use to apply this theory in
classroom.
• Ask students to reflect on their experience.
• Help students find new solutions to problems.
• Encourage discussion about what is being taught.
• Help students explore and understand how ideas are connected.
• Ask students to justify and explain their thinking.
• Use visualization to improve students understanding and recall.
6- Positives of Cognitivism
One of the strong points of cognitive learning is that it helps students learn
effectively and ensures that the concepts learned in class are understood,
not just memorized.
7- Negatives of Cognitivism
The main disadvantage of Cognitivism is that it refers to cognitive
processes, thinking, that we can’t directly observe. It heavily relies on
inference.
Another weakness of the cognitive approach is that it ignores other factors
towards that have been shown to affect behaviour.
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Constructivism
1- Definition
Constructivism is the theory that equates learning with creating meaning
from experience. Learners do not transfer knowledge from their external
world into their memories; rather they build personal interpretations of the
world based of individual experiences.
2- History of Constructivism
Constructivism can be traced back to educational psychology in the work
of Jean Piaget (1896–1980). The concept of constructivism has influenced a
number of disciplines, including psychology, sociology, education and
the history of science.
Jean Piaget is known as one of the first theorists in constructivism. His
theories indicate that humans create knowledge through the interaction
between their experiences and ideas.
3- Roles of the teacher
In constructivist classroom the teacher’s role is to prompt and facilitate
discussion.
The teacher's main focus should be also on guiding students by asking
questions. This will lead them to develop their own conclusions on the
subject.
4- Roles of the student
Students must learn to combine new information with their current
knowledge. They should reflect on their own experiences and establish how
they have been affected by them. They also should be in control of what
and how they learn.
5- Application of Constructivism in classroom
The constructivist teacher provides tools such as problem-solving and
inquiry-based learning activities with which students formulate and test
their ideas, draw conclusions and inferences, and pool and convey their
knowledge in a collaborative learning environment.
6- Negatives of Constructivism
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One of the biggest disadvantages of applying constructivism in education is
that it is difficult to break the cycle of those who have been taught in
classroom where they were expected to solely absorb information.
7- Positives of Constructivism
Constructivism is a learning theory that emphasizes student agency
through self-guided exploration, reflection, and evaluation. It encourages
students to reflect, evaluate their work, and identify intermediary skills to
acquire based on their needs.
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Social Constructivism
1- Definition
Social constructivism is a sociological theory of knowledge according to
which human development is socially situated and knowledge is
constructed through interaction with others.
2- The difference between Constructivism & Social Constructivism
Constructivists focus on what's happening within the minds or brains of
individuals. Social Constructivists on what is happening between people as
they join together to create realities.
3- History
Social constructivism was developed by post-revolutionary Soviet
psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky was a cognitivist, but rejected the
assumption made by cognitivists such as Piaget and Perry that it was
possible to separate learning from its social context.
Lev Vygotsky was a seminal Russian psychologist who is best known for his
sociocultural theory. He believed that social interaction plays a critical role
in children's learning. Imitation, guided learning, and collaborative learning
all play a critical part in his theory.
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The role of the teacher in the social constructivist classroom is to help
students to build their knowledge and to control the existence of students
during the learning process in the classroom. The idea of the limited role of
the teacher is that this encourages students to engage in collaborative
learning.
Students in the classroom are responsible for the defence, proof,
justification, and communication of their ideas to the community. These
ideas can only be accepted as truth if they can make sense to the
community. If they do, they become shared knowledge.
6- Application of social constructivism in classroom
Social constructivism teaches that all knowledge develops as a result
of social interaction and language use, and is therefore a shared, rather
than an individual, experience. Thus, teachers should allow their students to
come up with their own questions, make their own theories, and test them
for viability.
7- Positives of social constructivism
Social constructivism promotes social and communication skills by creating
a classroom environment that emphasizes collaboration and exchange of
ideas. Students must learn how to articulate their ideas clearly as well as to
collaborate on tasks effectively by sharing in group projects.
8- Negatives of social constructivism
The criticism of Vygotsky's theory is that it does not account for the slower
rate of cognitive growth in some children. Both genetics and passive
experience are thought to play some role as well.
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Humanism
1- Definition
The humanistic theory approach engages social skills, feelings, intellect,
artistic skills, practical skills, and more as part of their education. Self-
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esteem, goals, and full autonomy are key learning elements in the
humanistic learning theory.
2- History
The humanistic learning theory was developed by Abraham Maslow, Carl
Rogers, and James F. T. Bugental in the early 1900's. Humanism was a
response to the common educational theories at the time, which were
behaviourism and psychoanalysis.
In this theory, Abraham Maslow suggested that before individuals meet
their full potential, they need to satisfy a series of needs.
However, Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs can provide teachers a reminder
and framework that our students are less likely to perform at their full
potential if their basic needs are unmet.
Humanistic teachers believe that knowledge and feelings go hand-in-hand
in the learning process. Cognitive and affective learning are both important
to humanistic learning. Lessons and activities should focus on the whole
student and their intellect and feelings, not one or the other.
Students are responsible for learning choices, so helping them understand
the best ways to learn is key to their success. Provide motivation for
classroom tasks. Humanistic learning focuses on engagement, so teachers
need to provide motivation and exciting activities to help students feel
engaged about learning.
5- Application of humanism in classroom
The humanistic learning theory developed further and harnesses the idea
that if students are upset, sad, or distressed, they're less likely to be able to
focus on learning. This encourages teachers to create
classroom environment that helps students feel comfortable and safe so
they can focus on their learning.
6- Positives of humanism in teaching
It considers emotional states and how they impact learning, unlike many
other theories.
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Teaching Methods & Approaches
A teaching method comprises the principles and methods used

by teachers to enable student learning. These strategies are determined
partly on subject matter to be taught and partly by the nature of the
learner.
There are many teaching method, but we will present only the most
common ones:
1- Grammar-Translation Method
2- The Direct Method
3- The Audio-lingual Method
4- The Total Physical Response
5- The Silent Way
6- Suggestopedia
7- Community Language Teaching Methods
Grammar-Translation Method
1- Definition
GTM is a traditional way of teaching a foreign language, in which the study
of grammar is very important and very little teaching is in the foreign
language.
2- History
Proposed by Prof. Karl Plotz (1819-1881), GTM is one of the oldest teaching
methods in foreign language teaching. The strategies were based on
learning the strict rules of grammar of the target language, to compare the
syntax of the native and target language, and to extract specific sentences
or paragraphs to be translated back and forth.
3- Goals
The primary objective or goal of this method is to make students able to
read classical literature or literary texts for intellectual development.
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The purpose of this method is also to develop students' reading, writing
and translation skills through rote learning of vocabulary lists and grammar
rules.
The teacher just asks and gives instructions to students to state the
grammar rule.
The primary goal of teacher who uses this method is to make students able
to read literature in target language.
The teacher also plays a role of initiator of interaction in the language
classroom.
The role of the student is to focus on exercises translating sentences or
texts from mother tongue to the target language and vice versa.
6- Application in classroom
In grammar-translation classes, students learn grammatical rules and then
apply those rules by translating sentences between the target language and
the native language. Advanced students may be required to translate whole
texts word-for-word. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of
isolated words.
7- The role of the native language
Grammar–translation classes are usually conducted in the students' native
language. Grammatical rules are learned
deductively; students learn grammar rules by rote, and then practice the
rules by doing grammar drills and translating sentences to and from the
target language.
8- What skills are emphasized?
In Grammar-Translation Method, vocabulary and grammar are emphasized.
Reading and writing are the primary skills that the students work on.
9- Error correction
• The teacher corrects the errors strictly.
• Errors are not tolerated.
• Accuracy is emphasised strictly.
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• Accuracy means grammatical correctness.
10- Evaluation
Almost all the evaluations are accomplished through written tests. The
teacher corrects students' errors strictly because errors are not tolerated.
This method is not considered as a humanistic approach.
11- Positives of GTM
Translation from one language to another plays a certain part in language
learning. In the Grammar-Translation Method, comparison between two
languages helps students to have a better understanding of the meaning of
abstract words and complicated sentences.
12- Negatives of GTM
• No oral work takes place in the class room due to this method.
• The main focus remains only on the mother-tongue and the target
language remains ignored.
• No speaking in the target language is possible.
• The students don't develop the power of thinking in the target
language.
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The Direct Method
1- Definition
The direct method is way of teaching a foreign language using only that
language and not treating the study of grammar as the most important
thing.
2- History
The Direct Method, also called Natural Method, was established in
Germany and France around 1900. It appeared as an answer to the
shortcomings of the Grammar Translation Method. It is
a method for teaching foreign languages that uses the target language,
discarding any use of mother tongue in the classroom.
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3- Goal
The direct method was developed in response to the grammar
translation method, which involved very little spoken communication and
listening comprehension. The primary objective of the direct method is
to teach L2 learners how to use language for communication purposes.
In this method, the role of the teacher is to direct the class activities,
encourage students to participate in class by asking them questions
constantly, and corrects their mistakes immediately. Something really
important in this role is that students and teachers are partners in the
learning process.
In direct method, the students observe the target language used by the
teacher in teaching and they try to get the meaning based on the
demonstration given and then they will practice the target language they
observed and they use it to communicate with their friends and teacher in
classroom.
6- Application of the method
The direct method focuses on full immersion in the classroom environment
where not one word of the students' native language is spoken. The focus
is not on grammar but instead on learning through listening and speaking.
7- Students’ feelings
There is no principles of this method that relate to this area.
8- What skills are emphasized?
In the direct method the main emphasis is on listening and oral
communication skills. The approach to grammar teaching is deductive in
GTM and inductive in DM. In the former, the role of the teacher is to
translate words and texts for students, and students need to be accurate in
translating into another language.
9- Evaluation & assessment
The teacher assesses his students through oral interviews and writing
paragraphs.
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10- Error correction
• The teacher provides self-correction of the students if possible in that
case.
• The teacher is generally aware of the students difficulties and errors
are therefore corrected immediately.
11- Positives
Direct Instruction allows students to progress at their own natural pace. As
the year progresses the instructor begins to get a feel for each individual
student’s strengths and weaknesses and is able to help the students with
their particular challenges.
12- Negatives
Because direct instruction is often associated with traditional lecture-style
teaching to classrooms full of passive students obediently sitting in desks
and taking notes, it may be considered outdated, pedantic, or insufficiently
considerate of student learning needs by some educators and reformers.
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The Audio-lingual Method
1- Definition
ALM is a method of language teaching that teaches speaking and listening
rather than reading or writing.
2- History
The Audio-Lingual method of teaching English as a second language had
its origins during World War II when it became known as the Army
method. The Audio-Lingual method is based on the theory that language
learning is a question of habit formation. It has its origins in Skinner s
principles of behaviour theory.
3- Goal
The goal of the Audio-Lingual method is, via teaching vocabulary and
grammatical patterns through dialogues, to enable students to respond
quickly and accurately in spoken language.
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In the Audio-lingual Method the teacher has an active role as he is the sole
authority to control and direct the whole learning programme. He monitors
and corrects the students' performance. He is also responsible for providing
the students with a good model for imitation.
In the Audio-lingual method the students play a passive role as they don't
have any control over the content or the method of learning.
Audio Lingual Method uses repetition, replacement, and question answer to
drill speaking skill especially student's vocabulary. The teacher is easier to
control the student's behaviour and student's vocabulary. After that, the
teacher can know the memorization of the students' vocabulary.
7- Students' feelings
They are not dealt with.
8- What skills are emphasised?
The skills of writing and reading are not neglected, but the focus
throughout remains on listening and speaking. Dialogue is the main feature
of the audio-lingual syllabus. Dialogues are the chief means of presenting
language items.
Like the direct method, the audio-lingual method advised that students
should be taught language directly, without using the students' native
language to explain new words or grammar in target language. The idea is
for the students to practice the particular construct until they can use it
spontaneously.
10- Evaluation & assessment
Students are not going to memorize grammar rules directly. They will learn
through examples. Teachers will evaluate if the examples they provide are
correct. Teachers will evaluate students pronunciations at the moment
students repeat the words.
11- Treatment of errors
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The teacher corrects the errors immediately.
12- Positives of the method
There are many advantages of this method. This method helps the students
learn and develop listening and speaking skills quite efficiently. Visual aids
help in the enrichment of vocabulary. This method is very easy and
convenient to teach large group of students.
13- Negatives of the method
This method is based on mechanical learning and there is no room for
error.
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The Total Physical Response
1- Definition
TPR is a method of teaching a language in which students learn words and
phrases by doing activities which are connected with what they are
learning.
2- History
James Asher developed the total physical response (TPR) method as a result
of his observation of the language development of young children. Asher
saw that most of the interactions that young children experience with
parents or other adults combine both verbal and physical aspects.
3- Goal
The purpose of the direct method is to create a brain link between speech
and action to boost language and vocabulary learning.
The teacher plays an active and direct role in Total Physical Response. "The
instructor is the director of a stage play in which the students are the
actors". It is the teacher who decides what to teach, who models and
presents the new materials, and who selects supporting materials for
classroom use.
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Learners' role in TPR is to listen and perform what the teacher says, they
monitor and evaluate their own progress. They are encouraged to speak
when they feel ready to speak. This is when a sufficient basis in language
has been internalized (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Total Physical Response (TPR) is a method of teaching language or
vocabulary concepts by using physical movement to react to verbal input.
The process mimics the way that infants learn their first language, and it
reduces student inhibitions and lowers stress.
7- Students’ feelings
Lowering the student's anxiety and stress reduction: This is achieved
through the following: (1) students are not required to produce in the new
language before they feel ready, (2) the teacher's commands are often zany
and humorous in order to make language learning as enjoyable as possible.
8- Emphasised skills
Reading and writing activities may also be employed to further consolidate
structures and vocabulary, and as follow-ups to oral imperative drills.
Learners in Total Physical Response have the primary roles of listener and
performer. They listen attentively and respond physically to commands
given by the teacher.
The native language is used only for introducing the TOR.
There is little error correction in TPR. Asher advises teachers to
treat learners' mistakes the same way a parent would treat their
children's. Errors made by beginning-level students are usually overlooked,
but as students become more advanced teachers may correct more of
their errors.
11- Positives of the method
Total Physical Response (TPR) has many benefits. These include helping
learners understand target languages and aid in long-term retention in a
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stress-free approach. This method can be used to teach vocabulary
connected to actions, classroom directions, and storytelling.
12- Negatives of the method
• It is not a very creative method. Students are not given the
opportunity to express their own views and thoughts in a creative
way.
• It is easy to overuse TPR.
• It is limited, since everything cannot be explained with this
method. It must be combined with other approaches.
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The Silent Way
1- Definition
The Silent Way is a method of teaching a foreign language in which the
teacher does not speak much, but uses movement, pictures and wooden
rods to explain meaning
2- History
The Silent Way was founded in the early 1970s by the Egyptian
mathematician and educator Caleb Gattegno. It is based on the idea that
language learning can be enhanced in three main ways: discovery rather
than teaching; problem-solving in the target language; the use of physical
tools.
3- Goals
The general goal of the Silent Way is to help beginning-level students gain
basic fluency in the target language, with the ultimate aim being near-
native language proficiency and good pronunciation.
Gattegno anticipates that using the Silent Way would require most
teachers to change their perception of their role. More generally, the
teacher is responsible for creating an environment that encourages student
risk taking and that facilitates learning.
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The Silent Way student is expected to become "independent, autonomous
and responsible" (Gattegno 1976) - in other words, a good problem solver
in language. Gattegno takes an openly sceptical view of the role of linguistic
theory in language teaching methodology.
Silence can be used to help students correct their own errors. Teachers can
remain silent when a student makes a mistake to give them time to self-
correct; they can also help students with their pronunciation by mouthing
words without vocalizing, and by using certain hand gestures.
7- Student’s feelings
The are no principles concerning this area.
8- Skills
This method focuses most on listening and speaking.
Native language's sound structure is used in order to provide new sounds
for target language.
Silence can be used to help students correct their own errors. Teachers can
remain silent when a student makes a mistake to give them time to self-
correct; they can also help students with their pronunciation by mouthing
words without vocalizing, and by using certain hand gestures.
11- Evaluation and assessment
Evaluation in the Silent Way is carried out primarily by observation.
Teachers may never give a formal test, but they constantly assess students
by observing their actions.
12- Positives
The Silent Way shares a great deal with other learning theories and
educational philosophies. Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or
creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned. Learning
is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects.
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13- Negatives
The Silent Way is often criticized of being a harsh method. The learner
works in isolation and communication is lacking badly in a Silent Way
classroom. With minimum help on the part of the teacher, the Silent Way
method may put the learning itself at stake.
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Suggestopedia
1- Definition
Suggestopedia is a method of teaching a foreign language in which
students learn quickly by being made to feel relaxed, interested and
positive.
2- History
Suggestopedia is a teaching method, developed by the Bulgarian scholar
Professor Georgi Lozanov – a physician, psychiatrist and brain physiologist.
The term was coined and published for the first time in Bulgarian in 1965
and in English in 1967.
3- Goals
The goal of Suggestopedia is to enable the students to learn a foreign
language at an accelerated pace for everyday communication by tapping
mental powers and overcoming psychological barriers.
4- The role of the teacher and student
This method enables students to learn the language in the nice, calm
environment in the classroom during the lessons. Thus, role of the
teacher is to encourage students to speak even with their mistakes. He may
correct the errors but at the end of the certain task.
His role is to encourage students to speak even with their mistakes. He
may correct the errors but at the end of the certain task. He can't disturb
the students' speech or disturb while they are speaking. It is also important
to mention that homework is not very important unlike the other methods.
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Suggestopedia encourages the students to apply language more
independently, takes more personal responsibility for their own learning
and get more confidence. Peripheral information can also help encourage
students to be more experimental, and look to sources other than the
teacher for language input.
6- Student’s feelings
This method emphasizes the power of students' feelings and puts the main
focus on them.
7- Skills
Learning vocabulary and grammar is the main goal in the language.
Reading and writing are the primary skills compared to listening and
speaking. Pronunciation is considered a little.
All four skills are emphasized but oral works come first.
In this method, students are tolerated to make mistakes.
9- Positives
This method enables students to learn the language in the nice, calm
environment in the classroom during the lessons. The teacher’s role is to
encourage students to speak even with their mistakes. He may correct the
errors but at the end of the certain task.
10- Negatives
Suggestopedia also has limitation since there is no single teaching method
that is categorized as the best based on some consideration such as: the
curriculum, students motivation, financial limitation, number of students,
etc.
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Community Language Learning Method
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1- Definition
Community language learning is a language-teaching method in which
students work together to develop what aspects of a language they would
like to learn. It is based on the Counselling-approach in which the teacher
acts as a counsellor and a paraphraser, while the learner is seen as a client
and collaborator.
2- History
Community Language Learning(CLL) is a teaching method developed in the
1970s in the USA by Jesuit priest, psychologist and educator Charles
Curran. The teacher plays the part of "counsellor", while the learners are
encouraged to work together, interacting and helping each other personally
in a supportive community.
3- Goal
In Community Language Learning, the aim is to involve the learner’s whole
personality. Affective and intellectual well-being are given equal weight.
CLL draws its insights and rationale from counselling techniques.
A learner whispers, in his or her native language, what he or she wants to
say to the teacher.
4- Teacher and student’s roles
Communicative Language Teaching(CLT) is a learner-centred approach for
language teaching and learning. Again, L2 learners are supposed to learn
the language by using it for different tasks, and taking part in pair work,
group work, role play, and discussion inside classrooms.
5- Application of CLL
Translation: learners form a small circle. A learner whispers a message or
meaning he wants to express. The teacher translates or interprets it into
the target language and then the learner repeats the teacher’s translation.
Group work: learners may engage in various group tasks, such as a small
group discussion of a topic, preparing a conversation, preparing a summary
of a topic for presentation to another group, preparing a story that will be
presented to the teacher and the rest of the class.
Recording: students record conversations in the target language.
6- Skills emphasised
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Although each course is unique and student-dictated, there are certain
criteria that should be applied to all CLL classrooms, namely a focus on
fluency in the early stages, an undercurrent of accuracy throughout the
course and learner empowerment as the main focus.
7- Native language
This area of method is already covered in the application of the method in
classroom.
• Praise them, and be genuine about it.
• Make sure your corrections are educational.
• Give understandable feedback.
• Give them a model.
• It's all about the process, NOT natural ability.
• Think about timing.
• Consider 'sandwiching' corrections.
9- Evaluation and assessment
• No particular mode of evaluation
• A test at the end of a course
• Writing a paragraph or interview
• Encouraging students to self-evaluate
10- Positives
The CLL emphasizes the sense of community in the learning group,
encourages interaction as a vehicle for learning, and considers as a priority
the students' feelings and the recognition of struggles in language
acquisition.
11- Negatives
• The counsellor/teacher can become too non directive. Students often
need directions .
• The method relies completely on inductive learning. It is worthwhile
noting that deductive learning is also a viable strategy of learning.
•
• Translation is an intricate and difficult task.
Other methods & approaches
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Competency Based Language Teaching
In competency-based language teaching (CBLT), students must

demonstrate that they are able to use language to complete a real-world
task. The shift in focus from knowing about to doing with
the language requires important changes from traditional classrooms if
CBLT is to be successful.
Use the link below to know more about CBLT. The link will lead you to
download a pdf made by the professor Issam Mrah.
Click here to read more about this approach.
Standards-Based Approach
In education, the term standards-based refers to systems of instruction,

assessment, grading, and academic reporting that are based on students
demonstrating understanding or mastery of the knowledge and skills they
are expected to learn as they progress through their education.
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Click here to read more about Standards-Based Approach.
Lesson Plan
What is lesson plan?

A lesson plan is a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction
or "learning trajectory" for a lesson. A daily lesson plan is developed by a
teacher to guide class learning. Details will vary depending on the
preference of the teacher, subject being covered, and the needs of the
students.
What are the most important elements of a good lesson plan?
Objectives:
Learning objectives should be brief, clear, specific statements of what
learners will be able to do at the end of a lesson as a result of the activities,
teaching and learning that has taken place. They help you and your
students evaluate your progress and encourage them take responsibility for
their learning.
Instructional materials:
Instructional materials are the tools used in educational lessons, which
include active learning and assessment. Basically, any resource a teacher
uses to help him teach his students is an instructional material.
Stages:
Stages are the steps or phases followed by the teacher to deliver his lesson.
Mainly, there are three stages. Each stage has some operations of teaching
which create the situation for learning.
Procedures:
The procedure is the body of your lesson plan, the ways in which you will
share information with students and the methods you will use to help them
assume a measure of mastery of that material.
Strategies:
A teaching strategy is the method you use to convey information to your
students. There may be a particular strategy that works well with your
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group of students one year and will not work with your students the next
year. Because of this, it is important to have lots of teaching strategies in
your toolbox.
Mode of work & interaction:
Using the right interaction pattern is a fundamental factor in the success of
any activity and the achievement of aims. The class are doing a dictation
activity. The interaction pattern is teacher to whole group – Teacher &
students. Other patterns include pair work – student & student, and
group work – students & students.
Time: The instructor must think through how much time each facet or
stage of the lesson will take with the goal of fitting the lesson objectives
with the allotted time.
Note that before making any lesson plan, the teacher should take into
consideration the following things into consideration:
a- Learning styles
b- Multiple intelligences
c- Learning levels
d- Gender equality
e- Teaching materials available
We will talk about these important things separately in the next parts of
this booklet.
Below is an example of lesson plan.
Click here to see an example of lesson plan.
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Learning Styles
Technically, an individual's learning style refers to the preferential way in

which the student absorbs, processes, comprehends and retains
information. Individual learning styles depend on cognitive, emotional and
environmental factors, as well as one's prior experience.
Mainly, there are three learning styles:
11- Visual learning
12- Auditory learning
13- Kinaesthetic learning
Visual learning
Visual learners learn through seeing.

• They like written instructions and prefer to take detailed notes as
they listen to lectures.
• Visual learners remember visual details with ease & prefer to see
what they are learning.
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• They learn best with visual materials such as pictures, charts, videos,
illustrated textbooks, and handouts.
• They like to use colourful highlighters to make notes & texts.
Auditory learning
Auditory learners learn through listening and speaking.

• They like to read aloud and often like to talk to themselves or create
musical jingles to help them learn new material.
• They remember by talking out loud and they like to have things
explained orally rather than written instructions.
Kinaesthetic learning
Kinaesthetic learners learn through moving, doing, and touching.

• They need to take frequent study breaks.
• They like to chew gum or to snack while they study.
• They like to stand rather than to sit when learning something new.
• They are explorers at heart & like to learn through active
participation in what they are learning.
• Kinaesthetic learners like to move around when talking.
Note again that the teacher should include different activities in his
classroom so that all students with different learning styles can benefit well
from his teaching process.
Leave a comment on Learning Styles
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Multiple Intelligences
The theory of multiple intelligences proposes the differentiation of human

intelligence into specific “modalities of intelligence”, rather than defining
intelligence as a single, general ability. This theory was developed by
Howard Gardner.
There are eight multiple Intelligences:
Linguistic intelligence
- Ability to use language effectively, either in oral or written
forms.
Musical Intelligence
- Ability to perceive, identify, transform and express musical
forms.
Logical-Mathematical intelligence
- Ability to use numbers effectively and analyse problems
logically.
Spatial intelligence
- Ability to imagine drawings in two or three dimensions and to
understand space.
Body-Kinaesthetic intelligence
- Ability to express ideas, handle tools, or perform physical
exercises with the body.
Interpersonal intelligence
- Ability to interpret the mental state (feelings & motivations) of
others.
Intrapersonal intelligence
- Ability to understand oneself.
Naturalistic intelligence
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- Ability to identify, classify, and manipulate elements in the
environment.
Knowing how to target the various intelligence of students can help
teachers to plan engaging and effective lessons.
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Learning Levels
We talk about learning levels in teaching with reference to the of Bloom’s

Taxonomy theory.
This theory suggests that not all the student have the same level of
learning or skills. If fact, there are six levels of cognitive learning according
to the revised version of Bloom's Taxonomy. Each level is conceptually
different. The six levels are remembering, understanding, applying,
analysing, evaluating, and creating.
Based on this statement, Bloom's taxonomy can be an important tool in
differentiating between students who have widely varying comprehension
and skill levels. Teachers can do an initial assessment to see where students
fall on this taxonomy. Then, they can have students work to master the
level they are already at, and the students can proceed to higher levels
when they have mastered that particular aspect of the taxonomy. In this
way, the same basic content can be taught, but instruction can be more
individualized based on each of their varying skill levels.
For example, a literature teacher could have all of the students in a
classroom read the same story. He or she could then tailor the questions to
suit a particular student's ability using the verbs supplied by the taxonomy
scale. A student who registers low on the scale could be asked to describe
or explain something, while a student whose skill level is higher could be
asked to compare and contrast something. Ideally, the teacher should
include questions that work on the student's current level of understanding
and also incorporate questions that are on the next level up in the
taxonomy. This prevents students from feeling discouraged and giving up.
It also bolsters confidence and challenges students in a way that is not
overwhelming.
Again, the teacher should include these things in the lesson plan before the
teaching process.
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Gender equality in classroom
Gender bias in the classroom is a tendency to prefer one gender over

another. This tendency can happen consciously or unconsciously by the
teacher, in particular. It always enforces the stereotypes carried into the
classroom dynamics, especially by students, and it often makes it difficult
for girls to benefit well from the teaching and learning processes. Thus, the
teacher needs to create an equal and equitable environment for both girls
and boys. There are many strategies to achieve this goal. Three of them will
be discussed below.
First, teaching and learning materials should be reviewed and made
sure to be gender responsive. For example, the teacher should delete any
form of gender bias from the textbook. This includes photographs, texts,
and language use that may disparage the importance of females. If possible,
the teacher can even change the textbook with another material like a
worksheet.
Second, the language used by the teacher must be gender balanced.
Indeed, many teachers use words and expressions that may reveal the belief
that girls are not as important as boys and that they do not need to
perform as well as boys. Therefore, it is very necessary for the teacher to
carefully choose his/her words when he/she is talking to his/her students so
that he/she could establish a warm relationship with his/her learners.
Third, the classroom interaction also needs to be gender equivalent.
The teacher, therefore, has to create and enforce a good learning
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environment through classroom interaction that is gender-responsive and
respectful. This could happen when the teacher gives equal opportunities
for both girls and boys to participate. Moreover, the teacher should always
be ready to prevent any kind of bullying from other students when their
classmate makes a mistake or error.
In a few words, the methods and strategies mentioned above are just a few
ones and there are many others that the teacher can adapt to create a good
atmosphere for his students during his/her teaching process. These other
strategies are classroom setups, management of sexual maturation,
addressing sexual harassment, and monitoring and evaluation.
Don’t forget to take gender issues into account when making a lesson plan.
Leave a comment on Gender Equality 💬
36
Teaching Materials
Instructional materials are the tools used in educational lessons, which

include active learning and assessment. Any resource a teacher uses to help
him teach his students is instructional material.
Using different teaching materials has many advantages:
First, learning materials are important because they can significantly
increase student achievement by supporting student learning. For example,
a worksheet may provide a student with important opportunities to
practice a new skill gained in class. This process aids in the learning
process by allowing the student to explore the knowledge independently as
well as providing repetition. Learning materials, regardless of what kind, all
have some function in student learning.
Second, learning materials can also add important structure to lesson
planning and the delivery of instruction. Particularly in lower grades,
learning materials act as a guide for both the teacher and student. They
can provide a valuable routine. For instance, if you are a language arts
teacher and you teach new vocabulary words every Tuesday, knowing that
you have a vocabulary game to provide the students with practice
regarding the new words will both take pressure off of you and provide
important practice (and fun) for your students.
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Third, in addition to supporting learning more generally, learning materials
can assist teachers in an important professional duty: the differentiation of
instruction. Differentiation of instruction is the tailoring of lessons and
instruction to the different learning styles and capacities within your
classroom. Learning materials such as worksheets, group activity
instructions, games, or homework assignments all allow you to modify
assignments to best activate each individual student's learning style.
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Teaching the four skills
There are four skills: Listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

They are divided into two types: receptive & productive skills. Each skill has
its subskills.
We can teach the four skills using different models/ techniques, but the
most preferable one by teachers is PWP (Pre, While, Post). Therefore, we
shall follow this model concerning presenting the activities.
Listening Skill
What is listening skill?

Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the
communication process. Listening is key to all communication success.
Without the ability to listen effectively, messages are easily misunderstood.
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What are the listening sub-skills?
1- Listening for gist
2- Listening for specific information
3- Listening in detail
Listening for gist: It is extensive listening for skimming. This happens when
we listen to get a general idea.
Listening for specific information: This happens when we listen to
something because we want to discover one particular piece of information.
For example, we listen to the weather report to only discover the weather
in our city.
Listening in detail: It is intensive listening for scanning. This is when we
listen closely, paying attention to all the words and trying to understand as
much information as possible.
How to teach listening?
There are three stages the teacher should follow to teach listening:
1- Pre-listening
2- While-listening
3- Post-listening
Pre-listening: As a teacher, your purpose in this stage is to help students
for what they are going to hear, which will give them a greater chance of
success in a task upcoming.
What are the pre-listening activities?
f- Pre-teaching vocabulary
g- Predicting content
h- Generating interest in the topic
Pre-teaching vocabulary: In this activity, the teacher introduces students to
new vocabulary words before listening to an audiotape.
Predicting content: This is an activity in which learners use their own
experiences to anticipate what they are about to listen to. The teacher
might introduce a picture to help students predict the topic.
Generating interest in the topic: Your role here is to make your students
interested and excited about the topic.
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While-listening: Students interact with the text (audiotape) to improve
their listening skill.
What are the while-listening activities?
a- Listening for gist
b- Listening specific information
c- Listening in detail
d- Inferring
e- Note-taking
f- Dictation
Listening for gist: students listen to get the general meaning of the
audiotape.
Listening for specific information: students listen to, get one particular idea.
Listening in detail: students try to pick up works, intonation, and other
clues to guess the meaning.
Inferring: inferring is an activity in which students reach an opinion based
on what has been said in the audiotape.
Note-taking: students take notes of the most important things.
Dictation: students write what they hear.
Post-listening: a post-listening activity represents a follow up to the
listening activity and aims to utilize the knowledge gained from listening to
the development of other skills such as speaking and writing.
What are the post-listening activities?
a- Summarizing
b- Discussions
c- Information exchange
d- Problem-solving
Summarizing: the best way to check to understand is to ask students
summarize the information they heard. This can be done orally or in
writing.
Discussions: the topic for discussion should be taken from the listening task
that they previously did and must be interesting enough to inspire
comments and debates.
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Information exchange: students share the information and maWke sure
they understand the message from the text.
Problem-solving: students take what they already know to discover what
they don't know.
Leave a comment on Teaching Listening 💬
Speaking Skill
What is a speaking skill?

Speaking skill is the ability to communicate effectively. This skill allows us
to convey our message in a passionate, thoughtful and convincing manner.
Speaking skill also helps to assure that we will not be misunderstood by
those who are listening.
What are the speaking sub skills?
1- Fluency
2- Accuracy
3- Pronunciation
Fluency: it is the quality of being able to speak (or write) a language,
especially a foreign language, easily and well.
Accuracy: it is about using correct grammar in speaking and writing. It is
also about understanding the deeper meaning and usage of vocabulary and
the correct pronunciation of words.
Pronunciation: it is the way in which a language or a particular word or
sound is pronounced. Pronunciation includes word and sentence stress,
intonation, rhythm, and the use of the individual sounds of a language.
Stress: an extra force used when pronouncing a particular word or syllable.
Intonation: the rise and the fall of the voice when speaking, especially as
this affects the meaning of what is being said.
How do we teach speaking?
To teach speaking, we should follow three stages.
1- Pre-speaking
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2- While-speaking
3- Post-speaking
Pre-speaking: this stage prepares students for getting them to think about
the topic or situation before they speak about it. The teacher’s role here is
to get students think about what they are going to speak.
What are the pre-speaking activities?
a- Discussion or brainstorming
b- Vocabulary preparation
c- Prediction
Discussion and brainstorming: students collect all their ideas on the topic.
Vocabulary preparation: the teacher pre-teaches key vocabulary to help
comprehension.
Prediction: students guess what they may learn about.
While-speaking: this stage is the time for students to practice speaking.
Communicative activities are used in this stage for the aim of helping
students practice speaking skill.
What are the while-speaking activities?
a- Role play
b- Games
c- Discussion
Role play: role play in teaching speaking is very important, because it gives
students an opportunity to practice communication in different social
contexts and in different social roles. In addition, it also allows students to
be creative and to put themselves in another person’s place for a while.
Games: there are many games the teacher can use during speaking.
“Taboo", “scattergories", and “guess who" are some of the games.
Taboo: the player takes a word from the container and tries to describe it
his teammates without actually saying the word or using the native
language. If the word is successfully guessed then students put it to one
side. If not the word goes back in the hat and the player takes another.
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Scattergory: you give the students a letter such as “A" and “B" and you give
them some topics. For example, the teacher gives the letter “B" and
students have to come with words of animals starting with “B”.
Discussion: Students practice speaking through discussing some aspects of
a subject.
Post-speaking: it is the time when students reflect upon their while –
speaking performance. The activities includes the teacher giving feedback to
students and students upon their performance.
Leave a comment on Teaching Speaking 💬
Reading Skill
What are reading skills?

Reading skills are abilities that pertain to a person's capacity to read,
comprehend, interpret and decode written language and texts.
Exceptional reading skills can be highly beneficial to assimilating and
responding to written communications like emails, messages, letters and
other written messages.
What are the reading subskills?
1- Scanning
2- Skimming
3- Extensive reading
4- Intensive reading
Scanning: Spratt, et al. (2011) state that scanning refers to searching for
specific information within a text, where a quick glance is taken to find the
relevant information without reading the whole text.
Skimming: Krashen & Terrell (1998) mention that this reading sub-skill
follows scanning in the way it is performed, which means a quick glance to
extract superficial information of a text without major details, but instead
of trying to find specific words or information if focuses on the general
essence of the different parts or sections of a text. Spratt, et al. (2011) says
that this sub-skill is also known as reading for global understanding.
Additionally, it could be said that scanning and skimming complement each
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other since many times it is necessary to find specific elements that reveal
the gist or main idea of a text; nevertheless, each could be used
independently to achieve the desired or required goal.
Extensive Reading: Yamashita (2015) identifies this sub-skill as that where
great quantities of easy and interesting reading materials are consumed,
allowing the reader to enjoy reading and to read quickly which leads to the
high volumes of consumption. This pleasure reading is mostly done out of
the enjoyment of discovering and learning from the text. Yamashita (2008)
reveals that it is possible to increase automaticity of lower-level processes
through extensive reading due to the quantity and repeated exposure to the
language that fosters their development. Likewise, strategy use here
amplifies reading pleasure and comprehension.
Intensive Reading: Spratt, et al. (2011) describe it as the opposite of
extensive reading, where general comprehension is not the focus and
examining and studying the language takes centre stage, which is also
called reading for detail. Hatami & Asl (2017) add that intensive reading
consists in extracting specific linguistic elements from short portions of
text; which means that the text is used as a linguistic object to analyse
grammatical patterns as well as particular and concrete lexical items.
How to teach reading?
There are three stages:
1- Pre-reading
2- While-reading
3- Post-reading
Pre-reading stage: Pre-reading strategies allow students to think about what
they already know about a given topic and predict what they will read or
hear. Before students read any text, teachers can direct their attention to
how a text is organized, teach unfamiliar vocabulary or other concepts,
search for the main idea, and provide students with a purpose for reading
or listening. Most importantly, teachers can use pre-reading strategies to
increase students' interest in a text.
While-reading stage: While-Reading Activities are defined as
activities that help students focus on aspects of the text and to
understand it better.
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The goal of these activities is to help learners to deal as they would deal
with it as if the text was written in their first language.
During this stage, students will be able to:
a- confirm predictions
b- gather information
c- organize information
You can use while-reading activities which are based on traditional forms of
assessment or you can implement some technology if you are good enough
integrating it in classes.
These are some examples of while-reading activities that you can use in the
classroom.
a- General and specific ideas
b- Confirm Prediction:
c- Skimming
d- Inferring
e- Student-to-student conversation
f- Scanning
General and specific ideas: General ideas usually express the main point or
main idea of a piece of writing and Specific ideas provide evidence to
further define the general or main idea and prove that it is valid.
Confirm Prediction: Check whether or not predictions and guesses are
confirmed.
Skimming: Skimming is reading rapidly in order to get a general overview
of the material. Scanning is reading rapidly in order to find specific facts.
While skimming tells you what general information is within a section,
scanning helps you locate a particular fact.
Inferring: When students use the strategy of inferring, they are
making meaning of the text. They are adding pieces that are not explicitly
there, often sharing personal opinions and forming interpretations.
Student-to-student conversation: This type of activity is one that promotes
the integration of two more skills since you read the paragraph, you talk to
a classmate and you listen to what he or she has to say.
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you can ask students to have a conversation after they have finished a
paragraph or a stanza of a poem so they can clear up any confusions they
might have.
Scanning: Scanning is reading a text quickly in order to find specific
information, e.g. figures or names. It can be contrasted with skimming,
which is reading quickly to get a general idea of meaning.
Post-reading Stage: Post-reading strategies provide students a way to
summarize, reflect, and question what they have just read. Here are three
post-reading teaching strategies to try in your classroom today.
a- Exit Slips
b- Frame Routine
c- Question the Author
Exit Slip: The exit slip post-reading strategy is used to help students reflect
on what they have just learned. It helps them process concepts and express
how or what they feel about the content learned. This strategy
requires students to think critically, a skill that is essential in today’s world.
Exit slips are great because they only take students a few minutes to do,
and educators get a quick informal assessment of how well the students
understood what they have just learned.
Frame Routine: Frame routine is a classroom strategy that employs using a
graphic organizer to assist students in organizing topics, main ideas, and
key details of what they have just read. This technique helps students
summarize what they have learned.
Question the author: Questioning the author is a strategy that requires
students to pose questions and engages them actively within a text. This
comprehension strategy challenges students’ understanding of the text and
encourages students to ask questions of the author.
Question the author has many benefits, one being that it engages all
students in the text. It also helps to solidify their understanding, as well as
learn to critique the author’s writing.
Leave a comment on Reading 💬
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Writing Skill
What are writing skills?

Writing skills include all the knowledge and abilities related to expressing
ideas through the written word. Knowing what situations call for different
styles of writing and being able to set an appropriate tone over text are
both important writing skills that any person can use at work.
What are the writing subskills?
1- Spelling
2- Punctuation
3- Grammar
4- Vocabulary
5- Style
6- Fluency
Spelling: Spelling, the art of correctly assembling words from their letters,
is one of the essential components of successful writing. Ehri for the
Scientific Study of Reading found that spelling instruction improves
reading ability, as it builds a learner's knowledge of the alphabetic system
as it is used in reading.
Punctuation: Using punctuation in your writing helps the reader to clearly
understand the message that is being conveyed. Punctuation primarily
helps to indicate the pauses and the emphasis on certain ideas or thoughts
that are discussed in the text.
Grammar: Grammar is important because it provides information that
helps the reader's comprehension. It is the structure that conveys precise
meaning from the writer to the audience. Eliminate grammatical errors
from your writing, and reward your readers with clear communication.
Vocabulary: Having a good vocabulary to draw from can help you write
more effectively. Students need to use a more formal tone when writing –
not conversational language – and to do that, they need a
richer vocabulary to tap into those words we don't use when we speak.
Style: Writing is an essential job skill. Writing is the primary basis upon
which one's work, learning, and intellect will be judged—in college, in the
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work place and in the community. Writing equips us with communication
and thinking skills. Writing preserves our ideas and memories.
Fluency: Writing fluency is the top level in writing skill because it fulfils
various aspects such as creativity, speed, coherently, appropriately, and also
the structure of language.
Structural framework: If the focus is the foundation for constructing a
piece of writing, the organization is the structural framework for
that writing. Organization is important to effective writing because it
provides readers with a framework to help them fulfil their expectations for
the text.
How to reach the writing skill?
There are three main stages:
1- Pre-writing
2- While-writing
3- Post writing
The next three paragraphs are taken from a booklet produced by KHALID
BOULBOURJ. I tried to find you on Facebook, but my efforts were in vain.
Thus, if you are one among my pdf readers, thank you, dear Khalid. I liked
your ideas and style of writing.
Click here to download the booklet.
Pre-writing Stage: At this stage, it is essential that the teacher puts
students in the context first (using whatever technique he sees fits). Then,
students are usually supposed to work on a worksheet that typically
contains a text with questions to answer. Students first answer
comprehension questions and then they explore the features of the type of
writing they are exposed to by doing tasks (ex: narrative or expository).
For example, an argumentative essay has its features and its distinctive
structure. Therefore, as a teacher, you need to help our students identify
its main components through tasks. (an example of a worksheet will be
provided below). Once students identify the features of the target lesson,
you may introduce the topic that they are required to write about,
brainstorm some ideas, and write them on the board.
While-Writing Stage: Students have by now developed a clear image of
what to do and how. Following the model text given to them, students will
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start their first draft. Once they finish, the teacher may ask students to
exchange their writings and correct each other’s mistakes based n a
checklist that the teacher provides students with. Then, students, who
identify their mistakes, may proofread or edit their writings to finalize
them.
Post-Writing Stage: Having finally finalized their writings, a teacher may
be creative in how he asks his students to display their writings. A
teacher may ask his/her students o read them in front of the class group,
or he may establish a writing exhibition wherein students stick their final
products on the walls of the classroom and tour around to read each
other’s works.
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Teaching the aspects of language
Vocabulary, grammar, and functions are three aspects of language.

There is one common model that teachers use to teach these aspects. It is
called Presentation, Practice, and Production. The acronym is PPP.
Presentation, Practice, Production
Presentation Practice Production

Context Accuracy Fluency
Vocabulary
What is vocabulary?
Vocabulary is all about words — the words in a language or a special set
of words you are trying to learn. First used in the 1500s to mean a list of
words with explanations, the noun vocabulary came to refer to the “range
of language of a person or group” about two hundred years later.
How to teach vocabulary?
1- Presentation
2- Practice
3- Production
Presentation: In this stage, the teacher introduces the new vocabulary to
students. Below are some best ways to present the new words.
a. Picture it
b. Keep it real
c. Tell it like it is
d. Pronounce the word
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e. Introduce couples
f. Get physical
Picture it: Using picture is an effort to help students to understand and
comprehend something clearly and easily. However, teaching using
pictures have an important role in the understanding. It means that using
picture can be a good technique in teaching English vocabulary to the
children.
Keep it real: This reinforces language skills and appeals to both visual and
kinaesthetic learners of all ages. Most teachers use realia to demonstrate
the meaning of vocabulary words. Think of the difference between teaching
students the words for fruit versus showing them the real thing and having
them guess the name. Remember this strategy is called realia.
Tell it like it is: Before introducing a new vocabulary word, describe the
scene in which it would be used. Then, rephrase the scene using the new
vocabulary word. For example, ‘I ate too much food. I overate’. This will
help build connections between English words and teach synonyms without
even trying!
Pronounce the word: Show students how the new words are pronounced.
Proper pronunciation is the key to mastering the English language. Without
correct pronunciation, the vocabulary that you know will be less effective
when communicating. It is always better to know fewer
words and pronounce them well than to know a lot of words and
pronounce them badly.
Introduce couples: Try teaching pairs of words at one time. Antonyms are
the perfect material for this type of vocabulary instruction. You can also
pair synonyms, homonyms or any other sets of words that have some
connection.
Get physical: Use the Total Physical Response. The results showed that with
the TPR method students becomes easier to understand and remember
vocabulary in English because they practice it physically and verbally.
PR Method Makes them feel comfortable and enjoy when learning, and
motivates them to be more active in learning English.
Practice: This is the time when students have to practice the words they
have learned in the presentation stage.
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Here are some exercises you can give to your students to practice
vocabulary.
a- Fill in the blank
b- Matching
c- Synonyms & antonyms
Fill in the blanks: In this exercise, you might give your students a
paragraph or few sentences. You leave gaps and the students have to fill
them with the appropriate words.
Matching: You might ask students to match the words given with their
appropriate definitions.
Synonyms & antonyms: You may ask your students to connect words to
their synonyms antonyms. This may help students improve their
vocabulary.
Production: in this stage, students are expected to produce.
Concerning activities, you might ask students to come up with spoken or
written sentences containing the new vocabulary learned.
Grammar
What is grammar?
Grammar is not simply the naming of parts of speech or for teaching the
rules of English. It needs to be strongly embedded in classroom talk,
reading and writing. Teach grammar in context. By introducing children
to grammatical features and language in context, you will be helping them
to internalise these principles.
How to teach grammar?
Concerning this aspect of grammar, I have relied heavily on the British
Council website, since everything about teaching grammar is easily clear
and understood.
1- Presentation
2- Practice
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3- Production
Presentation: In this stage the teacher presents the new language in a
meaningful context. Building up stories on the board, using realia or
flashcards and miming are fun ways to present the language.
For example, when presenting the 2nd conditional, it is a good idea to draw
a picture of yourself with thought bubbles of lots of money, a sports car, a
big house and a world map.
I ask my students what I'm thinking about and then introduce the target
language.
"If I had a lot of money, I would buy a sports car and a big house."
I practise and drill the sentence orally before writing it on the board
(positive, negative, question and short answer).
I then focus on form by asking the students questions. E.g."What do we use
after 'if'?" and on meaning by asking the students questions to check that
they have understood the concept (E.g."Do I have lots of money?" No.
"What am I doing?" Imagining.)
When I am satisfied that my students understand the form and the
meaning, I move on to the practice stage of the lesson. During this stage of
the lesson it is important to correct phonological and grammatical
mistakes.
Practice: There are numerous activities which can be used for this stage
including gap fill exercises, substitution drills, sentence transformations,
split sentences, picture dictations, class questionnaires, reordering sentences
and matching sentences to pictures.
It is important that the activities are fairly controlled at this stage as
students have only just met the new language. Many students' books and
workbooks have exercises and activities which can be used at this stage.
When teaching the 2nd conditional, I would use split sentences as a
controlled practice activity. I give students lots of sentence halves and in
pairs they try and match the beginnings and ends of the sentences.
Example: "If I won the lottery," …. "I'd travel around the world."
I would then do a communicative follow up game like pelmanism or snap
using the same sentence halves.
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Production: Again there are numerous activities for this stage and what you
choose will depend on the language you are teaching and on the level of
your students. However, information gaps, role plays, interviews,
simulations, find someone who, spot the differences between two pictures,
picture cues, problem solving, personalisation activities and board games
are all meaningful activities which give students the opportunity to practise
the language more freely.
When teaching the 2nd conditional, I would try to personalise the lesson at
this stage by giving students a list of question prompts to ask others in the
class.
Example: do / if / win the lottery?
Although the questions are controlled the students are given the
opportunity to answer more spontaneously using other language items and
thus the activity becomes much less predictable.
It is important to monitor and make a note of any errors so that you can
build in class feedback and error analysis at the end of the lesson.
Functions
Definition
Functions refer to what items of language actually do in a real context, as
opposed to what they might mean literally. These include suggesting,
criticising, refusing, agreeing and disagreeing, enquiring, talking about the
past, and giving advice.
How to teach functions
Just as stages of teaching grammar there are three stages of teaching
language functions. Though they are criticized for being limited in certain
aspects they are still found to be very useful in teaching language
functions. The three stages of it are Presentation, Practice and Production
in short P-P-P model.
1- Presentation
2- Practice
3- Production
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Presentation: This is the first stage of teaching language functions in which
the teacher presents language functions either in a dialogue form or
creating a context. This stage is a pre-stage for communicative activity. In
this stage the teacher has a discussion with the students regarding possible
exponents for language function to be taught. Adhikari (2012) says that
contextualization, identification of participants, motivation and preparation
and descriptions of the social settings of the language use are the some
activities that we can use here. This is a pre-communicative activity so the
teacher has to create the context and should give description to the
students in order to make them know where and in which situation such
language functions to be used.
Practice: This is the second stage in which students are given opportunity
to practice language functions presented in the first stage. To provide
opportunity to practice they are involved in pair work to conduct mini-
dialogues. Mechanical or communicative drills are used as means to
practice language functions. In this stage the learners are made to
memorize and learn how to use different exponents appropriately in
different contexts.
Production: This is the final stage of teaching language functions in which
the learners use the language functions freely as in the real life situations.
This stage is also known as communicative stage as the learners focus on
fluency rather than accuracy. Richards (2006), as cited in Adhikari (2012)
says that students practice using new structures and in different contexts
often using their own content and information in order to develop fluency
with new patterns. Role play, oral games, guessing games, interviews, mini
exchange, etc. are some useful activities to teach language functions.
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Classroom Management
1- Definition of classroom management

2- How can we manage our classroom effectively?
3- Physical space – Setting
4- How to deal with disruptive behaviour?
5- Extrinsic & extrinsic motivation
6- Teacher’s language use
What is classroom management?
Classroom management refers to the wide variety of skills and techniques

that teachers use to keep students organized, orderly, focused, attentive, on
task, and academically productive during a class. When classroom-
management strategies are executed effectively, teachers minimize the
behaviours that impede learning for both individual students and groups of
students, while maximizing the behaviours that facilitate or enhance
learning. Generally speaking, effective teachers tend to display strong
classroom-management skills, while the hallmark of the inexperienced or
less effective teacher is a disorderly classroom filled with students who are
not working or paying attention.
How can we manage our classroom effectively?
In brief words, teaching is a very important job and once you get your
classroom management skills in order you will enjoy teaching more as well
as have a more productive teaching career. These are just a few tips that
will help you to get it together in your class room: be prepared, have an
attractive classroom, design classroom rules, teach with enthusiasm, be fair
and keep good student record. Follow this plan and you will be very
pleased.
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Physical Space
The term physical environment refers to the overall design and layout of a
given classroom and its learning centres. Teachers should design the
environment by organizing its spaces, furnishings, and materials to
maximize the learning opportunities and the engagement of every child.
How to deal with disruptive behaviour?
Disruptive behaviour can be presented by learners in a number of ways,

ranging from wanting control and power in the classroom, being
consistently late, talking when they shouldn't be, arguing with the teacher
unnecessarily, challenging the teacher on certain issues, ignoring
instructions, etc.
Conduct disruptive behaviours are ones that involve students acting against
the usual norms or rules of the classroom. This for sure is a problem for
the teacher who wants to convey his lesson in very limited time. However,
here are some strategies to deal with such behaviours:
Stay Calm and Emotion Free
Teacher should never yell at a student or tell a student to “shut up.
Teachers must stay calm when addressing a disruptive student. In many
cases, a student is trying to get the teacher to react foolishly. If you stay
calm and keep your wits, it can diffuse the situation rather quickly.
Be Firm and Direct
The worst thing a teacher can do is to ignore a situation that they hope
will go away. Do not allow your students to get away with the little things.
Immediately confront them about their behavior. Have them tell you what
they are doing wrong, why it is a problem, and what the proper behavior
is. Educate them on how their behavior impacts others. Students may resist
structure early on, but they ultimately embrace it because they feel safe in
a structured learning environment.
Listen Carefully to Students
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Do not jump to conclusions. If a student has something to say, then listen
to their side. Sometimes, there are things that led to the disruption that
you may not have seen. Sometimes there are things going on outside of the
classroom that led to the behavior. Sometimes their behavior may be a cry
for help and listening to them may allow you to get them some help.
Repeat their concerns to them so that they know you have been listening.
It may not make a difference in how you handle the situation, but listening
may build some trust or provide you with insights into other issues that
are more important.
Remove the Audience
Never intentionally embarrass a student or call them out in front of their
classmates. It will do more harm than it will good. Addressing a student
individually in the hallway or after class will ultimately be more productive
than addressing them in front of their peers. They will be more receptive
to what you have to say. They are probably likely to be more open and
honest with you. It is important to maintain the dignity of all of your
students. No one wants to be called out in front of his or her peers. Doing
so ultimately damages your credibility and undermines your authority as a
teacher.
Extrinsic & intrinsic motivation
Below is an image representing 2 types of motivation.
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The first person is extrinsic motivated. He is playing football for external
rewards. He wants a cup, medal, or money. This is called extrinsic
motivation. The second person is intrinsic motivated. He is playing football
for internal rewards. He is looking for happiness or enjoyment. This is
called intrinsic motivation. The same thing happens in classroom. There
two types of students. There are some students who learn just to get good
grades and avoid punishment – extrinsic motivation. On the other hand,
there are some other students who wants to learn just for enjoyment &
self-improvement – intrinsic motivation.
Therefore, as a teacher, you have to adopt different methods & ways to
motivate your students. You might bring food & candies to the ones who
are always looking for your approval. You may praise them as well.
However, you could bring articles, short stories, and pens to those who
learn just to enjoy themselves.
Teacher’s Language Use
How should you speak to your students?

Be direct & genuine
When we say what we mean and use a kind and straightforward tone,
children learn that they can trust us. They feel respected and safe, which
helps them develop self-discipline and take the risks that are necessary for
learning.
Convey faith in children’s abilities and intentions
Our language shapes how children see themselves and their world. When
our words and tone convey faith in children’s desire and ability to do well,
the children are more likely to live up to our expectations of them.
Focus on action
Because children tend to be concrete thinkers, it can be effective to name
specific actions rather than abstract terms. For example, rather than telling
children to “be respectful,” it’s usually more helpful to tell them exactly
what to do: “When someone is speaking during a discussion, it’s time to
listen. That means eyes on the speaker and hands in laps.”
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Keep it brief
Don’t use long strings of words. Students easily get bored when you are
talking to much. Say only what is important.
Know when to be silent
The skilful use of silence can be just as powerful as the skilful use of words.
Silence allows children to think, rehearse what to say, and sometimes to
gather the courage to speak at all.
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Teacher’s roles
The controller The teacher is in complete charge of the class, what

students do, what they say and how they say it.
The promoter The teacher encourages students to participate and makes
suggestions about how students may proceed in an activity.
The resource provider
The teacher provides students with materials & resources.
The assessor
The teacher assumes this role to see how well students are performing or
how well they performed. Feedback and correction are organized and
carried out by the teacher.
The Participant
This role improves the atmosphere in the class when the teacher takes part
in an activity. However, the teacher takes a risk of dominating the activity
when performing it.
The Tutor: The teacher acts as a coach when students are involved in
project work or self-study. The teacher provides advice and guidance and
helps students clarify ideas and limit tasks.
Read more about the roles of the teacher.
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Qualities of good teachers
The ability to develop relationships with their students

Teachers need to be able to build trusting relationships with students in
order to create a safe, positive, and productive learning environment.
Patient, caring, and kind personality
Personality characteristics related to being a compassionate person and
having a sensitivity to student differences, particularly with learners, is the
most frequently reported quality by students.
Knowledge of learners
This is a broad category that incorporates knowledge of the cognitive,
social and emotional development of learners. It includes an understanding
of how students learn at a given developmental level; how learning in a
specific subject area typically progresses like learning progressions or
trajectories; awareness that learners have individual needs and abilities; and
an understanding that instruction should be tailored to meet each learner’s
needs.
Dedication to teaching
Dedication refers to a love of teaching or passion for the work, which
includes commitment to students’ success.
Read more about qualities of a good teacher.
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Assessment & tests
Assessment
Assessment is the process of testing students and making a judgement

about knowledge, ability, or progress.
There are two types of assessment: formative & summative assessments:
1- Formative Assessments
When? > During the instruction.
Why? > Guide the teacher in planning & improving instruction; Help
students in improving their learning. Types? > Discussions, reflections,
group presentations, practice quizzes.
2- Summative Assessments (Evaluation)
When? > End of instruction.
Why? > Let teachers & students know the level of accomplishment attained.
In short, grading students.
Types? > Exams, creation of a product, group project.
Tests
There are six different types of test.

1- Placement test
It is used to place new students in the right class in a school. It assesses
students’ productive and receptive skills and designed to show how good a
student is in English in relation to a previously agreed system of levels.
2- Diagnostic test
It is used to discover student problems, difficulties or deficiencies in a
course. We use this type of tests to know students’ strengths and
weaknesses so as to be able to do something about them.
3- Progress test
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It is designed to measure students’ language and their skill progress in
relation to the syllabus they have been following. This type is directly
related to language courses and done during the course.
4- Final test
Students do this test at the end of the course to measure students’
achievement of the course objectives or goals.
5- Proficiency test
It is not necessarily based on certain courses that students may have
previously taken. Most students take this type of test to admit to a foreign
university, get a job, or obtain some kind of certificate. Teachers design this
test to measure students’ knowledge and ability in a language.
6- Aptitude test
Teachers design this test to discover whether a student has a talent or
basic ability for learning a new language or not.
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Error & Mistake
Mistake is a word, phrase, or sentence that turns to be wrong. You make

mistakes not because you don’t know rules, but because you are tired or
you don’t pay attention to what you are saying, writing, or typing. As a
student, just a hint from the teacher or your peer, you can automatically
correct the mistake yourself.
Error happens only for one reason = Lack of knowledge.
Sources of errors
Sources of errors Mainly, there are three sources of errors:

1- Interlingual interference
2- Intralingual interference/ overgeneralization
3- Context of learning
Interlingual interference = the interference of mother tongue in the
learning of second language.
Interlingual error happens because we apply our native language rules
when we want to form a second language sentence. For example, Moroccan
student would say: “I have 14 years old” instead of “I am fourteen years
old.”
Intralingual interference= Overgeneralization Intralingual error occurs when
we overgeneralize rules and apply them to exceptions & irregularities. For
instance, we say “He shoulds visit the doctor” since we think that the “s" of
the 3rd person in simple present must be applied to all verbs.
Context of learning
This means that the students might have learned knowledge wrongly from
the first time. For example, They may have learned a mispronounced word
from the teacher, and they always believe that this is how we pronounce
that word.
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Error Correction Types
1- Self-correction
2- Peer-correction
3- Class-correction
4- Teacher-correction
Self-correction The student corrects himself with the help of teacher.
Peer-correction The student corrects his errors & mistakes with the help of
his peer.
Class-correction The entire class might be a help at correcting their
classmate’s errors & mistakes.
Teacher-correction When spotting a mistake made by a student, a
teacher may intervene in order to correct it.
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Teacher’s documents
Record book
Record book is a document or compilation of documents used by teachers
to record enrolment, attendance and grade information for students.
Lesson plan
A lesson plan is a teacher's guide for facilitating a lesson. This plan is a
teacher's objectives for what students should accomplish and how they will
learn the material.
Attendance Sheet
Attendance sheet is an official document for listing those students
attending the sessions.
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This is the 4th and last update made to this booklet.
you can give your feedback on the booklet.
69

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English Teaching

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