Introduzione alle

fibre ottiche
Edoardo Milotti
Corso di Fondamenti Fisici di Tecnologia Moderna
A. A. 2019-20
1.2
1.0 Bit rate basso
Larghezza di banda piccola
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10

1.2
1.0 Bit rate alto
Larghezza di banda grande
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
beam through the optical fiber takes place because of total internal reflection, which we discu
in the following section.

Figure 7-3 A typical fiber optic communication system: T, transmitter; C, connector; S, splice;
R, repeater; D, detector

In addition to the capability of carrying a huge amount of information, optical fibers fabricate
with recently developed technology are characterized by extremely low losses3 (< 0.2 dB/km)
Le fibreof ottiche
as a consequence permettono
which the distance diconsecutive
between two stabilirerepeaters
canali(used
di for amplifyi
and reshaping the attenuated signals) could be as large as 250 km. We should perhaps mentio
telecomunicazione a larga banda
here that it was the epoch-making paper of Kao and Hockham in 1966 that suggested that
optical fibers based on silica glass could provide the necessary transmission medium if metall
and other impurities could be removed. Indeed, this 1966 paper triggered the beginning of
serious research in developing low-loss optical fibers. In 1970, Kapron, Keck, and Maurer (at
Problema: un anello misterioso …
 n1
Riflessione totale: se > 1 non tutti gli angoli di rifrazione
n2
sono possibili, infatti

n1
sin θ 2 = sin θ1
n2

allora esiste un angolo limite tale

che
n1 n2
sin θ1 = 1
(lim)
θ1 = arcsin
(lim)

n2 n1
 n2
θ(lim)
1 = arcsin
n1

nel caso dell interfaccia

aria-acqua
n1 ≈ 1.33,
n2 ≈ 1, allora

θ (lim)
1 ≈ 48°.75
sound on the earphone.

Figure 7-2 Schematic of the photophone invented by Bell. In this system, sunlight was modulated by a
vibrating diaphragm and transmitted through a distance of about 200 meters in air to a receiver
containing a selenium cell connected to the earphone.

After succeeding in transmitting a voice signal over 200 meters using a light signal, Bell wrote
to his father: “I have heard a ray of light laugh and sing. We may talk by light to any visible
vedi: Ghatak and Thyagarajan, "Optical Waveguides and Fibers", Fundamentals of Photonics, Module 1.7
distance without any conducting wire.” To quote from Maclean: “In 1880 he (Graham Bell)
https://spie.org/publications/fundamentals-of-photonics-modules
produced his ‘photophone’ which to the end of his life, he insisted was ‘…. the greatest
 sha1_base64="gETK9S7yHouSkdweMNEtN+Jq7YQ=">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</latexit>
<latexit
=

When
2

1 2n
n 1 n2 2
sha1_base64="7zKRgrbI0vvBZwZbIbeWkvBl/dk=">AAACKHicbVDLTgIxFG3xhfgAdOmmkZi4kcygRpdENy4xkUcCk0mnU6Ch007ajgkhfIlb3fg17gxbv8TOMAsBT3KTk3PuKyeIOdPGcRawsLW9s7tX3C8dHB4dlyvVk46WiSK0TSSXqhdgTTkTtG2Y4bQXK4qjgNNuMHlM/e4rVZpJ8WKmMfUiPBJsyAg2VvIrZeG76AoJv4EGnCPXr9ScupMBbRI3JzWQo+VXIRyEkiQRFYZwrHXfdWLjzbAyjHA6Lw0STWNMJnhE+5YKHFHtzbLP5+jCKiEaSmVLGJSpfydmONJ6GgW2M8JmrNe9VPzP6ydmeO/NmIgTQwVZHhomHBmJ0hhQyBQlhk8twUQx+ysiY6wwMTaslSvpbiMl13YJDkOW5oY5SmWU6aWSDc1dj2iTdBp197p++3xTaz7k8RXBGTgHl8AFd6AJnkALtAEBCXgD7+ADfsIv+A0Xy9YCzGdOwQrgzy8H/aNN</latexit>
<latexit
represents the radius

n1 n2 ⌧ 1 ∆=

(questo è un parametro importante per caratterizzare la fibra )

(n1 + ∆
2n
(in the transverse direction) is given by:

n2 )(
1
2
≡
∆≡
represents the radius of the core. Wendefine

2
2

n
n

2
≈2
= n1 a for

n1 – n2
n1 – n2

1 n
parameter
n = n2 2 for 2 r > a

≈
2 n
n1 – n2 ) ( n1 – n2 ) (n1 – n2 )
r < a∆ through the

(a) of the core. We define a parameter ∆ through the

where n1 and n2 (< n1) represent respectively the refractive indices of c

When ∆ << 1 (as is indeed true for silica fibers where n1 is very nearly
where n1 and n2 (< n1) represent respectively the2 refractive indices of c

∆ << 1 (as is indeed true for silica fibers where n1 is very nearly
 OPTICAL WAVEGUIDES AND FIBERS
(b)
For a typical (multimode) fiber, a ≈ 25 µm, n2 ≈ 1.45 (pure silica), and ∆ ≈ 0.01, giving a core
Figure
index7-7
of n1(a) A glass
≈ 1.465. The fiber consists
cladding ofpure
is usually a cylindrical central
silica while the core iscore clad
usually bydoped
silica a material of sligh
refractive index. (b)Doping
with germanium. Lightbyrays impinging
germanium resultson
in the core-cladding
a typical interface
increase of refractive at from
index an angle
n2 greater
critical
to n1angle
. are trapped inside the core of the fiber.
Now, for a ray entering the fiber core at its end, if the angle of incidence φ at the internal core-
t
m to

2fyθthe

l have
racted

sin
isfy the

θ
o suffer
, we
have

<
s to suffer
ray a

M
L 1
is

total
=

–
=

F
to

equation,

F
L'apertura

1
2
sin i n1

sha1_base64="7ZNthg/FkbsE8khO+yqONEA4Qdo=">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</latexit>
<latexit
sinequation,

sin φ( = cos θ) >

Connecticut G n J
I
1
2

2
n
n I

n sin
internal
refractive

P
O
n2

1
2

i
suffer

2
have sin θ < M1 – G J P
O
will have n1

<
N
M
index
total

sin1θ <1 1 –

MN H K PQ n0
n1
n
sin θ n0 numerica
0

H
G
e φ must satisfy the equation,

nreflection

n 1
n2

1
sin φ( = cos θ) > 2 (riflessione
θ n0 sin φ( = cos θ) >

K
J
2
internal

Q
P
LM F I OP
n1
n2

at the
(which

1
2

MN H n K PQ " ✓
for

n1
n2
interna)
most
reflection

258
at

◆2 #1/2
totalecore-cladding

sha1_base64="X6mfwa7wbHMFBz88B7axbuI/omU=">AAACGHicbVA5T8MwGLXLVcrVwshiUSExVQmHYKxgYWwlekhtVDmO01p17Mh2kKqov4AVFn4NG2Jl49/gpBloy5MsPb33XX5+zJk2jvMDSxubW9s75d3K3v7B4VG1dtzVMlGEdojkUvV9rClngnYMM5z2Y0Vx5HPa86cPmd97pkozKZ7MLKZehMeChYxgY6U2G1XrTsPJgdaJW5A6KNAa1SAcBpIkERWGcKz1wHVi46VYGUY4nVeGiaYxJlM8pgNLBY6o9tL80jk6t0qAQqnsEwbl6t+OFEdazyLfVkbYTPSql4n/eYPEhHdeykScGCrIYlGYcGQkyr6NAqYoMXxmCSaK2VsRmWCFibHhLG3JZhspubZDcBCwLCfMUSajXK9UbGjuakTrpHvZcK8aN+3revO+iK8MTsEZuAAuuAVN8AhaoAMIoOAFvII3+A4/4Cf8WpSWYNFzApYAv38BLoWe6g==</latexit>
latexit
<
the

sin itotaln1internal reflection at the core-cladding

(7-8)
(7-7)
practical

q
(7-8)
(7-7)

(7-9)

⇡ n1
(7-9) 2
ber axis. Let the refracted ray make an angle θ with the same

interface,
cases

261
i interface,

sha1_base64="zSZegffvqR6R5KxMxP+u37vtY3g=">AAACGnicbVA5T8MwGLXLVcLVwshiUSExVQmHYKxgYSyCHlIbVY7jtFYdO7IdpKrqT2CFhV/DhlhZ+Dc4aQba8iRLT+99l1+QcKaN6/7A0tr6xuZWedvZ2d3bP6hUD9taporQFpFcqm6ANeVM0JZhhtNuoiiOA047wfgu8zvPVGkmxZOZJNSP8VCwiBFsrPQoBu6gUnPrbg60SryC1ECB5qAKYT+UJI2pMIRjrXuemxh/ipVhhNOZ0081TTAZ4yHtWSpwTLU/zW+doVOrhCiSyj5hUK7+7ZjiWOtJHNjKGJuRXvYy8T+vl5roxp8ykaSGCjJfFKUcGYmyj6OQKUoMn1iCiWL2VkRGWGFibDwLW7LZRkqu7RAchixLCnOUySjXHceG5i1HtEra53Xvon71cFlr3BbxlcExOAFnwAPXoAHuQRO0AAFD8AJewRt8hx/wE37NS0uw6DkCC4Dfv3YJn5I=</latexit>
<latexit
core-cladding

n(b)0
(7-8)

(7-9)

p
critical angle are trapped inside the core of the fiber.

n22 = n1 2261
interface,

Figure 7-7 (a) A glass fiber consists of a cylindrical central core clad by a ma
refractive index. (b) Light rays impinging on the core-cladding interface at an a

© 2000 Uni
 sha1_base64="7ZNthg/FkbsE8khO+yqONEA4Qdo=">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</latexit>
<latexit
sha1_base64="9AI53p8x5fI7VjPspLEjybTka+Q=">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</latexit>
<latexit
and
sinwei have
I < im, where

light is incident
n1
"

Example 7-2
✓

fiber by the following equation:

n2
◆2
2
sin im =# n1 – n22

2
1

NA = sin im = n1 –
2

n22
< assumed1 n0 = 1; i.e., the outside medium
c1/2 h q
=n 1

1
2
2∆

= n1 2∆
⇡ isnassumed n

sin im = n1 2 ∆ = 1.45 2 × ( 0.01) = 0.205

to
2 be

For a typical step-index (multimode) fiber with n1 ≈ 1.45 and ∆ ≈ 0.01, we get
p
NA = arcsin(max sin i) = arcsin n1 2
p
2 = n1 2

so that im ≈ 12°. Thus, all light entering the fiber must be within a cone of half-angle 12°.
(7-11)
(7-10)
Applying Snell’s law at the input end and using Equations 7-5, 7-7, and 7-9, we must have

We define the numerical aperture (NA)—see Module 1-3, Basic Geometrical Optics—of the
air. Thus, if a cone of
n0on one end of nthe1 fiber, it will be guided through it provided the half-angle of
the cone is less than im . This half-angle is a measure of the light-gathering power of the fiber.
 disappear. For λ0 > 1600 nm the increase in the loss coefficient is due to the absorption of
infrared light by silica molecules. This is an intrinsic property of silica, and no amount of
Attenuazione nelle fibre ottiche
purification can remove this infrared absorption tail.

Figure 7-10 Typical wavelength dependence of attenuation for a silica fiber. Notice that the lowest
attenuation occurs at 1550 nm [adapted from Miya, Hasaka, and Miyashita].

As you see, there are two windows at which loss attains its minimum value. The first window is
 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHOTONICS

Example 7-3
Calculation of losses using the dB scale become easy. For example, if we have a 40-km fiber link (with
a loss of 0.4 dB/km) having 3 connectors in its path and if each connector has a loss of 1.8 dB, the total
loss will be the sum of all the losses in dB; or 0.4 dB/km × 40 km + 3 × 1.8 dB = 21.4 dB.

Example 7-4
Let us assume that the input power of a 5-mW laser decreases to 30 µW after traversing through
40 km of an optical fiber. Using Equation 7-12, attenuation of the fiber in dB/km is therefore
[10 log (166.7)]/40 ≈ 0.56 dB/km.

VII. PULSE DISPERSION IN STEP-INDEX FIBERS (SIF)

information is decoded. The larger the number of pulses that can be sent per unit time and still
be resolvable at the receiver end, the larger will be the transmission capacity of the system.
ADispersione
pulse of light sent degli impulsi
into a fiber broadens nelle fibre
in time as ottiche
it propagates through the fiber. This
phenomenon is known as pulse dispersion, and it occurs primarily because of the following
mechanisms:
1. Different rays take different times to propagate through a given length of the fiber. We
will discuss this for a step-index multimode fiber and for a parabolic-index fiber in this
and the following sections. In the language of wave optics, this is known as intermodal
dispersion because it arises due to different modes traveling with different speeds.4
2. Any given light source emits over a range of wavelengths, and, because of the intrinsic
property of the material of the fiber, different wavelengths take different amounts of time
to propagate along the same path. This is known as material dispersion and will be
discussed in Section IX.
3. Apart from intermodal and material dispersions, there is yet another mechanism—referred
to as waveguide dispersion and important only in single-mode fibers. We will briefly
discuss this in Section XI.
In the fiber shown in Figure 7-7, the rays making larger angles with the axis (those shown as
dotted rays) have to traverse a longer optical path length and therefore take a longer time to
reach the output end. Consequently, the pulse broadens as it propagates through the fiber (see
broadening of the pulses they may not be so at the output end. Where the output pulses are not
resolvable, no information can be retrieved. Thus, the smaller the pulse dispersion, the greater
will be the information-carrying capacity of the system.

Figure 7-11 Pulses separated by 100 ns at the input end would be resolvable at the output end of 1 km
of the fiber. The same pulses would not be resolvable at the output end of 2 km of the same fiber.

We will now derive an expression for the intermodal dispersion for a step-index fiber. Referring
back to Figure 7-7b, for a ray making an angle θ with the axis, the distance AB is traversed in
time.
e c/n1 represents the speed of light in a medium of refractive index n1, c being the speed of
in free space. Since the ray path will repeat itself, the time taken by a ray to traverse a
AC + CB AB / cosθ (7-13)
h L of the fiber would=be
t AB = n1(AB) (7-14)
t AB = c / n1 c / n1
c cosθ n1 L i
tL = (7-15)

sha1_base64="X6mfwa7wbHMFBz88B7axbuI/omU=">AAACGHicbVA5T8MwGLXLVcrVwshiUSExVQmHYKxgYWwlekhtVDmO01p17Mh2kKqov4AVFn4NG2Jl49/gpBloy5MsPb33XX5+zJk2jvMDSxubW9s75d3K3v7B4VG1dtzVMlGEdojkUvV9rClngnYMM5z2Y0Vx5HPa86cPmd97pkozKZ7MLKZehMeChYxgY6U2G1XrTsPJgdaJW5A6KNAa1SAcBpIkERWGcKz1wHVi46VYGUY4nVeGiaYxJlM8pgNLBY6o9tL80jk6t0qAQqnsEwbl6t+OFEdazyLfVkbYTPSql4n/eYPEhHdeykScGCrIYlGYcGQkyr6NAqYoMXxmCSaK2VsRmWCFibHhLG3JZhspubZDcBCwLCfMUSajXK9UbGjuakTrpHvZcK8aN+3revO+iK8MTsEZuAAuuAVN8AhaoAMIoOAFvII3+A4/4Cf8WpSWYNFzApYAv38BLoWe6g==</latexit>
latexit
<
cosθthe speed of
f light in a medium of refractive index n1, c cbeing
path will repeat itself, nthe time taken by a ray to traverse (7-14)
1(AB) a
=
t ABshows
bove expression θ the time taken by a ray is a function of then(b)0angle θ made by
c costhat

sha1_base64="zSZegffvqR6R5KxMxP+u37vtY3g=">AAACGnicbVA5T8MwGLXLVcLVwshiUSExVQmHYKxgYSyCHlIbVY7jtFYdO7IdpKrqT2CFhV/DhlhZ+Dc4aQba8iRLT+99l1+QcKaN6/7A0tr6xuZWedvZ2d3bP6hUD9taporQFpFcqm6ANeVM0JZhhtNuoiiOA047wfgu8zvPVGkmxZOZJNSP8VCwiBFsrPQoBu6gUnPrbg60SryC1ECB5qAKYT+UJI2pMIRjrXuemxh/ipVhhNOZ0081TTAZ4yHtWSpwTLU/zW+doVOrhCiSyj5hUK7+7ZjiWOtJHNjKGJuRXvYy8T+vl5roxp8ykaSGCjJfFKUcGYmyj6OQKUoMn1iCiWL2VkRGWGFibDwLW7LZRkqu7RAchixLCnOUySjXHceG5i1HtEra53Xvon71cFlr3BbxlcExOAFnwAPXoAHuQRO0AAFD8AJewRt8hx/wE37NS0uw6DkCC4Dfv3YJn5I=</latexit>
<latexit
y with the z-axis (fiber axis), which leads to pulse dispersion.
Figure If we
7-7 (a) A glass fiber assume
consists that
of a cylindrical allcore
central rays
clad by a ma
n1 L –1
ebetween t Lθlight
speed of == 0inand θ=
a medium θc of
(tempo =richiesto
cos (n
per2/n
refractive 1) (see
index
attraversare c (7-15)
n1,Equation
una being
lunghezza the7-8)speed
critical angleL are
areofpresent, the time taken by
refractive index. (b) Light rays impinging on the core-cladding interface at an a
di fibra)
eollowing
the ray path cwill
extreme θraysitself,
cosrepeat for a the
fibertimeoftaken
length byLa would
ray to traverse
be given
trapped inside the core of the fiber.
a by
uld be 258 © 2000 Uni
the time taken by n1 La ray is a function of the angle θ made by
minimo richiesto,corresponding
per raggi assiali) F Uto N Drays
A M Eat N TθA = L S0 O F P H O T (7-16)
t
, which leads =
min to c pulse n(tempo
L
dispersion. If we assume that all Frays (7-15)
ONICS
t L = 1 UNDAMENTALS OF PHOTONICS
cos–1(n2/n1) (see Equation c cosθ7-8) are present, the time taken by
2
fiber of length nL L n 2 Lbe given
1 would by
corresponding to rays at θ =θ c = cos–1(n
= cos –1
/n1)) ) (7-17) (7-17)
hows that max
t =
the time 1 (tempo corresponding
massimo richiesto, perto rays
raggi
= by a ray is a function of the angle θ made by
tmaxtaken conat θ =θ c (n2
2/n
1
cn 2 cn2
fiber axis), which leads to pulse
corresponding to dispersion.
rays at θ = 0 If we assume (7-16) that all rays
–1
θ = θ =
nce, ifHence,cos (n
all2/n
c all theifinput )input
(seewere
the1rays Equation
rays excited
were 7-8) are present, thethe
simultaneously,
excited simultaneously, time
therays taken
rays would
would by occupy
occupya atime time interval
interval
 n [see Equations
ier τ i = tmax 7-5 1
MN PQ
and=7-6] and we– have
– tmin 1
1 used Equation 7-11.
n2 taking different times in
pulse dispersion due to different
which,τini = t max – t min =
n1 L n1
wave optics, is nothing but
LM OP
c rays
– 1 the (intervallo
intermodal di tempodispersion
edispersion
that the pulseindispersion
a multimode N
nSIF
isc proportional
2 Q
is to the square of NA.
sion, one must have a smaller NA, which of course reduces the
intermodale)

dispersion inna1 Lmultimode

the light-gathering power.L If,SIFat the
2 input end of the fiber, we
is (7-18)
τi ≅ ∆≈ ( NA) (approssimazione dell'intervallo di tempo intermodale)

n L
c
propagating through
L
n 1c
a 2length L of the fiber the pulse will have a
by τ i ≅ 1
∆≈ ( NA) 2 (7-18)
c 2 n1c
earlierτ[see2 = Equations
τ 2 + τ 2 7-5 and 7-6] and wetotalehave
(larghezza used Equation 7-11.
(7-19)
dell'impulso)
2 1 i
the pulse dispersion due to different rays taking
arlier [see Equations 7-5 and 7-6] and we have used Equation 7-11. different times in
ber, which,
larghezzain
he pulsedell'impulso wave optics, is nothing but the
dispersion due to different rays taking different times in
iniziale intermodal dispersion
Note
ber, that the
which, pulseoptics,
in wave dispersion is proportional
is nothing but the intermodalto the square of NA.
dispersion
spersion,
Note that theonepulsemustdispersion
have a smaller NA, which
is proportional of square
to the course ofreduces
NA. the
ence theone
tep-index
persion, light-gathering
fiber, if wehave
must assume npower.
a smaller If,= 0.01,
1 = 1.5, ∆
NA, atwhich
theL =input
1 km,
of end of
we would
course the fiber,
reduces the we
Example 7-5
For a typical (multimoded) step-index fiber, if we assume n1 = 1.5, ∆ = 0.01, L = 1 km, we would
get
1.5 × 1000
τ1 = 8 × 0.01 = 50 ns/km (7-20)
3 × 10

That is, a pulse traversing through the fiber of length 1 km will be broadened by 50 ns. Thus, two
pulses separated by, say, 500 ns at the input end will be quite resolvable at the end of 1 km of the
fiber. However, if consecutive pulses were separated by, say, 10 ns at the input end, they would be
absolutely unresolvable at the output end. Hence, in a 1-Mbit/s fiber optic system, where we have
–6
one pulse every 10 s, a 50-ns/km dispersion would require repeaters to be placed every 3 to 4 km.
On the other hand, in a 1-Gbit/s fiber optic communication system, which requires the transmission
–9
of one pulse every 10 s, a dispersion of 50 ns/km would result in intolerable broadening even
within 50 meters or so. This would be highly inefficient and uneconomical from a system point of
view.
 c
n (r ) = n2 = n1 1 – 2∆ h r>a

Fibre
withcon
∆ as "indice parabolico" LM F I 2 OP
n (r ) = n 1 – 2 ∆
r silica fiber, 0 < r < a co
H K
defined in Equation 2
7-5. For a typical (multimode) 2
parabolic-index
1
∆ ≈ 0.01, n ≈ 1.45, and a ≈ 25 µm. On the other hand, for a typical
2
Section XII), n ≈ 1.49, n ≈ 1.40, and a ≈ 500 µm.
1 2
M
N plastic afiber P
Q(see

n12 c1of–the2∆ cla

= 22 =center
2 (r )fromnthe
Since the refractive index decreases as one movesnaway h
core, a ray r > a
entering the fiber is continuously bent toward the axis of the fiber, as depicted in Figure 7-12.

with ∆ as defined in Equation 7-5. For a typical (multimode) parabolic-i

∆ ≈ 0.01, n2 ≈ 1.45, and a ≈ 25 µm.a On the other
bit involved [see,hand, for a typical
e.g., Chapters 4 and 5, plas
Ghat
Section XII), n1 ≈ 1.49, n2 ≈ 1.40, and a ≈ 500
intermodal µm. in a parabolic-index fiber
dispersion

Since the refractive index decreases F I as

τ im one
= 2 moves
2
n L n1 – n2 away
b g ≈ 2 ∆from
n L 2 Lthe center
Pu
G J
H the Kaxis of the fiber, as de
entering the fiber is continuously bent toward 2c n2 2c
≈
8cn13
NA
4

Note that, as compared to a step-index fiber, the

power of NA. For a typical (multimode paraboli
would get
Figure 7-12 Different ray paths in a parabolic-index fiber
τim ≈ 0.25
 sensitivity will ofoptic
course become better
hydrophone withon
based decrease in core
intensity diameter, but,
modulation. Thisat the same time,
the range of displacements
approachwill also reduce.
thereby circumvents the perceived phase- ACOUSTICWAVE

noise problem. The approach exploits the fact that, if

two fiber ends are sufficiently near each other and a FERRULE ROVING FIRER

length of one of the fibers is free to move, then acoustic

waves in the medium in which the fibers are placed in-
duce fiber motion. Fiber motion varies the amount of (a)
Figure 7-18 A change in the transverse alignment between two fibers changes
light coupled between the two fiber ends, thereby
the coupling and hence the power falling on the detector.
creating light-intensity modulation. Clearly, the sen-
sitivity of such a device is inversely proportional to
The misalignmentfiber-core
between the fibers could
diameter suchbethat
caused by various
a fiber physical parameters,
displacement of such as
acoustic waves and onepressure. Thus, if one
core diameter willofresult
the probe fibers has a short100%
in approximately free length while the
other has a longerlight-intensity
length, acousticmodulation.
waves impinging on the sensor will set the fibers into SPECTRUMI
AIRLYZER
vibration, which willThe result in a device
basic modulation of the transmitted
configuration is shownlight intensity
in Fig. 1(a).leading to an
30
acoustic sensor. Using such anare
Two fibers arrangement,
mounted such
OPTICS LETTERS / Vol. 5, No. 1 / January 1980
deep-sea noise end
that their levels in the frequency
surfaces are range of
100 Hz to 1 kHz andparallel, coaxial,
transverse and separated
displacements by about
of a few tenths 2-3 ,m. The have been
of a nanometer OPTICAL

fiber on the left was mounted in a ferrule and rigidly NE

PITORCPRO D1T1ECTO

attached tofiber-optic
Moving a base plate. hydrophone
The right-hand fiber was held -COusT C
Z10UR
E _
in a Newport Research Corporation five-axis fiber po- (b)
© 2000 Universitysitioner, which allowed x-y-z translations and two tilts.
of Connecticut 283
This positioner alsoJr.,allowed
W. B. Spillman, the length
and R. L. Gravel of free fiber to TEST TANK

be varied,
Sperry Researchthereby allowing
Center, Sudbury, the 01776
Massachusetts natural mechanical
resonance frequency of the fiber to be easily changed.
Although the moving
Received fiber
September in this case was stripped of
24,1979
TOEILt10CCE
A fiber-optic hydrophonebuffer-coating material,
based on an intensity-modulation leaving
mechanism the glass
is described. cladding
The device ex-
possesses suffi-
cient sensitivity to detect typical deep-sea noise levels in the frequency range 100 Hz to 1 kHz and to detect static
displacements of 8.3 Xposed
10-3 A. It to
is notthe water,
susceptible this
to phase noise potential
and is insensitivesource of strength
to static-pressure head varia- Fig. 1. Moving-fiber optical hydrophone: (a) device con-
tions. The hydrophone is passive in nature and requires no electrical power. Ease of fabrication and potential low
degradation and reliability could be removed in ad-
cost make this device an attractive candidate for incorporation into practical fiber-optic accustic sensing-arrays.
figuration, (b) experimental setup.

0146-9592/80/010030-02$0.50/0 t 1980, Optical Society of America

Considerable effort has been expended during the vanced versions of the device. This could be done ei-
past few years to develop fiber-optic acoustic sensors. ther by rebuffering the fiber or by surrounding it with
change in the power coupled into the fiber. Such sensors can be built to measure pressure
variations in medical as well as other applications requiring monitoring operating pressures of
up to 4 mega Pascal (~ 600 psi) (Farmer and Digges). Such a device can be used for the
measurement of pressure in the arteries, bladder, urethra, etc. Several experiments have shown a
very good correlation between this sensor and other conventional sensors.

Figure 7-19 Light returning to the detector changes as the shape of the reflecting diaphragm changes
due to changes in external pressure.

If the diaphragm at the output is removed and the light beam is allowed to fall on the sample,
light that is reflected or scattered is again picked up by the fiber and detected and processed by
the detector. With analysis of the returning optical beam, information about the physical and
chemical properties of the blood can be obtained. Thus, if the scattering takes place from
flowing blood, the scattered light beam is shifted in frequency due to the Doppler effect.
(Doppler effect refers to the apparent frequency shift of a wave detected by an observer—