NAME: DATE:

SECTION:

PART A—EXTRINSIC EYE MUSCLES

 Observe the models and diagrams of the eye.
 Identify and learn the actions and innervations of the eye muscles listed below.
 Label the diagram below.

EXTRINSIC EYE MUSCLES

 Superior rectus

Medial rectus

Inferior rectus
 Superior oblique Lateral rectus


Inferior oblique
1. SUPERIOR OBLIQUE

2.SUPERIOR RECTUS

3.MEDIAL RECTUS

4.LATERAL RECTUS

5. INFERIOR RECTUS

6.INFERIOR OBLIQUE
PART B—EYE STRUCTURES
Observe the models of the eye. Identify and learn the functions of the structures below.
Label the diagram below.

INTERNAL STRUCTURES

Sclera Iris Optic nerve Choroid Pupil

Scleral venous sinus(Canal of Schlemm) RetinaMacula lutea/Fovea centralis Conjunctiva

Anterior segmentAnterior chamber Posterior chamber

Lacrimal apparatus Lacrimal gland Lacrimal canaliculi Lacrimal punctaLacrimal sac

Optic nerve Posterior segment Cornea Lens Ora serrata

Ciliary body Ciliary zonule (suspensory ligament) Vitreous humor

Optic disc Nasolacrimal duct

 Sclera
Ora Serrata

Ciliary Body

Choroid Iris

Retina
Anterior Segment

Anterior Pole
Macula Lutea
Lens

Ciliary Zonule

Scleral Venous
Sinus
Optic Nerve

Optic Disc
Posterior
Segment

1. Sclera - Protecting the eyeball

2. Choroid - supplies the outer retina with nutrients, and maintains the temperature and volume
of the eye.

3. Retina - is an essential part of the eye that enables vision. Its job is to receive light from the
lens, convert it to neural signals and transmit them to the brain for visual recognition.

4. Macula Lutea - responsible for sharp, detailed central vision

5. Optic Nerve - transmits sensory information for vision in the form of electrical impulses from
the eye to the brain.

6. Optic Disc - transfer signals from the photoreceptors of the eye to the optic nerve, allowing us
to see.

7. Posterior Segment - captures the light that enters the eye and transmits that information to
the brain.
8. Scleral Venous Sinus - collects aqueous humor from the anterior chamber and delivers it into
the bloodstream via the anterior ciliary veins.

9. Ciliary Zonule - plays a key role in ocular function, centering the lens on the optical axis and
transmitting the forces that mold its shape during accommodation.

10. Lens - to transmit light, focusing it on the retina.

11. Anterior Pole – the area responsible for mapping meaning on to sound through evidence
from tasks such as object naming.

12. Anterior Segment - nourishes the internal structures.

13. Iris - controls the amount of light that enters the eye by opening and closing the pupil.

14.Ciliary Body - changes the shape of the lens when the eye focuses.

15.Ora Serrata - marks the transition from the simple non-photosensitive area of the retina to
the complex, multi-layered photosensitive region.
PART C—RETINAL LAYER
Identify and learn the functions of the following structures.
a. Sclera
b. Choroid
c. Retina
i. Photoreceptor layer
aa. Rods
bb. Cones
d. Ganglion layer
e. Bipolar layer
Label the diagrams below.

1. Ganglion Layer
2. Bipolar Layer
3. Photo- receptor layer
4. Choroid
5. Sclera
6. Retina

7. Cones

8. Rods

PART D—VISUAL TESTS

1. Visual Acuity—Snellen Eye Chart ( SEE SEPARATE FILE)
REMOVE your glasses or contact lenses and stand or sit 20 feet from the eye chart.
Keep BOTH eyes open and cover one eye with the palm of your hand, or a piece of paper
without pressing on the eyelid.
READ out loud the SMALLEST line of letters you can see on the chart.
Cover the other eye and begin the test again.
RECORD your visual acuity.
Visual Acuity:
If you have read the test as successfully with the right eye as with the left eye, you probably have
goodcentralacuity.
2. Astigmatism Test
Place yourself at approximately 3 feet from the chart.
Cover one eye with your hand, without pressing on the lid, and test whether all the lines appear
black.
Cover the other eye and begin the test again.
If some of the lines appear grayer and some blacker, you probably have an astigmatism.

3. Dominant Eye Test

Make a small hole in a piece of paper.
Place a coin at your feet on the floor.
Hold the paper with the hole in it at waist level.
Locate the coin through the hole and close your right eye. If the coin DISAPPEARS you have a
dominant RIGHT eye. If the coin does NOT DISAPPEAR you have a dominant LEFT eye.
RECORD your dominant eye.
Dominant Eye:
4. Blind Spot Test
Hold this page approximately centered about 20 inches in front of your face with the LEFT eye
CLOSED.
Focus on the cross below. At this distance both the cross and the circle should be seen.
Gradually bring the page closer until the circle cannot be seen. At this point the image is
focused on
the blind spot.
Bring the page closer to your face. The circle should reappear.
Repeat the procedure using your RIGHT eye closed.
1.Visual Acuity—Snellen Eye Chart(SEE SEPARATE FILE)

REMOVE your glasses or contact lenses and stand or sit 20 feet from the eye chart.

Keep BOTH eyes open and cover one eye with the palm of your hand, or a piece of paper without
pressing on the eyelid.

READ out loud the SMALLEST line of letters you can see on the chart. Cover the other eye and
begin the test again.

RECORD your visual acuity.

Visual Acuity:20/40

If you have read the test as successfully with the right eye as with the left eye, you probably have
good central acuity.

2.Astigmatism Test

Place yourself at approximately 3 feet from the chart.

Cover one eye with your hand, without pressing on the lid, and test whether all the lines appear
black.

Cover the other eye and begin the test again.

If some of the lines appear grayer and some blacker, you probably have anastigmatism.

3.Dominant EyeTest Make a small hole in a piece of paper. Placea coin at your feet on the floor.

Hold the paper with the hole in it at waist level.

Locate the coin through the hole and close your right eye. If the coincDISAPPEARS you have a
dominant RIGHT eye. If the coin does NOT DISAPPEAR you have a dominant LEFT eye.

RECORD your dominant eye.

Dominant Eye: Right Eye

4.BlindSpot Test

Hold this page approximately centered about 20 inches infront of your face with the LEFT eye
CLOSED.
Focus on the cross below. At this distance both the cross and the circle should be seen.

Gradually bring the page closer until the circle cannot be seen. At this point the image is focused
on the blind spot.

Bring the page closer to your face. The circle should reappear. Repeat the procedure using your
RIGHT eye closed.

5. Color Blindness Test (Daltonism)—Ishihara Test

Identify the hidden numbersin the following plateswithin 5 seconds.
RECORD your observations below each plate.

12 8 5

45 7 26
 74 6 3

PART E—VISUAL PATHWAY

Review the structures of the visual pathway (in text book)
 PART G—QUESTIONS

1. What is accommodation?
Accommodation is the process whereby the eye is able to change the point of focus from a distant
object to a near object. It’s an optical change in the eye and happens when the muscles inside the
eye contract, allowing the optical power of the crystalline lens to be increased so that near objects
can be brought into focus on the retina.

2.What is presbyopia?
Presbyopia is the gradual loss of your eyes' ability to focus on nearby objects. It's a natural, often
annoying part of aging. Presbyopia usually becomes noticeable in your early to mid-40s and
continues to worsen until around age 65. You may become aware of presbyopia when you start
holding books and newspapers at arm's length to be able to read them.

3a. Explain the term “bleaching of the pigment”.

Breakdown of the retinal-opsin combination is called bleaching of the pigment. It occurs with
exposure combination is called bleaching of the pigment. It occurs with exposure to light.When
the rod photopigments are exposed to light they undergo a process called bleaching. It is called
bleaching because the photopigment color actually become almost transparent. In the dark when
they regenerate and regain their pigmentation again.

3b. What is the ultimate result of “bleaching of the pigment”?

Bleaching limits the degree to which the rods are stimulated, decreasing their sensitivity to bright
light and allowing cone cells (the other type of photoreceptor in the retina) to mediate vision in
bright environments.The fading of colour was later attributed to the destruction of rhodopsin, via
a process known as bleaching. Bleaching and the subsequent regeneration of rhodopsin are major
steps in the visual cycle the series of biochemical reactions that is critical for vision in low light.

4.Why do people say that carrots promote good vision?

People say that carrots promote good vision because Carrots are good sources of lutein and beta
carotene, which are antioxidants that benefit eye health and protect against age-related
degenerative eye diseases. Your body converts beta carotene into vitamin A, a nutrient that helps
you see in the dark.
5a. Explain why it is difficult to see when you first enter a darkened movie theatre.
If we go from the outdoors on a bright sunny day into a very dimly lit room, we are hardly able to
see our surroundings at first. As time goes by, however, we gradually become able to detect the
room's contents. This phenomenon is known as "dark adaptation," and it typically takes between
20 and 30 minutes to reach its maximum, depending on the intensity of light exposure in the
previous surroundings.The human retina can perform its light-detection function in an astounding
range of light intensities, from bright sunlight to dim starlight, by relying on two types of light-
sensitive cells, or photoreceptors. The first, the cones, evolved for day vision and can respond to
changes in brightness even in extremely high levels of illumination. Following its activation by
light, an opsin molecule releases its transformed retinal molecule. Free opsin that has released its
retinal molecule is likely to be the molecule responsible for the retina's reduced sensitivity to light.

5b. Which photoreceptors must be functioning to see in the dark?

Rods are highly sensitive photoreceptors and are used for vision under dark-dim conditions at
night. Cones contain cone opsins as their visual pigments and, depending on the exact structure of
the opsin molecule, are maximally sensitive to either long wavelengths of light

5c. Why aren’t they working when you first enter?

This is because when we there is a presence of light then our iris makes our pupil smaller so that
less light can enter our eyes and when we enter into a dark room then less light enters our eye
and we can't see the things.

6.What is the anatomical relationship of the optic chiasm to the sella turcica and what is the
clinical significance of this relationship?
Anatomical variations of the optic chiasm are described based on its relationship to the sella
turcica. The sella turcica is a saddle-shaped bony formation of the anterior sphenoidal body. The
diaphragm sellae forms the roof of the sella turcica; it is bordered anteriorly by the tuberculum
sellae and posteriorly by the dorsum sellae.The relationship between the optic chiasm and the
sella turcica is very important during approaches.One relationship that dictates what approach is
taken is whether the optic chiasm is pre- or postfixed or in a “normal” location, that is, centered
over the diaphragma sella.

7.Explain anatomically why your eyes often water and become irritated after you develop an
infection of the throat.
When allergens reach the surface of the eye, cells that are part of our immune system (mast cells)
release histamine, causing inflammation of the eye tissues and specifically in the conjunctiva the
mucous membrane covering the front of the eye and under the eyelids cousing it to water.When
the duct gets narrow or blocked, the tears back up and your eyes get watery and irritated or
infected. Signs include mucus, crusty eyelashes, blurred vision, and blood in your tears.

8a. What is glaucoma?

Glaucoma is a group of eye conditions that damage the optic nerve, the health of which is vital for
good vision. This damage is often caused by an abnormally high pressure in your eye. Glaucoma is
one of the leading causes of blindness for people over the age of 60. It can occur at any age but is
more common in older adults

8b. What causes it?

The fluid inside the eye, called aqueous humor, nourishes the lens and the cells of the cornea and
maintains a pressure, which allows the cornea to maintain its convex shape that is necessary for
good vision. The pressure inside the eye or the intraocular pressure is maintained at a constant
due to drainage of excess fluid out of the aqueous humor.Increased pressure inside the eye due to
the obstructed flow of aqueous humor lead to glaucoma.

9. Explain why cones are able to detect color while rods cannot.
In human vision rod cells do not contribute to color vision, because they are highly sensitive to
intensity, and thus they are mostly saturated in their response (does not induce firing of
downstream bipolar cells) during normal daylight conditions. Rod cells specialize for night vision
which is crucial for survival.

Cone cells are each connected to their own neurone. This allows them a great deal of resolution
as the brain can interpret the exact position of the cone cell that was stimulated by a light photon.
However in order to improve low light vision, multiple rod cells are connected to a single
neurone , this is called summation. Whilst it does allow for an action potential to be generated in
low light conditions, it greatly reduces resolution as the brain can not know precisely which rod
cell was stimulated.