Analysis of Surge

Analysis of Surge
Macmillan Civil Engineering Hydraulics

General Editor: E. M. Wilson, PH.D., M.sc., F.I.C.E.
Reader in Civil Engineering, University of Salford
FLOW IN CHANNELS: R. H. J. Sellin

ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY: E. M. Wilson
COASTAL HYDRAULICS: A.M. Muir Wood
Analysis of Surge
John Pickford, M.Sc.(Eng.), C.Eng., M.I.C.E.

Department of Civil Engineering
Loughborough University of Technology
Macmillan
© John Pickford 1969
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1969
First published 1969
Published by
MACMILLAN AND CO LTD
Little Essex Street London wc2
and also at Bombay Calcutta and Madras
Macmillan South Africa (Publishers) Pty Ltd Johannesburg
The Macmillan Company of Australia Pty Ltd Melbourne
The Macmillan Company of Canada Ltd Toronto
Gill and Macmillan Ltd Dublin
ISBN 978-1-349-00162-0 ISBN 978-1-349-00160-6 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-00160-6
Preface
Many engineers claim that they "do not understand surge", but for many
others there is a fascination in the varying surge pressures resulting from
changes of flow. It is hoped that this book will satisfy both groups by
providing clear explanations of surge phenomena, and by investigating a
variety of methods of dealing with the subject.
The material is presented in such a way that it should be a valuable
textbook for undergraduates dealing with surge problems for the first time.
Postgraduate students and practising engineers should find it a useful
reference for detailed study and a guide for design analysis.
Waterhammer is investigated from first principles along well-trodden
paths. Particular reference is given to graphical analysis.
In the chapters devoted to surge tanks a number of methods of cal-
culating surge heights are considered, and special attention is given to the
'logarithmic method', and to finite difference methods which are particu-
larly suitable for computer analysis.
The author has carried out an intensive investigation of mass oscillations
in surge tanks: over 20 000 measurements of surge heights were taken in a
laboratory model, and several thousand surge heights were obtained by
analogue and digital computers. The methods described in this book have
been well-tried, and have been included only when they have proved
satisfactory.
Many worked examples are given and S.I. units are used throughout,
although traditional British units are mentioned when it is thought that
familiar quantities may be helpful.
The material has been selected so as to deal with the practical aspects of
surge which are most useful for civil engineers. Reference is made
throughout the book to the literature of the subject so that readers wishing
to know more about particular aspects can readily find further information.
John Pickford
Loughborough
v
Contents
Preface v
1 Waterhammer, surge tanks and open

channel surge 1
2 Introduction to waterhammer 5
2.1 Incompressible water column theory
2.2 Valve movement
2.3 Limiting pressures
2.4 Equivalent length of pipe
3 Elastic theory for a simple pipe 18

3.1 Sudden closure
3.2 Pressure increase in a rigid pipe
3.3 Strain energy waterhammer theory
3.4 Fundamental differential equations of water-
hammer
3.5 Velocity of propagation
3.6 Direct application of elastic waterhammer theory
4 End conditions 32
4.1 Reflection at a reservoir
4.2 Reflection at a dead end
vii
viii Contents
4.3 Effects of changes of pipe
4.4 Effect of junction
4.5 Effect of restriction
4.6 Oscillation of the pressure wave
5 Non-instantaneous closure and opening 42

5.1 Rapid closure of downstream valve
5.2 Slow closure of downstream valve
5.3 Other types of valve movement
6 Graphical analysis 50
6.1 Pressure-velocity diagrams at fixed points
6.2 Pressure-discharge diagrams at fixed points
6.3 Schnyder-Bergeron diagrams
6.4 Surge diagrams for uniform pipe with hypothetical
conditions
6.5 Comparison of surge diagram with analytical
method
6.6 Intermediate times and positions
6. 7 Series pipes
6.8 Branched pipes
6.9 Effect of hydraulic losses
6.10 Other conditions
7 Waterhammer in pumping mains 70

7.1 Sudden stopping of pumping
7.2 Separation of water columns
7.3 Pump with inertia
7.4 Reverse flow
Surge control 78
7.5 Air vessels
7.6 Pump by-passes and feeder tank
7.7 Parallel pumps
7.8 Waterhammer in delivery pipe from reciprocating
pump
Contents ix
8 W aterhammer in hydro-electric supply
ptpes 87
8.1 End conditions at a surge tank
8.2 Simple tank near valve
8.3 Throttled tank near valve
8.4 Tank between pipeline and penstock
9 Introduction to surge tanks 98

9.1 Purpose of surge tanks
9.2 Oscillation phenomena
9.3 Design considerations
9.4 Effect of friction
9.5 Surge tank types
10 Theory of mass oscillation 108

10.1 Fundamental equations
10.2 Simple undamped oscillation
10.3 Logarithmic equations
10.4 Logarithmic curves
10.5 Stability
11 Finite difference methods I 129

11.1 Outline of the methods
11.2 Fundamental finite difference methods
11.3 Successive trials (Pressel's method)
11.4 Simple arithmetic method
11.5 Jakobsen's method
11.6 Escande's method
12 Finite difference methods II 141

12.1 M odificati ons
12.2 Flow to turbines during oscillation: sudden valve
movements
X Contents
12.3 Linear change of flow
12.4 Constant valve opening
12.5 Constant power output
12.6 Flow from several sources
12.7 Variable area tank
12.8 Spilling tank
12.9 Differential tank
12.10 Branching tank
12.11 Tail race tank
12.12 Multiple tanks
13 Approximate methods 162

13.1 Relative values--simple tank
13.2 Other approximate equations for simple tanks
13.3 Classified diagrams for throttled tanks
14 Graphical methods 175

14.1 Schoklitsch method
14.2 Calame and Gaden radial method
14.3 Surge height trace by analogue computer
15 Open channel surge 184

15.1 Unsteady flow in open channels
15.2 Backwater surges
List of Notations 193
Index 197
A list of references and Suggestions for further reading is given

at the end of each chapter.
1 Waterhammer, Surge Tanks and
Open Channel Surge
I saw him beat the surges under him,
And ride upon their backs.
SHAKESPEARE: The Tempest
In the following pages we deal with some aspects of hydraulic transients-

the variations of flow and pressure which occur when one steady state
changes to another steady state.
For example, when an hydro-electric turbine comes 'on load' the initial
steady state is zero load at static head and the final steady state is the flow
and related head needed to provide the power demanded by the generator.
During the time required for the water in the conduits leading to the turbine
to settle down to final steady conditions there are rapidly-moving pressure
waves in the water. These waves move at the speed of sound and the
phenomenon is known as waterhammer.
If the water is supplied through a tunnel or pipeline which has a surge
tank, much slower mass oscillation or surges also occur, whereas in an
open headrace channel a drawdown surge occurs.
There are similar hydraulic transients when the discharge from a pump
alters, and the waterhammer pressure variations following pump stoppage
are especially important. 'Waterhammer' can often be heard when a tap
is suddenly closed.
The term 'surge' is used to cover the three main types of hydraulic
transient-waterhammer, mass oscillation and open channel surge.
The high pressure sometimes associated with surge in closed conduits
can become dangerous, occasionally leading to fracture of a pipe or pump
casingl-4, The high pressure may be due to resonance, 5 caused by the
I
2 Analysis of Surge
relationship, under certain conditions, of the natural frequency of the
pipeline and the hydraulic transient.
Failure of a pipeline can have very serious consequences, as in the
Lac Blanc-Lac Noir accident in 1934, when the force of the rupture was
so great that a 12 ton piece of concrete surrounding the pipe was thrown
50 metres. 2 •6
In recent years computers have been increasingly used to analyse surge
conditions. Numerical methods form the basis for most computer studies
of surge tanks and have been dealt with at some length in Chapters 11 and
12. Few descriptions of computer techniques for general surge tank
problems have been published. On the other hand there is a wealth of
literature for those interested in the application of computers to water-
hammer,7-20 and the emphasis in the first part of this book is on the use
of surge diagrams for waterhammer analysis.
Joukowski 21 first established the basic waterhammer equations in the
closing years of last century and Allievi 22 in the early twentieth century
set down his 'classical' theory. Graphical surge analysis was developed by
Schnyder23,24 and Bergeron25 in the 1930s and was introduced to English
readers by Angus. 26 Lupton27 in 1953 wrote an extremely lucid and
readable account of the graphical method.
The most valuable work on surge tanks was published by Calame and
Gaden in 1926; their Theorie des chambres d' equilibre 28 introduced non-
dimensional 'relative values' and a system of notation which is widely used
on the Continent. Earlier, Johnson29,so had introduced the differential
tank which became popular in the American continent but has not been
generally accepted elsewhere. Since the last war, Escande* has published
extensively on various aspects of surge tanks and Jaeger* has investigated
a variety of surge problems.
There is fascination for small boys and engineers alike in the movement
of water. When the flow itself is changing, the study of the movement
becomes doubly interesting. It is hoped that your study of surges will be
full of interest, and that the complexities of the subject are made reasonably
clear.
The symbols suggested by the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers form the basis for the notation in the chapters dealing with
waterhammer. For surge tanks there are wide variations in usage, and
when referring to other literature readers are warned to be careful! An
innovation is the use of the subscript 'f' to indicate final steady conditions.
This has been of especial value when writing computer programmes
which may be equally applied to partial or complete opening or closure.
* See index.
Waterhammer, Surge Tanks, Open Channel Surge 3
REFERENCES
1. FERRAND, G.: 'A propos d'un accident survenu a une conduit forcee apres
quarante ans d'exploitation,' Houille Blanche, (1953), p. 20.
2. JAEGER, C.: 'Water-hammer effects in power conduits,' Civ. Engng pub!.
Wks Rev., (1948), 43, pp. 74-76, 138-140, 192-194, 244-246.
3. JAEGER, C.: Water hammer, Chapter XX of 'Hydro-electric engineering
practice,' Ed. J. Guthrie Brown (Blackie, 2nd Edn, 1964).
4. WooDWARD, A. C.: 'Some practical aspects of pressure surge control,'
Allen Engng Rev., (1964), No. 55, pp. 16-19.
5. JAEGER, C.: 'The theory of resonance in hydropower systems,' J. bas. Engng,
Trans. Am. Soc. mech. Engrs, (1963), 85, 631-640.
6. JAEGER, C.: 'Water-hammer effects in power conduits: accidents due to
water-hammer', J. Instn civ. Engrs, (1948), 29, pp. 334-338 (Abstract).
7. BIRO, C.: 'Etude du coup de belier dans des conduits a caracteristiques
multiples,' Cong. int. Ass. hydraul. Res., (1961), pp. 673-679.
8. CHAPPY, A.: 'Calcul des coups de belier et des phenomenons transitoires
per calculateurs electronique,' Houille Blanche, (1967), pp. 193-194.
9. Fox, J. A.: 'The use of the digital computer in the solution of water-hammer
problems,' Proc. Instn civ. Engrs, (1968), 39, pp. 127-131.
10. HARDING, D. A.: 'A method of programming graphical surge analysis for
medium-speed computers,' Symp. Surges Pipelines, Proc. Instn mech.
Engrs, (1966), 180, 3E, pp. 83-97.
11. HAYASHI, T.: 'Water-hammer in bifurcating pipe-lines,' Cong. int. Ass.
hydraul. Res., (1961), pp. 740-748.
12. MARCHAL, M., FLESCH, G., and SuTER, P.: 'The calculation of water-
hammer problems by means of the digital computer,' Intern. Symp.
Waterhammer pumped storage Projects, ASME, (1965), pp. 168-188.
13. PAYNTER, H. M.: 'Methods and results from M.I.T. studies in unsteady
flow,' J. Boston Soc. civ. Engrs, (1952), 39, pp. 120-165.
14. STREETER, V. L.: 'Waterhammer analysis of pipelines,' J. Hydraul. Div.,
Proc. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs, (1964), 90, HY4, pp. 151-172.
15. STREETER, V. L.: 'Computer solution of surge problems,' Symp. Surges
Pipelines, Proc. Instn mech. Engrs, (1966), 180, 3E, pp. 62-82.
16. STREETER, V. L.: 'Water-hammer analysis of distribution systems,' J. Hydraul.
Div., Proc. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs, (1967), 93, HY5, pp. 185-201.
17. STREETER, V. L. and WYLIE, E. B.: Hydraulic transients (McGraw-Hill, 1967).
18. THOMASSON, P. G.: 'The development of a method of using analogue
computers in surge analysis,' Br. Hydromech. Res. Ass., (1967), 9th
Members Conf, SP921.
19. VEGGEBERG, J. M.: 'Digital computer solution for complex tunnel surges,'
Pure Water, (1959), 11, pp. 54-68.
20. WooD, D. J., DORSCH, R. G., and LIGHTNER, C.: 'Wave-plan analysis of
unsteady flow in closed circuits,' J. Hydraul Div., Proc. Am. Soc. mech.
Engrs, (1966), 92, HY2, pp. 83-110.
21. JOUKOWSKI, N.: 'Waterhammer' (Translated by Miss 0. Simin), Proc. Am.
WatWks Ass., (1904), 24, pp. 341-424.
22. ALLIEVI, L.: The theory of water hammer (Translated by E. E. Halmos),
Am. Soc. mech. Engrs, (1929).
4 Analysis of Surge
23. ScHNYDER, 0.: 'Druckstosse in Pumpensteigletrungen,' Schweiz. Bauztg.,
(1929), 94, pp. 271-273, 283-286.
24. ScHNYDER, 0.: 'Druckstosse in Rohrleitungen,' WassKraft WassWirt,
(1932), 27, pp. 49-54, 64-70.
25. BERGERON, L.: Waterhammer in hydraulics and wave surges in electricity
(Wiley, 1961).
26. ANGUS, R. W.: 'Waterhammer in pipes, including those supplied by
centrifugal pumps: graphical treatment,' Proc. lnstn mech. Engrs, (1937),
136, pp. 245-291.
27. LUPTON, H. R.: 'Graphical analysis of pressure-surge in pumping systems,'
J. Instn Wat. Engrs, (1953), 7, pp. 87-125.
28. CALAME, J., and GADEN, D.: 'Theorie des chambres d'equilibre' (Gautier-
Villars, 1926).
29. JOHNSON R. D.: 'The surge tank in water power plants,' Trans. Am. Soc.
mech. Engrs, (1908), 30, pp. 443-474.
30. JOHNSON, R. D.: 'The differential surge tank,' Trans. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs,
(1915), 78, pp. 760-784.
FURTHER READING
DUBIN, C.: Protection of pipelines against water hammer (Int. Wat. Supp. Ass.,
1958), pp. 74-135.
GIBSON, A. H.: Hydraulics and its applications (Constable, 5th Edn., 1952),
pp. 222-245.
JAEGER, C.: Engineering fluid mechanics (Blackie, 1956).
KENNEDY, J. F.: 'A short bibliography of references on water hammer', J. New
Engl. WatWks Ass., (1964), 78, 270-272.
PARMAKIAN, J.: 'Waterhammer analysis' (Dover, 1955).
2 Introduction to Waterhammer
Any alteration of the rate of flow of a fluid passing through a pipe causes
a change of pressure. Sudden alteration of the flow rate can give rise to
surges of pressure which move up and down the pipe causing it to 'knock'.
This effect is sometimes noticed when a bath-tap is shut quickly and the
knocking noise can occasionally be heard all over the house. 'Water-
hammer' is the term applied to pressure surges set up in this way whether
actual 'hammering' or knocking occurs or not.
Even if the velocity head is negligible, the closure of a valve at the down-
stream end of a pipe through which fluid is passing results in an immediate
rise of pressure, as Fig. 2.1 (a). Opening of a downstream valve results in
an immediate drop of pressure, Fig. 2.1 (b).
(a)
(b)
FIG. 2.1
Conversely, when a valve shuts at the upstream end of a pipe there is an

immediate drop of pressure, and opening of an upstream valve causes a
rise of pressure. The same effect occurs when a pump delivering water to
a rising main suddenly stops or starts.
5
6 Analysis of Surge
When the fluid is a gas (i.e., the fluid is 'compressible') the change of
pressure causes change of density. Liquids are almost incompressible,
but we will see in Chapter 3 that the compressibility, or elasticity, of a
liquid has an influence on the pressure produced by a change of flow.
Although the phenomenon with which we are dealing is called 'water-
hammer' it applies equally to other liquids, and although 'water' is referred
to continually in the following pages, it may be assumed that the same
considerations apply to other liquids. 1
2.1 Incompressible water column theory

If water were completely incompressible and if it were flowing in a
completely rigid pipe, there would be no 'waterhammer', but there would
still be a change of pressure on altering the rate of flow, due to the inertia
of the flowing liquid. The assumption of complete incompressibility and
rigidity may be made when the valve movement, which causes the change
of flow, is very slow or the pipe is short. 2 The valve movement must also be
smooth, so that there is no shock at the beginning and end of the closure.
Consider a rigid pipe between two reservoirs A and C, Fig. 2.2, in
which there is a valve at B. If the velocity head and secondary losses are
neglected, the hydraulic gradient abc in Fig. 2.2 (a) gives the pressure
for all points along the pipe when there is a steady flow Qo with the valve
fully open. The slope of the hydraulic gradient is a function of the flow.
For example if the friction loss is proportional to the square of the velocity,
i = (4f/d)vo 2/2g. In terms of flow i ~ (f/3d5)Qo 2 when dis measured in
metres and Qo in m3 js, or i ""(Jj10d 5 )Qo 2 when dis measured in feet and
Qo in cusecs.
If the valve is closed gradually there is a change of pressure throughout
the pipeline as soon as the valve starts to close, even before there is a
sensible change of flow. Immediately upstream of the valve the pressure
rises by an amount h1 so that the hydraulic gradient in the length AB is
along the line ab1, Fig. 2.2 (b). Immediately downstream of the valve the
pressure falls by an amount h2 so that the hydraulic gradient in the
length BC is along the line b2c.
The change of pressure head h1 and h2 is caused by inertia. The water
approaching the valve from A finds its path impeded by the valve; it is
unable to move with its previous velocity vo (vo= Qo/A), and since the
water is incompressible the whole of the column AB is retarded. In other
words it suffers from a negative acceleration.
By- Newton's second law the mass of water in the pipe multiplied by the
acceleration is equal to the force applied. The force is associated with the
inertia head h1 acting over the cross-section of the pipe at B.
Introduction to Waterhammer 7
al Initial steady conditions valve open I bl Immediate! y offer valve movement begins
f = +sf where sf is very small
I
I
I
I
I
IP
I cl Same cond1tions as for I b) I d) During valve movement
-+--==·-·-·-·-.II£ I
I
I
I
I
I
I
f
I
I
I
I!I"t-·-·-·-
I
L__v=_o_:._o_=_o_ _--.+.-----__.l
I e) Immediately before valve movement ends

f =T -df where df is very small
FIG. 2.2
8 Analysis of Surge
The mass of water in column AB = pAL~,
. . dv
The acce1eratwn IS dt
Therefore (2.1)
L1 dv h dv. .
and at B h 1 =- - -d w ere -d 1s negative.
g t t
At other points along the pipe the inertia head depends on the length of
column retarded. For example, at point P, Fig. 2.2 (c), distance l from A,
the column AP is retarded and the inertia head is given by
l dv
hz = - - -
g dt
In the same way the column of water downstream of the valve is
retarded by the force associated with the inertia head h2 acting over the
cross-section of the pipe at B, and
h2 = _ L2 dv
g dt
Ldv
Therefore in general, a h=- - - (2.2)
g dt
For simplicity, the effect of valve closure may be considered as a secon-
dary loss acting at the valve. Closure results in a reduction of flow and
the head loss due to friction is reduced. Put in other words, the secondary
loss at the valve leaves less head available to overcome friction and the
flow is reduced correspondingly.
At time t after the start of closure the valve is partly closed: the velocity
of the water is v and the flow is Q. The friction head loss in the sections
AB and BC, assuming the 'v 2-law' applies, is given by
, 4fL2 v2
hj2 =---
d 2g
The hydraulic gradient and the total pressure are as shown in Fig. 2.2 (d);
h1' and h2' are the inertia heads at time t.
Immediately before the valve movement stops, the water in the pipe
has been brought to rest and therefore v = 0 and h1 = 0. The pressure
head upstream of the valve is above the static head by hi" and the pressure
head downstream of the valve is below the static head of the lower reservoir
by h2"·
If the valve is closed in time Tin such a way that the retardation is at
a constant rate, then the acceleration in AB is -vofT where v0 is the
initial steady velocity = Qo/A. In BC the initial steady velocity may be
considered as being -vo since it is away from the point B, and the change
of velocity in time Tis 0 -( -vo) = +vo.
Hence h1 = h1' = h1" = (LI/g)vo/T
h2 = h2' = h2" = (L2jg)vo/T
h1 = (1/g)vo/T
or in general terms, h=!:'!!!. (2.3)

gT
Example 2.1
Water flows from a reservoir, along a rigid horizontal pipeline 20m below the
water surface of the reservoir. The pipe is 0·15 m diameter and 1500 m long and
the water discharges to atmosphere through a valve at the end of the pipe. If the
valve closes in 4 seconds to give uniform retardation, calculate the total pressure
in the pipe just upstream of the valve and at a point P 500 m.from the valve when
the water is flowing with half its original velocity. Neglect the velocity head and
secondary losses and assume that the water is incompressible. f = 0·005
SOLUTION
_ 4fL vo 2 • _ J(ht X d X 2g)
ht - d 2g .. vo - 4fL
= J( 20 X 0·15 X 2 X 9·81)
4 x 0·005 x 1500 = 1'40 m/s
For uniform retardation the inertia head just upstream of the valve
L vo 1500 1·40
h = gT = 9·81 X 4 = 53·6 m.
2
When the flow is reduced, the friction head h/ = ( : 0 ) X ht
i.e. at half flow h/ = (t)2 x 20 = 5 m

:. Pressure head at valve = Hs - h/ + h = 20 - 5 + 53·6 = 68·6 m
At point P, hP = (1/L)h = (1000/1500) x 53·6 = 35·7 m
(ht)p' = (1/L)h/ = (1000/1500) X 5 = 3-3m.
:. Pressure head at point P = Hs - (h/)P + hP = 20 - 3·3 + 35·7 = 52·4 m
The variation of the pressure head with time can be shown graphically.
Figure 2.3 (a) shows this variation for the length AB when the retardation
is constant. 'h' is a constant pressure above the steady head corresponding
10 Analysis of Surge
to the instantaneous velocity at any time. The variation of velocity or
flow during closure, when plotted against time for constant retardation, is
a straight line, as shown in Fig. 2.3 (b).
~,-,---,~ I h{ // .
. ~/ I
I / i
I / I
_L·
i~
/
/ .I
--~/ I
I
-----T -----~~ Time
(b) Closure Closure

starts ends
vo, Oo j
_L_j_·-·-"'~- -·- ---:::..~--
FIG. 2.3
Partial changes of flow. Since the pressure changes which we have been
considering depend upon the rate of change of velocity, they apply, with
appropriate changes of sign, for opening as well as closure. They also
apply whether the opening or closure is complete or partial.
For example, if a valve is partly open at first and is adjusted to give a
larger or smaller flow, there will be a corresponding change of pressure.
For constant acceleration/retardation, equation (2.3) becomes
h = ~(vo- Vf) ( 24)
g T .
v0 is the initial steady velocity and Vf is the final steady velocity of the
water in the pipeline.
In Chapter 3 we will deal with elastic waves which are generated in a
pipeline when a valve moves. The incompressible theory which we have
been considering in this section gives a true account of the pressure varia-
tions only when the wave caused by the valve movement returns to the
valve to find conditions there substantially the same as when it left
the valve. We shall find in Chapter 3 that for slow valve movements the
pressure calculated by the elastic theory is twice that obtained by the
incompressible theory.
2.2 Valve movement

In Section 2.1 two separate cases were dealt with together. Length AB
has a downstream control, and reduction of flow results in positive inertia
head. Length BC has an upstream control, and reduction of flow results
in negative inertia head. The case of pump failure results in a negative
inertia head in the rising main in the same way as in pipe BC.
If the valve were to open instead of closing, the inertia heads would be
reversed in sign. A pipeline with downstream control has negative inertia
pressure; a pipeline with upstream control has a positive inertia pressure.
(a)
-----~-=-=--·==-= ._--=-=.: ::-::-:.·_-:: ·_--::= ~-1- .

I
I H
1L ___ _
(b)
1·0
'1.-6/-- vr /
0·8
~~
v (y :Le-1'V/
0
<,_"
0·6 I I I
...!::. I I I
Vo
I /
OA
I V'_
0·2 I I /
J /
0
(£, v
0 0·2 OA 0 6 0 8 1·0
A0 /A
FIG. 2.4
We considered especially the case of uniform acceleration/retardation.
In fact it is impracticable to make a valve which will give uniform rate of
change of flow. 4 Often a gate valve is used to control the flow, and the
movement of the valve is frequently uniform, especially if it is motorized,
but this does not give uniform acceleration.
A partly shut valve results in a head-loss hL where
Ao is the area of the passage through the partly-shut valve and Cc is the
coefficient of contraction. AoCc is the flow area just downstream of the
valve.
For a uniform pipe with constant difference of head between upstream
and downstream ends, the total head-loss is equal to the available head H,
Fig. 2.4 (a). If the friction loss in the pipe of length L is given by the
Darcy equation with constant J, then
H= {(~
AoCc
-t)2 + 4JL}
d 2g
v2 (2.5)
The variation of v with AoCc may be shown by curves, which may be of

non-dimensional form.
Example 2.2
Draw curves to show the variation of velocity against variation of flow area for
pipelines in which 4fL/d = 0·2, 2·0 and 20 when there is a constant head loss in
the pipeline:
SOLUTION {( AoCc
~ _ 1)2 + 4fL}
d 2g
v2 = H
= 2gH
= - - . H- vo 2 4fL
when A/AoCc = 1, v2 vo2 .. - 2g X d
4fL/d
For other values of AoCc,
v2= 2H/{(~ _1)2+

g AoCc
4fL}
d
= vo2xd 4fL/{(~
AoCc
_1)2 + 4fL}
d
Therefore
i; =
J[
v 4fL/d
{(A/AoCc)-1}2 + 4fL/d
J
4JL A
If -=F --=a
d AoCc
then
~ = J((a - ~2 + F)
TABLE 2.1 (as shown in Fig. 2.4 {b))
F= 0·2 F= 2·0 F= 20
(a- 1)2 I (a- 1)2 I (a- 1) 2

a a-1 (a- 1) 2 +F v vo +F v vo vfvo
a +F
0·9 1·111 0·111 0·0123 0·2123 0·97 2·0123 0·99 20·01 1·00
0·8 1·25 0·25 0·0625 0·2625 0·87 2·0625 0·985 20·06 1·00
0·7 1·429 0-429 0·184 0·384 0·72 2·184 0·96 20·18 1·00
0·6 1·667 0·667 0·444 0·644 0·56 2·444 0·90 20·44 0·99
0·5 2·0 1·0 1·0 1·2 0·41 3·0 0·82 21·0 0·98
0·4 2·5 1·5 2·25 2·45 0·29 4·25 0·69 22·25 0·95
0·3 3·33 2·33 5·446 5·646 0·19 7·446 0·52 25·45 0·89
0·2 5·0 4·0 16·0 16·2 0·11 18·0 0·33 36·0 0·75
0·1 10·0 9·0 81·0 81·2 0·05 83·0 0·15 101·0 0·45
With a gate valve controlling flow in a circular pipe, the open area Ao
is not proportional to the movement of the valve spindle, as shown in
Fig. 2.5, where x is the distance which the valve has moved from the fully-
open position and dis the diameter or depth of the valve.
10
~ "'-..
'' ~ /C~rcul6r valve
"' "'\
0·8 '
''
'
' ',,
06
Rectangular valve ''
"
Ao '
""'
A ''
04 '
' 'J\
'~
0·2 '
'----
'\
0
0 0 2 04 0·6 0·8
1'\
1·0
xld
FIG. 2.5
A rotary type of valve, Fig. 2.6 (a), is sometimes used because the rate
of area reduction becomes less in the final part of closure. For a constant
rate of rotation the open area varies in the way shown in Fig. 2.6 (b).
Several investigators have considered the effect of rate of closure for other
types of valve. 5 •6 •7
(b) 10
['\,
0·8 ~'
\
r\' ',
0·6
\ ''
Ao
A
'\ ' ' '
\ ''
0-4 '
~ ''
'
0·2
""""'-..' ' ''
'
0
''
""'-.. ~'---'
0 0·2 0·4 0·6 0·8 1·0
!IT
FIG. 2.6
2.3 Limiting pressures

Maximum permissible bead. The maximum pressure in a pipe caused by
the combination of static head and waterhammer pressure is limited by
the strength of the pipe. To prevent dangerous conditions, with the
possibility of the pipe bursting, the stresses produced by high positive
pressure must be limited to those with which the pipe walls are able to
cope.s,9
Minimum permissible bead. When water hammer causes a drop of pressure

(e.g. opening of a downstream valve) the total head must not be allowed
to fall so low that the water vaporizes. This will be discussed again in
Section 7.2.
The vapour pressure of water varies with the temperature (see Table 2.2)
and may be taken as equivalent to 0·3 m (1 ft) water if temperature con-
ditions are unknown. Atmospheric pressure varies with altitude and
TABLE 2.2. Some properties of water
p w Vapour
Mass Weight Bulk modulus K pressure head
Temperature density density hvp
oc kg/m 3 lb/ft 3
109 N/m. 2 105 lbfin.2 m ft
0 1000 62·4 2·03 2·9 0·062 0·20
10 1000 62·4 2·14 3·0 0·125 0·41
20 998 62·3 2.23 3·2 0·238 0·78
30 996 62·2 2·30 3-3 0·431 1-41
40 992 62·0 2·33 3·4 0·75 2·46
50 988 61·7 2·34 3·4 1·26 4·13
60 983 61·4 2·32 3·4 2·03 6·65
70 978 61·0 2·28 3-3 3·17 10·4
80 972 60·6 2·22 3·2 4·82 15·8
90 965 60·2 2·15 3·1 7·15 23-4
100 958 59·8 2·06 3·0 10·30 33-8
weather, but is about 10·3 m (34ft) water. The maximum negative head
for water is therefore about 10m (33ft) measured relative to atmospheric
conditions. A 'gauge pressure' head of -10 m (- 33 ft) is the minimum
permissible. The rate of opening of a downstream valve may be limited
by the need to keep within this requirement.
When the liquid contains air or gas bubbles in solution-for example
when sewage is being pumped-the pressure of the 'vacuous space'
formed at low pressures may be much higher than the vapour pressure of
air-free liquid.
2.4 Equivalent length of pipe

The inertia pressure in a rigid pipeline consisting of two or more lengths
of different diameters may be calculated from equation (2.2) if the
'equivalent length', L', is substituted for L.
Considering a pipeline of two sections having lengths L1 and L2 and
diameters d1 and d2 (Fig. 2.7), the dynamic equations for the water
columns are similar to equation (2.1), i.e.
dv1
for section 1 : pA1L1 dt = pg(h1 - h2)A1
for section 2:
v1 and v2 are the velocities of the water in sections 1 and 2. By continuity,
AlVl = A2V2, so
h1 = - -1 ( L1 A1) dv1
+ L2- -
g A2 dt
The equivalent length L' is therefore L1 + L2(A1/A2).
f
-sect<on 2 - 1 - Section 1 - 1
Ar
1----L2- - - • + • - - -
FIG. 2.7
For a pipeline consisting of n sections, the equivalent length is given by
LnAl
.+-
An
where L1 is the section nearest to the valve.

The equivalent length of a tapered pipe of length L and end diameter d1
and d2 is given by
REFERENCES
1. KERR, S. L.: 'Surges in pipe lines-oil and water,' Trans. Am. Soc. mech.
Engrs, (1950), 72, pp. 667-677.
2. VALLENTINE, H. R.: 'Rigid water column theory for uniform gate closure',
J. Hydraul. Div., Am. Soc. civ. Engrs, (1965), 91, HY4, pp. 27-33.
3. ANGUS, R. W.: 'Waterhammer in pipes, including those supplied by centri-
fugal pumps: graphical treatment,' Proc. Instn mech. Engrs, (1937), 136,
p. 249.
4. KERR, S. L.: 'Effect of valve action on waterhammer', J. Am. Wat. Wks.
Ass., (1960), 52, pp. 65-72.
5. LUPTON, H. R.: 'Rate of closure of a single flap reflux valve,' J. Instn. Wat.
Engrs, (1960), 14, pp. 209-214.
6. LIVINGSTONE, A. C., and WILSON, J. N.: 'Effects of valve operation,' Symp.
Surges Pipelines, Proc. lnstn mech. Engrs, (1966), 180, 3E, pp. 41-51.
7. PAGDIN, B. C., and SARGINSON, E. J.: 'The analysis and elimination of
waterhammer in small bore mains,' Civ. Engng pub/. Wks. Rev., (1967), 62,
pp. 179-183, 343-346.
8. KERR, s. L., MARSTON, F. A., WOLFE, T. F., CATES, w. H., MAAHS, A. J.,
and KENNISON, H. F.: 'Standard allowances for waterhammer,' J. Am.
Wat. Wks. Ass., (1952), 44, pp. 972-995.
9. PEABODY, R. M.: 'Pump discharge valves on The Colorado River Aqueduct,'
Trans. Am. Soc. mech. Engrs, (1940), 62, pp. 555-563.
3 Elastic Theory for a Simple Pipe
3.1 Sudden closure

In the theory in Section 2.2 we assumed that water is completely incom-
pressible and that a pipe may be completely rigid. The pressure changes
obtained in this way are reasonably accurate if the change of flow is slow
and smooth. If, however, the change of flow is sudden, i.e. if T = 0,
where T is the time of the valve movement, then dvfdt would be infinite
and the pressure increase or decrease would be infinite. Experiments show
that the change of pressure is finite.
An incompressible water column brought to rest would act like a rigid
bar striking a plate-the stresses resulting from the collision would be
transmitted instantaneously through the whole column. In fact, because
of the elastic nature of the water and the pipe, the column acts rather like
a goods train with loose couplings suddenly stopping, 1 Fig. 3.1.
l,c;auo~
~DO~
Mauoa
fiuXJo~"
FIG. 3.1
The same sort of thing happens to water passing along a pipe when an
outlet valve is suddenly closed. Before closure, the water is moving with
velocity v0 , Fig. 3.2 (a). At first we will neglect the friction head as it is
18
Elastic Theory for a Simple Pipe 19
very small compared with waterhammer pressures, but the effect of
friction and other losses will be considered later.
If the valve is now suddenly shut, a pressure wave moves upstream
from the valve with velocity a. Behind the wave front the water is com-
pressed and the pipe walls are stretched, and at the same time water still
~1~---vo---~
L-----
~_LT--i
(bT : 1 -~
1!-------=-T-
v0 I
II
:-- - _-_(1)=
------------j
~ ------------~-- ID=
I
~1 / L':.v / A
clr
FIG. 3.2
enters the pipe from the upstream end with the original velocity vo, Fig.
3.2 (b).
The wave front continues upstream until it reaches the upstream end,
Fig. 3.2 (c), taking time Lja to reach there. The time 2Lja is known as
the period of the pipe, f.l, and we will see later that it is an important
factor in waterhammer analysis. Obviously
L
- = lf.l (3.1)
a
If the total quantity of water which enters the pipe during this time
!p is Ll V, then because it is moving with velocity vo,
Ll V = lvoAp (3.2)
3.2 Pressure increase in a rigid pipe

If the pipe walls are absolutely rigid, the whole of the extra volume ~ V
is added to the original amount of water in the pipe, Fig. 3.2 (d). The
extra water and the original water now occupy the same space (A XL)
as was filled by the water before the valve closed.
The resulting increase of pressure p is given by the approximation,
~v ~v
p=K-=K- (3.3)
V AL
where K is the coefficient of compressibility, or the 'bulk modulus', of the
water.
Substituting from equations (3.1) and (3.2),
voAfl vo
p = K 2AL = K; (3.4)
The wave front meets the moving water with a relative velocity
vo- (-a) = vo +a. Since vo is very small compared with a (whose
value we investigate in Section 3.5), the relative velocity is virtually a.
The mass flow entering the wave front is pvoA and the rate of change of
momentum is therefore approximately pvoA x a since the water is brought
to rest downstream of the wavefront.
The rate of change of momentum is equal to the applied force due to
the waterhammer pressure p, so
pvoAa = pA a= pfpvo
Substituting this value of a in equation (3.4),
p = Kvo -pvo
p
p = voy(pK) h __ vgo J(K-p) (3.5)
We can see from equation (3.5) that the waterhammer pressure is inde-
pendent of the pipe dimensions for a given velocity.
If equations (3.4) and (3.5) are combined,
K~ = voy(pK) a= J(f;) J(X:)= (3.6)
Values of the bulk modulus K are given in Tables 2.2 and 3.2. For water
at normal pressure K = 2·1 x 109 Nfm2 or 300 000 lb/in.2
p = 103 kgjm3 or w = 62·4lbjft3
Therefore a = y(2·1 X 109 X 10-3) mjs = 1450 mjs
a = y(300 000 x 144 x 32·2/62·4) ft/s = 4700 ft/s
TABLE 3.1. Elasticity of materials used for pipe walls

(Figures in italics are values suitable for approximate calculations)
Young's modulus E Poisson's ratio

Material v
109 Nfm 2 10 6 lb/in 2
Aluminium alloy 68-73 0·33

70 10
Asbestos-cement 24 3·5
Brass 78-110 0·36
100 15
Concrete 14-30 0·1-0·3
20 3·0
Copper 107-131 0·34-0·37
120 18
Glass 46-73
70 10
Iron (cast) 80-170 0·21-0·30
100 15
Lead 4·8-17 0-43
10 1·5
Plastics: perspex 6 1·0 0·33
polyethylene 0·8 0·1 0·46
polystyrene 5 0·7 0·40
Steel (mild) 189-226 0·28
210 30
Rocks: Granite 50 7
Limestone 55 8
Quartzite 40 6
Sandstone 3 0·4
Schist 14 2
TABLE 3.2. Some Properties of Liquids

Mass Weight Bulk Modulus K Wave Vapour Pressure
density density Velocity
Liquid p w
Temp Head
kgfm,3 lb/ft3 T~~P J09N/m.2 I o5 Ib/in. 2 T~::';'P m/s oc m
lb/in.2
Benzene 880 55 15 1·05 1·5 20 1320 15 1·2 1·45

Castor oil 950 60 18·6 1500
Carbon tetrachloride 1600 100 20 1·12 1·6 20 940 15 0·8 1·74
Ethyl alcohol 790 49 0 1·32 1·9 20 1160 20 0·8 0·7
Glycerine 1260 79 15 4·43 6·3 30 1920 15 1·1 X 10-6 2 X 10-6
Mercury 13 570 847 20 26·2 38 20 1450 20 1·2 X 10-5 2·3 X J0-5
Oil 900 54 15 1·5 2·2 10 1625 15 4·6 5·7
Petrol 730 45 16·5 1·46 2·1 IS 919 10·0
Sea water 1025 64 15 1510 15 0·2 0·25
This is the velocity of the propagation of sound in water, and we can see
that it is large compared with vo. The value vo is unlikely to exceed 10 mfs.
It is therefore reasonable to neglect vo when considering the change of
momentum.
Combining equations (3.5) and (3.6) we can get
Waterhammer pressure p = vopa
p voa
Waterhammer head h =-=-=Avo (3.7)
pg g
where A = afg.
Equation (3.7) is a form of Joukowski's Law, 2 sometimes called the
Allievi formula, which in general terms is
a
h = - - tlv or h = - Allv (3.8)
g
where h is the increase of pressure associated with the increase of velocity
tlv, and A is the ratio (a/g).
3.3 Strain energy waterhammer theory

When, as is usually the case, the pipe is elastic rather than rigid, the value
of the waterhammer pressure may be obtained by considerations of strain
energy. The kinetic energy of the water before the valve closes is equated
to the strain energy of the water and the pipe wall after closure.
The volume of water in the pipe = AL = !TTd 2L, Fig. 3.3 (a). The
Kinetic Energy of the water in the pipe is therefore given by
K.E. = lpALvo 2
When the pressure wave has travelled the whole length of the pipe and
all the water is at rest, the whole of this kinetic energy has been converted
to strain energy if friction is neglected. The water is compressed and the
pipe walls are stretched.
The strain energy is l the stress x the strain.
Strain energy of the water. The stress is equal to the waterhammer
pressure p, and the strain is equal to the change of volume. From equation
(3.3) the change of volume in a rigid pipe, tlV, is given by pAL/K. In a
stiff elastic pipe (e.g. one made of steel) the increase in diameter resulting
from the increase in pressure is so small that it may be neglected as far
as the water is concerned.
Hence the strain energy of the water (SE)w = !ALp2fK.
Strain energy of the pipe walls. The stress depends upon the method of
anchoring the pipe and the material from which the pipes are made.
If /L is the longitudinal stress,
fc is the circumferential stress,
E is Young's Modulus for the wall material,
and v is Poisson's ratio for the wall material,
the longitudinal strain = (JL/E) - v (fc/E)
the circumferential strain = (fc/E) - v (JL/E)
The strain energy per unit volume of pipe wall = ~t (stress and strain).
The volume of the pipe wall in length L is approximately TTdeL where e
is the thickness of the pipe wall, Fig. 3.3 (b)
A
(~ r---------------------------~>/
--------------L------------
(b)
FIG. 3.3
The strain energy of the whole length of the pipe wall is (SE)p where
2
(SE)p = 1 { /L (/LE - v fc)
E + fc (fcE - /L)} TTdLe
vE
= {(/L 2 + /c 2 - 2vfcfL)TTdLe}f2E
(a) For a thin walled pipe without expansion joints which is fixed at
the upper end and is free to move in a longitudinal direction throughout
its length,
Therefore
But bd2 = A, and so
(SE)p = ALp2 ~ (~ -
2E e 4
v)
(b) For a thin-walled pipe without expansion joints which is anchored
against longitudinal movement throughout its length,
dp pd
/L = Y - and fc = -
2e 2e
ALp 2 d
and (SE)p = 2E ; (1- v2)
(c) For a thin-walled pipe which has expansion joints throughout its
length,
pd
/L = 0 and fc = -
2e
ALp2d
and (SE)p = 2E ~ (1 - lv)
In general (SE)p = ALp2 ~ c

2E e
where c is a constant depending upon the method of anchoring.
Energy balance. The energy before closure is equal to the energy after
closure, i.e. KE = (SE)w + (SE)p
~pALvo2
2
= ALp2
2
{2.K + eEde}
(3.9)
1 1 de
or p = voVpK' where-=-+- (3.10)
K' K eE
and 3 c = (i - v) for a pipe free to move longitudinally
c = 1 - y2 for a pipe anchored against longitudinal movement
c = 1 - tv for a pipe with expansion points
If longitudinal stress can be neglected so that c = 1, then,
(3.11)
In a rigid pipe the term dfeE is negligible compared with 1/K and
equation (3.11) becomes identical with equation (3.5).
Equations (3.9) and (3.11) may also be obtained by considering the
quantity of water contained in the pipeline when the waterhammer wave
has reached the upstream end of the pipe. This may be done by obtaining
partial differential equations applying to a column of water contained
within a short length of pipe.
Example 3.1
A 200 mm diameter cast iron pipe with wall thickness of 15 mm is carrying water
when the outlet is suddenly closed. Calculate the maximum discharge if the pressure
rise is not to exceed 180 kN/m 2 ,
(a) assuming the pipe is rigid;
(b) allowing for hoop stress but not longitudinal stress in the pipe wall;
(c) assuming the pipe to have expansion joints throughout its length.
SOLUTION (a) p = vy(pK) . -

· · v- vCpK)
p
For water p = 10 3 kg/m 3 180 X 103

K= 2·1 GNfm2 v = y(103 x 2·1 x 109) = 1"24 m/s
= Av = !7T x (0·20) 2 x 1·24 = 0·0314 x 1·24 m 3/s = 39·0 litresfsecond
J(i: ,~) v~p J(i: e~)

Q
(b)
p~v
" ~ J(z ~ O·~.:;
180 x 10, 1 IO' +
02
x ; :}. x IO')
= 1·41 m/s
Q = 0·0314 x 1·41 m 3/s = 44·1litresfsecond.
(c)
c = 1 - tv; v = 0·25 :. c = 0·875
V = 180 X 103 J( 2·1 ! 109 + 0·0~~2~ ~~· 8: 510 9)

103
= 1-39 m/s
Q = 0·0314 X 1·39 m3 /s = 43·5 litresfsecond.
3.4 Fundamental differential equations of waterhammer

In this section we obtain fundamental equations for a pipeline with
downstream control while the flow in the pipe is varying-i.e. the valve is
being opened or closed. For simplicity we take a horizontal pipe, Fig. 3.4,
but the same equations are obtained if the pipe is sloping since the gravita-
tional force on the column of water in the pipe balances the force caused
by difference of static head.
Static level
·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·
FIG. 3.4
The convention used by Allievi is adopted. The positive direction of x

is upstream from the valve, and the positive direction of v is towards the
valve.
If the pressure varies along the element of length ox, the unbalanced
force acting along the axis of the pipe on the element is A(opfox)ox. The
mass of the element of water is pAox and the acceleration is dvfdt, so from
Newton's second law,
Since v is a function of x and t,

dv ov ov dx ov ov
-=----=--V-
dt ot ox dt ot ox
and op = p (ov- v ov) (3.12)

ox ot ox
However, ovfox is very small compared with ovfot and may be neglected.
Equation (3.12) becomes approximately
op ov oh 1 ov ov oh
ox = P ot or ox = got or ot = g ox (3.13)
By continuity, the difference between inflow to and outflow from the

element in time otis A(ovfox) . ox. ot, and this is equal to the additional
volume due to the elasticity of the pipe walls plus the additional volume
which may be contained in the element due to the compressibility of the
water.
The elasticity of the walls gives an additional volume in time l5t
approximately equal to
~ de op l5t . bx
E e ot
and the volume stored because of compressibility is
A bx op bt
K ot ·
If differentials higher than the first order are neglected,
ov = (2.. + de) op
ox K eE ot
If we introduce the symbol a where
P (2..K + eE
de) = _!_
a2
and express the pressure in terms of head, then
ov g oh oh a2 ov
- = - - or - = - - (3.14)
ox a2 ot ot g ox
The general solutions of equations (3.13) and (3.14) are 4
h=H-Ho=F(t-~)+f(t+~) (3.15)
flv = v- vo = - ~ {F(t- ~) -f(t + ~)} (3.16)
Equations (3.15) and (3.16) are the fundamental equations of water-

hammer. The symbols 'F' and 'f' may be used as abbreviations to repre-
sent F(t - xfa) and f(t + xfa), and the fundamental equations become
h = H- Ho = (F +f); flv = v- vo = -?. (F- f) (3.17)

a
The significance of these equations is that two systems of co-existent
variable pressures ('waves' or 'surges') are propagated along the pipe in
opposite directions with constant velocity a. The F-wave moves in the
positive x direction (i.e. upstream from the valve) and the f-wave moves
in the negative x direction (i.e. towards the valve). The waves may be
of any shape, and move as a whole without deformation along a length of
uniform pipe. Both F and/ depend upon the boundary conditions, which
in the pipe we are dealing with are the reservoir at the upstream end and a
valve at the downstream end. The waves are such that they do not
mutually interfere; when an F-wave passes an f-wave, neither wave is
changed in any way.
3.5 Velocity of propagation

We saw in Section 3.2 that in a rigid pipe the waterhammer waves move
with the velocity of sound in water, a, which for a rigid pipe is about
1440 mfs (4700 ft/s). For a pipe with elastic walls the value of the bulk
modulus used in equation (3.6) is modified by equation (3.10) so that
a= y(K'fp) = J{gfw(~+ :~)} (3.18)
For other types of pipe and tunnel the 'modified' bulk modulus is as
follows:
Thick-walled pipe ..!._ = _!_ 2c (D2 + d2)

K' K+ E D2- d2
Rock tunnel 4 ·5
de
K + (ec
R ·-r d . 1 1
etworce concrete ptpe K' = As)
;:;; +-:;- Es
1 1 'lfJ
Generally -=-+-
K' K E
where ec is the thickness of the concrete

m is the ratio of the modulus steel/concrete
As is the cross-sectional area of each longitudinal reinforcing bar
s is the spacing of the reinforcing bars
Es is Young's Modulus for steel in a reinforced concrete pipe
'lfJ is the rigidity factor.6,7
The value of a depends upon the elasticity and inertia of the liquid
column in its containing pipe. Equation (3.18) may be written as
stiffness
)
density
If we think again of the train mentioned in Section 3.1, the speed of the
'shock wave' that brings the wagons to rest depends on the ratio of the
stiffness of the buffer springs to the weight of the wagons.
Looking at equation (3.18) we see that the velocity of the waterhammer
wave depends on three factors. A comparison of the wave-velocity in
standard commercial pipes conforming to British Standard Class C makes
this clear. s
Pipe size. Small pipes are stiffer than large pipes and the wave-velocity
is therefore greater. The velocity in a 3 in. diameter steel pipe is 4320 ftfs,
in a 12 in. diameter steel pipe it is 3620 ft/s, and in a 72 in. diameter pipe
it is 3450 ft/s.
Pipe material. Young's Modulus varies for different materials and
weaker materials need a greater thickness of pipe wall. If we compare
6 in. diameter pipes, each designed for the same pressure, we find the
wave-velocity in a steel pipe is 4100 ft/s, in a cast-iron pipe it is 3905 ft/s,
and in an asbestos cement pipe it is 3730 ft/s.
Liquid. The density and the elasticity of the liquid both effect the wave-
speed. In a 6 in. diameter Class C steel pipe the wave in glycerine moves
at 4560 ft/s, in sea-water at 4220 ft/s, in fresh water at 4100 ftfs, and in
petrol at 3630 ft/s.
The value of a is affected by temperature;9,10 in water it increases by
about 1% for every soc at normal atmospheric temperature, and reaches
a maximum at about 75°C. High pressures also increase K and hence a. 9
Free gas bubbles have a considerable effect, which may be important
if sewage is being pumped. For example, at a pressure head of about
10m (30ft) the presence of one part of air in a hundred parts of water
reduces the velocity to about 10% of that in air-free water.ll
A rough average figure for a is 1200 m/s, or 4000 ft/s.l2
Example 3.2
Calculate the velocity of propagation of waterhammer waves in a 500 mm
diameter pipe under the following conditions. Neglect longitudinal stress, i.e. c = 1.
(a) Rigid pipe containing fresh water;
(b) rigid pipe containing glycerine;
(c) elastic steel pipe 10 mm thick containing fresh water;
(d) cast iron pipe 100 mm thick (thick walls) containing castor oil;
(e) reinforced concrete pipe 50 mm thick with 20 mm diameter longitudinal
steel reinforcing bars 100 mm apart, containing fresh water.
SOLUTION
(a) a = J( pK) = J(2·1 X 109)

103 = 1450 mfs.
(b) a = J( !\
pJ = J(4·43 X 109)
1260 = 1840 m/s
(c) a =
j( (K 1
1
d
+ eE)
)
= J( 103 (2·1
1
1
50
x 109 + 2·1 x 1011)
)
J ts
· p
= e·1 106) = 1183 m/s
(d) a = J( (-" p K
2(~' +
+ E(D2 - d2)
d')J)
J( ( J) = 1132 m/s
J
= 1 1 2(0·36 + <>25)
960 1·48 X 109 + 1·0 X 1011(0·36- 0·25)
(e) a~ (P (~+ (~+;) £.))

= J( HXMl (21 ! 10' + (~ + ~)
1
2·1 X ton)
) = 1100m/s
3.6 Direct application of elastic waterhammer theory

The equations for the waterhammer pressure which we have found apply
to 'sudden' closure.
We saw that h = vo a (3.5)

g
=; J(;)
=; Jc(~ ~ fH))
for a rigid pipe (3.5)
h
and for a thin walled elastic pipe h (3.9)
Subsequent variation of the pressure will be considered in Chapter 4

and we will see in Chapter 5 how the pressure varies when the closure is
neither slow, as we considered in Chapter 2, nor sudden. We will also see
that as far as pressure increase near the valve is concerned the closure may
be considered as 'sudden' when the time taken for the valve closure, T,
is less than the time it takes for the waterhammer wave to pass along the
pipe to the open end and return to the valve. We noted in equation (3.1)
that the time taken by the wave to traverse the pipe is !p. The returning
wave, which is anf-wave, travels at the same speed and therefore also takes
a time !t-t to traverse the pipe. Therefore the limiting time for valve
closure such that the maximum pressure at the valve is that given by
equations (3.7) and (3.9) is given by
L
T ~ p where p = 2 -
a
REFERENCES
1. LUPTON, H. R.: 'Surge control in pipelines,' J. Instn Wat. Engrs, (1965),
19, pp. 81-85.
2. JouKOWSKI, N.: 'Waterhammer' (Translated by Miss 0. SIMIN), Proc. Am.
Wat.Wks Ass., (1904), 24, pp. 341-424.
3. PARMAKIAN, J.: Waterhammer analysis (Dover, 1955).
4. A.LLIEVI, L.: Teorie del colpo d'ariete (Atti Collegio Ing. Ach, 1913). Trans-
lation by Halmos, E. E.: The theory of waterhammer (Am. Soc. mech.
Engrs, 1929).
5. JAEGER, C.: 'Present trends in the design of pressure tunnels and shafts
for underground hydro-electric power stations,' Proc. Instn civ. Engrs,
(1955), 4, pp. 116-174.
6. SWAMINATHAN, K. V.: 'Velocity of waterhammer waves in embedded steel
penstocks,' Civ. Engng pub!. Wks Rev., (1964), 59, pp. 1409-1413.
7. SWAMINATHAN, K. V.: 'Waterhammer wave velocities in concrete tunnels,'
Wat. Pwr, (1965), 17, pp. 117-121.
8. LINTON, P., 'A simple guide to waterhammer and some notes on pressure
surges in pump delivery lines,' Br. Hydromech. Res. Ass., (1961), TN411.
9. GIBSON, A. H.: The mechanical properties o,(.fluids (Blackie, 1923) p. 210.
10. GOLDMAN, G. 0.: Water hammer: its causes, magnitude, prevention (Colum-
bia Graphs Inc., 1953).
11. PEARSALL, I. S.: 'The velocity of waterhammer waves,' Symp. Surges Pipe-
lines, Proc. Instn mech. Engrs, (1966), 180, 3E, pp. 12-20.
12. KERR, S. L.: 'Practical aspects of waterhammer,' J. Instn Wat. Engrs,
(1949), 3, pp. 67-74.
FURTHER READING
ENEVER, K. J.: 'An introduction to pressure surges in gas-liquid mixtures,'
Br. Hydromech. Res. Ass., (1967), 9th Members Conf, SP 920.
HALLIWELL, A. R.: 'Velocity ofwaterhammer wave in an elastic pipe,' J. Hydraul.
Div., Proc. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs, (1963), 89, pp. 1-21.
KENNISON, H. F.: 'Surge-wave velocity-concrete pressure pipe,' Trans. Am.
Soc. mech. Engrs, (1956), 78, pp. 1323-1327.
4 End Conditions
In Chapter 3 we found that sudden closure of a valve causes a wave of

pressure intensity given by equation (3.7) or (3.8) to move upstream with
velocity a. We also found that two counter-moving waves, the F-wave
and the f-wave, co-exist in a pipe when there is a change of flow.
These waves continue along a uniform pipe without change. At the
end of the uniform pipe the waves are reflected or transmitted in a modi-
fied form, depending upon the conditions at the end. The effects of different
types of end-condition are considered in this chapter.
4.1 Reftection at a reservoir

A reservoir is considered to be such that the pressure is always constant
there. It may therefore be an 'open' reservoir or tank so large that varia-
tion of flow or pressure in the pipe does not effect the water level. It may
also be a closed conduit which acts in the same way-for example a large
water main in which the water is scarcely affected by waterhammer in a
smaller branch-or it may be the 'vacuum' between two columns of
separated water such as may occur in pumping mains (Chapter 7).
Consider the simple case of a reservoir feeding a uniform pipeline at the
end of which is a valve, Fig. 4.1 (a). On sudden closure of the valve an
F-wave is propagated towards the reservoir with velocity a, taking time
!11- from the instant of closure to traverse the pipe, Fig. 4.1 (b). When the
F-wave reaches the reservoir, a reflected f-wave is generated in a down-
stream (negative x) direction. At the reservoir the head is constant and
therefore H = Ho. Since at the reservoir x = L, equation (3.15) gives
32
End Conditions 33
and when this is substituted in equation (3.16) we obtain the velocity,
v = vo - 2: F ( t - ~)
The meaning of these expressions is that at a reservoir the reflected
wave is equal to the incident wave but of opposite sign, and the change of
velocity at the reservoir caused by the wave is twice what it is in the
uniform pipe, Fig. 4.1 (c).
-----------L------------
TL---~--t-____,Ho'--+
!:::. v=-h!A. =-vo
(b)
h_--n--.
v=IQ + D.v =0
F
FIG. 4.1
In general this reflection applies to a reservoir whether the incident wave

is an F-wave or an f-wave and whether the velocity before and behind
the wave is positive, negative or zero.
4.2 Reflection at a dead end

In the case of a uniform pipe fed by a reservoir, the f-wave which is
reflected from the reservoir arrives at the valve after a further time i,u
(i.e. t = ,u) and finds that the valve is completely shut-it is a 'dead-end'
or 'barrier'. Obviously at such a barrier the velocity both before and after
the arrival of the wave is zero. That is, as far as the barrier is concerned
v = vo = 0, and from equation (3.16)
which can be substituted in equation (3.14) to give
h = 2F (t- ~)
The meaning of this expression is that at a dead end the reflected wave
is equal to the incident wave and of the same sign, as shown in Fig. 4.2.
Before
+h 4.3 Effect of changes of pipe
6v [ 0
If an F-wave travelling along a pipe
reaches a point where the pipe changes,
there is both reflection and transmission
of waves. Such a 'change of pipe'
occurs where there is a change of
After
+h diameter-i.e. an enlargement or a
<
contraction-or if the material or
H0 +2h I:
thickness of the pipe-wall alters so
6v 0 that K' changes. Whatever change the
<
pipe undergoes in these ways, the ratio
FIG. 4.2 A/a is different on either side of the
point.
To make the notation clearer, Fig. 4.3 has been drawn with the F-wave
moving from left to right: the positive x-direction is also towards the right
and the positive v-direction is towards the left.
Fi is the incident wave, Ft is the transmitted wave and fr is the reflected
wave. Applying equations (3.16)
hr = Fi + fr; V1 - Vol = - g (Fi - fr)

Gl
and by continuity, A1vo1 = A2vo2; A1v1 = A2v2.

If velocity head and the head loss at change of area are neglected, the
solution of these equations is
(4.1)
End Conditions 35
and Ct- Cr = 1, where
A1la1 - A2/a2
Cr is the reflection factor
A1/a1 + A2la2
. . . 2A1/a1
I
Ct IS the transmissiOn factor =
A1 a1 + 2Ia2
A
h,
Before
H0 +h, i Ho p Ho
vo,+ L':.v, b Vol voz

F,
Pipe I 2
Area
Wove velocity a,
A, Az
oz
L':.v, =±.h!At
"i -(v01 tL':.~) =-t/:>.. 1
hr ht
v2 -v02 =h,!:X. 2
After
Ho+ h,. 1 H' pH' j Ho
VOlt L':,vl .J v, vz b voz

f, Fi
P may be an enlargement, a constnction,
or a change of pipe material or thickness.
FIG. 4.3
You can see that at an enlargement the transmitted wave has the same
sign and smaller amplitude and the reflected wave has the same sign and
smaller amplitude as the incident wave.
At a constriction the transmitted wave has the same sign and greater
amplitude and the reflected wave has the same sign and smaller amplitude
as the incident wave.
4.4 Effect of junction

The way in which a wave is reflected and transmitted at a junction is
obtained in the same manner as in Section 4.3, see Fig. 4.4.
~Vl = h/Al
VI-(Vo + ~Vl) = -hr/Al
V2 - Vo2 = ht/A2
va- Voa = ht/Aa
fr = CrFi; F2 = Fa = CtFi; Ct - Cr = 1
Before
P1pe
Area
Wave velocity
After
FIG. 4.4
4.5 Effect of restriction
The most common restriction or 'throttle' in waterhammer is a partially-
open (or partially-shut) valve, but any type of restriction gives rise to
reflected and transmitted waves which differ from the incident wave in
amplitude.l However, both the reflected wave and the transmitted wave
have the same sign as the incident wave.
If the head loss across the restriction is KLvn, the diagram showing the
waves is as shown in Fig. 4.5.
Before
+h
H0 th Ho Ho- kL vo"
!
v0 t /':;v vo vo
F;
After
hr ht
H 0+ h Hr H, H0 -kL v;
.:.
v0 + /':;v v' v' vo
~
"
F,
FIG. 4.5
End Conditions 37
The equations relating the pressure and velocity changes are
hr = Hr- (Ho +h)= -.A.{v'- (vo + Av)}
ht = Ht - (Ho - KLvn) = .A.(v' - vo)
and hr - KL( v')n = ht
When a valve discharges to atmosphere, the flow derived from
Bernoulli's equation is
Q = Av = CcAoy'(2gH)
where Ao is the 'open area' of the valve as in Section 2.2. If now we
designate the term (CcAo)y'(2g)/A as B, then v =By'H.
For full opening vo = Bov'Ho and v may be expressed in non-dimen-
sional terms as
V = Vo !!._
Bo
J(H)Ho
= TZVo (4.3)
where T = B/Bo is the proportion of the full valve opening and

z = y'(H/ Ho) the square root of the ratio of the total head to the initial
head.
By combining equation (4.3) with Joukowski's Law (equation 3.8) and
introducing the further non-dimensional group (avo)/2gH0 = ~. which is
called the 'pipe constant', we obtain Allievi's classical equations.
Z12 -1 = 2~(ToZo - TIZl) (a)

Z1 2 + Z2 2 - 2 = n(TIZl- T2Z2) (b) (4,4)
z2 2 + za 2 - 2 = 2~(T2Z2 - Taza) (c)
The suffixes o, 1, 2 • . • refer to t = 0, t = p,, t = 2p, . .
Allievi systematically analysed these equations for a variety of valve

movements, and presented the results on charts.
4.6 Oscillation of the pressure wave

Because we know the effect of end conditions, we are now able to follow
the variation of pressure in a simple pipeline, such as that we considered
in Section 3.1, Fig. 3.2 (a), where a uniform frictionless pipe leads from a
reservoir to a valve which is suddenly closed.
When the F-wave (a positive pressure wave) reaches the reservoir at
time it-t the whole of the kinetic energy originally in the moving water has
r-- --·- -·-

-1~:
(a) -
been converted to strain energy. The
energy is 'stored' in compression of the
n ---------- water and stretching of the pipe walls,
Fig. 4.6 (a).
- [: Just as a spring rebounds from its
lowest position after a weight has been
placed on it, the pressure wave is
reflected, as we have seen in Section
4.1. When the F-wave reaches the
reservoir the strained condition of the
water and the pipe walls is unstable and
the stored energy forces water out of
the pipe at the upstream end into the
reservoir. Then ...
During time itt to tt. Fig. 4.6 (b)

An f-wave moves downstream at
velocity a with the original pressure
behind it (since the wave is equal to the
F-wave but of opposite sign).
Behind the wave-front the water
decompresses.
Behind the wave-front the pipe resumes
its original diameter.
Water behind the wave-front moves
upstream with negative velocity -vo.
The f-wave takes time itt to reach the
valve, and therefore arrives there at time
t = tt· The conditions in the pipe are
now ...
At time tt. Fig. 4.6 (c)

All the water is at its original pressure.
All the water is at its original density.
All the pipe is its original diameter.
All the water in the pipe is moving
with velocity -vo.
The water and pipe have returned to
FIG. 4.6 exactly the same conditions as at the
End Conditions 39
instant when the valve closed, except that the water is now moving with
negative velocity.
The f-wave arrives at the valve to find it shut. The end of the pipe is a
'dead-end' and therefore the reflection described in Section 4.2 occurs.
During time p, to Itp,, Fig. 4.6 (d)

A negative F-wave moves upstream at velocity a, causing a reduction of
the pressure below the static level.
This F-wave reaches the reservoir tp, after it leaves the valve-i.e. when
t = ltp,, and then ...
At time Itp,, Fig. 4.6 (e)

All the water is at pressure h below the static pressure.
All the water is at reduced density.
All the pipe is at reduced diameter.
All the water is at rest.
However, the condition is unstable. The 'stored' negative energy draws
water in at the upstream end. . . .
During time 1tp, to 2p,, Fig. 4.6 (f)

A positive f-wave moves downstream at velocity causing the pressure
to rise to the original static level.
At time 2p,, Fig. 4.6 (g)
All the water is at its original pressure.
All the water is at its original density.
All the pipe is its original diameter.
All the water is moving with velocity +vo.
The waterhammer wave has now passed through a complete cycle

of operation oscillation, and the conditions are as they were when the
valve closed.
Valve
closes
FIG. 4.7
In the absence of friction the cycle would be repeated ad infinitum. The
variation of pressure with time can be shown graphically; near the valve
the change of pressure head is 2h every half-cycle, as shown in Fig. 4.7.
The oscillation at a point distance nL from the valve is shown in Fig.
4.8.
FIG. 4.8
Stereograms which show the variation of pressure with time at any

point in a pipe-line, by a three-dimensional diagram, have been developed
by Professor du Juhasz.2 (See Fig. 4.9).
Stereogram of oscillation following sudden complete

closure of downstream valve.
Valve
closes
FIG. 4.9
End Conditions 41
Effect of friction. Because of friction in the pipeline the pressure-time
pattern is modified, and the oscillation gradually dies out. Near the valve
the pressure variation with time may be of the form shown in Fig. 4.10. 3 • 4
FIG. 4.10
REFERENCES
1. CoNTRACTOR, D. N.: 'The reflection of waterhammer pressure wave from
minor losses,' J. bas. Engng, Trans. Am. Soc. mech. Engrs, (1965), 87,
pp. 445-452.
2. AomsoN, H.: A treatise of applied hydraulics (Chapman and Hall, 5th Ed.,
1964).
3. BINNIE, A. M.: 'The effect offriction on surges in long pipelines,' Q, J1 Mech.
appl. Math., (1951), 4, pp. 330-343.
4. GIBSON, A. H.: The Mechanical properties ojjfuids (Blackie, 1923).
FURTHER READING
STEPHENSON, D.: 'Waterhammer charts including fluid friction,' J. Hydraul
Div., Proc. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs, (1966), 92, HY5, pp. 71-94.
5 Non-Instantaneous Closure
and Opening
5.1 Rapid closure of downstream valve T < fl

In practice, valve closure is rarely instantaneous. However, as was men-
tioned in Section 3.6, the maximum pressure rise near the valve is the same
as for sudden closure when the time of closure Tis equal to or less than
the critical time fl· The increase of pressure builds up during the time T.
The retardation resulting from the closure of a downstream valve may
be considered as consisting of n steps each lasting a time Tjn. If the retard-
ation is constant the change of velocity at each step is -vofn and by
Joukowski's Law (equation 3.8) the corresponding pressure rise for each
step, !J..h, is given by
!J..h =it Vo
n
Since there are n steps and each gives a pressure rise of !J..h, the total
pressure rise h = n!J..h = il.vo, which is the same value as for sudden closure.
If n is infinitely large, the steps become infinitely small, and the pressure
rise near the valve can be represented by a straight line, as in Fig. 5.1 (a).
Considering a finite number of steps again, at each time-interval Tjn a
positive F-wave moves up the pipe with velocity a. Each wave in turn
reaches the reservoir at time !t-t after it left the valve. At the reservoir the
wave is reflected as a negative f-wave.
When the firstf-wave arrives at the valve (at time p after closure started)
it finds the valve completely closed since more than time T has elapsed.
The valve therefore represents a dead-end, and a negative F-wave is
reflected. The effect at a point near the valve is that in a further period of
time Tfn the pressure drops by 2!J..h = 2hfn. This rate of pressure change
continues until the last of the n positive F-waves returns to the valve as a
42
Non-instantaneous Closing and Opening 43
negative f-wave to be reflected there as a negative F-wave! This occurs at
time (p, + T) after closure began. The variation of head with time can be
shown graphically by Fig. 5.1 (b).
(a)
I
I h = \ v0
--.---.,...-- - - _J_ __L - - -

I I
I I
I I
1-T~
1 T1me
(b)
T l __ _
I h
~~I_..___--' •
I = 0 T fi- fL+ T T1me
FIG. 5.1
If the retardation is not constant but the pipeline velocity is known at

intervals of Tfn during closure, the pressure variation following rapid
closure can still be found by the step-by-step method we have just
considered. The known variation of velocity in time Tfn is Llv and the
corresponding increment of pressure can be found by Joukowski's law.
Example 5.1
When the valve at the end ofa 3900 m long pipeline closes in4i seconds the velocity
is reduced as follows-
Time after start of

closure, seconds 0 0·5 1·0 1·5 2·0 2·5 3·0 3·5 4·0 4·5
Pipe velocity mfs 1·75 1·70 1·60 1·45 1·25 1·00 0·75 0·50 0·25 0
The modified wave velocity is 1300 mfs and the static head throughout the pipe
is 140m. Neglecting friction find the total pressure head near the valve during
closure.
2L 2 X 3900
SOLUTION p, = -a = 1300
= 6 seconds
Therefore T < p,; the closure is rapid.
a 1300
II. = g- = - -=
9·807
132·35 seconds.
t secondsO 0·5 1·0 1·5 2·0 2·5 3·0 3·5 4·0 4·5
~v m/s -0·05 -0·10 -0·15 -0·20 -0·25 -0·25 -0·25 -0·25 -0·25
~h = -ll.~v m 6·62 13·23 19·85 26·47 33·09 33·09 33·09 33·09 33·09
h m 6·6 19·8 39·7 66·2 99·3 132-4 165-4 198·5 231·6
H m 146·6 159·8 179·7 206·2 239·3 272-4 305-4 338·5 371-6
For discharge from a valve to atmosphere where the law of closure is

known, the pressure during closure can be found by applying equation
(4.3) or (4.4) (a). If we use the non-dimensional equation (4.4) (a), it is
clear that at the start of closure t = 0, To = 1 and zo = 1. The value of
z1 is found by solving the quadratic equation z1 2 - 1 = 2'(1 - nz1)
which gives
In the part of the pipe nearest the valve the maximum pressure for rapid
closure is the same as for sudden closure, but at a point near the reservoir
the maximum pressure is less. This is because returning.f-waves reach the
point before all the positive F-waves have passed. By Allievi's theory
(equation 3.15) the.f-waves are added to the F-waves.
Example 5.2
Obtain the total pressure head during the first 13 seconds after closure starts
at a point P, 2600 m from the valve in the pipeline in Example 5.1 for the same
conditions.
SOLUTION P is 2/3L from the valve.

The first F-wave reaches P at time 2/3Lfa after leaving the valve, i.e. t =
2600/1300 = 2 seconds.
The first fwave reaches P at time 4/3Lfa after leaving the valve, i.e. t =
4 seconds.
A negative F-wave reflected from the closed valve reaches P at p, + 2f3Lfa
(i.e. 8 seconds) after the valve starts to close and a positive fwave reflected from
the reservoir reaches P at p, + 4/3Lfa (i.e. 10 seconds) after the valve starts to
close.
!seconds 2·0 2·5 3·0 3·5 4·0 4·5 5·0 5·5
F1m 6·62 13·23 19·85 26·47 33·09 33·09 33·09
[1m -6·62 -13·23 -19·85
h m 6·6 19·8 39·7 66·2 92·6 112·5 125·7
Hm 146·6 159·8 179·7 206·2 232·6 252·5 265·7
t seconds 6·0 6·5 7·0 7·5 8·0 8·5 9·0 9·5

F1m 33·09 33·09 -6·62 -13·23 -19·85
[1m -26·47 -33·09 -33·09 -33·09 -33·09 -33·09
h m 132·4 132·4 99·3 66·2 33·1 -6·6 -19·8 -39·7
Hm 272·4 272-4 239·3 206·2 173·1 133-4 120·2 100·3
t seconds 10·0 10·5 11·0 11·5 12·0 12·5 13·0

F1m -26·47 -33·09 -33·09 -33·09 -33·09 -33·09
ji m 6·62 13·23 19·85 26·47 33·09 33·09
h m -66·2 -92·6 -112·5 -125·7 -132·4 -132-4 -99·3
Hm 73-8 47-4 27·5 14·3 7·6 7-6 40·7
Whether the retardation is uniform or not, the part of the pipe which
will be subjected to the same maximum and minimum pressures as at the
valve is that part where the whole of the first set ofF-waves has passed
before the first f-wave returns. If x is the distance from the valve of any
point, X, as shown in Fig. 5.2 (a), the last of the n F-waves which were
(a)
- - m-c~- -i;--x~~·~;x-~
-
~-------------L----------~~
(b)
-E
2 = L; / hrnax
II hmox II
L_i_ _ _ _j___ · __ _
I I I ,.
I
1-x '~ I
L-2Ta~
I II2 ra ------.-1
~----x--------
FIG. 5.2
generated by the closing of the valve reaches X at time T + xfa after

closure began. The first f-wave reaches X at time !Jt + (L- x)fa =
(2L - x)fa after closure began.
Let x' be the distance from the valve of the point which limits the part
of the pipe subject to the same maximum and minimum pressure as at the
valve. Thenl
T + x' fa = (2L - x')/a or x' = L - tTa
The part of the pipe at the reservoir end which is subject to reduced
maximum and minimum pressures has a length of !Ta.
If the retardation is uniform, the waterhammer pressure head at any
time t after the start of closure at the point X, where x is greater than
L - !Ta, is the sum of
due to the F-waves
2L-x
t----
a
and - hmax - - T - - due to the f-waves
where hmax is the pressure rise for instantaneous closure = AVo.

The maximum head at X is therefore
h -_ hmax 2(L- x)
aT
The variation ofthe maximum head along the pipe for uniform retardation
is shown in Fig. 5.2 (b).
To some extent the same reasoning can be applied to rapid opening of a
valve and to rapid partial movements. However, when the first f-wave
reaches the valve it does not come to a 'dead-end', and subsequent pressure
variation differs from that for rapid complete closure. In the case of
opening, the sign of the waves is reversed, so that the first F-wave is negative
and the first f-wave is positive.
5.2 Slow closure of downstream valve

When the time taken for the valve to close is greater than p, the maximum
waterhammer pressure does not attain the value hmax (=Avo) at any part
of the pipe. If we consider the valve movement as consisting of a number
of incremental movements each generating a corresponding F-wave we
can appreciate that the firstf-wave reflected from the reservoir reaches the
valve at time p, from the start of closure and this is before closure is
complete. 2
The first f-waves therefore reach the valve before the last of the initial
F-waves has been generated. If there are n incremental steps, it requires
a complete set of n F-waves to give a pressure of h. Obviously less than n
waves gives a smaller pressure.
When the first f-waves reach the valve they are partly transmitted and
partly reflected as a second set ofF-waves which are of the opposite sign
to the first F-waves. The pressure in the pipe therefore drops further
below h.
If the valve discharges to atmosphere the velocity may be obtained from
equation (4.3). The pressure can be calculated using Joukowski's Law
with equation (4.3) or by using equations (4.4).
As in the case of rapid closure, step-by-step methods can be used to
determine the variation of pressure. The duration of the steps need be
no less than the time which is taken for a wave to reach the reservoir and
the reflected wave to return. That is, at the valve the steps can be of
duration f-l and at other points distance x from the valve the duration need
to be no less than 2(L - x)fa. Shorter steps do not increase the accuracy
of the computation, but enable the pressure at intermediate times to be
determined.
If the retardation is constant, there is a linear rise of pressure during
time f-l from the start of closure, the maximum increase being J-lhmax/T.
Consider a pipeline in which a downstream valve closes in time T =
NJ-l so as to give uniform retardation. Tabulating, we obtain
F h
v vo- v A(vo- v) f A(vo- v) +f F+f
0 vo 0 0 0 0 0
ft (N- l)vo/N vo/N A.vo/N 0 A.vo/N A.vofN
2p, (N- 2)vo/N 2vo/N 2Avo/N -A.vo/N AvofN 0
3p, (N- 3)vo/N 3vo/N 3Avo/N -A.vo/N 2A.vo/N A.vo/N
4p, (N- 4)vo/N 4vo/N 4Avo/N -2A.vo/N 2A.vo/N 0
The pattern of the oscillation is therefore as shown in Fig. 5.3 (a).

In Chapter 2 (equation 2.3) we found that the pressure rise for slow
closure is
L vo
h=--
gT
when water is considered as incompressible. We now find that
h = Avo = (afg)vo
N Tff-l
Now p = 2Lfa, so by the elastic theory
( ~ vo) 2L
h= g a =2L!!!!
T g T
We therefore see that the elastic theory gives a pressure increase for
slow closure which is twice that given by the incompressible water column
theory. Charts obtained when waterhammer pressures have been
measured show how the two theories may be reconciled. Fig. 5.3 (b)
(a}
AV\1\ 1\
FIG. 5.3
shows the type of pressure-time variation which may occur when the
oscillations are damped by friction. It is drawn for the same conditions
as Fig. 2.3 (a). Elastic 'shock' waves, which are superimposed on the
inertia head increase, are due to the sudden application and cessation of
the retardation itself.
In the absence of friction, oscillations continue after the valve has
stopped moving except when the time of closure is a multiple of 2p (e.g.
T = 4p, T = 6p . . .). Typical pressure-time patterns are shown in Fig.
5.4, where the retardation is constant.
5.3 Other types of valve movement

The tabular method which we investigated in detail for complete closure
of a downstream valve can also be used for other types of valve move-
ment. In all cases care must be taken to use the correct sign for the
first F-waves, as follows:
(a) Opening of downstream valve: negative F-wave; ~vis positive.
(b) Closure of upstream valve: negative F-wave; ~vis negative.
(c) Opening of upstream valve: positive F-wave; ~v is positive.
Partial closure and opening can be treated in the same way.
4f1-
Noz.!.I (""' I I I I
I
I
I I I
: 4 :/I
I ~I I I
/I
1/1 I
I '\.
I
I
N I
I I ),----1
I
I I I '\. I I 1/ I
I
I
I I I I I I
I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I
I I I I I I
I I I
I I
No2~
FIG. 5.4
REFERENCES
1. AMERICAN WATER WORKS AssociATION: 'Waterhammer and surge,' J. Am.
Wat. Wks. Ass., (1961), 53, p. 1037.
2. GmsoN, N. R.: 'Pressures in penstocks caused by the gradual closing of
turbine gates.' Trans. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs, (1920), 83, pp. 707-775.
6 Graphical Analysis
6.1 Pressure-Velocity diagrams at fixed points

When pressure head is plotted against velocity for the passage of a water-
hammer wave past a fixed point in a pipe, a straight line is always obtained.
The slope of the line is ± A. since by Joukowski's law (equation 3.8)
h = -A.~v.
If we first deal with a simple pipeline in which water flowing from a
reservoir is suddenly stopped by the closure of a downstream valve, we
H (c) H
Closure
i
h
I
I
I
I
1!:--------JL..._
I
I
lv v
0 vo vo
ll;:::::====-~X
Negat1ve wave
X --..
Posit1ve wave
rr
(b) H (d)
11
H
Opening
Jl
I h
tafi 1l__ __
I I
I
1
Ho I
I
I
:H0 -h I v
v, 0 v,
FIG. 6.1
50
Graphical Analysis 51
know that the passage of the F-wave causes the pressure to increase from
Ho to (Ho +h). At the same time the velocity drops from v0 to 0. These
changes can be shown on an H-v diagram, as Fig. 6.1 (a). Similarly the
opening of a downstream valve gives rise to H-v changes as shown in
Fig. 6.1 (b). The H-v diagrams for closure and opening of an upstream
valve, as in a pumping main, are shown in Figs. 6.1 (c) and 6.1 (d).
In Chapter 4 we considered the effect of some end-conditions upon
incident waves. These effects may be shown on H-v diagrams, as shown
in Figs. 6.2 (a), (b) and (c). When there is a change of diameter it is
better to use H-Q diagrams, which are described in Section 6.2.
Cond1tion Posit1ve 1nc1dent wave
H
(a) Reflection
at a reservoir
H O,H0 +2h
(b) Reflection
at a dead end
D.v, H0 +h
H
( c ) Effect of
Reflected ---++--"-
restrict ion
Incident ----T-..A'"F
v,H
Transmitted Fi
/v,H-kL vn
_/
FIG. 6.2
We can now draw a complete H-v diagram for a uniform frictionless

pipe having two end-conditions. Fig. 6.3 (a) shows the diagram for a
pipeline fed by a reservoir and with a downstream valve which shuts
suddenly. Fig. 6.3 (b) is for a pumping main feeding a reservoir when the
pump suddenly stops in such a way that it becomes a 'dead end' and
water cannot pass through it in either direction. For a single wave, which
is produced by sudden opening or closure, the diagrams apply to any
point in the pipe, but the time at which the changes of pressure occur
varies according to the position of the fixed point. The diagrams may be
(a) H
fl X
b)
- va,Ha vo,Ho
F-wave
X
FIG. 6.3
rr
considered as showing the variations of H and v as seen by a stationary
observer.
6.2 Pressure-discharge diagrams at fixed points

When there is a sudden change of velocity under steady flow condition, as
at a change of diameter or a junction, H-Q diagrams are more useful
than H-v diagrams. They are drawn as shown in Fig. 6.4.
For a junction, Fig. 6.4 (c), the head Ho + ht is obtained by ensuring
that continuity is satisfied. That is, aa1 = aa3 + aa2.
Enlargement
(a)
Contraction
(b)
FIG. 6.4
Example 6.1
Water flows at a rate of 0·5 mSfs along a pipe (1) which has a cross-sectional
area of 0· 30 m 2 to a junction, from which it passes along two branches (2 and 3) of
cross-sectional area 0·10 m 2 and 0·05 m 2 • 0·3 mSfs goes along pipe 2 and 0·2 mSfs
along pipe 3. a is 1300, 1325 and 1250 mfs in pipes 1, 2 and 3 respectively, and
the head is 30 m at the junction.
If the flow is suddenly increased in pipe 1 to 0·6 mSfs find the head increase at
the junction.
1300
tan A-~-
1 - gA1 - 9·81 x 0·30 -442 sIm
SOLUTION 2
-
a2 1325
tan A2 = - = = 1351 s/m 2
gA2 9·81 X 0·10
as 1250
tan As = - = = 2549 s/m 2
gAs 9·81 X 0·05
Q1 = 0·5 ms/s; Q2 = 0·3 ms/s; Qs = 0·2 ms/s
LlQ = 0·6- 0·5 = 0·1 ms/s h =tan A1LlQ = 44·2 m
:. Ho +h= 30 + 44·2 = 74·2 m
Draw b1d and lines b2c2, baca, dc1'. By trial find the line aaaa2a1 so that
aa1 = aaa + aa2. Hence aaa = 0·223, aa2 = 0·344, aa1 = 0·567 m3 /s, and the
increase of pressure at the junction ilH = 58·9 m.
Other 'end-conditions' can be shown on an H-Q diagram. Charac-

teristic curves for a pump show its performance at various speeds, as Fig.
6.5 (a). The curve of the form shown in Fig. 6.5 (b) applies to an orifice
or other fixed throttle, e.g. a partly-open valve.
(a) Characterrsf1c (b) (c)
curves for
centnfugal pump
H
Q Q
FIG. 6.5
The friction loss in a pipe may be considered as being concentrated at

a single point (e.g. at the downstream end of the pipe) or at several points,
and is of the form shown in Fig. 6.5 (c).
6.3 Schnyder-Bergeron diagrams

The transient conditions for the most simple cases, such as a uniform
pipeline in which the change of flow is sudden, may be represented by the
H-v or H-Q diagrams for fixed points which we have noted in Sections
6.1 and 6.2. When the system is complicated this method becomes
excessively tedious. Each point in the system must be considered separately
and at any point the head may be due to a number of direct and reflected
waves. Often the end-conditions vary with time, as when a valve closes
or opens gradually or when a pump changes speed.
The difficulty is overcome by the method developed independently by
Schnyder1 •2 and Bergeron3,4 in the 1930's. This makes use of 'travelling
observers'. An 'observer' moving upstream along a pipe at the speed of
waterhammer waves will not be aware of other upstream-moving waves,
since all waves travel at the same speed, a; no wave can overtake or be
overtaken by another. The observer will of course observe waves moving
downstream; the pressure-head will change as he reaches them, and there
is a corresponding change in the velocity.
Schnyder-Bergeron diagrams, or surge diagrams show both observations
made at fixed points and observations made from waves by 'travelling
observers'. The axes of the diagrams are H and Q. Lines sloping at
± afg or ± A represent the passage of waves, as in Section 6.2. The
fixed point observations indicate the direction of the waves which pass
the point-waves moving in the positive v-direction have a positive slope
and those moving in the negative v-direction have a negative slope.
On the other hand an observer moving in the positive v-direction only
observes waves moving in the negative v-direction which have a negative
slope. Similarly observations made from a wave moving in the negative
v-direction are shown on the surge diagram by points on a line with positive
slope.
The notation used for the points on a surge diagram gives the position
in the pipeline to which the conditions apply and the time of the observa-
tion. The time is measured from the time of the start of the change from
initial steady conditions. A convenient time interval, T, is chosen, which
may be multiples of ft such as ft, lft or ift, or which may be a given
number of seconds. Thus point A2 shows the head and flow at point A
in the pipeline at time ft after the start of transient conditions if the time
interval T is tft.
6.4 Surge diagram for uniform pipe with hypothetical end conditions
Fig. 6.6 (a) shows a uniform pipe in which flow is initially steady at a rate
of Qo from A to B, the head being constant at Ho. At A and B are two
'devices' whose characteristics are known. These characteristics are H-Q
relationships, which can be shown by curves "PA and "PB· A 'device' might
be a valve, a pump, a turbine or a reservoir.
B starts to operate s x lft seconds after A starts, s being less than one.
Since the first change from the initial steady conditions occurs when A
starts, we call this timet = 0. We can show the initial conditions by point
P (co-ordinates Qo, Ho) on the surge diagram, Fig. 6.6 (b). P indicates the
head and discharge at A up to the time 0, where the device there starts to
operate, and is therefore called 'A0 '. If we take lft as the time interval T,
3
(a}
Oo
A 8
(b)
H
'fes
I
(c)
H
A o
(d) H I liz+<
I I
81 I
FIG. 6.6
the pressure wave from A, caused by the first operation of the device, will
not reach B until time 1 (i.e. t = T) and the device at B will have started to
operate at time s (i.e. t = s x T), so P also shows conditions at B up
to time s, and is therefore designed B •. The characteristics of the A
device at time 0, and the B device at time s (the initial characteristics) pass
through P.
An observer leaving A at time 0 travels downstream and meets negative
waves generated from B after time s, which are therefore of negative
slope -afgA =tan- A, shown by line PS on Fig. 6.6 (b). He reaches
B at time 1, i.e. when (t = T), when the characteristic of the device at B
has changed to 'l.fJ Bb and the conditions he finds at B are shown by point B1.
This observer now returns from B to A moving in the negative v-direction
and therefore only noticing positive waves shown by a surge line of
positive slope+ A. He reaches A at time 2, i.e. when (t = 2T), to find the
characteristics of the device there as 'l.fJ A2· The H-Q relationship on his
arrival at A are given by point Az, the intersection of the positive-slope
surge line and the characteristic 'l.fJ A2·
Moving up and down the pipe the observer then reaches B and A in
turn to find conditions as shown by points Ba, A4, B5, A6. . . . Each
'round trip' takes 2T.
In a similar way points on Fig. 6.6 (c) show the observations made by
a traveller leaving B at time s. At first he meets the positive wave from
A and reaches A to find conditions given by point A1+s on line PR at its
intersection with the characteristic '/.fJA(Hs)· Subsequent observations by
this traveller at the ends of the pipe are given by points Bz+s, Aa+s. B4+s,
A5+s ....
The observations of the two travellers (who left A at time 0 and B at
time s respectively) can be drawn on the same diagram, Fig. 6.6 (d).
You can see from this example that the points we have obtained repre-
sent conditions at intervals of time !11 apart. The nature of the change
of the characteristics of the devices at A and B does not effect the diagram.
Thus the characteristics may change continuously, or by a series of steps.
All we are concerned with is the characteristics at the times when the waves
were reflected. Thus point A 6 depends only on the initial conditions and
the characteristics represented by '/.fJB1, '/.fJA2, '/.fJB3, '/.fJA4, '/.fJB5 and '/.j)A6· All
these characteristics determine point A6, but characteristics at any other
time have no effect.
Also notice that each time a travelling observer comes to an end of the
pipe (at A or B) the surge line is reflected in a direction which is symmetrical
to the vertical, Q = constant. However, if the end condition is a 'dead-
end', as in Fig. 6.2 (b), the reflection is symmetrical about a horizontal
line.
6.5 Comparison of surge diagram with analytical method

Allievi's equations (4.4) can be used to obtain the relative waterhammer
head-relative to the steady head Ho-at times !p, apart. These are in
effect the same time intervals as those obtained by the surge diagrams.
Although Allievi adapted his method for a number of end conditions,
these conditions are severely limited. A 'device' such as that at B in Fig.
6.6 must have a characteristic which is a parabola with its vertex at the
origin. The characteristic of a pump or turbine must be approximated
to a parabola.
On the other hand, with the graphical method the true characteristic
of the device may be shown correctly.
A second advantage of using surge diagrams rather than Allievi's
equations is that the flow as well as the head is obtained for each position
in the pipe and at each time. Equations (4.4) yield only the head.
A third advantage is in speed of operation. A second order (quadratic)
equation must be solved to obtain each value of z from equations (4.4).
This obviously takes longer than drawing a straight line and a portion of
the characteristic curve on a surge diagram.
6.6 Intermediate times and positions

In Section 6.4 we obtained points on the surge diagram to represent
conditions at the ends of a uniform pipe at intervals of time equal to !p,
after the devices started to operate. The same method may be applied to
obtain points representing other times and for points along the pipe. To
illustrate the procedure we will take the same pipe as in Fig. 6.6 with the
same end-characteristics and assume that e = ! (i.e. the device B starts
when t = !p,).
Intermediate times. The observations of a traveller leaving A at some

time between t = -tp, and t = 0 is represented as before by point P
and line PS. The traveller arrives at B at time tp, after leaving A, and this
is between t = 0 and t = tp,. If he starts from A before t = tp,( -1 + e)
he arrives at B before the device there starts to operate and the condition
is shown by point P. If, however, he leaves at time -!(t = -lp,) he
arrives at B at time ! (i.e. t = ip,) when the characteristic of B is given by
"PBt, and point B1 shows the conditions at B when he arrives there, Fig.
6.7 (a). As the traveller reverses direction at each end of the pipe in turn
the conditions he finds are shown by points A11, B21, Aa1, B41..••
Similarly, for a traveller leaving B before time e, at some time between
-1 and e, the initial conditions are given by point P and the first journey
by line PR. For example, if he leaves B at time 0 he reaches A at time 1,
finding there the characteristic "P AI· The series of surge lines A 1, B2, A 3 ,
B4, As . . . may be drawn to show the further observations of the traveller
as he continues his forward and backward journey, Fig. 6.7 (b).
(a)
(b) 1j;B2
H I
/ A! -.\fAI
-----t:', A3
R ''
FIG. 6.7
A maze of lines can be drawn as close together as required, and the

variation of head and discharge at A and B at small intervals of time can
be found. However, these additional surge lines add nothing to the
accuracy of the original lines.
Intermediate position. If C is a point between A and B in the uniform

pipeline AB, Fig. 6.8 (a), a surge diagram can yield values of Hand Q
at C.
The waterhammer waves generated by any disturbance at A arrive at
C after a time /fa. Those generated at B arrive at C after a time (L - /)fa.
Therefore to find the conditions at C at any time we need to arrive with
a traveller who left A just time /fa before, and a traveller who left B just
time (L - /)fa before. The observations of these travellers may be
represented by surge lines, as Fig. 6.8 (b).
Turning again to the surge diagram for the uniform pipe with hypo-
thetical end-conditions, we can obtain points for C, where for example
I = iL. To find point C2 we draw a positive surge line from B11 and a
8 1 L-1
I--I L -I
--
0
A +C +D +E 8
L c,
-A
A~j,
(a) (b)
(c)
FIG. 6.8
negative line from A1!· C2t is at the intersection of a positive line from
B1i and a negative line from A2, and so on, as in Fig. 6.8 (c).
The maze of lines in Figs. 6.7 (b) and 6.8 (c) are drawn at time intervals
of i,u, and their intersections give points for the three-quarter positions
C, D and E without further construction.
6.7 Series pipes5,6

Consider a pipeline AB consisting of two pipes AC and CB which have
different diameters and wave velocities, as shown in Fig. 6.9 (a). At any
instant of time t a positive wave reaches C from A having started from A
(a)
al AI a2 A2
L, - I ..0.__ I
~-2P-i 02- 2 fl-2
ton 1 _E_Ar
g,
=AI ton- 1 i}. =Az
(b)
(c)
I
FIG. 6.9
at time (t - !,u1), when the characteristics of the device at A was tpA(t-!p,J·

At the same time t a negative wave arrives at C from B having started
from Bat time (t - !,u2), when the characteristic of the device at B was
"PB<t _ 1"'2). Observers travelling with the wave provide the surge lines
At-tp,-S and BH1, 2-R at slopes -A1 and +A2 respectively, as shown
in Fig. 6.9 (b).
At C, as at any position in a continuous fluid, the conditions of con-
tinuity must be satisfied and the pressure is the same in all directions.
This is only satisfied at the intersection of the line At-t" - S and
B1_ 1" 2 - R, i.e. at point Ct. Point Ct represents the conditions of the
pipes AC and CB at timet.
After time t one wave-born observer moves along CA at speed a1, and
another along CB at speed a2. The waves may either be considered as
(a)
A ==::::::;===~c==~2=~B
(b)
FIG. 6.10
'transmitted' through the junction with refraction of the slope of the

surge lines, or as 'reflected' at the junction with a surge line of the same
slope but opposite sign. Whichever way we look at it, one traveller
arrives at A, observing the conditions shown by a surge line of slope A 1
on the way. He reaches A at time (t + !.u1), so that the characteristic of
the device at A must then be 'II' A(t+Ml• and the conditions are given by
point AtHpl• Fig. 6.9 (c).
By working in this way we can obtain a complete surge diagram for
a pipeline consisting of two or more separate pipes of different diameter.
The most simple case is where the periods of two pipes are equal, i.e.
Lja1 = L2/a2. The lengths are not the same if the velocity of water-
hammer waves are different. The surge diagram is shown in Fig. 6.10,
where the devices at A and B both start to operate at time t = 0. The unit
of time is !.u, where .u is the period of one of the pipes (not the period of
the complete pipeline). A wave and its travelling observer therefore
takes time 2 x i!t = .u to travel from A to B or from B to A.
If the two sections have periods /tl and fl-2 which are not equal, but have
a common factor, then half the common factor is a suitable unit of time
for the surge diagram. For example, if ftl = 1!fJ-2, the time interval may
be taken as !(l/3ftl) = HifJ-2) = T. Then, referring to Fig. 6.11 (a), a
wave leaving A takes time 3T to reach C and a wave leaving B takes time
2T to reach C. Then, working as before, point C4 is obtained by drawing
(a)
A========~========~c~==~2==~B
2
...s.
..L fLt : a
1
(b)
FIG. 6.11
a surge line of slope - A1 from A1 and a line of slope + A2 from point

B2. The diagram is continued as Fig. 6.11 {b).
When the periods of pipes in series have no common factor it is neces-
sary to draw a series of surge lines back to the origin for every point on
the surge diagram. For example with the pipeline shown in Fig. 6.12 (a),
!,u1 may be taken as unit timeT. The devices at A and B begin to operate
simultaneously at t = 0.
The conditions at C at time t = l{tftl) are given by point P since no
wave reaches C until after time 1(t = iftl). We get the conditions at
time 3 by drawing a line of negative slope - A1 from point A2 and a line
of positive slope + A2 from Bl-43. Time 1·43 is used because a wave
leaves B then in order to reach C at time 3, taking time 1·57-r to travel
(a)
A====~====~c~~+~~2======~B
j_ fL = .!:-L j_ fL =..!:L
2 I a1 2 2 a2
FIG. 6.12
from B to C. To reach B at time 1·43 an observer would have to leave C
at time -0·14, when conditions would be the initial conditions shown by
point P.
The conditions at Cat time 5(t = 5 X !,u1) are obtained from a line of
negative slope - A1 leaving point A at time t = 4 and a line of positive
slope + A2 leaving B at time t = (5 - 1·57}r, i.e. from point Ba·43· Point
Ba·43 lies on the characteristic of device B at time 3·43 (i.e. on line 'lfB·a4a)
and on the negative line originating at Cat time !,u2 earlier, i.e. at point
C1·sa. CHa in turn is found from a positive line of slope +A2 from
point Bo·29 and a negative line of slope -A1 from point Ao.S6· Fig.
6.12 (b) shows the surge lines for obtaining points Ca, Cs and C7: the
lines for obtaining c7 are shown broken.
You can see that if we want to find point C21, for example, we have
to draw a large number of surge lines. The diagram may become too
confused to follow easily and it may be necessary to trace the continuation
onto a second sheet of paper to follow the lines.
The construction is easier to follow if the steps are set out in the tabular
form suggested by Bergeron, as shown in Fig. 6.12 (c). ·
Three or more pipes in series can be treated in the same way as two
pipes, although the surge diagram becomes more complex.
6.8 Branched pipes5,6

In order to determine the head and flow at a junction we must draw
a surge diagram for each pipe, and satisfy the two basic requirements of
common pressure at the junction and continuity of flow at the junction.
In Fig. 6.13 (b) we see the first stages of the surge diagrams for the
three pipes joining at junction C, Fig. 6.13 (a). In this case all three pipes
have the same period, but pipes having different periods can be examined
in the same way if the unit time T is a simple fraction of the period of each
pipe. The devices at A, B and C have been shown in general form-the
characteristics of all vary with time.
The initial conditions obtain at D until time 1 when the first travelling
observer from A brings a message that the device at A has started to
operate. These initial conditions at D are shown for the three pipes by
points PAD, PBn and Pen. The pressure of all is Ho and continuity is
satisfied because (QA n)o + (QBn)o = (Qcn)o where (QAn)o is the flow
to D from A at time 0, (QBn)o is the flow to D from B at time 0 and
(Qcn)o is the flow from D to Cat time 0.
An observer leaving D at time 0 along pipe AD arrives at A to find
conditions A1. Point A1 is at an intersection of a line of slope - A1
from DAo (i.e. PAD) representing the observation of a traveller moving
upstream and the characteristic of device A at time 1 (i.e. '!/'AI). If the
traveller now returns to D his observations are given by line A1-R at
slope A1. Point DA2 which gives the conditions at DA at time 2 is not
known yet; line A1-DA2 is 'undefined'.
Travellers reaching D along pipes BD and CD at time 2 make observa-
tions recorded by lines Dn2 from B1 (B1 being point Pnn) and Dc2 from
(a)
8
Pipe AD Q Pipe BD Q Pipe CD Q
FIG. 6.13
C1 (C1 being point Pen). Both lines are 'undefined' and points Dn2 and
Dc2 are at this stage unknown.
However, at time 2 (as at any other time) the basic requirements of
common pressure and continuity at D must be satisfied, and these require-
ments may be shown graphically on the surge diagram for any one of the
three pipes. Pipe AD has been chosen here but it might equally be either
of the other pipes. Now by continuity QAn = Qnc- Qnn. At time 2
the abscissa of point Dc2 (at present undefined) is (QAc)2 and the abscissa
of DB2 is (QAn)2. The abscissa of DA2, which is (QAn)2, is equal to the
difference between (Qnch and (Qnn)2, i.e. it is the abscissa of Dc2 less the
abscissa of D B2·
Line DA2 is drawn from PAn with a slope equal to (slope of line Dc2)-
(slope of line Dn2); for any common head the abscissa of any point on
line D A2 is equal to the abscissa of the corresponding point on line Dc2
less the abscissa of the corresponding point on line D B2· Continuity is
satisfied.
Line DA2, together with line At-R previously drawn, enables us to
define point DA2 which lies at their intersection. Points DB2 and Dc2
can now be defined on lines DB2 and Dc2 since they have the same ordinate
Hn2 as point DA2; line Hn2 is projected across the diagrams.
To find the conditions at D at time 3 the undefined lines A2S, DB3 and
Dc3 are drawn from fixed points. Since points B2 and C2 represent the
8 c
£
FIG. 6.14
same conditions as Bt and C1 (the devices at B and C do not start to

operate until time 2), lines DB3 and Dc3 are coincident with lines DB2 and
Dc2 and line DA3 is coincident with line DA2· Point DA3 is found at the
intersection of line A2S and line DA3 and points DB3 and Dc3 are on the
common ordinate HD3.
After time 3 the conditions at DB and De are affected by the change
from initial conditions at B and C after time 2. At time 4 travellers arriving
at D along pipes BD and CD have made observations corresponding to
lines DB 4 and Dc4. Line DA4 is therefore displaced horizontally from
line DA 3 by the displacement ofline DB4 from line DB3less the displace-
ment of line Dc4 from line Dc3. The procedure for finding, in turn,
points DA4, DB4 and Dc4 is the same as for similar points at time 3.
Junction of more than three pipes. The method we have been considering
may be applied to more than three pipes joining at a common point.
Surge diagrams are constructed for each pipe and lines similar to lines
DA2, DA3 and DA4 in Fig. 6.13 (b) are drawn on the diagram applying
to one pipe, the slope satisfying the conditions of continuity. For example,
for the pipes meeting at Fin Fig. 6.14 the slope of any line FA is equal to
(slope of line Fn +slope ofline FE) less (slope of line FB +
slope of line F c)
6.9 Effect of hydraulic losses

Velocity head, friction head and secondary losses (due to bends, etc.)
are often so small that they may be neglected. 7 However, in long pipelines
or in systems operating under a low head they may amount to a consider-
able proportion of the total head, and their effect should be included in
surge diagrams.
In most cases a reasonable approximation is obtained if we consider
the losses as being concentrated at a single throttle, which is often taken
as being close to a reservoir. For greater accuracy or when the pipeline
is very long the losses may be distributed between two or more throttles
along the pipeline.s,9
Fig. 6.15 shows a surge diagram for a pumping main, where the losses
are represented by a throttle near the reservoir shown by line L-L. Line
Pump hJ'
@r::'========::::;'L
L
FIG. 6.15
L-L gives the 'characteristic' at the end of the pipeline just upstream of
the throttle.
Obviously a major throttle, such as an orifice plate or a partly closed
valve, may be treated in the same way as the hypothetical throttle which
we have used to simulate minor hydraulic losses.
6.10 Other conditions

Surge diagrams can be used to determine the Q-H relationship under
other conditions. In the cases we have considered in this chapter the
characteristics of the 'devices' (i.e. the Q-H relationships at the devices)
have been known at intervals of time and these relationships have been
represented by 'If-curves.
With some other devices no such simple relationship exists. Q may
depend upon the rate of change of H with respect to time, or H may depend
on the rate of change of Q with respect to time. Devices which act in this
way include accumulators and air vessels, with which we will deal in
Chapter 7, and surge tanks which will be examined in Chapter 8.
REFERENCES
1. ScHNYDER, 0.: 'Druckstosse in Pumpensteigletrungen,' Schwiez. Bauztg.,
(1929), 94, pp. 271-273, 283-286.
2. ScHNYDER, 0.: 'DruckstOsse in Rohrleitungen,' WassKraft WassWeit,
(1932), 27, pp. 49-54, 64--70.
3. BERGERON, L.: 'Etude des coups de belier dans les conduits: nouvel expose
de la methode graphique,' Techq. mod., (1936), 28, pp. 33-38.
4. BERGERON, L.: Du coup de belier en hydraulique au coup de foundre en
electricite (Dunod, 1950): ASME translation: Waterhammer in hydraulics
and wave surges in electricity (Wiley, 1961).
5. ANGUS, R. W.: 'Waterhammer pressures in compound and branched pipes,'
Proc. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs, (1937), 59, pp. 661-668.
6. PEARSALL, I. S.: 'Waterhammer effects due to branched and stepped pipes,'
Symp. Surges Pipelines, Proc. Instn mech. Engrs, (1966), 180, 3E, pp. 28-40.
7. AMERICAN WATER WoRKS AssociATION: 'Waterhammer and surge,' J. Am.
Wat.Wks. Ass., (1961), 53, pp. 1034--1044.
8. ANGUS, R. W.: 'Waterhammer in pipes, including those supplied by centri-
fugal pumps: graphical treatment,' Proc. Instn mech. Engrs, (1937), 136,
pp. 245-291.
9. HAYASHI, T., and RANSFORD, G.: 'Sudden opening or closing of an outlet
valve on a pipeline,' Houille Blanche, (1960), 15, pp. 657-673.
FURTHER READING
BERGERON, L.: 'Method graphique generale de ca!cul des propagations d'ondes
planes,' Mem. C. r. Trav. Soc. Ing. civ. Fr., (1937), 90, pp. 407-497.
CoMBES, G., and ZAOUI, J.: 'Analyse des erreurs introduites par !'utilisation
pratique de Ia methode des characteristiques dans le calcul des coups de
belier,' Houille Blanche, (1967), pp. 195-200.
GRAY, C. A. M.: 'Analysis of water hammer by characteristics,' Proc. Am.
Soc. civ. Engrs, (1954), 119, pp. 1176-1189.
HARDING, D. A.: 'The simplification of graphical surge analysis by the use of
surge lines with a reduced slope,' Br. Hydromech. Res. Ass., (1962), SP671.
LUPTON, H. R.: 'Graphical analysis of pressure-surge in pumping systems,'
MARPLES, E. I. B.: 'The significance of surge diagrams,' Symp. Surges Pipelines,
Proc. Instn mech. Engrs, (1966), 180, 3E, pp. 3-11.
PARMAKIAN, J.: 'Water-hammer design criteria,' J. Pwr Div., Proc. Am. Soc.
civ. Engrs, (1957), 83, pp. 1216-1 to 1216--8.
STREETER, V. L.: 'Waterhammer analysis of pipelines,' J. Hydraul Div., Proc.
Am. Soc. civ. Engrs, (1964), 90, pp. 151-172.
7 Waterhammer in Pumping Mains
In Chapter 6 we dealt with pipes having 'devices' at the ends. In this

chapter we examine the practical case of a pump feeding a reservoir at the
opposite end of a pipeline.
7.1 Sudden stopping of pumping

The most simple case to deal with is when flow from a pump suddenly
stops in such a way that there can be no reverse flow. This could be caused
by failure of power to an inertia-less pump, or by the instantaneous closure
of a delivery valve. It is an unlikely occurrence, but illustrates the pro-
cedure which is followed in more complex situations. It is assumed that
separation does not occur at any point in the pipeline. The effect of
separation is dealt with in Section 7.2.
On the surge diagram Fig. 7.1 (b) the initial steady-flow values Qo and Ho
are found from the intersection at P of the two end-conditions-the pump
characteristic '!fJP and the pipe-line characteristic '!fJL given by adding
pipeline losses to the static lift. The discharge from A is Q 0 against
head Ho.
Immediately after the flow from A stops at time t = 0 the conditions
at A must be given by a point on the ordinate Q = 0, and by Joukowski's
Law the line PR is at a slope of afgA = tan A. At the reservoir inlet the
head and flow do not change until the negative wave from A teaches B
after time T = it-t· Point P therefore represents conditions at A before
closure and at B until time 1, which is equal toT = it-t·
At time 1 the negative wave from A (represented by line RS at slope
-A showing the observations of a stationary viewer) reaches Band point
S gives the conditions at B from time 1 onwards.
The wave is reflected from B as a positive wave and arrives at A at
time 2 to change the pressure at A to that given by point T. R shows
70
Waterhammer in Pumping Mains 71
conditions at A from time 0 to time 2, and T shows conditions at A from
time 2.
Therefore there is 'no-change' at A and B during the time fl during
which the wave does a round trip from one end to the other end of the pipe
and back again, and point S gives conditions at the reservoir B from time 1
(a)
(b)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
-Q : -Q
FIG. 7.1
to time 3, point T gives the conditions at the pump A from time 2 to time 4,
and so on.
In Fig. 7.1 (b) the point R has a positive value of H. If Hwere negative
there is a danger of separation. A simple guide as to whether the pressure
will be positive or negative is the ratio tan A x (Qo/Ho). This is twice
the pipeline constant s, which we used in connection with Allievi's
equation in paragraph 4.5. In Fig. 7.1,
s
2 = tan A Qo = Ho - OR x Qo = Ho - OR
Ho Qo Ho Ho
~is here less than 0·5 and the maximum head at the. pump is positive.
If~ is greater than 0·5, the maximum head at the pump is negative, and
further checks must be carried out to ensure that there is no separation
of the water column.
We also notice from this example that when no separation occurs the
maximum pressure head does not exceed twice the normal head Ho.
7.2 Separation of water columnsl,2,3

If the absolute pressure in a pipe drops below hvp equal to the vapour
pressure of the water plus the partial pressure of released gases, a 'vacuous
space' is formed. This can occur at the pump or valve if~ > 0·5, or at a
high point in a rising main; we will
H consider these two cases in turn.
(a) Separation at pump or valve.
Fig. 7.2 is similar to Fig. 7.1 (b) except
that ~ is now greater than 0·5, so that
the surge line PR intersects the
abscissa corresponding to the absolute
pressure head hvp at a positive value
of Q.
What happens, of course, is that as
the pressure drops from Ho to hvp
the water near the pump or valve
'stretches' to allow the continued dis-
Q charge Qo downstream. When the
R head becomes hvp the water can
FIG. 7.2 stretch no more; at the reservoir end
of the pipeline the flow is still Qo
and a gap or 'vacuous space' is formed near the pump or valve. When the
gap closes a high pressure results. Waterhammer and separation can also
be caused by cavitation in a high-speed pump. 4
Example 7.1
Draw a surge diagram to obtain the maximum pressure head at the pump
described below when the flow is suddenly stopped.
The pump is placed in a dry well adjacent to the suction well and 4ft below the
water level in the suction well, which is considered as datum. Separation occurs
at a negative head of 30ft. The pipe normally discharges 8 cusecs along a 21 in.
diameter main which rises uniformly to a reservoir in which the water level is 60ft
above datum. The length of the main is 16 600ft and the friction head (assumed
proportional to velocity squared) is 19ft at normal flow. a = 3320 ft/sec.
2L
SOLUTION p, = -a = 10 seconds
A _ _!!..__ 3320 _ .
tan - gA - 32 .2 x 2_4053 - 42 87 ft/cusec
Let
The axes of the H- Q diagram are drawn as in Fig. 7.3. A horizontal line
at a head of 60ft represents the reservoir level and the friction curve 'PL is
1----------------------
IT
Max. head 267ft
I
I ft
I
120
I
100
p
80
Q
8 cusec
I
I
FIG. 7.3
drawn above the reservoir level for positive flows and below for negative flows.
Horizontal lines representing the suction level (H = 0) and the head at which
separation occurs (H = -30 ft) are also drawn.
The initial steady flow conditions are represented by point P. Immediately
the flow stops, at t = 0, a negative wave (represented by a surge line of slope A)
moves upstream. At point Ao-1 the head equals -30ft, and a 'gap' is formed.
At time t = f..! = ,. the wave returns to A, having been reflected from B at time
( = tT.
During the interval t = 2,. to t = 3,. the gap begins to reduce because the
flow is negative and it is finally closed at time 3·5,. found as follows-
Time interval
Q=
0 -h 5·45 cusec; volume of gap= 5·45T
1T-2T 1·10 cusec; volume of gap = 6·55T
2T-3T -3·08 cusec; volume of gap = 3·47T
3T-4T -6·93 cusec;
3·47T .
gap closes at 6 _93 after time 3T
i.e. at t = 3·50T,
When the gap closes the pressure rises as shown by line ST. This reaches the
axis Q = 0 at a head above the separation level equal to Q tan A = 6·9331 x
42·87 = 297·2 ft.
Therefore the maximum pressure at the pump = 297·2 - 30 + 4 = 271·2 ft
since the pump is 4 ft below the suction well level.
(b) Separation at high point. Even when the pressure near the pump or
valve remains above hvp there may still be separation in the pipeline if
there is an uphill slope to the pipe, as in Fig. 7.4. The 'solid' column at
1---
1 ---:----
--- ---f----
- - - - h.q.•
I ----- I
1
1
I
I
I
,.--- .
I
FIG. 7.4
the downstream end of the pipe must be treated independently, its end-
conditions being the vacuous space and the reservoir.
Whether separation occurs at pump or valve or at a high point in the
pipeline, a negative wave is reflected by the reservoir as a positive wave5
and the separated columns collide, the impact causing a large rise of
pressure. When there are a number of high points in a pipeline the
pressure resulting from there-coalescing portions at one gap is transmitted
to the next gap, increasing the closing velocity. The high surge pressure
is therefore increased and the effect may be cumulative.
7.3 Pump with inertia
In Section 7.1 we examined a pump without any inertia, which is impossible.
The pump itself, the driving motor, the couplings and the flywheel (if
fitted) all have inertia which increase the time during which the flow is
reduced to zero.
The equation relating the power available for a pumping set to the
speed change is
-1·62 X 106 P
tl.N = - tl.t (7.1a)
I N
where tl.N is the drop of rev/min in time tl.t seconds, I is the moment of
inertia in lb ft 2, and P and N are the mean horsepower and mean speed
during the time tl.t.
Expressed in SI units, equation (7.1) is
tl.N = -9000 !_ t1t (7.1b)
I N
where tl.N and N are measured in rev/min, I inN m2 , Pin watts and tl.t
in seconds.
--- ---
~====:::::
rotfLot2;
'tAO
lReservoir level
I
....... AI 1
'%1
I
I
-Q Q
0
FIG. 7.5
Failure of the power supply to a pump with inertia is the most common
cause of water hammer pressure in pump delivery mains.
Fig. 7.5 shows a surge diagram for a centrifugal pump feeding a reser-
voir through a long pipeline in which the losses are assumed concentrated
at a throttle at the reservoir entrance and in which there is no separation.
The construction is similar to that of Fig. 6.15 until the surge lines
reach Qo; if a reflux valve is fitted so that there is a 'dead-end' the maxi-
mum head (at point U) is about the same pressure above the reservoir
static head as point S is below. Obviously points R and S are important
when we are investigating the possibility of separation. Depending upon
the form of the pump characteristics (lines '1j)A4 • •• 'lj)Au) R may be at a
higher or lower pressure than S. However, S is found more easily-
approximate methods may be used-and gives a good indication of the
likelihood of separation.
The lines '1fJA are found from equation (7.1).
An approximate solution may be obtained by assuming that the values
of Nand P during the interval 11t are the same as those at the start of the
interval. The error so produced is small if 11t is small.
There may be danger of separation if the pipeline is long or the working
head is small. In this case the surge line through the initial point P may
reach zero head (or hvp) before the pressure is modified by the returning
wave at time p. after the power to the pump has been cut off.
This danger may be reduced by attaching a flywheel to the pump. This
increases the value of I and therefore the slowing-down of the pump takes
longer.
Flywheels have the disadvantage that more power is required to start
the pump, and this method of controlling waterhammer is therefore not
suitable for motors connected directly to the electricity supply. There are
other restrictions on the use of flywheels. The actual size of the flywheel
itself is a disadvantage, and the additional bearings which are necessary
increase the length of the set. Windage losses in the rotating flywheel
and additional losses in the extra bearing decrease the overall efficiency. 6
7.4 Reverse flow

In Section 7.1 we examined the waterhammer in a pipeline where no
reverse flow occurs. Under these conditions the maximum pressure is not
more than twice the normal operating pressure and pipe walls are usually
able to withstand stresses set up. In a system where the inertia of the set
is considerable and no cavitation occurs there is a similar limitation if
a non-return valve is installed, as shown in Fig. 7.5.
When a pump with inertia has no reflux valve and the power is cut off,
the water in the pipeline slows down and then flows back towards the
pump which is still rotating in the normal forward direction. The reverse
flow at first acts as a water brake, bringing the pump to rest, and then
the rotation of the pump is reversed. The pump now behaves as a
badly-designed turbine.
To study the H-Q relationship under these conditions we must know
the full pump characteristics. Fig. 7.6 (a) shows the H-Q characteristics
at constant speed,7 and Fig. 7.6 (b) the N-Q characteristics at constant
head, both diagrams covering negative as well as positive discharge. The
laws of similarity may be applied to obtain the characteristics at the pre-
vailing transient conditions. Alternatively a whole series of tests at
(a)
(b]
FIG. 7.6
R
I
I
I H
I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
1 I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I /
I
FIG. 7,7
various speeds and heads may be carried out to obtain a full range of
characteristic curves.
Fig. 7.7 shows how the maximum positive pressure may be very great
if reverse flow can occur. For example, if a reflux valve operates auto-
matically at time 12 T = 6f1, then the surge pressure rises to point R which
is over three times the steady head Ho.
To overcome the danger of high positive pressure, a small hole is
sometimes drilled in a positive-acting reflux valve.
Surge control
Excessive surge must be avoided in a pipeline system. Negative surge
must be limited because of the possibility of separation, with subsequent
high 'impact' pressures when the separated columns unite. Positive surge
pressures may be due to reflected negative waves like those found in
Section 7.4, or to positive waves originating from the closure of a down-
stream valve. If the pressure is high there is a danger that the pipe or the
pump casing will burst.
We have already found two methods of controlling surge: a reflux
valve which prevents reverse flows and a flywheel which increases the time
during which the pump slows down. Other ways of limiting surge9 are:
Air vessels6,10,ll,12,13.
By-pass or feeder tank (Section 7.6).
Pressure relief valve or 'surge suppressor'14.
Air inlet valve 10 ·12.
7.5 Air vessels

A vessel containing compressed air may be used, as in Fig. 7.8 (a).
The vessel is connected to the pipeline by a pipe or orifice which is often
designed to give a high loss as water enters the vessel and a low loss as
water leaves. The air pressure is maintained by a compressor which is
actuated by a switch controlled by the water-level (e.g. a float switch).
The differential loss at inflow and outflow may be arranged by using a
bell-mouth orifice of the type shown in Fig. 7.8 (b), giving a loss against
flow diagram (or H-Q characteristic) as shown in Fig. 7.8 (c). Alterna-
tively the flow into the chamber may be through an orifice and the flow
out through a by-pass fitted with a non-return valve.
The volume of air in the vessel may be assumed to vary according to
the isothermal law p V = constant, where p is the absolute pressure and
Vis the volume of the air. Because of the rapidity of the volume changes,
the isothermal law is not strictly true. The adiabatic law is also not
accurate; it assumes very high temperatures at high pressures and anyway
the 'air' in the vessel contains a high proportion of water vapour and gases
which come out of solution. Consequently the expansion is often assumed
to follow the law
p v1.2 = constant (7.2)
A characteristic curve for the air chamber may be used to determine the
air volume.
(a)
Compressor
(b)
Air vessel
Pipe
(c l
~
9.
"0
"
<ll
I
Flow
FIG. 7.8
Design charts,I5,16,I7 by which the required size of an air vessel can be
obtained, are available. It is usually assumed that the column of water
below the air in the chamber has no effect. If the air chamber is intended
to protect a pumping main against excessive waterhammer following
power failure, it is also assumed that a check valve closes at the time of
failure so that all flow at the downstream end is into or out from the air
vessel.
A surge diagram can be drawn to include the effect of an air vessel,
making the assumptions made in the last paragraph. A step-by-step
trial-and-error process is used to obtain the absolute pressure head in the
air vessel at small intervals of time.
Air vessels are also used to restrict surge pressures in the following
situations:
(a) Starting of submersible pump supplying a long pipeline, Fig. 7.9 (a).
When the pump is not working the reflux valve is shut and so length AC
(a)
(c)
FIG. 7.9
contains air and length CE contains water at a static pressure corres-
ponding to the surface level in the reservoir. When the pump starts, air is
expelled from the valve at B, and water flows from A to C. When the
pressure on the upstream side of C exceeds that downstream, the reflux
valve opens. The moving water column in AC meets the stationary
column in CE and rapid deceleration results in a high rise of pressure if
there is no air vessel. With a large air-vessel at D this deceleration is
prevented because the high flow in AC goes into the air vessel when the
reflux valve opens. The pressure in D increases and the water in CE
accelerates and eventually equilibrium conditions are reached with the
flow in the whole pipe AE equal to the pump discharge.
(b) Sudden closure of a valve at the end of a long pipeline, Fig. 7.9 (b)
and (c). An air vessel may be used to protect a pipeline against the water-
hammer pressure produced when a downstream valve is suddenly closed.
The vessel must have sufficient capacity to ensure that no air enters the
pipeline when the pressure is a minimum. With hydro-power supply
pipes, Fig. 7.9 (c), it is common to use an open tank (a 'surge tank')
rather than an air vessel.
(c) Reciprocating pump. We deal with this separately in Section 7.8.
7.6 Pump by-passes and feeder tank

A simple method of preventing the pressure in a main from becoming
too high or too low is to connect the main to a tank at a point where
undesirable high or low pressure would otherwise occur. The tank must
be so large that water put into it, or taken from it, does not cause the level
to change very much. If the tank is required to protect the main from low
pressures, it is connected to the pipe by a non-return valve which only
opens when the mains pressure head falls below that in the tank.
In many cases the pump suction well can be used as a feeder tank to
prevent separation. A by-pass fitted with a non-return valve connects
the suction and delivery sides of the pump, Fig. 7.10 (a).
Example 7.2
Draw a surge diagram to obtain the maximum pressure head at the pump for
the system described in Example 7.1, if separation is prevented by a by-pass to the
pump. The by-pass is fitted with a non-return valve, which opens when the pressure
in the pipeline drops below the static level of the suction well, and the loss through
the by-pass, including the valve, is equal to 0· 15 Q2 , the loss being measured in
feet and Q in cusecs.
(a)
(b)
H 1~0
11/ls
-20 I Q
-2 -1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 cusecs
FIG. 7.10
SOLUTION
The surge diagram, Fig. 7.10 (b) is constructed in the same way as Fig. 7.3,
but the negative surge at points Ao-1 and A1-2 is limited by the suction well
level, less the by-pass losses, i.e. by line 1fJ•· The maximum head, shown at
point Aa-4, is 116·9 ft compared with the maximum head of 267 ft when there
was no by-pass (Example 7.1).
The broken line shows the worst conditions which could occur, giving a
maximum head of 118·8 ft.
A pumping main which undulates may be protected by a number of
feeder tanks. These are located at points where the pressure head in the
main would otherwise drop below the vapour-pressure head, i.e. when
the negative head in the main reaches about 30ft. Fig. 7.11 (a) shows
such a main. The normal flow is such that in the absence of protective
devices separation would occur in the pump discharge if flow suddenly
stops.
A by-pass at the pump A limits the amplitude of the waterhammer
oscillation in AB to the line a1b1, which is parallel to the 'normal' hydraulic
gradient aoeo. At B, point b1 is 30 ft below the pipe; a feeder tank there
limits the downward oscillation of the waterhammer to the height of the
water surface in the tank, b2, and in pipe BC to the level given by line b2c1.
In the design of such a system it is necessary to know the total quantity
of water which passes from each feeder tank and the maximum rate of
flow from the tank. The capacity of the tank must be large enough to
supply the total quantity passing without significantly altering the water
(a)
Q
Normal flow
Rate
of
flow l:.Omax
Time
(b)
FIG. 7.11
level in the tank. The size of the valve between the tank and the main must
be sufficient to pass the maximum flow without too great friction loss.
Surge diagrams must be drawn for each length, AB, BC, CD, DE, and
also for combined lengths to show the waterhammer oscillations when
a valve is closed. For example when the valve from the feeder tank at B
is closed because the mains-head exceeds the water level in the feeder tank,
a diagram for AC is needed to determine the flow at C. From the surge
diagrams a flow-time diagram is obtained, Fig. 7.11 (b). The total quantity
of water taken from the tank is obviously represented by the hatched area
(= ~(Qout - Q;n)L1t) and the maximum rate of flow is shown by L1Qmax
7.7 Parallel pumpsls
If two or more pumps deliver to a simple main and the power supply to
one of the pumps fails, the waterhammer pressures may be obtained by
drawing surge diagrams in the way described in Section 6.8.
7.8 Waterhammer in delivery pipe from reciprocating pump

When there is no air-vessel, or if the vessel fails, the cyclic flow gives rise
to waterhammer pressures which can be represented by a surge diagram.
The discharge from a reciprocating pump is not affected by the operating
head, being only a function of time. Consequently the characteristic
curves are vertical lines.
£13
17
21
25
FIG. 7.12
FIG. 7.13
The form of the surge diagram depends on the relationship between the
time taken for one pump cycle, Tc, and the pipe period, f1·
If Tcf2f1 is an even integer we can obtain a diagram of the form shown
in Fig. 7.12, where Tcf2f1 = 12 and T = f1 = Tc/24; 1p-lines are drawn at
intervals of 2T.
For a double-acting pump the surge diagram is identical to that for a
similar single-acting pump for the first half-cycle, i.e. until time 12 in Fig.
7.12. After the first half-cycle the pressures and discharges progressively
increase; the oscillation is amplified until cavitation occurs.
If Tcf2fl is not an even integer there is no resonance and the oscillation
follows a pattern which is repeated every cycle. For example, if Tcf2fl = 5,
the surge diagram is as shown in Fig. 7.13.
REFERENCES
1. GAYED, Y. K., and KAMEL, M. Y. M.: 'Mechanics of secondary water-
hammer waves,' Proc. Instn mech. Engrs, (1959), 173, pp. 675-683.
2. RicHARDS, T. R.: 'Water-column separation in pump discharge lines,'
3. SHARP, B. B.: 'Cavity formation in a simple pipe due to rupture of the
water-column,' Nature, London, (1960), 185, pp. 302-303.
4. CARSTENS, M. R., and HAGLER, T. W.: 'Water hammer resulting from
cavitating pumps,' J. Hydraul. Div., Proc. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs, (1964),
90, HY6, pp. 161-184.
5. Due, J.: 'Negative pressure phenomena in pump pipelines,' Proc. Int. Symp.
Waterhammer pumped Storage Projects, ASME., (1965), pp. 154-157.
6. WooDWARD, A. C.: 'Some practical aspects of pressure surge control,'
Allen Engng Rev., (1964), vo 55, pp. 16-19.
7. SCHNYDER, 0.: 'Druckstosse in Pumpensteigletungen,' Schweiz. Bauztg.,
(1929), 94, p. 271.
8. ANGUS, R. W.: 'Protective air vessels for rising pipe lines,' Discussion,
Proc. Instn mech. Engrs, (1945), 153, pp. 20-22.
9. LIVINGSTONE, A. C., and WILSON, J. N.: 'Synopsis of surge control equip-
ment,' Wat. & Wat. Engng, (1963), 67, pp. 264-269.
10. ANGUS, R. W.: 'Air-chambers and valves in relation to water hammer,'
11. BINNIE, A. M.: 'Protective air vessels for rising pipe lines, Proc. Instn mech.
Engrs, (1945), 153, pp. 15-20.
12. BLAIR, J. S.: 'Controlling pipe line surges by means of air vessels,' Proc.
Instn mech. Engrs, (1945), 153, pp. 1-8.
13. GoLDMAN, 0. G.: Water hammer; its causes, magnitude, prevention (Colum-
bia Graphs Inc., 1953).
14. LuNDGREN, C. W.: 'Charts for determining size of surge suppressors for
pump-discharge lines,' J. Engng Pwr, Trans. Am. Soc. mech. Engrs, (1961),
83, pp. 43-45.
15. CoMBES, G., and BoRoT, G.: 'New chart for the calculation of air vessels,
allowing for friction losses,' Houille Blanche, (1952), pp. 723-729.
16. EvANS, W. E., and CRAWFORD, C. C.: 'Design charts for air chambers on
pump lines,' Trans. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs, (1954), 119, pp. 1025-1036.
17. TucKER, D. M., and YouNG, G. A. J.: 'Estimation of the size of air vessels,'
Br. Hydromech. Res. Ass., (1962), SP670.
18. LINTON, P.: 'Notes on pressure surge calculations by the graphical method:
No. 1, Pump stoppage after power failure,' Br. Hydromech. Res. Ass.,
(1954), TN447 (2nd Edn.), pp. 18-21.
FURTHER READING
BERGERON. P.: 'Complexite des phenomenes de coups de belier sur les installa-
tions de pompage et essai de classification des solutions generales pour y reme-
dier,' Houille Blanche, (1949), pp. 724-732.
BINNIE, A. M., and THACKRAH, D. G.: 'Water hammer in a pumping main and
its prevention,' Proc. Instn mech. Engrs, (1951), 165, pp. 43-52.
DoNSKY, B.: 'Complete pump characteristics and the effects of specific speeds
on hydraulic transients,' J. bas. Engng, Trans. Am. Soc. mech. Engrs, (1961),
83, pp. 685-696.
DoNSKY, B., and DEFAZIO, F. G.: 'Design analysis of waterhammer in the San
Louis pumping-generating plant.' Proc. Symp. Waterhammer pumped
Storage Projects, ASME, (1965), pp. 61-69.
GAULHET, A.: 'La protection des installations de pompage coutre les coups de
belier d'onde,' Houille Blanche, (1967), pp. 169-172.
JAEGER, C.: 'Water-hammer caused by pumps,' Wat. Pwr, (1959), 11, pp. 259-
266.
KITTREDGE, C. P.: 'Hydraulic transients in centrifugal pump systems,' Trans.
Am. Soc. mech. Engrs, (1956), 78, pp. 1307-1320.
KNAPP, R. T.: 'Complete characteristics of centrifugal pumps and their use in
prediction of transient behaviour,' Trans. Am. Soc. mech. Engrs, (1937), 59,
pp. 683-689.
LINTON, P.: 'Pressure surges on starting pumps with empty delivery pipes,'
Br. Hydromech. Res. Ass., (1950), TN402.
LINTON, P.: 'A simple guide to water hammer and some notes on pressure
surges in pump delivery lines,' Br. Hydromech. Res. Ass., (1961), TN411.
LINTON, P.: 'Notes on pressure surge calculations by the graphical method:
No.1, Pump stoppage after power failure,' Br. Hydromech. Res. Ass., (1954),
TN447.
LIVINGSTONE. A. C., and WILSON, J. N.: 'Effects of valve operation,' Symp.
Surges Pipelines, Proc. Instn mech. Engrs, (1966), 180, 3E, pp. 44-51.
LUPTON, H. R.: 'Graphical analysis of pressure-surge in pumping systems,'
MARPLES, E. B.: 'Introduction to the theory of surge,' Allen Engng Rev., (1958),
No. 39, pp. 14-17.
PARMAKIAN, J.: 'Pressure surges in pump installations,' Trans. Am. Soc. civ.
Engrs, (1957), 83, pp. 1216-1 to 1216-8.
PERLITER, S., and URBAIN, E. A.: 'Pipeline surges and their effect on pump
station design,' J. Am. Wat.Wks. Ass., (1964), 56, pp. 891-898.
ScHNYDER, 0.: 'Comparison between calculated and test results on water
hammer in pumping plants,' Trans. Am. Soc. mech. Engrs, (1937), 59,
pp. 695-700.
STEPANOFF, A. J.: 'Elements of graphical solution of water-hammer problems
in centrifugal pump systems,' Trans. Am. Soc. mech. Engrs, (1949), 71,
pp. 515-534.
STEPANOFF, A. J.: Centrifugal and axial flow pumps (Wiley, 2nd Edn., 1957).
STREETER, V. L.: 'Valve stroking to control water hammer,' J. Hydraul. Div.,
Proc. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs, (1963), 89, pp. 39-66.
TmRRIOT, C.: 'Methodes approchees de calcul des coups de belier dans des
conduites relativement longue,' Houille Blanche, (1967), pp. 179-192.
8 Waterhammer in Hydro-electric
Supply Pipes
A surge tank is often constructed when there is a long pipeline supplying

water to a hydro-electric power plant. We will consider the functions and
design of surge tanks later.
Short pipelines usually have no surge tank, and waterhammer pressures
in the pipeline can then be determined by using the methods discussed in
Chapters 4, 5 and 6. The 1p-lines showing the characteristics of the down-
stream 'device' depend upon the type of valve used. For impulse turbines
such as the Pelton wheel, the water supply is generally controlled by spear
valves. The characteristic curve is a parabola through the origin. For
reaction turbines, the characteristics of the moveable guide vanes (or
'gate') can be obtained by field or model tests on similar vanes.
In a system which includes a surge tank, the waterhammer oscillations
are superimposed on mass oscillations. In this chapter we examine the
use of surge diagrams to obtain water hammer pressures; mass oscillations
are examined in Chapter 9-14.
8.1 End conditions at a surge tank

As we shall see in later chapters, any movement of the valve results in
oscillation of the water surface in the surge tank. The flow into the surge
tank 'q' and the water level in the tank 'h' at any time t during the oscilla-
tion depend on the dimension of the pipeline and tank, and on the type
of valve movement. The valve movement may be opening or closure,
partial or complete, sudden or gradual.
We will consider a short interval of time !lt which begins at time t and
is of such duration that changes in the rate of flow into the surge tank may
be taken as linear. Changes of water-level during !lt are also linear.
87
Referring to Fig. 8.1, we see that for a tank of constant cross-sectional
area (A 8 = constant) the volume of water entering the tank in time f:.t
is given by
(8.1)
FIG. 8.1
B is the base of the surge tank BD, Fig. 8.2 (a), so using the notation
of Fig. 6.13 the conditions at B at the entrance to the surge tank are shown
(a)
c
(b)
s
/
r=., --1--qt--r
R~
FIG. 8.2
Waterhammer in Hydro-electric Supply Pipes 89
by point BDt for the timet. The co-ordinates ofBDt on the surge diagram,
Fig. 8.2 (b), are qe and he.
From equation (8.1) t1h =~=tanA' (8.2)

qe + q(t+3.t) 2As
Equation (8.2) can be shown on the surge diagram by the construction
drawn in broken lines, where R has the co-ordinates -qe and he, and tan A'
is made equal to tAt/As. Point S on the q = 0 axis can also be obtained
by drawing a line from point BDt at a slope of -A'. Line S-L is thus
defined; point Bn(t+ilt), which lies on line S-L, can be fixed only by a
knowledge of surge conditions in pipes 1 and 3. These may be drawn as
line J-K, and the intersection of lines S-L and J-K defines point Bn(t+llt)·
J-K depends on the position of the valve (whether or not the length of BC
is negligible) and the type of valve movement.
BDt-S and S-Bn<t+llt) are true surge lines. They represent the observa-
tions of a traveller moving with a surge wave. S represents conditions
found when the traveller reaches the water surface in the surge tank at D.
S may therefore be called Dn(t+!llt)·
8.2 Simple tank near valve (pipeline friction neglected)

(a) Sudden complete closure. The initial steady flow in the pipeline is Q0
and the initial steady head is Ho. Point P on the surge diagram, Fig.
8.3 (c), gives the initial conditions; P has the co-ordinates Qo, Ho. A is a
reservoir with so large a horizontal area that the level remains constant.
~:8~:--·-l~
L,
FIG. 8.3 (a). Before closure.
When the valve closes, the whole of the flow from the pipeline AB is
diverted to the surge tank BD. Subsequent variations of flow satisfy
continuity, so at all times after closure the upward flow in the surge tank,
qe, is equal to the flow down the pipeline, qpt. Consequently, conditions
at the downstream end of the pipeline are the same as at the base of the
surge tank and in the surge diagram we can use the notation B = BA = B n.
The time interval Tis made equal to t,u1 = L1/a1. and t1t for the surge
tank is made equal to 2T. Then, for the surge tank BD the slope of the
surge line A' = tan-1 (2T/2A 8) = tan-l(T/As).
Starting from the time when the valve closes, when t = 0, we draw
surge lines P-D1 and D1-L at slopes of -A' and A'. D1 corresponds to
S in Fig. 8.2 (b). These surge lines show the observations of a traveller
leaving B at time 0, going up the surge tank to reach the surface D at time
1 and then returning to B at time 2.
'"' """'~"" ~
!!----=---~0,,
FIG. 8.3 (b). After closure.
Now at time 2 the conditions at B depend on the waterhammer wave

which left the valve C at zero time. C is very close to B; the valve may
be taken as being at B. A traveller moving just ahead of the waterhammer
wave reaches A at time 1. He finds conditions at A still at their initial
value since he is just ahead of the wave. Therefore point A1 is the same
asP on Fig. 8.3 (c).
(c)
Ho
I
I
I
FIG. 8.3 (c)
On returning to B, which he reaches at time 2, the pipeline traveller

finds that the water movement in the surge tank has already affected the
flow and head at B, as shown by line D1-L. The surge line for the pipeline
traveller is P-K at a slope of -A1 = -tan-1 (a1/gA). Consequently point
B2 is at the intersection of D1-L and P-K.
Continuing the surge diagram we draw the observations of the pipeline
traveller as he goes back and forth along the pipeline. The lines are at a
slope of A1 and give points Aa, B4, As and so on. The surge tank traveller,
as he moves up and down the tank, finds conditions given by Da, B4, Ds
and so on. The diagram can be continued as Fig. 8.3 (d). Since there is
no friction, the upsurge y1 is equal to the downsurge y2 and at the end of a
cycle the diagram comes back to point P.
FIG. 8.3 (d)
(b) Slow closure. To prepare a surge diagram when the valve closes in
time T we first obtain the flow through the valve at intervals of time 2r
from the time of complete closure. For example, if the flow through the
valve varies as shown in Fig. 8.4 (a), the flow at timeT- 2r is Q<T-2,), and
at time T- 4r is Q(T-4,)· The 'remainder' of time may be termed Or,
and the corresponding flow Q<T-4,) = Q8. From this, Q(T-2,) is also
Q<e+2l· Of course 0 is always less than 2.
The first surge lines are drawn for the reduced time interval Or. An
observer leaving Bat time 0 and moving up the surge tank finds conditions
at D to be q = 0 and h = Ho because there is no change of flow or head
at the bottom of the surge tank at time 0. Hence, point 0 on Fig. 8.4 (b)
represents Band D. However, changing conditions will be noticed by the
observer as he returns from D to B, and these are shown by a surge line
of slope A 8 ' where tan Ae' = Or/2A 8 •
The pipeline traveller reaching Bat time eleft A at time (0 - 1), when
conditions had not changed from the initial conditions shown by point
P. The changes noted during the journey from A to Bare shown by a surge
line of slope A1 = tan a1jgA.
e
At time the difference between flow qe up the surge tank and qPe
down the pipeline is Q8 through the valve. Q8 is therefore the difference
between the abscissa of points Bne and BAe· Q 8 is shown by a horizontal
broken line on the surge diagram.
e• ...,.
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIG. 8.4
We continue by drawing surge lines to show the observations of

travellers in the pipeline and surge tank. Since the time interval is now
2T, the slope A' is TjA 8 •
At time ( () + 2) the difference of flow in pipeline and surge tank is
Q(o+2), which is the horizontal distance between points BD<o+2> and
BA(o+2)·
At time ( () + 4) = Tfr there is no flow through the valve and point
BD<e+4> coincides with point BA <e+4)· Thereafter the diagram continues in
the same way as Fig. 8.3 (c).
8.3 Throttled tank near valve

Many modern surge tanks include a restriction at the base. Chapter 9
explains this. We can allow for losses in a restriction and also losses due
to pipeline friction by plotting the losses against Q on the surge diagram.
The simplest is when closure takes place in time 2T. Instantaneous
closure requires two sets of surge lines-one for conditions immediately
before the passage of the wave and one after. Closure taking longer than
2r can be dealt with by the method shown in Fig. 8.4 (b).
Fig. 8.5 (b) shows the first few lines of a surge diagram to give the water-
hammer pressures in the hydraulic system of Fig. 8.5 (a) when the valve
closes in time 2T = /-ll·
(a)
\
(b)
FIG. 8.5
The head loss due to pipeline friction is shown by line L-L. This is
similar to line L-L on Fig. 6.15, except that the friction line is below the
reservoir level for positive flow; the losses are assumed to be concentrated
at a single point near the reservoir.
The initial conditions with steady flow Q0 along the pipeline and out
through the valve are given by point P on the diagram. P is on L-L at a
distance hFo below the static level Ho. The water surface in the reservoir
is initially at this level but for steady flow in the pipeline the flow into the
surge tank q = 0. Point R is given by the co-ordinates q = 0, H = Ho -
hFo, and shows conditions at D up to time 1 and at Bn at time 0.
Throttle losses are shown by curve T-T.
The construction of the first surge lines is similar to that of Fig. 8.4 (b).
From R a line is drawn at slope A' where tan A' = TjA 8 • From P a line
is drawn at slope A1 where tan A1 = a1jgA. By trial or graphical means
points Bnz and BAz are found such that the vertical distance between them
is equal to hTz obtained from curve T-T. This obviously shows the actual
conditions: when water enters the tank there is a head loss hTz such that
the pressure above the throttle is less than the pressure beneath the throttle
as the water moves up through the throttle.
From BD2 a line of slope -A' is drawn to meet the q axis at Da, which
gives the water level in the surge tank at time 3. From BAz a line of slope
A1 is drawn to meet L-L at Aa. The observers responsible for the surge
lines next return along surge tank and pipeline to find points BD4 and BA4
which have the same abscissa but are hT4 apart vertically; hT4 is obtained
from curve T-T.
The diagram can be continued for a full cycle. For the case considered
in Section 8.2, where there is no friction or throttle, the conditions at the
end of the cycle are the initial conditions at point P; the loci of Bn form
in ellipse. When allowance is made for pipeline and throttle losses, the
loci of Bn form a spiral. Downsurge is less than the preceding upsurge
and the flow in the pipeline at the end of the cycle is less than the initial
flow.
8.4 Tank between pipeline and penstock

The usual position for a surge tank is not close to the valve, although this
is advantageous because the amplitude of the waterhammer oscillations
then have the same range as the mass oscillation. In high head schemes
the power station is often in a valley and is fed by a pipeline or tunnel
from a reservoir in a neighbouring valley. The pipeline is fairly flat, to
limit static pressures. Often the tunnel or pipeline ends high up on the side
of the valley where the power station is built, and the final part of the
conduit falls steeply, often as several parallel penstocks. The most con-
venient position for the surge tank is near the junction of pipeline and
penstocks. It can then be excavated in the hillside.
Fig. 8.6 (a) shows a typical layout. Fig. 8.6 (b) shows the construction
of a surge diagram for an unrestricted tank; pipeline losses are neglected.
(a)
r=t,u.1=~,u.3
q3= Q
(b)
FIG. 8.6
The diagram can be modified for pipeline and throttle losses in the way
indicated in the last section. In Fig. 8.6 (b) /'1 = f'a, but the same values
of A1, Aa and A' have been taken.
The method of construction follows the lines of that for branched pipes
given in Section 6.8, but in this case we combine the diagrams for the
pipeline AB and the penstock BC, drawing the diagram for the surge
tank BD separately.
The initial conditions shown by P refer to the pipeline AB and the
penstock BC. The initial conditions shown by R refer to the surge tank-
i.e., D and Bn.
The characteristics of the 'valve' are shown by '!jJ-lines at intervals of
r = !,u1. For a Pelton wheel with a spear valve these lines are parabolas
through the origin Q = 0, H = 0. The guide vanes of reaction turbines
produce parabolas whose origin depends on the specific speed of the
turbine.
A travelling observer leaving B at time 0, when the valve starts to
operate, and going along the penstock BC reaches the valve at time 1,
when the discharge characteristic is given by line 'lj!e1. The surge line goes
from P (initial conditions at B at time 0) and the slope of the line is - Aa
where tan Aa = aafgAa. Point C1 is fixed at the intersection of the surge
line and '!jJ-line. The traveller then returns, reaching B at time 2. The
conditions he finds at Be lie on line Be2.
Meanwhile, a second observer does a round trip up the surge tank. He
finds initial conditions (point R) when he reaches the surface at D, and
returns to B n at time 2 to find conditions that must lie on line B n2 at
slope A' = r/As.
A third observer starting from B visits the reservoir to find initial
conditions (point P) there, and also returns to B at time 2. He finds
conditions that must lie on line BA2 at slope A1.
Now continuity must be satisfied at B, and the head at the three jointing
branches (i.e. BA, Be and Bn) must be the same. The corresponding
positions of points BA2, Be2 and Bn2 may be found by trial so that q1 =
q2 + qa. Alternatively, line B' A2 may be drawn from the point Y2 at a
slope equal to the sum of the slopes of lines Bc2 and Bn2. Point Y2lies at
the intersection of line Be2 with the projection of D1 (R). Point BA2 is
at the intersection of line B' A2 and line BA2· Point Be2 is fixed by drawing
a horizontal line, representing constant head at B, from point BA2 to cut
line Be2.
The diagram is continued by drawing surge lines and projections in the
directions shown on Fig. 8.6 (b).
When the cross section of the surge tank varies with elevation, the angle
A' must be varied to correspond with the area at the elevation of D.
REFERENCES
BERGERON, P., and KERR, S. L.: 'Waterhammer analysis on pumped storage
projects,' Proc. Int. Symp. Waterhammer pumped Storage Projects, (1965),
ASME, pp. 189-200.
BRATFISCH, A. E., and CARTWRIGHT, K. 0.: 'Water-hammer calculation and
test results-Owens Gorge Power Plant penstocks,' Trans. Am. Soc. mech.
Engrs, (1956), 78, pp. 1329-1336.
CAusoN, G. J.: 'Precautions against resonant water hammer,' Wat. Pwr, (1968),
20, pp. 20-22.
EscANDE, L.: 'Influence de la liaison entre chambre d'equilibre et canal
d'amenee d'une usine hydro-electrique sur le regime des surpressions-role
de l'etranglement,' Houille Blanche, (1949), 1, pp. 457-478.
EscANDE, L. : 'The transmission of water-hammer pressures through surge tanks:
communication,' Proc. Instn mech. Engrs, (1954), 168, p. 639.
JAEGER, C.: 'Present trends in surge tank design,' Proc. Instn mech. Engrs, (1954),
168, pp. 91-103.
JuPILLAT, R., and TRIVIDAC, A.: 'Sur I'evolution du coup de belier dans une
galerie d'amenee a l'amant de la cheminee d'equilibre,' Houille Blanche,
(1951), pp. 640-646.
PAYNTER, H. M.: 'Methods and results from M.I.T. studies in unsteady flow,'
J. Boston Soc. civ. Engrs, (1952), 39, pp. 120-165.
STROWGER, E. B., and KERR, S. L.: 'Speed changes of hydraulic turbines for
sudden changes of load,' Trans. Am. Soc. mech. Engrs, (1926), 48, pp. 209-
232.
WATER POWER: 'Water-hammer in pumped-storage projects,' Wat. Pwr, (1966),
18, pp. 119-123.
ZIENKIEWICZ, 0. C., and HAWKINS, P.: 'The transmission of water-hammer
pressures through surge tanks,' Proc. Instn mech. Engrs, (1954), 168, pp.
629-638.
9 Introduction to Surge Tanks
9.1 Purpose of surge tanks

If in a hydro-electric scheme the water is conveyed to the turbines through
a long conduit, a very large mass of water is contained in the conduit, and
considerable forces are necessary to retard or accelerate this mass when
the turbines' demand for water changes. For example, in an 8ft (2·4 m)
diameter pipeline 2 miles (3·2 km) long the mass of water is about 14 000
tons. Change of flow to the turbines also produces waterhammer
pressures, 1 which we dealt with in Chapter 8.
Such changes of flow occur whenever there is an alteration in the load
demand from the turbines, i.e. when the electrical power required to be
generated alters. Under normal operating conditions it may be possible
to regulate the turbines so that the change is gradual, but accidental rapid
changes must be allowed for. For example, failure of the power cable
from the hydro-electric station may result in an immediate rejection of
load; failure of another station connected to the same electricity network
may result in an immediate increase in demand.
Pelton wheels have spear valves to control the flow of water, but for
Francis and Kaplan turbines the flow is controlled by guide vanes. In
the following pages, by 'valve movements' we mean movements of the
mechanism controlling the flow to the turbines, however effected.
In the case of closure of the valve (load rejection) it is possible to
provide for a gradual change of flow by the provision of relief valves or
diverters. In some cases this may be the most satisfactory solution to
the problem, but such measures cannot assist when there is an increase
of demand and the valve is opened. In any case, relief valves and diverters
result in a waste of water, which may not be justified if valve movements
are frequent. The increase in pressure due to sudden change of flow may
produce dangerous conditions in the absence of an adequate surge tank.
Such conditions have occasionally resulted in the fracture of the conduit.2,3
98
Introduction to Surge Tanks 99
Fig. 9.1 shows the supply system for a hydro-electric plant with a single
surge tank at the upper end of the steeply-sloping penstock.
The inclusion in the hydraulic system of a surge tank near the power
station gives rise to the forces required to retard or accelerate the mass
of water in the pipeline. If the flow to the turbine is increased, the water
level in the surge tank drops, providing an accelerating head in the pipe-
line; if the flow to the turbines is reduced, the water level in the surge
tank rises providing a retarding head in the pipeline. The surge tank also
Tunnel w1th shaft surge tank
FIG. 9.1
provides a free surface near the turbine. The intensity of waterhammer

pressures in the pipeline is usually so reduced as to be practically negligible,
and the strength of the pipeline can therefore be reduced, with resulting
economy in construction costs.
A surge tank has been defined as a stand pipe or storage reservoir
placed at the down-stream end of a closed aqueduct to prevent undue rise
of pressure in case of a sudden diminution of draft and to furnish water
quickly when the gates are opened, without having to wait for the velocity
in the long feeder to pick up. 4
Summing up, upstream surge tanks fulfil the following purposes:
(a) They provide an accelerating head or retarding head to the mass of
water in the pipeline when the valve is opened or closed.
(b) They reduce waterhammer effects.
(c) They provide a reservoir from which water is drawn by the turbines
on increase of load before the water in the pipeline accelerates, and
to which water passes from the pipeline when the valve closes.
Where water leaves the turbines along a tail-race tunnel, as in some
underground plants, a downstream surge tank is sometimes provided. 5 ·6,7
9.2 Oscillation phenomena

When the valve is suddenly completely closed, the water in the penstock
stops almost at once because of its small inertia. The water in the pipe-
line, with large inertia, retards slowly. The difference in flows between
pipeline and penstock causes a rise in the water level in the surge tank.
The water rises above the static level of the reservoir water, producing a
counterpressure so that water in the pipeline flows towards the reservoir
and the level of water in the surge tank drops. The cycle is repeated, with
mass oscillation of the water in the pipeline and surge tank. In the
absence of damping, such oscillation would continue indefinitely with the
same amplitude. However, damping is provided by friction in the pipe-
line and may be increased by constructing a restriction (or 'throttle') at
the base of the surge tank. The pipeline and surge tank are considered
as rigid (i.e. they do not stretch under load), and the water is considered
as incompressible.
Similar mass oscillations occur when the closure is gradual and/or
partial, but the amplitude is reduced. For valve opening there are also
mass oscillations, but in this case the first movement of the water in the
surge tank is a downsurge. The mass oscillations are superimposed upon
oscillations due to waterhammer,I.s,9 The mass oscillations are slow;
waterhammer oscillations, which we have already dealt with in Chapter
8, are very rapid, and the two phenomena can be considered separately.
As the water level in the surge tank varies there is a corresponding
change in the head on the turbines. The turbine governors, in their
efforts to maintain constant power input to the turbines, tend to oscillate
in a similar manner to the mass oscillation of the water in the pipeline,
except in the case of complete closure. The oscillation of the governors
may, under certain conditions, maintain or even increase the mass
oscillation, giving rise to instability.
9.3 Design considerations

For any surge tank the following criteria10 must be complied with:
(a) The surge tank must be located so that waterhammer pressure
variations are kept within acceptable limits. The usual position is
at the junction of the pipeline and the penstock.
(b) The tank must be stable.
(c) The tank must contain the maximum possible upsurge unless a
spillway is provided.
(d) No air must be drawn into the pipe at lowest downsurge.
(e) The range of surges must not be so large as to cause undesirably
heavy governor movements or difficulty in picking up load.
Loading. Most surge tanks are designed so that item (c) is satisfied for
sudden complete valve closure after the flow in the pipeline has been
enough for full turbine load. This is known as 'full load rejection'. It
can occur if the electricity cables from the power station are broken.
The lowest downsurge, (d), is based upon the assumption that the
generators have to increase their output to full load from some lesser
load. Sometimes the increase in output is from no output at all (and
therefore no flow of water), and this is known as 'full load acceptance'.
More often it is assumed that before full load is demanded the turbines
are producing some power-for example 10% of fullload.7,11,12
The possibility of superimposed surges resulting from successive closure
and opening of the valve has been considered by several engineers and
digital computers have been used to investigate this problem.13 For the
Cameron Highlands hydro-electric scheme14 the surge tank had to be
sufficient for full-load rejection, for full-load acceptance, and also for an
increase of load from 50% to 100% followed by full-load rejection.

As in other aspects of fluid mechanics and hydraulic engineering, a friction-
less system provides a useful basis for theory. Of course, no actual
system is frictionless. Generally, friction is no disadvantage as it encour-
ages the mass oscillations to damp out. However, the first downward
surge following valve opening is increased with increase of pipeline
friction, and increased penstock friction makes for instability. 15
Pipeline friction. Whatever type of surge tank is used, the frictional resis-
tance of the pipeline is an important consideration. It is also difficult to
estimate.16 Because the first downsurge following load acceptance is
increased with increased pipeline friction whereas the first upsurge
following load rejection is reduced, different values for pipeline friction
are often assumed for the two cases. It is usual to assume that the friction
losses are proportional to the velocity squared, although in practice
the frictional index is likely to be rather less than 2. Losses at intakes,
screens, bends, etc., must also be considered and are usually taken as
proportional to the pipeline velocity squared.
Friction losses are again considered in Section 11.7 (page 138).
Throttle damping. The introduction of a throttle at the base of the surge

tank adds to the friction of the system. The amplitude of the first surge,
whether upsurge or downsurge, is reduced, and the mass oscillations
damp out more quickly.
Calame and Gaden17 give coefficients from which throttle losses can be
estimated, and the losses have been further considered by Levin, Is
Maionel9 and Zieman. 2o It is difficult to calculate the head losses in a
throttle because the flow is affected by changes of direction, contractions
and expansions. Only model studies21-25 of the whole system give the
true hydraulic conditions.
9.5 Surge tank types

The most common types of surge tank are shown in Fig. 9.2.
JL
Variable area tonk
Simple tonk
JL
Differential tonk
JL
Throttled lank Spilling tank
n
.Closed tonk
JUL
Multiple tanks
FIG. 9.2
(a) A Simple Tank is an unrestricted tank of constant cross-sectional

area in which the maximum variation of water-level is contained
within the tank.
(b) Variable-area Tanks provide additional reservoir capacity where it is
most required, i.e. at the top of the tank for load rejection and/or
at the bottom of the tank for load acceptance.
(i) Conical tanks have been built with the large diameter at the top
and at the bottom.26,27
(ii) Expansion chambers may be in the form of an increase of
diameter or galleries constructed off the main tank. 28 Many
recent surge tanks include expansion chambers.
(c) In a Throttled Tank a restricted orifice is provided at the base of the
tank to decrease the amplitude of the surge and to effect more rapid
reduction of the mass oscillation.
In recent years throttled tanks have become more popular
because they give an economy of up to 40% compared with simple
tanks, due to reduction of surge amplitude. 20 This reduction is
caused by losses between the pipeline and the surge tank in a
throttle. The losses are proportional to the square of the velocity
in the restriction, and the effect of the throttle is greatest for large
changes ofload. The simplest form of throttle is an orifice plate, and
a length of pipe of reduced diameter also gives a simple throttle.
When a throttled tank has to deal with large down-surges, such
as occur when the demand for water by the turbines increases from
no-flow to full-flow, there may be danger of the water column
breaking, if the loss is too severe, as water leaves the tank. In this
case the throttle can be faired on the upper side and square on the
f---------811. diam.--------1
FIG. 9.3
lower. Alternatively, if the tank is designed for complete stoppage

of flow and only partial acceptance, the throttle may be faired on the
lower side as in Fig. 9.3. 29 The same type of throttle is used when
the elevation of the tank is such that it is desirable to limit the
downsurge to prevent air from entering the pipeline.
(d) Differential Tanks are popular on the American continent.30,3I,a2
When flow to the turbines is stopped, water from the pipeline at
first rises in the narrow central part (the 'riser') of the differential
tank, giving a rapid increase of head to retard the flow in the pipe-
line. Further water from the pipeline then passes through the small
ports to the outer tank, which provides reservoir capacity.
Similarly, an increased demand by the turbines is met at first
from the central riser where the water level drops quickly. This
rapid change in the difference of head between upstream and down-
stream ends of the pipeline causes the water in it to accelerate.
While the pipeline water is accelerating the increased flow required
by the turbines comes from the outer tank through the ports.
(e) The volume of a Spilling Tank2B,33,34 is insufficient to contain the
whole surge volume under the most adverse conditions of closure,
and the excess passes to waste, often along a lined channel.
(f) In a Closed Tank the change of water level is reduced, due to a con-
fined air pocket above. 35-39 The effect is similar to that of an air
vessel on a pumping main,
(g) Multiple Tanks: 40 •41 In some modern plants more than one surge
tank is constructed, the lay-out often depending on the tunnelling
techniques used. In long pipelines intermediate surge tanks are
sometimes employed.
Many installations have a surge tank system which is a combination
of the types mentioned. 42 Fig. 9.4 gives diagrammatic sketches of a number
Rossens
(France)
S: d lin
7
Tongland
(Scotland) J:~
Mae
(Italy)
I nnert kirchen
( Sw1tzer land)
* *
Isere-Arc
(France)
* These galleries have
been turned through 90°
FIG. 9.4
of recent plants, all of which include throttles. The sketches are not to
the same scale and some have been distorted to bring different parts into
the same plane. 7 •43 ·44
The design of complex systems is greatly facilitated by the use of com-
puters.13,40,4S-49 Numerical methods, which we will consider in Chapter
11, may easily be adapted for digital computers, and the surge, or mass
oscillation, may be reproduced by an analogue computer.so
REFERENCES
1. WIDMANN, R.: 'The interaction between waterhammer and surge tank
oscillations,' Proc. Int. Symp. Waterhammer pumped Storage Projects,
1965, ASME, pp. 1-7.
2. JAEGER, C.: 'Water-hammer effects in power conduits,' Civ. Engng pub/.
Wks Rev., (19~8), 43, pp. 74-76, 138-140, 192-194, 244-246.
3. FERRAND, G.: 'A propos d'un accident survenu a une conduit forcee apres
quarante ans d'exploitation,' Houille Blanche, (1953), p. 20.
4. JoHNSON, R. D.: 'The surge tank in water power plants,' Trans. Am. Soc.
mech. Engrs, (1908), 30, pp. 443-474.
5. EscANDE, L.: 'Stabilite de deux chambres d'equilibre respectivement soli-
daires des canaux d'amenee et de fuite,' Houille Blanche, (1953), 8, p. 647-
654.
6. JAEGER, C.: Underground power stations, Chapter xxii of 'Hydro-electrical
engineering practice,' Ed. J. Guthine Brown (Blackie, 2nd Edn, 1964).
7. JAEGER, C.: 'Present trends in surge tank design,' Proc. lnstn mech. Engrs,
(1954), 168, pp. 91-103.
8. PEARSALL, I. S.: 'Comparative experiments on surge tank performance,'
9. ZIENKIEWICZ, 0. C., and HAWKINS, P.: 'The transmission of water-hammer
pressures through surge tanks,' Proc. Instn mech. Engrs, (1954), 168, pp.
629-638.
10. ELSDEN, 0.: Surge chambers, Chapter xviii of 'Hydro-electrical engineering
practice,' Ed. J. Guthrie Brown. (Blackie, 2nd Edn, 1964).
11. EvANGELISTI, G.: 'Present trends in surge tank design,' Communication,
Proc. Instn mech. Engrs, (1954), 168, p. 118.
12. ZieMAN, B.: 'Present trends in surge tank design,' Communication, Proc.
lnstn mech. Engrs, (1954), 168, p. 118.
13. MuRILLO, J.: 'Application d'un ordinateur a un problems de chambre
d'equilibre,' Cong. int. Ass. hydraul. Res., (1961), pp. 926-930.
14. DICKINSON, J. C., and GERRARD, R. T.: 'Cameron Highlands hydro-electric
scheme,' Proc. Instn civ. Engrs, (1963), 26, pp. 387-424.
15. JAEGER, C.: Engineering fluid mechanics (Blackie, 1957).
16. FRANKE, P. G.: 'Oscillations in a surge tank-calculation and measurement,'
Cong. int. Ass. hydraul. Res., (1963), pp. 33-36.
17. CALAME, J., and GADEN, D.: Theorie des chambres d'equilibre (Gautier-
Villars, 1926).
18. LEVIN, L.: 'De la determination des pertes de charge dans l'etranglement
des cheminees d'equilibre,' Houille Blanche, (1953), pp. 599-606.
19. MAioNE, U.: 'Perdite di carico vella strozzatura di un pozzo piezometrico,'
Energia elett., (1961), 38, 330-338.
20. ZieMAN, B.: 'Methodes nouvelles pour le calcul des cheminees d'equilibre,'
Houille Blanche, (1953), pp. 580-589.
21. DURAND, W. F.: 'Application of the law of kinematic similitude to the
surge tank problem,' Mech. Engng, (1921), 43, p. 643.
22. GIBSON, A. H.: 'The investigation of the surge-tank problem by model
experiment,' Proc. lnstn civ. Engrs, (1924), 219, pp. 161-173.
23. GmsoN, A. H., and CoWEN, W.: 'A comparison of the results of observ-
ations on surge tank installations and on their scale models,' Proc. lnstn
civ. Engrs, (1933), 235, pp. 327-351.
24. HAYISHI, T.: 'Dynamical similitude of surge tanks,' Trans. Japan Soc. civ.
Engrs, (1959), 61, extra paper 3-2.
25. PICKFORD, J. A.: 'Throttled surge tanks,' Wat. Pwr, (1965), 17, pp. 440-
445.
26. DURAND, W. F.: 'On the control of surges in water conduits,' Trans. Am.
Soc. mech. Engrs, (1912), 34, pp. 319-363.
27. JAKOBSEN, B. F.: 'Surge tanks,' Trans. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs, (1922), 85,
p. 1357.
28. HUDSON, W., and HuNTER, J. K.: 'The Galloway hydro-electric develop-
ment, with special reference to the construction work,' J. Instn civ.
Engrs, (1938), 8, pp. 323-375.
29. BLEIFUSS, D. J.: 'Diversion tunnel and power conduit of Nantahala hydro-
electric development,' Proc. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs, (1949), 75, pp. 1434-
1439.
30. GIBSON, W. L., and SHELSON, W.: 'An experimental and analytical investi-
gation of a differential surge-tank installation,' Trans. Am. Soc. mech.
Engrs, (1956), 78, pp. 925-938.
31. JoHNSON, R. D.: 'The differential surge tank,' Trans. A.m. Soc. civ. Engrs,
(1915), 78, pp. 760-784.
32. RICH, G. R.: Hydraulic transients (Dover, 1963).
33. HALCROW, W. T.: 'The Lochaber water-power scheme,' Proc. Instn civ.
Engrs, (1931), 231, pp. 31-63.
34. EscANDE, L.: 'Overflow-type surge tanks,' Wat. Pwr, (1953), 5, pp. 173-176.
35. BINNIE, A. M.: 'Oscillations in closed surge tanks,' Trans. Am. Soc. mech.
Engrs, (1943), 65, A-183.
36. FuLLARD, S. F.: 'Kiewa hydro-electric scheme,' Wat. Pwr, (1962), 14,
213-221.
37. JAGGER, B. K.: 'The Tamut I Project,' Wat. Pwr, (1960), 12, pp. 169-175.
38. SEDIJATMO, R. M.: 'Progress in the design of chamber surge tanks,' Trans.
4th Wid Pwr Conf, (1950), 4, p. 2410.
39. WATER PoWER: 'Mauvoisin-II,' Wat. Pwr, (1963), 15, pp. 295-302.
40. BATA, G. L., and MADICH, P. B.: 'Solution for multiple surge-tank systems
worked out on repetitive differential analyzer,' Cong. int. Ass. hydraul.
Res., (1961), pp. 1011-1023.
41. TORELL, P-A.: Surges in multiple tanks,' Wat. Pwr, (1966), 18, pp. 485-488,
498.
42. EmsoN, G.: 'Ampliaments del pozzo piezometrica dell 'impianto di Cimego,'
Energia elett., (1963), 40, pp. 226-234.
43. BouvARD, M., and MOLBERT, J.: 'Calcul de Ia cheminee a etranglement de
Ia chute Isere Arc,' Houille Blanche, (1953), pp. 260-281.
44. MosoNYI, E.: Water power development, vol 2, high head plants, etc.
(Hungarian Acad. Science, 1960).
45. PAYNTER, H. M.: 'Methods and results from M.I.T. studies in unsteady
flow,' J. Boston Soc. civ. Engrs, (1952), 39, pp. 120-165.
46. PAYNTER, H. M.: 'Electrical analogies and electronic computers: surge
and water hammer problems,' Trans. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs, (1953), 118,
pp. 962-1009.
47. PISTILLI, G., and SAVASTANO, G.: 'La risoluzione dei problemi di oscilla-
zione di massa con l'impiego della calcolatrici elettroniche,' Energia
elett., (1960), 37, pp. 986-993, 1156-1166.
48. G., and SAVASTANO, G.: 'The study of level's oscillations in cylin-
PISTILLI,
drical surge tanks with the digital differential analyzer of the University
of Naples,' Cong. int. Ass. hydraul. Res., (1961), pp. 775-789.
49. SABUAK, R., and DORAN, W. H.: 'Hydraulic analysis of a double surge
shaft system by digital computer,' Cong. int. Ass. hydraul. Res., (1961),
pp. 639-655.
50. CHRISTIE, I. F.: 'The use of analogue computers for civil engineering
10 Theory of Mass Oscillation
10.1 Fundamental equations

The theory of the oscillation of the whole body of water in the pipeline
and surge tank is based upon three fundamental equations: the dynamic
equation, the equation of continuity and an equation giving the upward
velocity of the water surface in the surge tank.
Some assumptions are made to simplify the theory. We consider the
pipeline as rigid and the water as incompressible. The column of water
in the surge tank itself is neglected and the velocity head in the pipeline
and tank is usually neglected too.
(a) The dynamic equation. Fig. 10.1 shows a pipeline with a single surge
tank of any shape. Newton's second law can be applied to the water
column AB. At any time during the oscillation, whether the oscillation
is caused by the closure or the opening of the valve, the mass acceleration
is equal to the forces acting. That is,
pLA ~v = (the force acting on the column at A) + (the

t component of the weight of the column in
the direction of the pipeline axis) - (the
force acting on the column at B) + (pipe
losses).
The force acting at A is due to the elevation of the water surface in the
reservoir above the pipeline inlet, modified by the entry loss. When the
flow in the pipeline is away from the reservoir the pipeline velocity is
positive. The entry loss reduces the head, and hence the force, at A. When
water flows back into the reservoir, v is negative and the entry loss causes
the head in the pipeline to be greater than that due to the static head.
108
Theory of Mass Oscillation 109
The force acting at B depends on the elevation of the water level in the
surge tank and also on the losses occurring at the entry to the surge tank,
where there may be a restrictive throttle. Hence
dv
pLA dt = pgA{(HA ±entry losses)+ (Hn- HA)- (Hn + y
+ throttle losses) ± (pipe loss)} (10.1)
The sign of the losses depends upon the direction of flow, the loss
always being in the direction of flow. Flow from the reservoir to the
turbine along the pipeline is taken as positive, and upward flow in the
FIG. 10.1
surge tank is positive. The sign of the losses is always correct if we use the
modulus form, hF = FpvjvJ and hT = FTuJuJ, where u is the upward
velocity of the water surface in the surge tank.
Fp is the pipeline friction coefficient and hF is the total head loss in the
pipeline between the reservoir and the base of the surge tank. The loss
hp is made up of:
(a) entry losses;
(b) pipeline friction;
(c) secondary losses caused, for example, by screens and shut-off valves.
(b) and (c) together form the 'pipe loss'.
FT is the throttle friction coefficient related to the upward velocity of the
water surface in the surge tank, u. The throttle loss, hT, is made up of:
(a) head loss at any restriction, such as an orifice plate, at the base of
the tank;
(b) head loss at the tee-junction;
(c) head loss at the expansion as water enters the surge tank. hT may have
different values for upward and downward movement of the water
(for example, for a throttle of the type shown in Fig. 9.3, page 103).
Substituting these values for the losses in equation (10.1), cancelling HA
and H B, and dividing through by the weight of water in the pipeline
(pgLA), we get the first fundamental equation, the dynamic equation,
Ldv
- - + y + Fpvlvl + Fpuiui
g dt
= 0 (10.2)
(b) Continuity. The second fundamental equation is obtained by satis-

fying the conditions of continuity at B. The flow to B from the pipeline
equals the flow away from B up the surge tank and down the penstock.
That is,
vA = uAs + Q (10.3)
(c) Water surface velocity. The third fundamental equation gives

the upward velocity of the water surface in the surge tank in terms of the
elevation of the water surface there above the water surface in the
reservoir, that is,
dy
U=- (10.4)
dt
Combination of the fundamental equations gives second order differ-
ential equations, which can only be solved in special cases_I,2,a
10.2 Simple undamped oscillation

One case which may be solved directly is the oscillation following instanta-
neous (or 'sudden') complete closure in a frictionless system having a
single simple surge tank. Q, Fp and FT are all zero, and As is constant,
and the fundamental equations become,
Ldv dy
gdt + y = 0; vA = uAs; u = dt
Asdy
Hence v=--
A dt
LAs d 2y
and ---+y=O
g A dt 2
If we writeLr for L/g andAr for As/A, this becomesLrAr(d 2y/dt 2) + y = 0.
This is a linear, homogeneous, second order differential equation, whose
general solution is
y = 27T
A cosT t · T
+ B sm 27T
t, where T 1st · d of osc1·n atton.
· h e peno ·
When the oscillation starts, t = 0, and the water surface in the tank is
at the same level as the water surface in the reservoir because there is no
friction. Therefore, when t = 0, y = 0 and A = 0.
B is the amplitude of the undamped oscillation, which is given the
symbol y*, and
. 27T
y =y* sm-yt
If vo is the velocity in the pipeline when t = 0,

27T
v=vocosTt
By differentiation, h = vov(Lr/Ar) (10.5)

T = 27Tv(LrAr)
Fig. 10.2 shows y and v plotted against t
FIG. 10.2
10.3 Logarithmic equations

Sudden complete closure of the valve produces oscillations which often
determine the size of a surge tank. Consequently a simple method of
obtaining surge heights under such conditions is valuable.
The frictionless oscillation investigated in Section 10.2 is of little direct
practical application, since friction losses always occur. However, the
logarithmic method which we now consider is simple and can be applied
quickly, producing theoretical surge heights which are close to those
observed in practice. The method may be used for simple or throttled
tanks, provided that the cross-sectional area of the tank, As, is constant.
Equations developed by Cole4 and Mosonyi5 for a simple (unrestricted)
tank may be written as
Yl - yo = ln _{3_ (10.6)
{3 {3- Yl
where fJ is the damping factor.
LA 1 Lr
[5=--=--
2FpgAs 2 Fp Ar
For throttled tanks6 equation (10.6) becomes
J1 - yo = In fJ - hTo (10.7)
fJ fJ- J1
where hTo is the throttle loss at time t = 0, i.e. immediately after the closure
when the full initial pipeline flow Avo is instantaneously diverted into the
surge tank through the throttle.
fJ = LA =~ _L_r_
2{Fp + FT(A/A 8) 2 }gAs 2 F8 Ar
where Fs = Fp + FT/Ar 2•
Subsequent surges, as shown in Fig. 10.3 may, be obtained by applying
the equation
IYnl + IYn-11 = ln fJ + IYn-11 (10.8)

fJ fJ- IYnl
The sign of y changes for each half-cycle.
ht
I
I
I
I
I
I
FIG. 10.3
Equations (10.6), (10.7), and (10.8) can be solved by trial and error,
using graphical interpolation if required.
Example 10.1
An unrestricted surge tank 10 m diameter is at the downstream end of a 2000 m
long pipeline whose internal diameter is 2·5 m. With steady flow of 30 m 3/s the
level of the water surface in the surge tank is 18·22 m below the level of the
reservoir.
Determine the height of the first two upsurges and the first downsurge if the
valve at the turbine shuts completely and instantaneously.
Surge tankA
L =20oo rn
Lr =203·94
Ar= 16
SOLUTION
d= 2·5m A= 4·909m2
Ar = 16
d.= 10m As= 78·54m2
L = 2000 m Lr = 2000/9·807 = 203·9
yo= -18·22m vo = Qo/A = 30·0/4.909 = 6·112m/s
-yo 18·22
FP = vo 2 = (6.11 )2 = 0·4878
1 Lr 203·9
{J = ZFPAr = 2 X 0·4878 X 16 = 13-065 m
To find y1, we use equation (10.6)
Yl- yo= In _P_. ie y1- 18·22 = 13·065
fJ {1 - y1' . . 13-065 13-065 - y1
(LHS) (RHS)
30·22
Try y1 = 12·0 m LHS = 13- 065 = 2·314
13·065
RHS = I n - - = In 12·27 = 2·507
1·065
29·22
Try y1 = ll·Om LHS = 13- 065 = 2·237
13-065
RHS =In--= In6·326 = 1·845
2·065
Interpolating as Fig. 10.4 (a), y1 = 11·65
29·87
Try y1 = 11·65 m LHS = 13- 065 = 2·286
13·065
RHS =In--= In9·233 = 2·223
1·415
30·02
Try y1 =11-8m LHS = 13- 065 = 2·298
13-065
RHS = I n - - =In 10·328 = 2·335
1·265
Interpolating as Fig. 10·4 (b), y1 = 11·75
29·97
Try y1 = 11·75 m LHS = 13-065 = 2·294
13-065
RHS = I n - - = In 9·935 = 2·296
1·315
(a)
1·845
11·0 11·65 12·0

y,
11·65 11·75 11·80
Fm.10.4
Try y1 = 11·74m LHS = 29 "96 = 2·293

13-065
13-065
RHS = I n - - = In 9·842 = 2·287
1·325
i.e. y1 = 11·75 m
To obtainy~ we use equation (10 8) lynl + IYn-II =In fJ + IYn-II

' . ' fJ fJ - lyn I
. J2 + 11·75 24·81
yn-l = y 1 = 11·75 m, so the equatwn becomes 13- 065 = In 13 .065 _ y 2
19·03
For y2 = 7·28 m LHS = 13·065 = 1-456
24·81
RHS = In--
5·785
= In 4·289 = 1·456
But y2 is negative, i.e. y2 = -7·28 m.
To obtain ya, we use equation (10.8), which with yn-1 = y2 = -7·28 m
becomes
ya+ 7·28 20·34
13-065 - 13-065 - ya
12·58
Try ya = 5·30 m LHS = 13 .065 = 0·963
20·34
RHS = In--
7·765
= In 2·619 = 0·963
i.e., ya = 5·30 m.
Non-dimensional form. Equation (I0.8) may be written as
y; + lnii -~~ = ln (1 + 1Ynp11)- 1Yp11 =Zn-1

or Xn + ln II - Xnl = ln (1 + Jxn-11)- Jxn-11 = Zn-1 (10.9)
where x = yf{J.
For each value of Z there are two roots which differ in absolute value
and which give the limits of two subsequent surges. One of the roots is
positive and gives the initial greater surge; the other root is negative and
gives the smaller surge at the end of the half cycle.
For the first surge, Zo can be found by considering the friction in the
pipeline and any throttle losses.
For a simple tank equation (10.6) may be written
X1 + ln (1 - X1) = Xo = Zo
yo
that is, Zo=-
{J
For a throttled tank equation (10.7) becomes
{J- hTo
X1 - ln = xo = Zo
{J- y1
which may be expressed as
X1 + ln (I - X1) = Xo +k = Zo (10.10)
{J- hTo
So ln = k - ln (1 - XI)
fJ- YI
and k = 1 {{J - hTo fJ - YI} = 1 {J - hTo
n fJ - YI . fJ n fJ
and substituting in equation (10.10)
Z = yo +1 {J - hTo
o fJ n fJ
When hTo is greater than fJ
Zo = yo + ln hTo - fJ
fJ fJ
Solution by successive approximations. Equation (10.9) (i.e. Xn
+ ln (1 - Xn) = Zn-1) may be solved by successive approximations
x2 x3 x4
ln (1 - x) = -x - 2 - 3 - 4 - ...
x2 x3 x4
so Zn-1 = - 2 - 3 - 4 - ...
If x' is an approximate value of yj{J, then the corresponding value of Z
will be Z' where
l(x')2 + i(x')3 + l(x')4 + ... = -Z'
If the deviation of x' is b so that the correct value of x = (x' + b),

then the correct value of Z is given by
i(x' + !5)2 + i(x' + !5)3 + l(x' + !5)4 + ... = -Z
If 8 is the error, i.e. 8 =Zn' - Zn-l, then
8 = o{(x') + (x')2 + (x')3 + ... } + lo2{1 + 2x' + 3(x')2 ...}

+ lb2{1 + 3x' + 6(x')2 + ... } + ..
or 8
x'
= 1 - x' 0
1
+ 2 (1
1
- x')2 2 + ° 1
3(1
1
°
- x')3 3 + ...
o
If the error is small, and is small compared with x', then we can neglect
o
terms of beyond the first order and
0 = (1- x')8
(10.11)
x'
If the error is larger, second order terms can be included to give the
quadratic
1 1 x'
2 (1 - x')2 b2 + (1 - x') b- 8 = 0
Only the positive root has significance when x < 1, so
b = {[(x')2 + 2s]t- x'}(l - x') (10.12)
If s is negative and is so large compared with x' that 2s > -(x') 2 ,
equation (10.12) is complex; the linear equation (10.11) should therefore
be used.
We can choose an arbitrary limit of s for the use of the quadratic form.
For example we might decide to use equation (10.11) if2s < O·l(x') 2 and
equation (10.12) if2s > O·l(x')2.
For the first trial, x' can be made equal to xo if Z > -1. However,
as x--+ 1 the variation of Z is very great for small changes of x, and it
is therefore desirable to start with a value of x which will result in rapid
correction.
The values of x corresponding to large negative values of Z are
z -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
X 0·84142 0·94753 0·98134 0·99322 0·99752
Assuming a linear variation of xfZ between these limits, we can interpolate
to obtain a trial x' from the known Zo.
Example 10.2
Use successive approximations to find the height of the first two upsurges and
the first downsurge following sudden complete valve closure.
Surge tank A
L, "203·94
A," 16
SOLUTION Zo = xo =yo= -l 8'22

= -1·3956
13-065
f3
Try x' = -xo = +1·3956. Then Z1' = x1' +In II- x1'l
Z1' = 1·3946 + In (0·3946) = 1·3946 - 0·9300 = 0·4646
e = Z1' - Zo = 0·4646 - ( -1·3946) = 1·8592
i5 = e(l - Xi') = 1·8592( -0·3946) = _ 0 .5260
The correction
Xi 1 1-3946
The next value of Xi' = 1·3946 + ( -0·5260) = 0·8686
Xi'= 0·8686; Zi' = 0·8686 + ln(0·1314) = -1·1606
B = Zi'- Zo = -1·1606- (-1·3946) = 0·2340
ij = 0·2340 X 0·1314 = 0·0 354

0·8686
Xt' = 0·9040; Zi' = 0·9040 + In (0·0960) = -1·4390
B = Zi' - Zo = -1·4390 - ( -1-3946) = -0·0444
B = -0·0444 X 0·0960 = _ 0·0047

0·9040
Xt' = 0·8993; Zt' = 0·8993 +In (0·1007) = -1-3957
B = Zi' - Zo = -1·3957 - ( -1·3946) = -0·0011
i5 = -0·0011 X 0·1007 = -0·000 1

0·8993
Xi'= 0·8992; Zt' = 0·8992 +In (0·1008) = -1·3948
B""'O
Therefore
Yi =Xi x {3 = 0·8992 x 13·065 = 11·75 m
To obtain x2 (and hence y2), Zi = In (1 + Xi) - Xi

= In (1·8992) - 0·8992
= 0·6415 - 0·8992 = -0·2577
Try X2 1 = Xi = 0·8992
(Note that the values of x and y change sign for each half cycle, and that we
are finding, in effect, lx21)
x2' = 0·8992; Z2' = x2' +In (1 - x2') = 0·8992 +In (0·1008) = -1-3948
B = Z2 1 - Zi = -1·3948- (-0·2577) = -1·1371
i5 = -1·1371 X 0·1008 = _ 0 . 1277
0·8992
The next value of X2 1 = 0·8992 + (-0·1277) = 0·7715
Continuing in the same way, we can tabulate
X2 1 Z2' B i5
0·7715 -0·7048 -0·4471 -0·1324
0·6391 -0·3801 -0·1224 -0·0619
0·5700 -0·2740 -0·0163 -0·0123
0·5577 -0·2581 -0·0004 -0·0003
0·5574 -0·2577 0
Therefore y2 (which is negative) = -Jx2J x fJ = -0·5574 x 13-065 = -7·28 m
Working on, we obtain xa = 0·4053
ya = xa X fJ = 0·4053 X 13-065 = 5·30 m
Successive approximations of this form can easily be carried out on a digital
computer with great accuracy.
10.4 Logarithmic curves

The function Z = x + ln (1 - x) used in equation (10.9) is independent
of the dimensions of the oscillating system and can be plotted as Fig. 10.5.
l
+2
I
+I
z -XI 0 Xz XI
I
0
~
~---
/
~- p
Zo I
-2 A B
-2 -I 0 +I +2
X
FIG. 10.5
As we have already found, for the first surge
Zo = xo + ln {1,8 -/Tol}
When hTo is greater than ,8 the positive curve B-B, for x > 1·0, is used.
The first (maximum) upsurge y 1 is obtained from the positive curve
A-0 (or B - B if hTo > ,8) by finding the abscissa x corresponding to the
known value of Z 0 • For example Zo in Fig. 10.5 gives point P1o which
determines x1, as shown.
To obtain the next surge height, y2, we locate Z1 by drawing the abscissa
at -x1 to the negative curve C-0 at N1, as shown in Fig. 10.5. Then we
project across to the positive curve A-0 at P2. x2 is the abscissa at P2.
Thus N1 and P2 are the roots of Z1.
The construction of the complete surge pattern can be simplified by
drawing the mirror image of the positive curve on the negative side, as
shown in Fig. 10.6.
(a)
X
x,o0-405 x4o0·319
x3 x4
0
Negafive c1urve :
~N2
r-r
~z3 o-0·065
0·1
~3 Z2o-0·114
c~
0·2
-----ffi-0·258 z
P2 I -0·3
~trror 1m age) posif1ve curve 04
A /
-0·7 -0·6 -0·5 -0-4 -0-3 -0·2 -0·1 0
-0·5
(b)
FIG. 10.6
Example 10.3
Use logarithmic curves to find the height of the first seven surges in surge
tank A following sudden complete valve closure.
SoLUTION See Fig. 10.6

yo -18·22
Zo = xo = - = - - - = -1·395
fJ 13-065
In Fig. 10.6 (a) the ordinate Zo = -1·395 cuts the positive curve A-0 at P1,
giving the abscissa x1 = 0·899.
Hence y1 (which is positive) = flx1 = 13·065 x 0·899 = 11·75 m
The abscissa x1 = 0·899 cuts the negative curve C-0 at N1, giving the ordinate
Z1 = -0·258. Z1 in turn gives point P2 on the positive curve A-0. Since
point P2 gives x < 0·7, we can go to Fig. 10.6 (b) for greater accuracy.
Surge tank A
Locating P2 at the intersection of Z1 = -0·258 and the curve A-0, we obtain

the abscissa x1 = 0·557.
Hence y2 (which is negative) = - fJx2 = -13-065 X 0·557 = -7·28 m.
Continuing from X2 = 0·557 we get point N2 on curve C-0, where Z2 =
-0·114. Hence we go to Pa on A-0 yielding xa = 0·405
ya (positive) = {Jxa = 13·065 X 0·405 = 5·30 m
Example 10.4 shows how the logarithmic method is applied to throttled

surge tanks.
Example 10.4
Surge tank B is similar to surge tank A except that there is a 1·8 m diameter
throttle at the base giving a loss of 50 u 2 • The pipeline and steady flow conditionr
are the same as for tank A.
Determine the height of the first two upsurges and the first downsurge following
complete valve closure.
Surge tank B
Lr=203·94
Ar= 16
SOLUTION
Fp = 0·4878 s2fm; F8 = FP + FT/Ar 2 = 0·4878 + 50/16 2 = 0·6831 s 2/m

Lr 203·94
f1 = 2F8 Ar = 2 X 0·6831 X 16 = 9"3296 m
50 X (6·112)2
hTo = FTuo 2 = FTvo 2 /Ar 2 = 16 2
= 7·2961 m
yo {1- hTo -18·22 9·3296 - 7·2961

Zo = {i +In -{1- = 9·3296 +In 9·3296
= -1·9530 + ln0·2181 = -3·4759

Zo < -1 For the first trial obtain x' by interpolation
i.e. = 0·9813 + (0·9932 - 0·9813) x 0·476
x'
= 0·9813 + 0·0119 X 0·476 = 0·9813 + 0·0057 = 0·9870
Z1' = x1' + In (1 - x') = 0·9870 + In 0·0130 = -3·3553
e = Z1' - Zo = -3·3553 + 3·4759 = 0·1206
-0·1 (x1') 2 < 2e <-(x1) 2; therefore use quadratic equation (10.12).

The correction
X1' = 0·9885; Z1' = -3·4764; e = -0·0006
2e < 0·1 (x1')2: correction by equation (1 0.11)
0 = e(l - Xl') = -0·006 X 0·0115 = Q·QQQQ
X1' 0·9885
Hence y1 = 0·9885 X 9·3296 = 9·222 m
To obtain x2, Z1 = In (1 + x1) - x1 = -0·3011
For the first trial assume x2' = x1 = 0·9885, and then proceed as follows:-
x' Z' e Eqn. 0
0·9885 -3-4759 -3-1747 10·11 -0·0370

0·9515 -2·0750 -1·7739 10·11 -0·0904
0·8611 -1·113I -0·8119 10·11 -0·1309
0·7302 -0·5798 -0·2787 10·11 -0·1030
0·6272 -0·3595 -0·0584 10·12 -0·0378
0·5894 -0·3008 +0·0003 10·11 +0·0002
0·5897 -0·3011 0·0000
Hence y2 = -0·5897 X 9·3296 = -5·501 m

To obtain xa, Z2 = ln (1 + x2) - x2 = -0·1261; hence
0·5897 -0·3011 -0·1750 10·11 -0·1218

0·4679 -0·1630 -0·0369 10·12 -0·0462
0·4217 -0·1259 +0·0002 10·11 +0·0003
Hence xa = 0·4220 and ya = 0·4220 x 9·3296 = 3·9366 m.

When hTo > {J, Xl is greater than 1. When -yo/ fJ is also greater than 1 and
Zo is greater than -1, there is no difficulty in proceeding from x 1' = -yo/{J,
as in Example 10.4. However, if Zo < -1, it is necessary to choose a more
accurate first trial for x1', because of the rapid change of Z with small changes of
x as x ->-1.
The first trial may be obtained by interpolation in the same way as when xis
slightly less than 1, but in this case, where x is slightly more than 1, the
corresponding values of x and Z are:-
z 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
X 1·27846 1·12003 1·04748 1·01799 1·00669 1·00247
Example 10.5
Use the method of successive approximations to determine the first two upsurges
and the first downsurge following sudden complete valve closure in surge tank C.
Surge tank C
051 ~ 30 m 3 /s
SOLUTION FT = KT. (~;)

2g
2
; As=
Ar
(d•)
dT
2 = 100; FT = 509·85s 2/m
- FT - 509·85 - 2
Fs - Fp + Ar2 - 0 488 + (l 6) 2 - 2 479 s /m
0 0
Lr 203·94
fJ = 2FsAr = 2 X 2·479 X 16 = 2' 570 m
vo 2 (6·112)2
hTo = FTuo 2 = FT- = 509·85 - - - = 74·388 m
Ar2 (16)2
z =yo= 1 !fJ- hTol = -18·22 1 71·818 = _ 3.7582

0 fJ n fJ 2·570 + n 2·570
For the first trial interpolate between the values of x for Z = -4 and Z = -3.
Hence x1' = 1·00942.
x' Z'
1·00942 -3·6552 0·1030 Quadratic -0·00092

1·00850 -3·7585 0·0003 Linear 0
Hence y1 =
1·0085 x 2·570 = 2·59 m
Z1 =In (1 + x1) -x1 = -0·3111
For the first trial assume x2' = (2 - XI) = 0·9915, since X2 is always less than
unity.
0·99150 -3·7752 -3·4641 Linear -0·02973

0·96176 -2·3022 -1·9911 Linear - 0·07916
0·88260 -1·2596 -0·9485 Linear -0·12616
0·75645 -0·6560 -0·3449 Linear -0·11103
0·64541 -0·3914 -0·0803 Quadratic -0·04944
0·59597 -0·3103 +0·0082 Linear + 0·00056
0·59653 -0·3111 0
Hence y2 = -0·5965 x 2·570 = -1·53 m

Z2 = In (1 + x2) - X2 = -0·1287
For the first trial assume xa' = X2 = 0·59653
0·59653 -0·3111 -0·1824 Linear -0·12338

0·47314 -0·1677 -0·0390 Quadratic - 0·04804
0·42542 -0·1287 0
Hence ya = 0-4254 x 2·570 = 1·09 m.
10.5 Stability
If the oscillations set up by valve movement are damped, as in Fig. 10.7,
the system is stable.
FIG. 10.7
When constant power is required, the flow is reduced at upsurge and
increased at downsurge since power is the product of head and flow. We
will examine this type of system in Chapter 12. Under certain conditions,
as when the area of the surge tank is too small, the amplitude of the oscilla-
tions increases. For example, the second downsurge may be lower than
the first. The system is then unstable.
According to the conditions derived by Thoma, 7 the minimum area of a
simple tank for stability is ATh (Thoma's critical area) defined as
LrA
ATh=--- (10.13)
2FpHf
Ht is the head available at the turbines at final steady condition, i.e.
Ht = Hs- Yt·
The derivation of Thoma's condition of stability is based on oscillations
of small amplitude.
When deciding on the minimum cross-sectional area of a surge tank it
is usual to introduce a factor of safety, n, so that As ~ n ATh, n being
greater than 1. The factor of safety may be between 1·5 and 1·8, although
larger values have often been used. Stability must be satisfied for all
portions of a variable area tank, including any narrow shaft connecting
expansion chambers.
Modifications to Thoma's critical area

(a) For oscillations with large amplitude Jaeger 8 suggests the factor
of safety n*,
n* = As
ATh
= (1 + 0·482 Y*)
Ht
(10.14)
(b) The velocity head in the pipeline at the base of the surge tank
improves the stability-i.e. it makes the minimum or critical area
less. In some tanks the cross-sectional area of the pipeline is reduced at
the base of the tank with a venturi-type contraction, like that shown
in Fig. 10.8. This increases the velocity head and helps the stability.
FIG. 10.8
If AB is the pipeline area at the base of the tank, the minimum
surge tank cross-sectional area may be reduced by the factor
Fp
whereB=--
(:J2
Fp +B 2g
(c) Stability is affected by variation of efficiency of the turbines. If, for
example, the load is increased and the efficiency rises with increase
of load, then the stability is increased. In the range beyond maxi-
mum efficiency, increase of power results in a drop of efficiency
and stability is reduced. See Fig. 10.9. If the surge tank has to deal
with such power increases beyond the duty point, the minimum
area must be greater than the Thoma critical area.
FIG. 10.9
(d) The statism of the electricity network and the mechanical statism
of the turbine governor also influence the stability. The power
station supplied by the hydraulic system with the surge tank under
consideration may feed a network which is also fed by other stations
without surge tanks. Often thermal plants, including nuclear
stations, are included in the same network as a hydro-electric
station. In these circumstances the stability is increased.
If the power supplied by the hydro plant is less than a third of the
total power supplied to the network, there is no danger of instability,
whatever the area of the surge tank.
(e) When the oscillations in a differential tank are very small, the water
level in the riser and the water level in the tank remain close, and
the total area of the riser and the tank may be considered for
stability purposes. However, when the oscillation is large the
amplitude in the riser will be greater than that in the tank. For
stability the effective area is larger than the area of the riser but not
so great as the sum of the riser and the tank area.
(f) When a system includes multiple tanks Thoma's analysis can be
adapted provided the oscillation is small. In the case of two tanks,
one upstream of the turbines and the second on the tailrace tunnel
(Fig. 10.10), the critical area of the upstream tank is greater than it
would be if there were no downstream tank.
J
FIG. 10.10
(g) Except in the case of simple tanks, stability may best be tested by
computing surge heights by finite difference methods as in Chapter
12. If ya is less than y1 for all expected flows, the tank is stable. If
ya is greater than y1 at any expected change of flow, the tank is
unstable.
REFERENCES
1. KRYLOFF, N., and BOGOLIOBOFF, N.: Introduction to non-linear mathematics
(Princeton Univ. Press, 1943).
2. MILNE, W. E.: Damped vibrations (Univ. Oregon, 1923).
3. REISMAN, A., and SILVERS, A.: 'On a non-linear differential equation common
to several branches of hydraulics,' J. Hydrology, (1967), 5, pp. 171-178.
4. COLE, R. S.: 'The surge-chamber in hydro-electric installations: methods
of calculation,' Instn civ. Engrs, (1927), selected engng papers No. 55.
5. MosoNYI, E.: Water power development, vol 2, high head plants, etc.
(Hungarian Acad. Science, 1960).
6. PicKFORD, J. A.: 'Surge tank design by logarithmic curves,' Wat. Pwr,
(1965), 17, pp. 397-400.
7. THOMA, D.: Ziir Theorie des Wasserschlosses bei selbsttiitig geregelten
Turbinenaulagen (Oldenbourg, 1910).
8. JAEGER, C.: Engineering fluid mechanics (Blackie, 1959), p. 239.
9. EscANDE, L., and HuRON, R.: 'Stabilite de deux chambres d'equilibre
respectivement solidaires des canaux d'amenee et de fruite,' Houille
Blanche, (1953), pp. 647-654.
a
10. MEYER, R.: 'Conditions analogues celles de Thoma pour une installation
hydroelectrique ayant une cheminee d'equilibre a l'amont et une autre a
l"aval des turbines,' Houille Blanche, (1953), pp. 640-646.
FURTHER READING
EscANDE, L.: 'The stability of throttled surge tanks operating with the electric
power controlled by the hydraulic power,' Hydraul. Res. (1963), 1, pp. 4-13.
EscANDE, L., and CLARIA, J.: 'Abaques caracteristiques pour Ia stabilisation
des cheminees d'equilibre par emploi de resistances Iiquides,' C. r. Acad.
Sci., Paris, (1961), 253, pp. 599-602.
JAEGER, C.: 'De la stabilite des chambres d'equilibre et des systemes des chambre
d'equilibre,' Schweiz. Bauztg, (1943), 122, pp. 255-257, 297-300, 314-317,
323-325.
JAEGER, C.: 'Present trends in surge tank design,' Proc. Instn mech. Engrs,
(1954), 168, pp. 91-103.
JAEGER, C.: 'A review of surge tank stability criteria,' J. bas. Engng, Trans. Am.
Soc. mech. Engrs, (1960), 82, pp. 765-783.
KAICHEV, P.: 'De la stabilite hydraulique des chambres d'equilibre dans cer-
tains cas complexes,' Houille Blanche, (1960), pp. 678-689.
MosoNYI, E., and NAGY, L.: 'Stability investigations by computer,' Wat. Pwr,
(1964), 16, pp. 312-314.
PAYNTER, H. M.: 'Electrical analogies and electronic computers: surge and
water hammer problems,' Trans. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs, (1953), 118, pp. 962-989.
STUCKY, A.: Cours d'amenagement des chutes d'eau. Chambres d'equilibre
(Ecole Polyt. Univ. Lausanne, 1951).
VALVIS, P. G.: 'Location of a surge tank in relation to speed regulation,' Wat.
Pwr, (1967), 19, pp. 463-468, 503-506, 514.
ZIENKIEWICZ, 0. C.: 'Stability of parallel-branch and differential surge tanks,'
11 Finite Difference Methods I
11.1 Outline of the methods

With the aid of electronic computers we can easily calculate the behaviour
of oscillating water in even the most complex surge tank systems by using
finite difference methods. Consequently these methods are of great
importance.
The principle is one of arithmetic, step-by-step or iterative integration.
The basis is the fundamental differential equations which we obtained in
the last chapter as equations (10.2), (10.3) and (10.4). Small 'steps' of
time, I:J.t, are taken, and the variation of other parameters during this
time interval can be calculated. These parameters vary during time I:J.t by
incremental amounts, which can be expressed as functions of I:J.t. Thus
the variations of Q, v, u andy during time I:J.t are I:J.Q, I:J.v, !:J.u and !:J.y.
Since the variation of any one parameter during time I:J.t depends on
the variation of other parameters, the mean value of these other parameters
during time I:J.t may be used. In addition, the cross-sectional area of the
surge tank may vary with elevation, and if the variation is continuous (as
in a conical tank) the mean value of As may be taken.
The flow taken by the turbines may vary with time, and it may be
dependent on the head, H, as when a governor controls the power to be
taken by the turbines. Power is proportional to flow multiplied by head,
and the head at the turbines depends on the water-level in the surge tank.
The available head also affects the flow when flow-control is by change of
flow-area as where a spear-valve is used with a Pelton wheel.
The mean values of H, As, Q, v, u andy during time I:J.t are given by
the symbols H, As, Q, v, ii and ji. Several parameters are changing at the
same time and trial methods are therefore necessary to determine the
mean values. This is usually tedious and in most cases a better method
is to reduce the time interval, M, and to take conditions at the beginning
of the step as prevailing throughout. The error resulting from this assump-
tion obviously reduces as I:J.t becomes smaller. Escandel has introduced a
129
method, which we will consider in Section 11.6, where mean values
of rapidly-changing parameters are taken with initial values of other
parameters; this results in improved accuracy without the need for trial.
11.2 Fundamental finite difference equations

Using the notation described above, equations (10.2), (10.3) and (10.4) are
rewritten as
~v
Lr ~t + y + Fpvlvl + FTiilul = 0 (11.1)
_ ii As+ Q
v=---= (11.2)
A
- ~y
u=- (11.3)
~t
It should be noted that where the tank area A 8 varies with the elevation,
FT also varies.
Equation (11.2) and (11.3) may be combined to give
~y - Q
ii = -Ar
/).t
+-
A
(11.4)
where
11.3 Successive trials (Pressel's method) 2

Equations (11.1) and (11.4) are used with the assumption that there is a
linear change of y and v during a short time interval ~t. Therefore
ji = y + !~y and v = v + t~v, y and v being the values of the beginning
of the interval.
For instantaneous complete closure with a simple tank, Ar is constant,
FT = 0 and Q = 0. During the first quarter-cycle equations (11.1) and
(11.4) become
~t
~v = -{y + i~Y + Fp(v + t~v) 2 } ( 11.5)
Lr
~t
~y = (v + i~v)-
Ar
(11.6)
Finite Difference Methods I 131
An arbitrary value of tl.t is chosen. Then, for each step, corresponding
values of tl.y and tl.v are estimated. The accuracy of these estimates is
then checked by substitution in equations (11.5) and (11.6); if the estimate
is found to be inaccurate, the procedure must be repeated. When satis-
factory values of tl.y and tl.v have been found, y and v for the next step are
obtained from the equation
Yn = Yn-1 + tl.y Vn = Vn-1 + tl.v
11.4 Simple arithmetic method

In this method the values of the variables other than t are taken as those
which occur at the beginning of the time interval !lt. Thus, for any step,
y, v, u, As, Fp and Q are taken as the initial values. Equations (11.1) and
(11.4) become
(11.7)
vA- Q
tl.y = = tl.t (11.8)
As
Provided the time interval tl.t is sufficiently small, this method is

reasonably accurate, and has the advantage of being straightforward.
In this section and in Chapter 12 we consider a number of cases of
increasing complexity.
(a) Sudden complete closure-simple tank

Example 11.1
Find the first upsurge in large tank A following sudden complete closure.
Surge tank A
· - - · - - · d5 =10m·-·
A5 =78·54m 2
L, = 203·94
A,= 16
SOLUTION
In Table 11.1, M is taken as 10 seconds, and therefore in the first quarter-
cycle equations (11. 7) and (11.8) become
10 10
Av = -(y + 0·4878v2) X - - and ily=-v
203-9 16
TABLE 11.1
Column 2 4 5 6 7 8
I!J.t I!J.y y FPv2 = y + FPv2 I!J.v
0·625v 0·4878v2 = 0·04905 X
column (7)
seconds seconds m/s m m m m mfs
Line Line
1 0·0 vo = 6·111 YO= -18·22 18·22 0·00 1
2 10·0 3-82 -0·000 2
3 10·0 6·111 -14·40 18·22 3·82 3
4 10·0 3·82 -0·187 4
5 20·0 5·924 -10·58 17·12 6·54 5
6 10·0 3·70 -0·321 6
7 30·0 5-603 -6·88 15·32 8·44 7
8 10·0 3·50 -0·414 8
9 40·0 5·189 -3·38 13-14 9·76 9
10 10·0 3·25 -0·479 10
11 50·0 4·711 -0·13 10·83 10·69 11
12 10·0 2·94 -0·524 12
13 60·0 4·187 +3-81 8·55 11·36 13
14 10·0 2·62 -0·557 14
15 70·0 3·630 5·43 6·43 11-86 15
23 110·0 1·208 12·28 0·71 12·99 23

24 10·0 0·75 -0·637 24
25 120·0 0·571 13·03 0·16 13-19 25
26 10·0 0·36 -0·647 26
27 8·8 0·32 -0·571 27
28 128·8 0·000 13·35 28
Thus by taking IJ..t as 10 seconds, which involved 13 steps, we found the

value of y1 to be 13·35 m.
If !J..t = 5 seconds, there are 27 steps and y1 = 12·52 m
If IJ..t = 0·05 seconds, there are 2692 steps and y1 = 11·76 m
The percentage error of yr, when the simple arithmetic method is com-
pared with y1 obtained by the logarithmic method (y1 = 11·75 m) is
listed in Table 11.5. The calculation can be continued beyond Jl· The
water level in the surge tank now falls, dropping below the reservoir level.
The water coming from the surge tank is unable to pass down the penstock
to the turbines because the valve is completely closed. It therefore goes
back along the pipeline to the reservoir with a negative velocity v. The
maximum downsurge is reached when the velocity in the pipeline and the
surge tank again become zero.
Table 11.2 gives the first few steps to calculate the first downsurge y2.
You will notice that when vis negative the pipeline friction Fpvlvl is also
negative.
TABLE 11.2
tJ..t v ~y y FPDJvJ y + FPvJvl ~v
128·8 0·000 13-35 0·000 13·35

1·2 0·00 -0·073
130·0 -0·073 13-35 -0·00 13·35
10·0 -0·05 -0·655
140·0 -0·728 13-30 -0·26 13·04
10·0 -0·46 -0·640
150·0 -1·368 12·84 -0·91 11·93
10·0 -0·86 -0·586
160·0 -1·954 11·98 -1·86 10·12
The error resulting from too large increments of time, !::it, becomes
greater with surge heights after the first, as you can see from these figures.
e is the percentage error compared with the heights obtained by the
logarithmic method.
tJ..t e for y1 e for y2 e for ya
10 13-6 32·9 51·9

5 6·6 15·3 23-8
0·5 0·66 1·50 2·28
0·05 0·08 0·16 0·24
Comparison for other values of !::it is given in Table 11.5.
""""'
v v Surge tank A
-10
"
'"' v
Eoi~O >~ v
I
1'"'-. v
---r--1
""'-"'"
I",
I 10 100 1000"' 10.000
-0 IT-I --~-;-;---~----=-~,·
n number of steps v
FIG. 11.1
The importance of choosing a suitable time interval !1t cannot be too
strongly emphasized.
The error found for y1 following sudden complete closure in surge
tank A is shown in Fig. 11.1. It can be
seen that s is approximately equal to 100/n,
where n is the number of steps.
If the calculation is done by slide rule
or by the use of logarithmic tables, the
work involved in obtaining accurate surge
A ~ 0·7854xDP 2
heights is very tedious and time-consuming.
AS ~ 0·7854x DS 2
AR~AS/A
There is a high risk of errors in the arith-
LR L/G
~
metic. Electronic digital computers make
¥~~~6~vo 2 light work of these calculations and are free
from the possibility of arithmetic errors.
For example, the calculation of ya in steps
of 0·05 seconds for surge tank A mentioned
above involved about 10 000 steps: t for
ya is 499·045 seconds. Each step, of course,
requires the calculation of v, y, Fpvlvl,
y + Fpvlvl, !1v and !1y, but this is a simple
matter for the computer, which can quickly
deal with the more complicated problems
discussed in Chapter 12.
Fig. 11.2 shows the flow diagram for a
Fortram programme for the most simple
case-the first upsurge following sudden
complete closure in an unrestricted surge
DTR DT V/DV
~ X tank of uniform cross-sectional area.
DYR~ DTRxV/AR
DVR~-DTRxSUMILR
+
T ~ T DTR
Y~Y+DYR (b) Sudden complete closure: throttled tank of
constant area. We can easily allow for the
v~V+DVR
effect of a restriction at the base of a surge

tank by including the term Fpulul in the
FIG. 11.2 calculation of !1v by equation (11.7).
Example 11.2
Use the simple arithmetic finite difference method to obtain the height of the
first upsurge in surge tank C following sudden complete valve closure.
SoLUTION FT
(~:r
= KT -2g- = 509·85 s2/m
The calculation is shown in Table 11.3.
Surge tank C
Yst=-18·22m
dr= lm
Kr=I·O
051 =30 m3/s
TABLE 11.3
SUM
flt fly y flu u v FPvlvl FTuiui (4) +
(8) +
(9)
Line (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
1 0·00 YO= -18·22 0·382 vo = 6·11 18·22 74·39 74·39

2 10·00 3-82 -0·288
3 10·00 -14·40 0·154 2·46 2-96 12·09 0·65
4 10·00 1·54 -0·002
5 20·00 -12-86 0·152 2·43 2-89 11·78 1-81
6 10·00 1·52 -0·006

7 30·00 -11·34 0·146 2-35 2·68 10·94 2·28
8 10·00 1-47 -0·007
9 40·00 -9·87 0·139 2·23 2·43 9·92 2·48
10 10·00 1·39 -0·007

11 50·00 -8-48 0·132 2·11 2·17 8·87 2·56
* * *
* * * * • • •
* * *
39 190·00 2·61 0·017 0·27 0·04 0·15 2-80
40 10·00 0·17 -0·009
41 200·00 2·78 0·008 0·14 0·01 0·04 2-83
42 9·17 0·09
43 209·17 2-87
In line I columns (1), (4), (7) and (8) are the same as the corresponding
parameters in Table 11.1.
Column (6) is obtained from the equation u = vo/Ar.
In column (9) FTuiul = 509·85 X (0·382) 2 = 74·39 m.
Column (10) = y + Fpvlvl + FTuiui.
In line 2 column (5) is obtained from column (10), line 1
column (3) is obtained from column (6), line 1
In line 3 column (4) is the sum of column (4) line 1 and
column (3) line 2
column (6) is the sum of column (6) line 1 and
column (5) line 2
column (7) is obtained from column (6); v = uAr.
11.5 Jakobsen's methods

For a simple tank and instantaneous complete closure, equation (11.5)
may be expressed in a different form as
Lrflv = -{y + !fly+ Fp(v!v! + !v!flv + !flv 2)}flt

If !flv2 is neglected, this becomes
Lrflv = -{y +!fly+ Fp(v!v! + !v!flv)} flt

When the value for fly given by equation (11.6) is substituted, we obtain
Lrflv = - {y + h(v!vl + lvlflv) + l(v + !flv) ~:} flt
Collecting all terms in flv in the left-hand side,
or (11.9)
The value of flv obtained from equation (11.9) is used in equation (11.6)
to obtain fly.
Table 11.5 shows the Jakobsen Method to be more accurate than the
simple arithmetic method by comparing the surge heights for tank A.
11.6 Escande's method1

If you examine Fig. 11.3 you notice that at
the beginning of oscillation there is a rapid
change of y and a much more gradual
change of v. On the other hand when
maximum upsurge is approached v changes
y
quickly and y changes gradually. Similar
alterations in the rate of variation of y and v
occur every quarter-cycle.
In his D.P. method (Methode Difference
FIG. 11.3 Finie) Escande used this characteristic by
taking the initial value of the slowly-changing parameter and the mean
value of the rapidly-changing parameter. Thus
when
1;1>1~v~' ji = y + !L\y, v=v
when
~~vi> 1;1. v = v + !L\v, ji=y
The method can be applied to all types of surge tank problem, including
the more complicated cases considered in Chapter 12. However, we have
used the Escande Method for sudden complete closure of an unrestricted
tank only. You may like to adapt the simple arithmetic method used in
Chapter 12 to allow for Escande's modification.
Example 11.3
Use Escande's Method to determine the height of the first upsurge in Surge
Tank D following sudden complete valve closure.
SOLUTION
TABLE 11.4
y
Line (1)
/';.t
(2) (3) (4)

/';.y
(5)
y
(6) (7)
FPvlvl y+FPvlvl
(8) (9)
/';.v
(10)
111
(II)
1~"1
(12)
1 0·00 5·000 -10·00 10·00 0·00
. . .
2 5·00 2·50 0·000 0·250 0·000
3 5·000 2·50 -8·75 10·00 1·25 -0·062
4 5·00 4·938 -7·50 9·75 2·25
25 40·00
•
2·453 6·74 2·41
•
9·15
. .
26 5·00 1·23 -0·457 0·182 0·186
27 2·224 1·11 6·74 1·98 8·72 -0·436
28 45·00 2·017 7·85 1·63 9·48
• •
0·01
•
10·00
40 65·00 0·113 9·994
41 5·00 0·06 -0·500 0·006 4·424
42 1·13 0·013 -0·113
43 66·13 0·000 10·007
Take M = 5·0 seconds, and tabulate as in Table 11.4.

Line 1 gives the initial conditions. The term for pipe friction FPDo 2 balances
the term for the elevation of the surge tank water level yo and consequently in
line 2 ilv is zero. Column 5, line 2 is ily = vo X ilt/Ar = 5·00 X 5·0/10·0 =
2·50. Column 11 in line 2 is ily given by column 5, line 2, divided by y given by
column 6, line 1, i.e. ily/y = 2·50 -10·0 = -0·250. Similarly column 12 in
line 2 gives ilv from column 10, line 2, divided by v from column 3, line 1;
ilvfv = 0·0/5·0 = 0·0. Iily/yl > I vfvl and therefore in line 3, y = y + tily = -
10·00 + t x 2·50 = -8·75; v = v = 5·00 m/s. Column 8, line 3 is still 10·00
since v = v, but column 9, line 3 is now y + Fpv 2 , = 1·25 and ilv in column 10,
line 3 = -(j + Fpv 2)ilt/Lr = -1·25 x 5·0/100 = -0·625 m.
The table is continued in this way until line 26, where I ily/yl < I ilvfvl.
Therefore, in line 27, y in column 7 is the same as y in column 6, line 25, i.e.
6·74 m. v in line 27, column 4, is the sum of v in column 3, line 25, and half of
ilv in column 10, line 26, i.e. 2·453 + t (-0·457) = 2·224 m/s. For the
remainder of the table, I ily/yl < I ilvfvl, soy= y and v = v + tilv.
In line 41, ilv = -0·500, so at timet= 70 seconds v = v + ilv = 0·113-
0·500 = -0·387. Therefore by t = 70 seconds the water in the pipeline is
moving backwards towards the reservoir, and the maximum upsurge has been
passed.
The reduced time interval ill = 1·13 seconds in column 2, line 42, is obtained
by proportion. ilv in column 10, line 41, is reduced to -0·113 m/s in column
10, line 42, so that v in column 3, line 43, is zero.

Calculation of pipe friction is usually based on the 'v2-law', i.e.jis constant
in the Darcy equation HF = (4fL/d)(v 2f2g). This is true only for high
Reynolds Number and rough pipes-the 'rough turbulent' zone is shown
on Fig. 11.4. The Colebrook-White formula 4 •5 covers the whole range of
0 020
20
50
'- 1>0 ~
c
Q "»0 tOO
"
~
u ' /v,...6
.E .Q
200 "§
0
c
""""J'
500 "'
~
u
0·005
"'"'
c
..c
Q;
1000 CJ>
:J
0
u 0 004 2000 0
a:
5000
0·003 10000
20000
10 3 10 4
lieynolds number, Re
FIG. 11.4
turbulent flow, and the Wallingford charts and tables6,7,s are based on
this formula. Wallingford charts and tables can be used to compute the
friction loss in the pipeline.
Alternatively the loss may be taken as proportional to vn where 'n' has
a value other than 2. 9,lo A typical equation is HF = Fp'vLBl or HF =
Fpv!v!o.st. Finite difference methods may be used to calculate the surge
height using such values of hF.
TABLE 11.5. Comparison of finite difference methods
!J.t Simple arithmetic Jacobsen Escande !J.t

n y s n y s n y s
seconds steps m % steps m % steps m % seconds
10·00 13 13·351 13-6 14 11·821 0·72 13 12·587 7·15 10·00

5·00 27 12·521 6·59 27 11·767 0·17 27 12·261 4·37 5·00
2·00 67 12·053 2·61 68 11·751 0·04 67 11·964 1-85 2·00
Yl 1·00 134 11·900 1-31 135 11·749 0·02 134 11-858 0·94 1·00
0·50 269 11·824 0·66 270 11·748 0·01 269 11·803 0·48 0·50
0·50 673 11·778 0·27 674 11·748 0·01 673 11·769 0·19 0·20
0·10 1346 11·763 0·14 1347 11·748 0·01 1346 11·758 0·10 0·10
0·05 2692 11·756 0·08 2692 11·748 0·01 2692 11·752 0·05 0·05
10·00 31 -9-678 32·9 32 -7·311 0·39 31 -9·112 25·1 10·00

5·00 63 -8·397 15-3 64 -7·299 0·23 63 -8·211 12·7 5·00
2·00 158 -7-724 6·06 159 -7·284 0·01 158 -7-670 5·31 2·00
Y2 1·00 317 -7·502 3·01 318 -7·284 0·01 317 -7-479 2·68 1·00
0·50 635 -7·392 1·50 636 -7·284 0·01 635 -7·381 1·35 0·50
0·20 1589 -7·327 0·61 1590 -7·284 0·01 1589 -7-322 0·55 0·20
0·10 3179 -7-305 0·31 3180 -7·284 0·01 3179 -7-302 0·27 0·10
0·05 6358 -7·295 0·16 6359 -7·284 0·01 6358 -7·293 0·13 0·05
10·00 49 8·044 51-9 51 5·326 0·59 49 7·550 42·6 10·00

5·00 99 6·557 23·8 100 5·305 0·18 99 6·417 21·2 5·00
2·00 249 5·786 9·31 250 5·297 0·03 299 5·751 8·64 2·00
Y3 1·00 498 5·538 4·58 500 5·296 0·02 498 5·522 4·28 1·00
0·50 997 5·416 2·28 999 5·296 0·02 997 5-408 2·14 0·50
0·20 2495 5·344 0·91 2496 5·296 0·02 2495 5-340 0·8() 0·20
0·10 4990 5·320 0·46 4992 5·296 0·02 4990 5-318 0·43 0·10
0·05 9981 5·308 0·24 9983 5·296 0·02 9981 5·306 0·22 0·05
The error s is that when y is compared with the logarithmic method, i.e.
y1 = 11·747 m; y2 = -7·283 m; ya = 5·295 m
REFERENCES
1. ESCANDE, L.: "Methodes nouvelles pour Ie calcul des chambres d'equilibre·
(Dunod, 1950).
2. JAEGER, C.: Engineering fluid mechanics (Biackie, 1957), p. 212.
3. JAKOBSEN, B. F.: 'Surge tanks,' Trans. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs, (1922), 85,
pp. 1357.
4. CoLEBROOK, C. F., and WHITE, C. M.: 'Experiments with fluid friction
in roughened pipes,' Proc. Roy. Soc. A, (1937), 161, pp. 367-381.
5. COLEBROOK, c. F.: 'Turbulent flow in pipes, with particular reference to
the transition region between the smooth and rough pipe laws,' J. Instn
civ. Engrs, (1939), 11, pp. 133-156.
6. ACKERS, P.: Resistance offluids flowing in pipes and channels, Hydraul. Res.
Paper No. 2 (H.M.S.O., 2nd Edn., 1963).
7. ACKERS, P.: Tables for the hydraulic design of storm-drains sewers and pipe-
lines, Hydraul. Res. Paper No. 4 (H.M.S.O., 1963).
8. PICKFORD, J. A.: 'The use of Wallingford Charts and tables for pipeline
problems,' Civ. Engng pub!. Wks. Rev., (1965), 60, pp. 1761-1764.
9. BLAIR, J. S.: 'New formulae for water flow in pipes,' Proc. Instn mech.
Engrs, {1951), 165, pp. 75-87.
10. GmsoN, A. H.: 'The investigation of the surge-tank problem by model
experiment,' Proc. lnstn civ. Engrs, (1924), 219, pp. 161-173.
12 Finite Difference Methods II
12.1 Modifications
In Chapter 11 we saw how various finite difference methods may be applied
to the mass oscillations which follow sudden complete valve closure in a
straightforward cylindrical tank with or without a throttle. The same
methods-Pressel, Simple Arithmetic, Jakobsen and Escande-can be
used for more complex cases.
In this chapter we deal with some modifications and use the Simple
Arithmetic Method throughout. The methods of Pressel, Jakobsen and
Escande can equally be used for these further cases, but the computation
becomes more complicated. The modifications are of two types: different
flow conditions and different types of tank. The variations are:
Flow conditions: Sudden complete

. 1 opening
Su dden partla va1ve movement
}sec wn 12.2
1.
Linear change of flow Section 12.3

Constant valve opening Section 12.4
Constant power output Section 12.5
Flow from several sources}
Section 12.6
Flow from external source
Tank variations: Variable area tank Section 12.7

Spilling tank Section 12.8
Differential tank Section 12.9
Branching tank Section 12.10
Tail-race tank Section 12.11
Multiple tank Section 12.12
141
12.2 Flow to turbines during oscillation: sudden valve movements
Q in equation (10.3) is no longer equal to zero when there is flow to the
turbines during mass oscillation. The continuity equation is
vA = uAs +Q
For sudden valve movements Q becomes Q1 at the start of the oscillation
and the continuity equation becomes
vA = uAs + Q, (12.1)
Equation (12.1) applies to complete opening, when Qo = vo = 0, and also
to partial movements, when both Qo and Q, are pre-determined positive
flows.
Example 12.1. Sudden complete opening

Determine the minimum water level in surge tank A when the valve suddenly
opens to give a steady flow of 30 m 3 fs.
SOLUTION Take M = 10 seconds
TABLE 12.1. Surge tank A sudden complete opening
SUM
I !:1t L1y y L1u u v Fpvjvj (4) + (8)
Line (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Line
1 0·00 0·00 -0·382 0·000 0·00 0·00 l

2 10·00 -3-82 0·000 2
3 10·00 -3-82 -0·382 0·000 0·00 -3-82 3
4 10·00 -3-82 0·012 4
5 20·00 -7·64 -0·370 0·187 0·02 -7-62 5
6 10·00 -3·70 0·023 6
7 30·00 -ll·34 -0·347 0·561 0·15 -ll·19 7
8 10·00 -3-47 0·034 8
9 40·00 -14·81 -0·313 1-110 0·60 -14·21 9
10 10·00 -3·13 0·044 10
ll 50·00 -17·94 -0·269 1·806 1·59 -16·35 ll
* * *
* * * * • •
* * *
12 100·00 -26·28 -0·026 5·696 15·83 -10·45 12
13 8·11 -0·21 13
14 108·11 -26·49 14
15 110·00 -26·48 0·006 6·208 18·80 -7·68 15
16 10·00 0·06 0·024 16
17 120·00 -26-42 0·030 6·61 21·15 -5·27 17
18 10·00 0·30 0·016 18
19 130·00 -26·12 0·046 6·84 22·84 -3·28 19
20 10·00 0·46 0·010 20
21 140·00 -25·67 0·056 7·01 23·93 -1·74 21
Finite Difference Methods II 143
Surge tank A
Lr' 203·94
Ar' 16
When the valve opens, at first the whole of the flow to the turbines comes
from the surge tank. Therefore by continuity,
Q/ + uoAs = 0
Qj 30
uo = - - = - - -
78·54
= -0·382m/s
As
At time 0 Oine 1) there is no flow in the pipeline and the water level in the surge
tank is the same as in the reservoir, i.e. h1 = yo = 0, and all columns except
column 6 (uo = -0·382) are zero.
~y in line 2 is obtained from the equation ~y = u M and ~u is zero since the
SUM in column 9 of line 1 is zero.
In line 3, y = -3·82 is the sum of y = 0 in line 1 and ~y = -3·82 in line 2;
u = -0·382 is the sum of u = -0·382 in line 1, and ~u = 0 in line 2; v in line
3 is obtained from the continuity equation (12.1), i.e.
uAs + Q/ -0·382 X 78·54 + 30

v = A = 4·909
In line 5 v = uA, + Q1 = -0·370 x 78·54 + 30 = 0.187 m/s

A 4·909
The table continues for the downsurge until t = 108·11 when y = -26·49 m.
After this time the level rises. Therefore yt = - 26·49 m.
Example 12.2. Sudden partial closure

In surge tank A* the flow is suddenly reduced from 30 m 3 fs to 15 m 3/s. Deter-
mine the maximum water level in the surge tank.
(Note: the system with surge tank A* is the same as with surge tank A except
that the friction coefficient Fp = 0·5, and hence yo = -0·5vo 2 = -18·68 m).
Surge tank A*
d5 = 10m
· - - · - - · A5 =78·S4m 2.
SOLUTION Take M = 10 seconds

TABLE 12.2
SUM
t /::;.( y !::;.y u v /::;,v FPvlvl (3) + (8)
Line 0) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Line
1 0·0 -18·68 0·191 6·112 18·68 0·00 1

2 10·0 1·91 0·000 2
3 10·0 -16·77 0·191 6·112 18·68 1·91 3
4 10·0 1·91 -0·094 4
5 20·0 -14·86 0·185 6·018 18·11 3·25 5
6 10·0 1·85 -0·159 6
7 30·0 -13-01 0·175 5·858 17·16 4·15 7
At time 0, the initial flow (Qo = 30 m 3/s) is passing down the pipeline and
vo = Qo/A = 6·112 mjs. The flow to the turbines is suddenly reduced to
Q1 = 15 m 3 js. Therefore by continuity,
Qf + uoAs = voA
uo = voA- Qt = 30- 15 = 0·191 mfs
As 78·54
In line 2, !::;.y = uM = 0·191 X 10 = 1·91 m, and /::;.v = -SUM X M/Lr
= 0. In line 3, v is still 6·112 m/s since /::;.v was zero in line 2. By continuity
u remains at 0·191 mjs since neither v nor Q has changed. In line 4, /::;.v = -
SUM X M/Lr = -1·91/203·92 = -0·094 mfs; v in line 5 is therefore
6·112- 0·094 = 6·018 mfs. By continuity u = (vA - Qt)/As = (6·018 X
4·9088 - 15)/78·54 = 0·185 mjs. The computation continues until y1 = -
1·72m.
12.3 Linear change of flow

The operation of the valve may be operated so that the flow to the tur-
bines retards or accelerates at a uniform rate. If TM is the time taken for
the valve movement and t is any time during the movement (i.e.
0 < t < TM), then
Q = Qo + (Qt- Qo)t/TM
Using finite difference methods we note that in time 1:1t the flow changes
by an amount 1:1Q where 1:1Q = (Qt- Qo)l:1t/TM.
Example 12.3
What is the maximum surge height in surge tank A when the flow is reduced
from 30 m 3 /s to zero in 200 seconds, the valve closure being performed in such a
way that there is uniform retardation.
Surge tank A
cf,' 10m
. - - . - - . As; 7S·54m 2
d'2·5m
A' 4·909m 2
Lr; 203·94
Ar' 16
SOLUTION Let M = 20 seconds

TABLE 12.3
SUM
t M Q y ~y u v ~v Fpvlvl (4) + (9)
Line (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) Line
1 0·0 30·0 -18·22 0·000 6·112 18·22 0·00 1

2 20·0 0·00 0·000 2
3 20·0 27·0 -18·22 0·038 6·112 18·22 0·00 3
4 20·0 0·76 0·000 4
5 40·0 24·0 -17-46 0·076 6·112 18·22 0·76 5
6 20·0 1·53 -0·065 6
7 60·0 21·0 -15·93 0·110 6·037 17·78 1·85 7
* * * * * * * *
21 200·0 0·0 6·05 0·160 2·566 3·21 9·26 21
* * * * * * *
27 251·0 0·0 11·75 0·000 0·000 0·00 11·75 27
In line 3, at time t = 20 seconds, the flow has been reduced to

Q = Qo + (Qt - Qo)t/T,u = 30 + (0 - 30)20/200 = 27 m 3/s
v has not changed, since in line 2, ~v = M x SUM/Lr = 0.
. . vA- Q 30- 27
By contmmty, u = ~ = 78 _54 = 0·038 mfs
The tabulation continues until line 27, when u = 0 and y1 = 11·75 m.

12.4 Constant valve opening

The flow to impulse turbines such as Pelton wheels is usually controlled
by spear valves. When the load demanded from the set alters, the valve
may suddenly be moved to a new position, and the area available for the
passage of water is then different from the original area.
The flow through the valve is given by the equation derived from
Bernoulli's theory, Q = CdAov(2gH), where Cd is the coefficient of
discharge of the valve. The head at the valve is equal to the difference
FIG. 12.1
between the level of the water surface in the surge tank and the level of
the valve, less friction losses in the penstock and throttle losses at the base
of the tank. Neglecting penstock losses, and with H 8 as the static head
over the valve (Fig. 12.1)
Q = CdAov(2g)v(Hs + y + FTuJuj)
When the oscillations have subsided, Q = Qt and u = 0, so
Qt = CdAoy(2g)y(Hs + Yt)
Yt is always negative.
Consequently, at any time during the oscillation
Q may be calculated independently for each step. If LlQ is required, as
when the tank is overflowing (Section 12.8), it may be taken as the differ-
ence between Q at the end of the step (at time t + Llt) and Q at the
beginning of the step (at time t).
Alternatively, the flow may be related to the flow Q8 which would pass
through the valve if the head on the valve were equal to the static head H 8 •
For a simple tank with FT = 0, the equation corresponding to equation
(12.3) is
Qs
and LlQ ~- Lly
2Hs
Example 12.4
The valve to the turbine in the hydro-electricity plant using surge tank A* can
be set to give a required flow under steady conditions. The static head over the
valve is 50 m.
If the flow is initially 30 m 3 fs and the valve setting is altered so that there will
be a steady flow of 15 m 3 /s, calculate the maximum surge height.
Surge tank A*
• d5 = 10m
· - - · - - · A 5 =78·S4m 2.
A=
r. 16
SoLUTION Take M = 10 seconds.

Since the tank is unrestricted, FT = 0, and equation (12.3) becomes
Q = Qr J( Hs
Hs
+ y)
+ Yt
Qr 15
Qr = 15 m 3 /s; Hs =50 m; vr = - = - - = 3·056 mfs
A 4·909
:. yr = -FpVr 2 = -0·5(3·056) 2 = -4·67 m
Therefore Q = 15 ) ( 50 + Y)
45-33
Tabulating, we obtain,
TABLE 12.4
SUM
t l1t Q y ~y u v ~v Fplvlvl(4) + (9)
Line (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) Line
1 0·0 12-47 -18·68 0·223 6·112 18·68 0·00 • 1
2 10·0 2·23 0·000 2
3 10·0 12·91 -16-45 0·218 6·112 18·68 2·23 3
4 10·0 2·18 -0·109 4
5 10·0 13·32 -14·27 0·206 6·002 18·01 3·75 5
6 10·0 2·06 -0·184 6
* * * * * * * * * *
21 100·0 15·26 -3·08 0·055 3·982 7·93 4·85 21
22 10·0 0·55 -0·238 22
* * * * * * * * * *
28 10·0 0·11 -0·178 28
29 140·0 15-47 -1·80 0·000 3·149 4·96 3·16 29
* * * * * * * * * *
320·0 14·86 -5·53
* * * * *
500·0 15·04 -4-44
At time 0 (line 1) the water level in the surge tank is at y = -18·68 m,

corresponding to the pipeline friction head loss with Q = 30 m 3/s. The head
over the valve is therefore Hs + Yt = 50 - 18·68 = 31·32 m. The valve is
altered to give a steady flow of 15 m 3/s under a head of Hs + yJ, i.e. 45·33 m.
However, the head available is only 31·32 m, and therefore
Q = 15 J( 31·32)
- -
45·33
= 12·47 m 3 /s
30m3/sis passing down the pipeline and the difference between 30 and 12·47 m 3/s
enters the surge tank, and by continuity,
u = vA - Q = 30 - 12·47 = 0·223 mfs
As 78·54
In line 2, ~y = uM = 0·223 x 10 = 2·23 m, and ~v is zero since SUM in
line 1 is zero.
In line 3 y = -18·68 + 2·23 = -16·45
Hence Q = 15 J( 50- 16·45)

45 .33 = 12·91 m 3/s,
and u = 6·11 X 4·909- 12·91 = 0 .218 mfs

78·54
The tabulation is continued to the maximum surge level y1 = -1·80m when
II= 140 sec.
If the calculation is continued further, y2 = -5·53m when 12 = 320 seconds,
y 3 = -4·44m when 13 = 500 seconds.
12.5 Constant power output

A power station has to provide electricity in accordance with the require-
ments of the grid, and the changes of water flow are secondary to changes
in the power output of the turbine/generator sets. Therefore the altera-
tions of waterflow, which cause the mass oscillation we are studying are
likely to be determined by the turbine requirements rather than by the
need for constant gate opening or constant acceleration of the water.
The power obtained from the flow of water through the turbines is
given by
P = 17pgQH
where 17 is the efficiency. In British units the horsepower is given by
hp = O·ll31]QH where Q is measured in cusecs and H in feet. In SI
units the power is measured in watts and P = 9807nQH, where Q is
measured in m 3 js and H in metres.
If the new power after a change is Pt then
Pt = 980717fQtHt = 98071JtQt(Hs + Yt)
At any time during the oscillation, provided penstock friction is
neglected,
P = 9807nQ(Hs + y + FTuJuj)
If the power output is to be maintained at P1 from time t = 0, then
during the oscillation
Q=0 171 ~+~ =0 171 ~

1] (Hs + y + FTuJuj) 'Yj (Hs + y + FTujui)
When we use finite difference methods, Q may be calculated inde-
pendently for each step and ~Q taken as the difference between initial and
final flows for the step.
For a simple tank with constant efficiency
Ht Qt
Q = Hs + y . Qf and ~Q = Ht ~y (12.4)
Example 12.5
A hydro-electricity plant with surge tank A* is governed to give the required
power under steady conditions. The static head over the turbines is 100m.
If the flow is initially 30 m 3 fs and the power requirement is altered so that it
can be satisfied with a steady flow of 15 m 3/s, calculate the maximum surge height.
Assume the efficiency is constant.
Surge tonk A*
d5 = 10m
· - - · - - · A5 =78·S4m 2•
SOLUTION Take llt = 10 seconds

Q = __!!j_ Qt = Hs + Yt Qt
Hs + y Hs + y
Qt = 15 m 3 /s; Hs =lOOm; Vf = 3·056 m/s; Yt = -4·67 (as Example 12.4)
Therefore Q = 95·33 X 15
100 + y
Tabulating, we obtain,
TABLE 12.5
SUM
t llt Q y 11y u v 11v FpvJvl (4)+(9)
Line (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) Line
1 0·0 17-58 -18·68 0·158 6·112 18·68 0·00 1

2 10·0 1·58 0·000 2
3 10·0 17·25 -17·10 0·162 6·112 18·68 1·58 3
4 10·0 1-62 -0·078 4
5 20·0 16·92 -15·48 0·162 6·034 18·21 2·73 5
6 10·0 1-62 -0·134 6
* * * * * * * * * *
21 100·0 15·03 -4·86 0·082 4·366 9·53 4·76 21
* * * * * • * *
37 180·0 14·54 -1·67 -0·007 2·857 4·08 2·41 37
* * * * * *
370·0 15·20 -5-89 0·000 3·137
* • * * *
560 14·94 -4·26 0·000 3·038
At time 0 (line 1) the water level in the surge tank is y = -18·68 m.

The head on the turbine is therefore Hs +yo= 100- 18·68 = 81·32 m.
The governor is set to give the required power with a steady flow of 15 m 3/s
when the head is 95·33 m. The flow taken by the turbines at time t = 0 is
therefore
95·33
Q = - - x 15 = 17·58 m 3/s
81·32
By continuity, = vA- Q = 30- 17·58 = 0_158 /
u As 78·54 ms
In line 3, - 95·33 - . 3
Q- 100 _ 17. 10 x 15- 1725m /s
The tabulation is continued to the maximum surge level of y1 = -1·67m when
11= 180 seconds. Further computation yields y2 = -5·89 m when 12 =
370 seconds, and ya = -4·26 m when ta = 560 seconds.
Consecutive valve moments. The design of some surge tanks is based on

superimposed oscillations, as mentioned in Section 9.3. Computation of
y by finite difference methods presents no difficulty.
12.6 Flow from several sources

(a) Flow from external source into surge tank. Occasionally water flows
directly into a surge tank. The supplementary flow may be intentional or
accidental. If the surge tank is suitably located, water may be abstracted
from a secondary intake, as shown in Fig. 12.2. Accidental flow occurs if
FIG. 12.2
surface run-off enters the tank following rainfall or an unexpected under-

ground stream is encountered during construction. With Qe designating
the flow from the external source, the continuity equation becomes
vA + Qe = uAs + Q
(b) Multiple pipelines to base of tank. The turbines may be fed by a

number of reservoirs, each of which has a separate pipeline to the base of
the surge tank as in Fig. 12.3 (a). If there are n pipelines and the water level
is the same in all the reservoirs, the fundamental equations are
dva
Lra dt + Y + FPaValvaJ = 0
dvn
Lrn dt + Y + FPn VnlvnJ = 0
AaVa + AbVb + . . . AnVn = AsU +Q

6 24PP·
Reservoir c
Power station
FIG. 12.3 (a)
Finite difference methods may be used even when the reservoirs are at
different levels, but trial methods are necessary to compute the flow in each
pipeline at each step and the calculation becomes very protracted.
(c) Branching pipeline. When the system is supplied by several reservoirs

which feed branching pipes, as Fig. 12.3 (b), the fundamental equations
become
dva
Lra dt + YJ + FPaValval = 0
dvb
Lrb dt + YJ + FPbVblvbl = 0
dvc
Lrc dt + Y- YJ + FpcVclvcl = 0
AaVa + AbVb = AcVc = AsU +Q
FIG. 12.3 (b)

For conditions (b) and (c) the system may be replaced by a single
equivalent pipeline whose friction coefficient must be estimated.
12.7 Variable area tank

In the fundamental continuity equations, vA = Asu + Q, the cross-sec-
tional area As must correspond to the elevation of the water surface. Where
the changes of cross-section are abrupt, as in a tank with expansion
chambers, it is merely necessary to use the appropriate value of As corres-
ponding toy at each step, as in Example 12.6. With conical tanks the area
changes during the step and the dynamic equation becomes
FT also varies since it is proportional to (A 8 ) 2 , i.e. (FT = kT/2g)(A 8 /Ar)2.
Example 12.6
Determine the maximum surge height in surge tank E for sudden valve closure
from a steady flow of 30 m 3 fs.
Surge tonkE
d, =l2 m
40m
20m
Reservoir level
-10m
-20m
d = 2·5m -30m
A= 4· 909m2
L = 2000m
SOLUTION Take t:..t = 10 seconds, and tabulate.
TABLE 12.6
SUM
(4)+
t l1t !1y y ds A, u v !1v FpvjvJ (10)
Line (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) Line
1 0·0 -18·22 6·0 28·27 1·061 6·112 18·22 0·00 1
2 10·0 10·61 0·000 2
3 10·0 -7-61 8·0 50·27 0·597 6·112 18·22 10·61 3
4 10·0 5·97 0·521 4
5 20·0 -1·64 8·0 50·27 0·546 5·591 15·25 13-61 5
6 10·0 5-46 0·667 6
7 30·0 3·82 5·0 19·64 1·231 4·924 11·83 15·65 7
8 10·0 12·31 0·767 8
9 40·0 16·13 5·0 19·64 1·039 4·157 8·43 24·56 9
10 10·0 10·39 1·204 10
11 50·0 26·52 7·0 38·48 0·377 2·953 4·25 30·77 11
12 10·0 3·77 1·509 12
13 60·0 30·29 7·0 38·48 0·184 1·444 1·02 31·31 13
14 9·41 1·73 1·444 14
15 69·41 32·02 7·0 38·48 0·000 0·000 0·00 32·02 15
With so large a time interval 11t, considerable errors occur. For example,
the surge tank diameter is taken as 6·0 m during the whole of the first ten
seconds, while the water surface rises to -7·61 m, which is 2·39 m above the
enlargement aty =-10m.
If t:..t is reduced to 1 second, y1 becomes 26·07 m.
If t:..t = 0·1 second, y1 = 25·44 m.
12.8 Spilling tank

A spillway is sometimes provided at the top of a tank to limit upsurge and
to save construction costs. Spilling may occur around the whole perimeter
or through an opening of limited width. Referring to Fig. 12.4, the
discharge over the spillway is
Qs = Cabha~ = Csha~
where Ca is the coefficient of discharge for the spillway, b is the width, ha
the head causing the discharge and Cs = Cab. ha = y - HsP where
HsP is the height of the spillway above the static water level.
During spillage the upward velocity of the water surface u ( = dy/dt) is
different from the velocity of the water in the tank below the spillway Us.
Then by continuity
+ Cshd~
AsUs ~ AsU
and Av ~Asu + Cshi + Q (12.5)
Differentiation of equation (I2.5) leads to
-dv
dt
= -AI {As-
du
dt
+ 2-3Csha~-
"dha + -dQ}
dt dt
dv = 2_ {As du + ~ C hatu + dQ}·

8 (I2.6)
dt A dt 2 dt
-Spillway-
-+-'S=-ta_tic l::.. . ev-'-'el_ _
---Surge t a n k - - -
FIG. 12.4
The momentum equation is

dv
Lr dt + Y + hvlvl + FTuslusl = 0
Substituting dvfdt from equation (12.6),
Lr { du
A As dt
dQ} + y + Fpvlvl + FTuslusl = 0
+ 23 Cshatu + dt
and
du I {3
- = - - - Cshatu
dQ
+- A
+ Lr
-(y + Fpvlvl + FTUslusl)
}
dt As 2 dt
Transferring to finite difference terms we obtain the equations required
for the computations
flu= - flt {~ C 8halu + flQ + A (y + Fpvlvl + FTuslusD} (12.7)

As 2 Lr
1 Q
V = A{AsU + Csha 312 +Q} = ArUs +A (12.8)
flha = fly = uflt (12.9)

These equations are only satisfactory when both Cs and IJ..t are small.
An alternative method of dealing with conditions during spill is to calcu-
late the change of water level from equation (12.9), v from the momentum
equation and u from equation (12.8), as shown in example 12.7. Even
with this method it is important to take small increments of time. If IJ..t
is large, the first increment !J..y above the spillway level may give a water
level such that the spilling flow far exceeds the flow (u 8 A 8) coming up the
surge tank.
Example 12.7
A spillway in surge tank F is set at a level 5 m above the static level, otherwise
the arrangement is the same as surge tank A. The spillway coefficient is Cs =
100 mH s- 1 • What is the maximum height of the surge following sudden complete
closure from a steady flow of 30 mfs?
Surge tankF
Lr= 203·94
Ar=l6
SoLUTION Take /:!.t = 1 second.

The calculation proceeds normally until y is greater than 5 m.
TABLE 12·7
SUM
t Ll.y y Ll.v v Fpvlvl (3) + (6) us ha Os u
Line (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) Line
1 72·0 4·8804 3·519 6·04 10·92 0·2199 0·2199 1
2 0·2199 -0·054 2
3 73·0 5-1003 3·465 5·86 10·96 0·2166 0·1003 3·177 0·1761 3
4 0·1761 -0·054 4
5 74·0 5·2764 3·411 5·68 10·96 0·2132 0·2764 14·534 0·0282 5
6 0·0282 -0·054 6
7 75·0 5·3046 3-357 5·52 10·82 0·2096 0·3046 16·794 -0·0038 7
8 -0·0038
9 76·0 5-3008
i.e. yt=5·30m
In line 2,
!:!.y = u/:!.t = 0·2199
In line 3,
v 3·465
Us = - = - - = 0·2166
Ar 16
Qs = Cshal-5 = 100(0·1003)1 · 5 = 3·177 mfs
Qs 3-177
u =Us- As= 0·2166- 78 .54 = 0·2166- 0·0405 = 0·1761 mfs
In line 4,
~y = u~t = 0·1761 X 1·0 = 0·1761
12.9 Differential tank

During upsurge the computation is the same as for a simple tank until the
water level reaches the ports. Thereafter the oscillation passes through
the following stages:
Outer tonk Riser Outer tonk

oreoA; oreaA'
FIG. 12.5
(a) Fig. 12.5. The water surface continues to move upward in the riser,
but some water passes through the ports to the outer tank, or expan-
sion chamber. The flow through the orifices is q', and the following
equations may be obtained:
q' = ±CaAoy(2gl(y- y')l) (12.10)
vA- Q = q + q' (12.11)
and q' /).t = As' f).y' (12.12)
(b) Fig. 12.6. The water level in the riser reaches the spillway and over-
flows, and water is still passing into the outer tank through the ports.
Equations (12.10) and (12.11) still apply but the rise of level above
the riser is now found by using equations (12.7) and (12.9).
FIG. 12.6 FIG. 12.7
(c) Fig. 12.7. The outer tank is completely full and the water level
becomes the same across the whole tank which behaves as a simple
tank. Further increase of level is in accordance with the equation
vA = (A' + As')u + Q (12.13)
The surge reaches its maximum height as Us becomes zero.
(d) Fig. 12.8. With negative flow Us at the base of the tank, the level
drops in the riser and some flow passes through the ports. For a
J~~/ t
, ff ,'
~00000~
(negative)
-·- ·--·--·--
!u,
(negative)
FIG. 12.8 FIG. 12.9

time the spillway discharges water from the outer tank to the riser.
The same equations as in stage (b) are used with reversed signs.
(e) Fig. 12.9. During further downsurge the water level in the riser
falls more rapidly than that in the outer tank. Flow from the outer
tank is in accordance with equation (12.10) and q' is negative
because (y - y') is negative. Crt may be different for flow into or
out from the riser. Equations (12.11) and (12.12) are also valid, but
care must be taken with the signs.
To enable the tank to operate satisfactorily during downsurge the water

stored in the outer tank must be released quickly. On the other hand a
differential tank controls upsurge better if the flow to the outer tank is
limited during upsurge. Satisfaction of these contrary requirements can be
effected by either providing flap valves, which only open during downsurge,
or by fairing the ports so that the discharge coefficient is larger for flow out
of the outer tank.
12.10. Branching tank

If the tank has two separate water surfaces, as in Fig. 12.10, there is a
secondary oscillation, and the equations become as follows:
For the main tank
vA = AsUs + Q
c
v-
L0 is the mean length of the secondary oscillating water column

between A and C
FIG. 12.10
6A
For the secondary oscillation of the column between the two surfaces
dvb
Lrb dt- (ya- Yc) + FpbVbJvbJ = 0
dye
Acdt = Abvb
dya
AsUs = Aa dt + AbVb
dya dya dye
Hence vA = Q + Aadt + Abvb = Q + Aadt + Acdt.
12.11. Tail race tank

The fundamental equations still apply with appropriate change of sign.
Referring to Fig. 12.11 we see that the momentum equation becomes
D..t
D..v = +-
Lr
(y- FpvJvJ - FpuJuJ)
u
-T
y
_L_·-·-·-·-·
v area A
FIG. 12.11
The continuity equation is
Av = Q- Asu
12.12 Multiple tanks

Escande has derived a great variety of equations for systems containing
more than one tank.
For two tanks there are two possible arrangements.
(a) Both tanks upstream of the turbines. The continuity equations are:
D..t
D..ya =- (AaVa - Abbb) (12.14)
Asa
(12.15)
The dynamic equations are
!:!..t
!:!..va = - - (ya + FpaValval + FTaUa!Ual) (12.16)
Lra
!:!..t
!:!..vb = - - (yb- Ya
Lrb
+ FPbVblvbl + FTublubi) (12.17)
(b) Upstream and downstream tanks. For continuity, equation (12.4)

still holds, but equation (12.15) becomes
!:!..t
!:!..yb = - (Q - Abvb)
Asb
Similarly the dynamic equation for tank a (equation 12.16) is still true,
but equation (12.17) becomes
!:!..t
!:!..vb = +-
Lrb
(yb- FPbVblvbl - FTulul)
13 Approximate Methods
13.1 Relative values-simple tank

Calame and Gadenl introduced relative values as follows:
Dimensions of length are related to the amplitude of undamped oscilla-
tion,>'* = voy(Lr/Ar) (equation 10.5) giving the ratios )'r = yfy* and
Fr = Fpv 2fh·
Velocities are related to the corresponding velocity at steady flow con-
ditions or zero time. For valve closure Vr = vfvo and u, = ufuo, uo being
the upward flow at zero time.
Time is related to the period of undamped oscillation T = 2?Ty(LrAr)
(equation 10.15) giving the ratio tr = tfT.
(a) Sudden complete closure. The initial steady flow Qo is diverted to the
surge tank at zero time, so vo = Aruo. By continuity at any time during
the oscillation v = uAr and hence Vr = Ur andy* = uoy(LrAr).
For an unrestricted tank during the first quarter cycle the dynamic
equation (10.2) becomes
Lr dvfdt + y + Fpv2 = 0
From equations (10.3) and (10.4), with Q = 0, we know that
dv du du dy du
-dt = Ar-
dt
= A dy
r - . - = Ar . U-
dt dy
du
Therefore LrAr U dy + y + Fpv2 = 0
Substituting LrAr = (y*fuo) 2 and dividing through by>'* we obtain
dur
Ur -d + )'r + Fr = 0
Yr
162
Approximate Methods 163
Fro is the value of the non-dimensional ratio Fr at time t = 0, and
Fro= Fpvo 2/y*, so Fr = Fpv 2jy* = FroVr 2 = FroUr 2
dur
and Ur-d
Yr
+ Yr + FroUr 2 = 0
d(ur) 2
or -dyr- + 2FroUr2 = -2yr
The solution of this first order linear differential equation, with initial
condition tr = 0, Yr = -Fro and Ur = 1, gives
Ur = [1 - 2FroYr- exp { -2Fro(yr + Fro)}]/2Fro2
Maximum surge height occurs when ur = 0 and

1 - 2FroYr- exp { -2Fro(yr +Fro)}= 0
Series solution of these equations gives 2
2 1 4 1
Yrl = 1 - 3Fro + 9F ro2 + 135 Fro3 + 270 Fro 4 + .
The following approximations have been suggested by Eydoux,a

Sopwith2 and Sutton :4
(a) Yrl = 1 - iFro + !Fro2 = (1 - !Fro) 2 (13.1)
(b) Yrl = 1- iFro (13.2)
(c) Yrl = 1 - 0·6Fro (13.3)
Calame and Gaden gave an approximation for the first downsurge

following complete closure, which only applies if Fro is very small. It is
Yr2 = -1 + 2Fro (13.4)
They also prepared charts, based upon their graphical method described
in Section 14.2, to give the relative values for the first two upsurges and
the first downsurge. The curves are shown by full lines in Fig. 13.1, which
also gives the approximate equations.
Elsden5 has suggested an empirical rule for the first downsurge:
1
Yrz= - - - - (13.5)
7
1+3Fro
0·1
FIG. 13.1
(b) Sudden complete opening. At the instant of opening, the final steady
flow Qf is assumed to come wholly from the surge tank, so Qf = -uoAs.
When the oscillation has ceased, Qf comes wholly from the pipeline and
Qt = VfA. By continuity, at any time during the oscillation vA = uAs +
Q, which may be written
Qf Qj
v-
Vf
= u-
Uo
+ Qf or Vr = Ur + 1
It will be noted that Vr is related to the final steady velocity in the pipeline;
vo is zero.
F,,
0 0·1 0 2 0·3 0·4 0 5 0 6 0·7 0·8 0·9 1·0
"'
I ·00
~00~ . I
I
~9~ I ·04
1:; c ;;-....
~G ~
"l.lrv~ I
~
1·0
" ['.. I
0·8 ~~ ~~ -1--1--1· 10
"'\. ~
1-- """ -
-~ ~R~~ ·12
0·6 1-- ~
~ -Broken line
~---~~
I'\
shows equation
0·4 ·14 13.6
\ 'i:. I
~ I·15
~.-;..s;r
0·2
1\. co,
""'.:,.
0
' 9"' c
'\ <SG'
-0·2 ,cv~
..J,.
::<>
-0·4
f'.._
-0·6 "' !'--

-0·8
"r--..
-........~--.
.........
-1·0
0 0 ·1 0·2 0·3 0·4 0 ·5
F,,
0 ·6 0 ·7 0·8 0·9 ""'I 0
FIG. 13.2
No integration of the differential equations is possible. However,

Calame and Gaden applied their graphical method, which uses relative
values, to obtain curves shown in Fig. 13.2 and the approximation
Yrl = -1 - O·l25Fr! (13.6)
where Fr1 is the value of the non-dimensional ratio Fr for final steady flow.
Equation (13.6) conforms to the curve for first downsurge when
Fr1 < 0·8. Braun suggested an alternative formula,
Jr! = -0·5Fr! - y (0·25FrJ2 - 0·81Frf + 1) (13.7)

13.2 Other approximate equations for simple tanks

An equation which applies to both sudden closure and sudden opening is
(13.8)
which was derived in 1908 by Johnson, 6 who also obtained an approxima-

tion for the time at which maximum upsurge occurs,
(13.9)
These equations apply to sudden partial or complete opening and closure.
For sudden opening from no-flow, a formula was derived by

Forchheimer7 which may be expressed as
-y1 = +O·l78Fpvi + J[o·03l7(FPVJ2)2 + ~: v12]

(13.9)
-y1 = -o·l78yt + -vr<o·l78yt) 2 - 2PYtl
where .B is the damping factor used in Chapter 10.
Example 13.1
Use the approximate equations given previously and Calame and Gaden curves,
to find the height of the first two upsurges and the first downsurge following sudden
complete valve closure in surge tank A.
Surge. tank A
· - - · - - · ds=lOm·-·
As=78·54m 2
L,=203·94
A,= 16
SOLUTION
Y• = vo J( Lr) =
-
Ar
6·112 )(203-9)
--
16
= 21·82; -yo 18·22 0·8350
Fro=-=--=
Y• 21-82
FIRST UPSURGE
Equation 13.1 Jrl = (1 - !Fro)2 = (0·7217) 2 = 0·5209; y1 = 0·5209 X 21·82
= 11·37m
Equation 13.2 Jrl = 1 - !Fro= 0·4433; y1 = 0·4433 X 21·82 = 9·67 m
Equation 13.3 Jrl = 1 - 0·6Fro = 0·4990; y1 = 0·4990 X 21·82 = 10·89 m
Equation 13.8 Vf = 0
(yl + 18·22)2 = 12·75( -6·112)2 + 0·48782( -6·1122)2
= 476·1 + 332·1 = 808·2
Jl = v(808·2) - 18·22 = 28·43 - 18·22 = 10·21 m
C and G Curve For Fro= 0·8350, Jrl = 0·539
y1 = 0·539 x 21-82 = 11·75 m
FIRST DOWNSURGE
C and G Curve For Fro= 0·8350, Jr2 = -0·329; y2 = -7·18 m
1
Equation 13.5 Jr2 = - = -0·3392· y2 = -7·40 m
1 + 1·948 '
SECOND UPSURGE
C andG Curve Jr3 = 0·240 J3 = 5·23 m
The following table gives the percentage error compared with the logarithmic
solution
Jl J2 ya
SECOND
FIRST UPSURGE FIRST DOWNSURGE
UPSURGE
Log 13·1 13·2 13·3 13·8 Curve Log Curve 13-5 Log Curve
11·75 -3·2 -17·2 -7·3 -13-1 00 -7-28 -1·4 -1·6 5·30 -1·3
A number of other approximate methods have been developed. 8 • 9 •10 • Several

have been summarized by Pearsall. Most are semi-graphical methods involving
the replacement of the friction term hF = FPvlvl by a linear expression hF = kv
and are neither simple nor accurate.
13.3 Classified diagrams for throttled tanks

Two additional relative values are introduced to allow for throttle losses
r is the relative head loss where r = hT/y* = rour 2
z is the piezometric head at the bottom of the chamber below the
throttle, and Zr is the corresponding relative value:
Zr = zfy. = Yr + rourluri
For sudden complete closure, the fundamental dynamic equation
becomes
dur
Ur -d + Yr + Frovrlvrl + rouriurl = 0
Yr
or, for the first upsurge, where uris positive,
Yr + (Fro + ro)ur 2 (13.10)
Ur
If pipeline friction is neglected equation (13.10) becomes
dur dur
Ur-d + Yr + rour 2 = 0 or Ur-
dyr
+ Zr =0
Yr
Fro
FIG. 13.3
Since at the start of oscillation Yr = 0 and Ur = 1; this may be integrated
as
(13.11)
At the maximum upsurge Ur becomes zero and the relative height of the
first upsurge Yrl = Zrl = 1/y2. The rise is therefore reduced to 1/v2 of
that in a similar surge tank without throttle.
Classified diagrams. Using relative values with their radial graphical

method (Section 14.2) Calame and Gaden prepared 'Classified diagrams'
which give the height of the first surge.
Fig. 13.3 shows the diagram for sudden complete closure, and Fig.
13.4 shows that for sudden complete opening.
0'!> 1 z 0 =1·65
0
,, 1- - L - -
I
r - -'--I--t-
1 1 IL
"i'/ z, 0 =!·6 I I I 1
/ I
- -zr-;,-F;;"'o-- ~~--I-,-
1 I I
I
- - - ~~0- - ...1 - -
I
L -l- ..l - n-
I
1 "'
I I1 I I I
- -/- - - '0 f- - -~- - I_ -f
I z,o=i·3 o"' I I I I
/
..../- -z, -1·2 /~~~ - -I /_ - I-!- -
I 0=
j_ - - - -
1·2 1 oI I I
- - - - - - ~!---L-1--J --
1·I Z,.o=l·l ,'?1 I I I
/ 'l}r I
--"/---r--A--t--'- -1- - -
I
·0 //
/ Zro=i·O
/
1
"-"'
I
I
I
I I S
- -.zr - - "---- -o
=09; ,;
I_ -
1
+--
-1--
I
0
- - .J~ - - _3~ - _I_ - I

/-'Z,o=O·B I I
/ /
/
:,r- - -- -=-~-,
0·1 0·2 0·3 0·4 0·5 0·6 1·0

F,,
FIG.l3.4
Example 13.2
Use the classified diagrams to determine the height of the first upsurge following
sudden complete valve closure and the first downsurge following sudden complete
valve opening.
Surge tank B
a;= !Om
--·~~ 78·54 ~2
SoLUTION
r
Sudden complete closure
As in Example (13.1), vo = 6·112 m{s; Y• = 21·82 m; Fro= 0·8350
hTo = FTuo2 = FT ( ~: = 50 X {6·112/16) 2 = 7·296 m
hTo 7·296
ro = - = - - = 0·334
Y• 21·82
From the classified diagram, Fig. 13.3 with
Fro= 0·835 and ro = 0·334, Jrl = 0·423
Therefore Jl = Jrl X Y• = 0·423 X 21·82 = 9·23 m
Sudden complete opening

Frt = 0·835; ro = 0·334
From the classified diagram, Fig. 13.4, Jrl = -0·982.
Therefore y1 = -0·982 x 21·82 = -21·43 m
The significance of the lines and zones on the classified diagrams is as

follows:
Line S-S is for an ideal throttle, which is such that there is constant
piezometric head at the bottom of the tank. That is,
z =constant
zr = constant
zo =yt
Zro = Yrl
This is shown in Fig. 13.5 (a) for absolute values and Fig. 13.5 (b) for
relative values. The ideal throttle is considered below.
Absolute values Relative values
FIG. 13.5
Zone A is when the throttle is too strong and the piezometric head at
the bottom of the tank drops during upsurge.
zo> y1
Zro > Yrl
Figs. 13.5 (c) and 13.5 (d) show this.
Zone B is when the throttle is too weak, as shown in Figs. 13.5 (e) and
13.5 (f). The piezometric head rises during upsurge
zo <yl
Zro <Yrl
Zone 0, limited by line L-L in the diagram for sudden opening, indicates
that the motion is dead-beat, i.e. the water level drops to the final steady
level Yt without oscillation.
The ideal throttle The piezometric head at the base of the tank is constant.
(a) Neglecting pipeline friction
During the first upsurge
Zr = Yr + rour 2 = constant
Using equation (13.11) and the maximum upsurge Yrl = Zrl = 1y2, we
obtain
1
Zr = Zrl = V2 = Yr + ro{l - y(2)yr}
1 1
from which ro = V2 = 2 y2
(b) Allowing for pipeline friction, Calame and Gaden found that for
small values of Fro the throttle friction should be:
(i) at the start of motion ro ~ !v2 + !Fro

(ii) at maximum upsurge r1 ~ !v2 + !Fro
Johnsonl 2 and Richl3 derived charts and equations to give the area of the
ideal orifice for sudden closure and sudden opening.
Example 13.3
Find the diameter of the 'ideal orifice' for surge tank A, if the loss coefficient
of the orifice kT = 1·0.
Surge tonk A
d,: !Om
· - - · - - · A5 :78.·54m2
d=2·5m
A =4·909m2
Lr:203·94
Ar=16
SOLUTION
(a) Neglecting pipeline friction ro = h/2
hTo
ro = - and y* = 21·82m
Y*
Therefore hTo = 1!.. = 21 "82 = 15·43 m
y'2 y'2
hTO = kT VT0 2
%
and UTO = VO ~ = VO
AT
(!:..) 2
~
vo = 6·112 m/s; d = 2·5 m; dT = 1·0
Therefore dT = J(2·5)4 X 1·0 X (6·112)2) = .41(4·822) = 1·48 m

4 2 X 9·807 X 15·43 ·y
(b) Allowing for pipeline friction (Calame and Gaden)

At the start of motion ro ~ tv'2 + !Fro
Fro = 0·8350; therefore ro = 0·7071 + 0·2087 = 0·9158
Therefore hTo = 21·82 X 0·9158 = 19·98 m
dT = J(2·5) 4 X 1·0 X (6·112) 2) = .4I(3-9 20) = 1.41 m

4 2 X 9·807 X 19·98 V
At the end of motion

Therefore hTo = 21·82 x 1·333 = 29·09 m
dT = J(2·5)4 X 1·0 X (6·112)2) = .41(2·557) = 1·27m
4 2 X 9·807 X 29·09 V
Johnson's equations do not apply because the pipeline friction is too great.
It can be seen that for ideal throttling the size of the orifice has to
change during the oscillation. This, of course, cannot be done in practice.
Parmakian Charts
Two charts have been given by Parmakian14 to give y1 following
sudden complete closure and sudden complete opening.
REFERENCES
1. CALAME, J., and GADEN, D.: 'Theorie des chambres d'equilibre,' (Gautier-
Villars, 1926).
2. PEARSALL, I. S., 'A survey of surge tank design theories' NEL Report No. 56,
(1962).
3. EYooux, D.: Hydraulique generate et appliquee (Bailliere, 1921).
4. SUTTON, B. A.: 'Series solution of some surge tank problems,' Proc. Instn
civ. Engrs, (1960), 16, pp. 225-234.
5. ELSDEN, 0.: Surge Chambers, Chapter xviii of 'Hydro-electric engineering
practice,' Ed. J. Guthrie Brown (Biackie, 3nd Edn., 1964).
6. JoHNSON, R. D.: 'The surge tank in water power plants', Trans. Am. Soc.
mech. Engrs, (1908), 30, pp. 443-474.
7. FoRCHHEIMER, P. H.: Hydraulik (3rd Ed., 1930).
8. JURNEY, W. H.: 'Surge tank analysis', Tech. Mem. U.S. Reclaim. Serv.,
(1946), No. 632.
9. PRAsrL, F.: 'Wasserschlossprobleme,' Schweiz. Bauztg, (1908), 52, pp. 271-
277, 301-306, 317-320, 333-336.
10. WARREN, M. M.: 'Penstock and surge-tank problems,' Trans. Am. Soc. civ.
Engrs, (1915), 79, pp. 238-271.
11. STUCKY, A.; Cours d'amenagement des chutes d'eau. Chambres d'equilibre
(Ecole Polyt. Univ. Lausanne, 1951).
12. JOHNSON, R. D.: 'The differential surge tank,' Trans. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs,
(1915), 78, pp. 760-784.
13. RicH, G. R.: Hydraulic transients (Dover, 1963).
14. PARMAKIAN. J.: Waterhammer analysis (Dover, 1955).
FURTHER READING
BINNIE, A. M.: 'Approximate methods in surge tank calculations,' Proc. Camb.
phil. Soc. math. phys. Sci., (1946), 42, p. 156.
DuRAND, W. F.: 'On the control of surges in water conduits,' Trans. Am. Soc.
mech. Engrs, (1912), 34, pp. 319-363.
14 Graphical Methods
Before the introduction of electronic digital computers, the accurate use

of finite difference methods was very time-consuming and tedious. Conse-
quently a number of 'time-saving' graphical methods were developed. In
practice these methods all take quite a long time to carry out, and they
cannot compare in accuracy with numerical methods performed by
computers.
14.1 Schoklitsch methodl

This is a graphical representation of arithmetic integration, the equations
being the same as those used in Chapter 11, i.e.
dv = -f(y + Fpv!v! + FTu!ui)dt (14.1)
or dv = --(y + hF + hT)dtfLr
and dy =(~_g) dt (14.2)
Ar As
In the Schoklitsch Method the value of yin equation (14.1) is taken at

the end of the step dt, whereas in the Simple Arithmetic Method y is
taken at the beginning of the step. Consequently, surge heights found by
the two methods differ slightly for the same value dt.
Fig. 14.1 shows the first few steps of the determination of surge heights
for Surge Tank A with sudden complete valve closure. The arbitrary
value at dt is 10 seconds.
By continuity, when the valve is completely closed the total volume of
water flowing from the pipeline in time dt all passes to the surge tank.
This volume is shown by curve A as Vp = Avdt, where vis the abscissa
which is also used with curve C; the positive direction is towards the left.
7 175
Curve B shows the volume of water in the surge tank. In Fig. 14.1 the
origin is taken at the initial water level with steady flow, yo = -18·22 m,
and so Vs represents the volume of water in the surge tank above the
steady flow level. Consequently Vs = ~~ Vp.
Surge tank A
· - - · - - - . d5 =10m_ _ _
As= 78·54m2
L, = 203·94
A,= 16
1400 12001000 800 600 400 200 o20 k 0 10 20 30 40 50

~ m3 300D:T?r~-hh-o---- I seconds
FIG. 14.1
If we assume that throughout time f!.t the pipeline velocity is what it

was at the start of tJ.t, then the water level rises by tJ.y = vf!.t/Ar since
f!.Vs = Vp = Avf!.t and also f!.Vs = fJ.yAs.
Therefore, at the end of the first interval f!.t (i.e. at t = 10 seconds) the
level of the water in the tank is at Y<lO>· This is carried across from curve B
to the main graph, C. On C a curve F-F is drawn showing hp against v.
Graphical Methods 177
Positive hF is drawn downwards using the same scale as they-curve in B.
Positive v is drawn towards the left, using the same scale as in A.
By equation (14.1), with hT = 0 because the tank is unrestricted, ~v = -
(y + hF)M/Lr. From the original conditions shown as point F, a line
is drawn at a slope of - M/Lr. This gives the variation of v withy, and
the intersection of this line with Y<IO> at C10 gives ~v. In fact,
~V(0-10) = -(y<l0) + hF<Ol)~t/Lr
Finally, the values of y obtained at B are transferred across to D with
time t as the abscissa.
A complete diagram to find y1, the first upsurge, is shown in Fig. 14.2.
It could be extended to give subsequent surge heights although the lines
FIG. 14.2
would become confused as they would be traversing the same area as

those already drawn.
The Schoklitsch Method can deal with arrangements other than
complete sudden closure with a simple tank. For example, if there is only
partial closure, A is modified to give the final flow Q,. Constant Q1 is
shown by a horizontal straight line as in Fig. 14.3. For valve opening
Av~t lies below the line for Q1, and Vs decreases after the start of
oscillation.
If Q varies with time or with the elevation of the water surface, a
subsidiary curve is drawn which is then replotted on A with v as the
abscissa.
With a variable area tank, such as surge tank E, the slope of the tank
volume curve varies, as shown in Fig. 14.4.
Schoklitsch diagrams can also be used for spilling and differential tanks.
Throttle losses in a restricted tank may also be included.
Since the Schoklitsch method is fundamentally the same as numerical
solution by finite differences, the time interval !lt affects the accuracy of
A v:p
Outflow= o,l::;t
FIG. 14.3
the result. The height of the first upsurge y1 following sudden complete
closure in surge tank A is as follows:
!lt Yl
10 seconds 10·95 m
5 seconds 11·36 m
2 seconds 11·59 m
1 second 11·67 m
By the logarithmic method y1 is 11·75 m.

As with numerical finite difference methods, mean values can be used. 2
A number of ways of doing this have been suggested, including one
proposed by Schlag3 ·4 which is similar to Escande's D.F. Method. It
employs mean values of y at the start of the oscillation and mean values
of v when !lvfv > !lyfy.
Bouvard and Molbert5 modified the Schoklitsch method by plotting y
against Q instead of y against v.
Surge tank E
~=12m
40m
d5 = 7m
20m
d5 =5m
Reservoir level
ds =am
-10m
d5 = 6m
-20m
d5 =4m
d = 2·5m -30m
A= 4· 909m2 d5 =15m
5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0
L = 2000 m 051 =30 m3/s V. m3
FIG. 14.4
14.2 Calame and Gaden radial method
Using relative values as in Chapter 13, Calame and Gaden 6 developed
their radial method which is sketched in Fig. 14.5. The axes are Vr and yr,
and the radius of curvature is p.
For sudden complete closure the initial conditions are given by point A1,
where Vr = Ur = 1 and Yr = -Fro; dvrfdyr = 0; the tangent is hori-
zontal and the radius of curvature for the first arc is p1 = -1 so that the
FIG. 14.5 FIG. 14.6

centre of curvature for the first arc is at C1, the vertical projection of A1
on the yr-axis. A short arc is drawn from point A1 to point A2. From
A2 a horizontal line is drawn to meet the pipe friction curve at F2.
From F2 a vertical line is projected onto the Yr-axis at Pz.
The centre of curvature of the next arc, A2A 3, is at C2, at the intersection
of A1C1 and A2P2. The next arc AaA4 has its centre at Ca, at the inter-
section of A2P2 and AaPa, and so on. The curve A-A is continued by a
series of short arcs until it meets the Yr axis, when Ur = Vr = 0, giving the
abscissa Jrl·
Pearsall4 has suggested a method using constant time intervals and
mean values of Ur, as shown in Fig. 14.6. Arc A1A2 is drawn from the
initial point A1 as before, with p = -1 and the centre of curvature at C1.
From the fundamental equations of Chapter 10 we know that for
complete closure v = Ar dyfdt. If we use relative values this becomes
Y* dyr
VrVo = A r - -
T dtr
Substituting the values of y* and T from equation (10.5) we get
Vr = Ur = Ar ..!_ uoy(Lr/Ar) X dyr = _.!.._ dyr

Uo 27r(LrAr) dtr 277 dtr
Replacing the differentials by small finite increments,

fltr flyr
-=-=tancp
1/277 Ur
In Fig. 14.6, B1B2 represents l:lyr(l-2) and M2B2 represents Ur(l-2J·

Therefore a line is drawn from B1 with a slope of tan cp and point M2
is found such that M2A2 = tflur(l-2)· This fixes A2, the end of the first
arc. From A2 a horizontal line is drawn to meet the friction curve at F2,
and F2 is projected down to the Yr-axis at P2. Hence the centre of curvature
of the arc A2Aalies on the intersection of A1C1 and A2P2 at C2 as before.
FIG. 14.7
B2 is next obtained as the projection of M2 and A2 onto the Yr-axis. A
line B2Ma is drawn at slope tan t/J and MaAa is made !Aur(2-3), and
the curve is continued.
Fig. 14.7 shows the construction of a curve {yr against vr) for the first
quarter-cycle, and also a curve {yr against tr) which is the form usually
required.
Escande7 has developed a similar method, 'methode semi-graphique', in
which real values of v are plotted against real values of y.
Radial graphical methods can be used for complete opening, for partial
valve movements, for conditions where the flow Q is not constant, and for
throttled tanks.
14.3 Surge height trace by analogue computer

An electronic analogue computer may be used to trace the variation of
y with t.s Fig. 14.8 shows a typical circuit diagram. It is for a throttled
tank of uniform cross-sectional area where FTu and FTo differ, and
where Q, is constant.
- ve reference voltage + ve reference voltage
FIG. 14.8
The recorders shown on the diagram give the following traces against t:
Rl gives the surge height, y
R2 gives the pipeline velocity, v
R3 gives the upward velocity in the surge tank, u.
The accuracy of the traces may be increased by making the maxima as
near full-scale as possible. Multiplying factors, which are not shown in
Fig. 14.8, are introduced throughout to give near maximum voltage.
REFERENCES
1. ScHOKLITSCH, A.: Hydraulic structures (ASME, 1937).
2. SoRENSEN, K. E.: 'Graphical solution of hydraulic problems,' Trans. Am.
Soc. civ. Engrs, (1953), 118, pp. 61-77.
3. JAEGER, C.: Engineering fluid mechanics (Blackie, 1957).
4. PEARSALL, I. S.: 'A survey of surge tank theories,' N.E.L. Report No. 56,
1962.
5. BouvARD, M., and MoLBERT, J.: 'Methode graphique pour le calcul des
cheminees d'equilibre,' Houille Blanche, (1950), pp. 535-554, (1951),
pp. 356-371.
6. CALAME, J., and GADEN, D.: Theorie des chambres d'equilibre (Gautier-
Villars, 1926).
7. EscANDE, L.: Methodes nouvelles pour le calcul des chambres d'equilibre
(Dunod, 1950).
8. CHRISTIE, I. F.: 'The use of analogue computers for civil engineering
FURTHER READING
BOURDON, C.: 'Contribution a !'etude des chambres d'equilibre a etranglement
par la methode graphique,' Genie civ., (1960), 137, pp. 360-364.
ESCANDE, L.: 'Manouvres rythmiques pour une cheminee deversant a entrang-
lement avec !'influence de la hauteur de chute dans le cas d'un orifice,·
C. r. Acad. Sci., Paris, (1961), 252, pp. 2339-2342.
LEINER, Dr.: 'Ermittlung der Schwingungen im Wasserschloss,' Ver. Deutscher
Ing. Z., (1965), 69, pp. 1637-1642.
PEARSALL, I. S.: 'Comparative experiments on surge tank performance,' Proc.
lnstn mech. Engrs, (1963), 177, pp. 951-970.
WooD, F. M.: 'Graphical treatment of non-linear friction in water-hammer
and surge study,' Trans. Engng lnst. Can., (1958), 2, pp. 33-42.
ZieMAN, B.: 'Methodes nouvelles pour le calcul des cheminees d'equilibre,'
Houille Blanche, (1953), pp. 580--598.
15 Open Channel Surge
15.1 Unsteady flow in open channels

Any change of flow in an open channel causes a wave to be propagated
from the point where the change is started. The wave is 'translatory';
all particles of water in any cross-section move together and may be
assumed to remain in one plane. Open channel waves may be divided
into two broad categories depending on whether the vertical component
of the acceleration of particles of water is negligible or not. If the vertical
component is small, there is said to be gradually varied unsteady flow;
a large vertical component is associated with rapidly varied unsteady
flow.
Examples of gradually varied unsteady flow are flood waves in rivers
and the change of flow resulting from slow operation of controlling
structures such as gates and sluices.
With rapidly varied unsteady flow or 'surges', an abrupt change of
surface level occurs as the surge moves along the channel. Surges are of
four types, depending on whether they move upstream or downstream
and whether the water level behind them is higher than in front (a positive
surge) or lower (a negative surge). Positive surges have stable fronts, and
negative surges are unstable.
The four types of surge are these:
1. Backwater surge, Fig. 15.1 (a). This is a positive wave moving
upstream and is due to a sudden reduction of downstream flow, as when
turbine gates close and set up a surge in a headrace channel, or when a
landslide blocks a river bed. A tidal bore is a particular type of backwater
surge. Backwater surges are treated in detail below.
2. Flood surge, Fig. 15.1 (b). This is also a positive surge, but moves
downstream. It is caused by a sudden increase of upstream flow, as in a
tailrace channel of a hydro-electric scheme when the turbine demand
increases. Flood waves are especially important in underground power
184
Open Channel Surge 185
stations, where the tailrace may be in a tunnel which under steady flow
conditions is only part full, acting as an open channel. Sudden gate
opening can cause a flood surge which fills the tunnel completely.
Flood surges occur in navigation canals when lock gates are suddenly
opened. Failure of a dam causes a flood surge in the valley below. When
the earth dam at the South Fork reservoir in Pennsylvania failed in 1889
a surge over 100ft high left the dam site and moved rapidly, though with
less height, towards Johnstown.1· 2
3. Drawdown surges, Fig. 15.1 (c) are negative and are caused by an
increase of flow downstream. They occur in headrace channels of hydro-
electric schemes and may determine the maximum rate at which the
~ --==-----
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
FIG. 15.1
turbines can accept load. Another cause of drawdown surges is the

operation of siphons, as in a siphon overflow from a combined sewer.
4. An ebb surge, Fig. 15.1 (d) is negative and results from a reduction
of upstream flow. When the sluice of a branch distributing channel is
suddenly opened there is an ebb surge in the main channel downstream
of the junction.
With both types of positive surge (backwater and flood) even small
changes of flow may produce large and dangerous surges. The speed,
or 'celerity', of a surge increases with depth. A gradual change of flow
may propagate a series of small waves each of which is travelling over
deeper water than its predecessor. The small waves therefore overtake
each other, combining to form a large surge.
This is what happens when a bore or eagre is formed in an estuary
with large tidal variation. The bore in the River Severn is a well-known
phenomenon, and bores are also formed, especially at spring tides, in
the River Trent and around the Bay of Fundy. The Hangchow bore on the
Chien Tang River in China reaches a height of nearly 30 feet.
Surges may be steep-fronted, as shown in Fig. 15.1, or they may be
undular, as shown in Fig. 15.2.
FIG. 15.2
Surge diagrams like those used for waterhammer have been used by
Bergeron and others for the analysis of open channel surges.
A special case is a monoclinical rising wave. The wave front travels
downstream with constant celerity. Many flood waves in natural channels
can be approximated to a monoclinal rising wave. Fig. 15.3 shows the
A is the cross-sectional area
~
:::;; ~A
~
FIG. 15.3
notation used. By continuity, the flow into the front of the wave is equal
to the flow out, so
(c- v1)A1 = (c- vz)Az and
15.2 Backwater surges

The rise of water associated with a backwater surge occurs in two stages.
The advancing surge-front gives an abrupt change of water surface
level. Behind the front the water rises at the downstream end of the
channel. This continues until the arrival of the negative wave moving
downstream; the negative wave is reflected by the reservoir when the
positive backwater surge reaches the head of the channel. Sometimes a
spillway is provided at the downstream end of the channel to prevent the
continuing rise of level after the surge-front has passed upstream.
In a non-rectangular channel the height of the surge front is greater
at the sides than in the middle; the height at the sides may be twice the
mean height. This increases the danger of overtopping the channel
banks.
Equations to determine the surge celerity, c, and the height of the surge
front, h, may be obtained by applying the principles of momentum and
continuity.
Using the notation of Fig. 15.4, taking the mean width of the channel
as the wavefront as B and assuming that the centre of gravity of the front
is !h below the downstream level, we obtain from Newton's second law
the following equation,
from which C
gh
= (VI- ( 1 +-
Bh) -VI (15.1)
vz) 2A!
FIG. 15.4
and
Substituting this value of vz in equation (15.1) we obtain
c = gh Bh)
v _ v1A1 - cBh ( 1 + 2A - v1
1 A1 + Bh 1
or c = J(g(A! + Bh)(2Al + Bh)) - VI (15.2)

2A1B
For a rectangular channel equation (15.2) becomes

At the downstream end of the channel where the flow is reduced and
the surge begins,
cBh = Q1- Qf (15.4)
Qf is the final steady flow out of the channel. For example for a head-race
channel in connection with a hydro-electric plant, Qf is the new steady
flow demanded by the turbines.
The initial surge conditions may be found by using equation (15.2) or
equation (15.3) with equation (15.4) to obtain c and h. Trial methods are
employed.
Example 15.1
The discharge from the downstream end of a 20ft wide rectangular channel is
suddenly reduced from 1000 cusecs to 200 cusecs. If the initial normal depth is
8·9 ft, determine the surge height and celerity at the downstream end of the
channel.
SOLUTION
QI = 1000 ft 3 /s; Q2 = 200 ft 3/s; therefore QI - Q2 = 800 ft 3 /s
QI
B =20ft; di = 8·9 ft; therefore AI= 178 ft 2 ; VI= A= 5·62 ft/s
From equation (15.3),

C = J(g(di + h)~I + th)) _VI= J
(32·2(8·9 -8~~(8·9- i;h)) _ 5.62
= 1·90v[(8·9 + h)(8·9 + !h)] - 5·62 (15.3a)

From equation (15.4) cBh = QI - Q, = 800 ft 3/s; ch = 40 ft 2 /s
Tabulating the solution of these equations for trial heights we get
h c from 15.3 (a) c from 15.4
2ft 1·90y(10·9 x 9·9) - 5·62 = 14·13 ft/s 40/2 = 20 ft/s

3ft 1·90y(11·9 X 10·4) - 5·62 = 15·58 ft/s 40/3 = 13-33 ft/s
2·66 ft 1·90 v'(11·56 x 10·23) - 5·62 = 15·06 ft/s 40/2·66 = 15·04 ft/s
This is reasonably accurate, soh = 2·66 ft; c = 15·05 ft/s.
Behind the surge front the water surface may be assumed to be hori-
zontal for a short channel with little friction. For long steep or rough
channels the water behind the front is assumed to rise parallel to its
previous surface.
Fig. 15.5 (a) shows the surge front at two points as it moves upstream
from a to b. When the front is at b the surface downstream of a has
risen by r above the level of the surface when the front was at a.
If the surge front moves from a to b in time !:lt, the distance moved,
!:ll, is equal to c!:lt, where cis the mean celerity of the surge.
b 0
(a)
(b)
b 0
(c)
FIG. 15.5
As the front moves from a to b the net inflow builds up the surge
between a and b and also causes a general rise r over the whole surface
area downstream of a. This downstream surface area, which includes
the area of any forebay, we call AD. Referring to Fig. 15.5 (b) we see
that by continuity
AI
At(Q1- Qz) =-:- (Q1- Qz) = lBAI(ha + hb + r) + rAD
c
Hence (15.5)
Note: If the side slopes are very flat the second term in the denominator
of equation (15.5) may be corrected to read l(Baha + Bbhb + B,r) where
Ba, Bb, and Br are the widths of the channel at the mean heights of the
surge front at A, the surge front at B and the general rise r respectively.
From Fig. 15.5 (c) it can be seen that
ha + r + izAI = hb + hAl
therefore Al=r+ha-hb (15.6)
it -iz
At the downstream end of the channel the slope of the surface behind
the surge front, iz, is negligible compared with the original hydraulic
gradient, h. The water surface behind the front can be considered as
horizontal.
Further upstream iz may be obtained from the friction loss and the
difference of velocity head between two sections, i.e.
. HF(ab) Vzb 2 - Vza 2
lZ(ab) = (Al)ab - 2g(Al)ab
Example 15.2
The channel of Example 15·1 has a forebay with a surface area of 20 000 ft 2 in
which complete regain of velocity head is assumed. The bed slope of the channel
is 1/2500.
Calculate the time for the surge to pass through the forebay and the distance
along the channel at which the surge height is 2·4 ft. What will then be the height
of the surface in the forebay above the initial steady level?
SOLUTION
V1 2 (5·62) 2
The original velocity head hv = 2g = 2 x 32.2 = 0·49 ft
We can assume that the mean water level in the forebay for the original steady
flow is 0·25 ft above the level at the entrance.
While the surge is passing through the forebay the flow entering the forebay
from the channel continues at its original steady rate of 1000 cusecs. The
outflow is at the new reduced rate of 200 cusecs. There is therefore a net inflow
of 800 cusecs which builds up the level of the water in the forebay until it is at
the surge height of 2·66 ft calculated in Example 15.1.
The time taken for the surge to pass through the forebay is equal to the time
required to raise the level from 0·25 ft to 2·66 ft above the original water level
at the entrance. Therefore the time is
(2·66 - 0·25) X 20 000 d
800 = 60 ·2 secon s
At the point where the surge height is 2·4 ft the celerity is found from equation
15-3 (a), i.e.
c = 1·90y'[(8·9 + 2·4)(8·9 + 1·2)] - 5·62 = 14·69 ft/s
Equations (15.5) and (15.6) are used to obtain rand Mas follows:
For the section under consideration, An = 20 000 ft 2 ; ha = 2·66 ft; hb =
2·4 ft; B = 20ft; (Q1 - Q2) = 800 ft3/s.
The mean surge celerity c = -!(15·05 + 14·69) = 14·87 ft/s and
Ql - Q2 = 800 = 53·80 f
c 14·87 t
Since the initial flow was at normal depth, h = s = 0·0004, i2 may be neglected
in this downstream length-i.e. the water level behind the surge front is assumed
to be horizontal.
20 OOOr r + 2·66 - 2·40
Therefore !!./ =
53·80 - ! X 20(5·06 + r) 0·0004
20 OOOr r+ 0·26
3·20- lOr 0·0004
By trial, r = 0·10 ft and M = 900 ft
The surge height is 2·4 ft when the surge front is 900ft from the forebay
entrance.
The height of the surface in the forebay is ha + r = 2·76 ft above the initial
steady level.
The process may be repeated for other surge heights to obtain a back-
water surge curve, as Fig. 15.6. It can be seen that overtopping of the
:··· ... ·········
s
lJrfoce
:·-·-.=:=::.:.:.::::::.:::.:.:.::
!
···········
Pror;1
e lJflcJer ..
lfl'liof
steoo
Y flow
Outlet end
FIG. 15.6
banks is most likely near the downstream end of the channel. The level
will rise further when the surge front is reflected from the reservoir until
the negative reflected surge (an ebb surge) reaches the downstream end.
The treatment of a backwater surge which has been described may also
be applied, with appropriate change of sign, to other types of open channel
surge.
REFERENCES
1. HIMMELWRIGHT, A. L. A.: 'The Johnstown flood,' Harper's Mag., (1933),
167, pp. 443-455.
2. O'CoNNOR, R.: Johnstown: the day the dam broke (Alvin Redman, 1959).
FURTHER REFERENCES
CHOW, V. T.: Open-channel hydraulics (McGraw-Hill, 1959) pp. 554-572.
ELSDEN, 0., and ALBERY, A. C. R.: Canals and free-flowing channels, Chapter
XV of 'Hydro-electric engineering practice,' Ed. J. Guthrie Brown (Blackie,
2nd Edn, 1964).
HAws, E. T.: 'Surges and waves in open channels,' Wat. Pwr, (1954), 6,
pp. 419-422.
SANDOVER, J. A., and ZIENKIEWICZ, 0. C.: 'Experiments on surge waves,'
Wat. Pwr, (1957), 9, pp. 418-424.
SELLIN, R. H. J.: Flow in channels (Macmillan, 1969).
list of Notations
Waterhammer (chapters 2-8)

A pipe cross-sectional area
Ao open cross-sectional area of partly-open valve
As horizontal cross-sectional area of surge tank
a velocity of pressure wave
. CaAov'(2g)
B valve openmg factor = A
Cc coefficient of contraction
Cr reflection factor
Ct transmission factor
c pipe end-fixing coefficient
D outside diameter of pipe wall
d inside diameter of pipe
E Young's Modulus of elasticity
e thickness of pipe wall
F variable pressure head of wave travelling away from point of origin
f variable pressure head of wave travelling back towards origin
f Darcy friction coefficient
g gravitational acceleration
H surge pressure head
Ho steady pressure head
h pressure head above normal at any time
ht head loss due to friction
hL total head loss
hvp head equal to vapour pressure and partial pressure of released gases
I moment of inertia of pumping set
hydraulic gradient
K bulk modulus
L total length of pipeline
193
I length of pipeline from reservoir to intermediate point
N speed of pump (rev/min)
p power of pump
p pressure increase corresponding to head h
Q flow in pipeline
q flow into surge tank
T total time of valve moment
t time at instant under consideration
v volume
v velocity in pipe
X distance along pipe from downstream end
w weight density
z2 ratio of total head to initial head
'
Allievi's pipeline constant
A angle of surge lines = tan- I!!:.._
gA
. a
rabo-
g
period of pipe or critical time 2 ~
a
')! Poisson's ratio
p mass density
7" time interval for surge diagram
7" proportion of full gate opening
characteristics on surge diagram
Surge tanks (chapters 10-14)

A cross-sectional area of pipeline
AB cross-sectional area of pipe at base of surge tank
Ar surge tank area ratlo
. = A As
As horizontal cross-sectional area of surge tank

AT cross-sectional area of restriction in throttled surge tank
ATh limiting cross-sectional area of surge tank for stability
d inside diameter of pipeline
ds diameter of cylindrical surge tank
dp diameter of restriction in throttled surge tank
Fp friction coefficient for pipeline such that yo = -Fpvo 2 or
Yf = -FpVf2
Fr Calame and Gaden parameter for pipeline loss= Fpv 2fh
Fs friction coefficient for pipeline and throttle = Fp + FT/Ar 2
List of Notations 195
friction coefficient for throttle such that hT = FTuJuJ
gravitational acceleration
head over turbine
static head over turbine (with no flow)
head loss between reservoir and surge tank= FpvJvl
head loss due to throttle
friction coefficient for throttle such that hT = kTuTJuTJ/2g
length of pipeline from reservoir to surge tank inlet
. f . .
length ratiO L
Lr o p1pehne = -
g
n friction index
n stability factor of safety
Q flow in penstock
hT
r Calame and Gaden parameter for throttle loss = -
h
period of mass oscillation, neglecting friction
total time of valve movement
time, measured from start of motion studied
Calame and Gaden parameter for time = f
u upward velocity of water surface in surge tank
Ur Calame and Gaden parameter for surge tank velocity = .!:!.. or .!:!..
Uo Uf
UT upward velocity through throttle

v velocity of water in pipeline, positive towards surge tank
Vr Calame and Gaden parameter for pipeline velocity = ~ or .!:.

Vo Vf
w weight density
X logarithmic parameter for water level in surge tank = ~
y water level in surge tank above static level of reservoir (i.e. measured
positive upwards)
Yr Calame and Gaden parameter for water level = L

y*
amplitude of oscillation neglecting friction
total head over base of surge tank = y + hT
z
Zr Calame and Gaden parameter for total head = -
h
{3 damping factor =!~
FsAr
.1. increase during time .1-t
p radius of curvature in Calame and Gaden graphical method
p mass density
Subscripts
o initial steady conditions
f final steady conditions
s static conditions-with no flow
st steady conditions
1 conditions after first quarter-cycle of oscillation
2 conditions after further half-cycle
Suprascript bar
average values during time interval .1-t
Open channel surge (chapter 15)

An downstream surface area
A1 original area at any cross-section
A2 total area under surge front
B width of channel at half wave front
c absolute speed of propagation of surge
d1 original water depth
d2 depth under surge front
g gravitational acceleration
h height of wave front
hydraulic gradient
Q1 original flow along channel
Q2 flow behind wave front
Qf final downstream flow
v1 original velocity at any cross-section
v2 mean velocity in surge front
p mass density
Index
ACCIDENTS 98 Blair, J. S. 85, 140

Ackers, P. 140 Bleifuss, D. J. 106
Addison, H. 41 Bogolioboff, N. 127
air in solution 15 bore 184-185
vessel 78-81 Borot, G. 85
Albery, A. C. R. 192 Bourdon, C. 183
Allievi, L. 2, 3, 26, 31 Bouvard, M. 106, 178, 183
classical equation 37, 58 branching pipes 65-68, 152
formula 22 surge tank 159-160
altitude 14 Bratfisch, A. E. 96
American Society of Mechanical Engin- Braun, E. 165
eers 2 bulk modulus, K 15, 20, 21, 28
American Water Works Association 49, by-pass for pump 81-83
69
amplitude of undamped mass oscillation CALAME, J. and Gaden, D. 2, 4, 101, 105,
111 162, 163, 165, 169, 172, 173, 180, 183
analogue computer-see computer charts 163-165
Angus, R. W. 2, 4, 16, 69, 85 radial graphical method 180-182
approximate methods of surge tank Cameron Highlands h.e. scheme 101
analysis 162-174 Carstens, M. R. 85
Braun 165 Cartwright, K. 0. 96
classified diagram 167-170 Cates, W. H. 17
Elsden 163 Causon, G. J. 96
Eydoux 163 coefficient of compressibility-see bulk
Forchheimer 166 modulus
Johnson 166 channel, headrace 1, 184-185, 188
Parmakian charts 173 tailrace 184-185
simple tank 162-167 Chappy, A. 3
throttled tank 167-173 characteristic curve 54
arithmetic integration-see f.d. methods Chow, V. T. 192
atmospheric pressure 14 Christie, I. F. 107, 183
Claria, J. 128
BACKWATER SURGE 184, 186-192 classified diagram 167-171
Bata, G. L. 106 closed surge tank 102, 104
Bergeron, L. 2, 4, 55, 69, 186 closure-see valve movement
diagram-see surge diagram Cole, R. S. 111, 127
Bergeron, P. 85, 96 Colebrook, C. F. 139
Binnie, A. M. 41, 83, 86, 106, 174 Colebrook-White friction formula 138
Biro, C. 3 Combes, G. 69, 85
197
compressible fluid 6 Elsden, 0. 105, 163, 173, 192
computer 2, 129 end conditions 32-41
analogue 104, 182-183 surge tank 87
digital 104, 134 Enever, K. J. 31
conical surge tank 102 enlargement-see pipe
concrete, reinforced, pipe 28 equivalent pipe 15, 153
consecutive valve movements 151 Escande, L. 2, 97, 105, 106, 127, 128,
constant power output 125, 149-151 129, 136, 139, 160, 182-183
continuity at base of surge tank 110 D. F. method 136-139, 178
contraction in pipe 35 semi-graphique method 182
H-Q diagram 53 Evangelisti, G. 105
at base of surge tank 125 Evans, W. E. 85
Contractor, D. N. 41 expansion chamber 102
control of surge 78-83 expansion joint 24
Cowen, W. 105 external source to surge tank 151
Crawford, C. C. 85 Eydoux, D. 163, 173
critical areas for surge tank stability 125
curves, logarithmic 119-121 F-WAVE, /-WAVE 27
factor of safety for stability 125
DAM FAILURE 185 faired throttle 103
damping factor, {J 112, 166 f.d.-finite difference method
dead-beat motion 171 feeder tank 81-83
dead end 33 Ferrand, G. 3, 105
H-v diagram 51 finite difference methods for surge tank
surge diagram 57 analysis 129-161
Defazio, F. G. 86 branching tank 159-160
density of liquids 15, 21, 29 constant power output 149-151
design chart for air vessels 80 constant valve opening 146-148
D. F. method 136 differential tank 157-159
diagram, H-v 50-52 Escande D. F. method 136-139
H-Q 52-54 flow from external source 151
surge 54-96 flow from multiple reservoirs 151-153
diameter of pipe, change 34-35 friction 138-139
Dickinson, J. C. 105 fundamental equations 129-131
differential surge tank 2, 102, 103 Jakobsen's method 136, 139
f.d. method 157-159 linear change of flow 144-145
Schoklitsch graphical method 178 multiple tanks 160-161
stability 126 partial valve movements 143-144
digital computer-see computer simple arithmetic method 131-135,
discharge to atmosphere 37, 44 141-161
diverter 98 spilling tank 154-157
Donsky, B. 86 successive trials 130
Doran, W. H. 107 sudden complete opening 142-143
Dorsch, R. G. 3 tail race tank 160-161
drawdown surge 1, 185 throttled tank 134-135
Dubin, C. 4 time interval 132-133, 139
Due, J. 85 variable area tank 153-154
Durand, W. F. 105, 106, 174 Flesch, G. 3
dynamic equation for mass oscillation flood surge 184
108 flywheel 76
Forchheimer, P. H. 166, 173
EAGRE 185 forebay 190
ebb surge 185 Fox, J. A. 3
Edison, G. 106 fracture of pipe or pump 1, 98
efficiency of turbine 126 Francis turbine 98
elasticity, pipe walls 21-25 Franke, P. G. 105
Index 199
frequency of pipeline 1 hydro-electric schemes 1, 98-99
friction-see pipe and throttle waterhammer 87-97
Fullard, S. F. 106
fundamental equations IDEAL THROTILE 170-172
f.d. methods 129-131 impulse turbines 87
mass oscillation 108-110 incompressible water column theory 6-
waterhammer 26-28 16
inertia 6-16
GADEN, D.-see Calame & Gaden pump 75-76
gas in solution 15, 29 Innertkirchen surge tank 104
gate valve 12 instability-see stability
Gaulhet, A. 86 intermediate time and position, surge dia-
Gayed, Y. K. 85 gram 58-60
Gerrard, R. I. 105 Isere-Arc surge tank 104
Gibson, A. H. 4, 31, 41, 105, 140 iterative integration-see f.d .methods
Gibson, N. R. 49
Gibson, W. L. 106 JAEGER, C. 3, 31, 86, 97, 105, 125, 127,
Goldman, G. 0. 31, 85 128
governing of turbine 100, 129 Jagger, B. K. 106
stability 126 Jakobsen, B. F. 106, 136, 139,
gradually varied unsteady channel flow f.d. method 136, 139
184 Johnson, R. D. 2, 4, 105, 106, 166, 172,
graphical analysis for surge tanks 175- 173, 174
183 Johnstown disaster 185, 192
analogue computer 182-183 Joukowski, N. 2, 3, 31
Bouvard & Molbert method 178 law 22, 37, 42, 43
Calame & Gaden method 180-182 Juhasz, Professor du 40
Escande method 182 junction 35-36, 152-153
Pearsall modification 180 H-Q diagram 52-54
Schlag modification 178 surge diagram 65-68
Schoklitsch method 175-179 Jupillat, R. 97
graphical analysis ofwaterhammer 50-97 Jurney, W. H. 174
H-Q diagram 52-54
Hv- diagram 50-52
surge diagram 54-96 KAICHEV, P. 128
-see also surge diagram Kamel, M. Y. M. 85
Gray, C. A. M. 69 Kaplan turbine 98
Kennedy, J. F. 4
HAGLER, T. W. 85 Kennison, H. F. 17, 31
Halcrow, W. T. 106 Kerr, S. L. 16, 17, 31, 96, 97
Halliwell, A. R. 31 Kittredge, C. P. 86
Halmos, E. E. 3, 31 Knapp, R. T. 86
Hangchow bore 185 'knocking' 5
Harding, D. A. 3, 69 Kryloff, N. 127
Hawkins, P. 97, 105
Haws, E. T. 192 LAC BLANC-LAC NOIR ACCIDENT 2
Hayashi, T. 3, 69, 106 Leiner Dr 183
head, limiting 14 length, equivalent 15
headrace, 1, 184-185, 188 Levin, L. 101, 105
Himmelwright, A. L. A. 192 Lightner, C. 3
Hudson, W. 106 limiting pressure 14
Hunter, J. K. 106 Linton, P. 31, 85, 86
Huron, R. 127 liquids, properties 21
hydraulic losses 68 Livingstone, A. C. 16, 85, 86
-see also pipe friction and throttle load rejection 98
losses load to turbine 1, 100-101
logarithmic method for surge tank analysis Paynter, H. M. 3, 97, 106, 128
111-124 Peabody, R. M. 17
curves 119-121 Pearsall, I. S. 31, 69, 105, 167, 173, 180-
equations 111-119 183
non-dimensional form 115 modification to radial graphical method
successive approximations 116-119 180-181
throttled tank 121-124 Pelton wheel 87, 98, 129
Lundgren, C. W. 85 penstock 99
Lupton, H. R. 2, 4, 16, 31, 69, 86 period of mass oscillations, T 110
of pipe 19
MAAHS, A. J. 17 Perliter, S. 86
Madich, P. B. 106 Pickford, J. A. 106, 127, 140
Mae surge tank 104 pipe
Maione, U. 102, 105 anchoring 24
Marchal, M. 3 branching 65-68, 152
Marples, E. I. B. 69, 86 constant, ~ 37
Marston, F. A. 17 contraction 34, 35, 53
mass oscillation 1, 100, 108-124 end condition 32
maximum pressure, 14, 45 enlargement 34, 35, 53
mean values equivalent 15, 153
f.d. methods 129-130, 136-138 expansion joints 24
graphical methods 178, 180-181 fracture 1, 2, 98
methode semi-graphique 182 frequency 1
Meyer, R. 127 friction
Milne, W. E. 127 mass oscillation 100, 101, 109, 138--
minimum permissible head 14-15 139
model studies 102 surge diagram 54, 68
modified bulk modulus 28 waterhammer 41
Molbert, J. 106, 178, 183 junction, 35, 65-68, 152
monoclinal rising wave 186 period 19
Mosonyi, E. 106, 111, 127, 128 reinforced concrete 28
multiple pipelines 151-152 rigid 6-16, 20-22
f.d. method 160-161 series 15-16, 60, 65
surge tanks 102, 104 short 6
stability 127 tapered 16
Murillo, J. 105 wall, elasticity 14, 21, 34
thickness 23, 28, 34
NAGY, L. 128 Pistilli, G. 106, 107
negative surge 184 Poisson's ratio 21
notation 2, 193-196 positive surge 184
numerical methods-see f.d. methods power taken by turbines 129
constant 149-151
'OBSERVER', TRAVELLING 55 Prasil, F. 174
O'Connor, R. 192 Pressel's f.d. method 130
opening-see valve movement pressure, atmospheric 14
oscillation-see mass oscillation -discharge diagram 52-54
superimposed 101, 151 limiting 14
waterhammer 37-39 vapour 14-15
-velocity diagram 50-52
PAGDIN, B. C. 17 properties of liquids 21
parallel pumps 83 pump, by-pass 81-83
Parmakian, J. 4, 31, 69, 86, 173, 174 characteristic curve 54
partial change of flow failure 11
inertia pressure 10-11 fracture 1
mass oscillation 142-144 inertia 75-76
waterhammer 46, 49 parallel 83
Index 201
pump (contd.) Schnyder, 0. 2, 4, 55, 69, 85, 86
reciprocating 84-85 diagram-see surge diagram
stopping 1, 5 secondary intake to surge tank 151
H-v diagram 51-52 Sedijatmi, R. M. 106
surge diagram 70--85 Sellin, R. H. J. 192
submersible 80 separation 71-74
pumping main 70-85 series pipes 15-16
surge diagram 60-65
RADIAL GRAPHICAL METHOD for surge Severn bore 185
tank analysis 180--182 sewage 15, 29
Ransford, G. 69 Sharp, B. B. 85
rapid closure-see valve Shelson, W. 106
rapidly varied unsteady channel flow 184 Silvers, A. 127
reaction turbine 87, 98 Simon, Miss 0. 3, 31
reciprocating pump 84-85 simple arithmetic f.d. method 131-135,
reflected wave 32-39 141-161
H-v diagram 51 simple surge tank 102
reflection factor 35 size of pipe 29
reflux valve 78 slow valve closure-see valve
Reisman, A. 127 solution of gas in water 15
rejection of load 98 Sopwith, D. G. 163
relative values, surge tank 2, 162 Sorensen, K. E. 183
relief valve 98 sound, speed 28
reservoir, reflection 32-33 South Fork reservoir 185
H-Q diagram 55 Soverzene surge tank 104
H-v diagram 51-52 spear valve 87
hydro-electric scheme 99 spilling surge tank 102-104
resonance 1 f.d. method 154-157
restriction-see throttle stability 124-127
effect on waterhammer 36-37 statism 126
H-Q diagram 54 step-by-step integration - see f.d.
H-v diagram 51 methods
retardation, constant rate Stepanoff, A. J. 86
inertia pressure 9-10 Stevenson, D. 41
mass oscillation 144-145 stereogram 40
waterhammer 47 stopping of pump-see pump
reverse flow 76 strain energy 22-25
Rich, G. R. 106, 172, 174 Streeter, V. L. 3, 69, 86
Richards, T. R. 85 Strowger, E. B. 97
rigid pipe 6-16, 20--22 Stucky, A. 128, 174
rigidity factor 28 successive approximation 116-119
riser in differential surge tank 103 trials 130
Rossens surge tank 104 sudden valve closure-see valve
rotary valve 14 superimposed oscillation 101, 151
surge control 78-83
SABLJAK, R. 107 surge diagram 2, 54-96
Sandover, J. A. 192 branched pipes 65-68
Sarginson, E. J. 17 by-pass 81-82
Savastano, G. 106, 107 comparison with Allievi 58
Schlag, A. 178 hydraulic loss 68
Schoklitsch, A. 175, 183 intermediate times and positions 58-60
graphical method 175-179 pumping mains 70--84
increments of time 178 reciprocating pump 84-85
mean values 178 reverse flow 77-78
partial closure 177-178 separation 72-74
variable area tank 177, 179 series pipes 60--65
surge diagram (contd.) turbine (contd.)
surge tank 87-96 efficiency 126
uniform pipe 55-57 f.d. method 146-151
surge tank
computer 104 UNDAMPED MASS OSCILLATION 110-111
design criteria 100 Urbain, E. A. 86
model 102
purpose 98-99 V2-LAW 8
stability 124-127 vacuous space 15,32
types 102 Vallentine, H. R. 16
-see also closed, differential, multiple, valve
simple, spilling, tail race, throttled, constant opening 146-148
variable area surge tanks discharge to atmosphere 37, 44
surge tank analysis-see approximate gate 12-13
methods, f.d. methods, graphical partially closed 36
analysis rotary 14
surges, superimposed 101 spear 87
Suter, P. 3 valve movement
Sutton, B. A. 163, 173 mass oscillation 98
Swaminathan, K. V. 31 closure 110-124, 130-139
consecutive 151
TAILRACE 184-185 opening 142-143
surge tank 160-161 partial 143-144
tapered pipe 16 sudden 142-144
temperature 14-15, 29 waterhammer 5, 11-14, 48-69
Thackrah, D. G. 86 closure 6-12, 18-25, 33, 37-40, 42-
Theorie des chambres d'equilibre 2, 4 51, 87
thick-walled pipe 28 opening 10-12, 46, 49, 87
Thirriot, C. 86 rapid 42-46
Thoma, D. 125, 127 slow 6-10, 46-48
critical area 125 sudden 18-19, 31, 50-52
Thomasson, P. G. 3 Valvis, P. G. 128
throttle in pipe 36 vaporization 14
H-Q diagram 54 vapour pressure 14-15, 21
surge diagram 68 variable area surge tank 102
throttled surge tank 100-103 f.d. method 153-154
classified diagram 167-171 Schok!itsch graphical method 177, 179
faired throttle 103 stability 125
f.d. method 134-135 Veggeberg, J. M. 3
ideal throttle 172-173 velocity head 125
logarithmic method 112, 121-124 velocity of waterhammer wave-see wave
throttle losses 101, 109, 112, 134 venturi contraction 125
waterhammer 93-94
tidal bore 184-185 WALLINGFORD CHARTS AND TABLES 138
Tongland surge tank 104 Warren, M. M. 174
Torrell, P-A. 106 water, properties 15
transients 1 waterhammer 1-12
translatory wave 184 Allievi's theory 2, 37
transmitted wave 34-37 elastic theory 18-31
transmission factor 35 fundamental equations 26-28
'travelling observer' 55 incompressible theory 6-16
Trividac, A. 97 surge diagram 54-96
Tucker, D. M. 85 Water Power 97, 106
tunnel in rock 28 wave
turbine 87, 98, 129 flood 186
loading 1, 100-101 monoclinal rising 186
Index 203
wave (contd.) Wood, D. J. 3
oscillation 37-40 Wood, F. M. 183
reflection 32-37 Woodward, A. C. 3, 85
translatory 184 Wylie, E. B. 3
transmitted 34-37
velocity 21, 28-30 YOUNG, G. A. J. 85
weather 15 Young's modulus 21
White, C. M. 139
Widmann, R. 105 ZAOUI, J. 69
Wilson, J. N. 16, 85, 86 Zieman, B. 102, 105, 183
Wolfe, T. F. 17 Zienkiewicz, 0. C. 97, 105, 128, 192

Analysis of Surge

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Analysis of Surge

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Analysis of Surge

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Analysis of Surge

Macmillan Civil Engineering Hydraulics

Reader in Civil Engineering, University of Salford

FLOW IN CHANNELS: R. H. J. Sellin

John Pickford, M.Sc.(Eng.), C.Eng., M.I.C.E.

ISBN 978-1-349-00162-0 ISBN 978-1-349-00160-6 (eBook)

1 Waterhammer, surge tanks and open

3 Elastic theory for a simple pipe 18

5 Non-instantaneous closure and opening 42

7 Waterhammer in pumping mains 70

9 Introduction to surge tanks 98

10 Theory of mass oscillation 108

11 Finite difference methods I 129

12 Finite difference methods II 141

13 Approximate methods 162

14 Graphical methods 175

15 Open channel surge 184

List of Notations 193

A list of references and Suggestions for further reading is given

In the following pages we deal with some aspects of hydraulic transients-

Conversely, when a valve shuts at the upstream end of a pipe there is an

2.1 Incompressible water column theory

I cl Same cond1tions as for I b) I d) During valve movement

I e) Immediately before valve movement ends

or in general terms, h=!:'!!!. (2.3)

i.e. at half flow h/ = (t)2 x 20 = 5 m

(b) Closure Closure

2.2 Valve movement

-----~-=-=--·==-= ._--=-=.: ::-::-:.·_-:: ·_--::= ~-1- .

The variation of v with AoCc may be shown by curves, which may be of

For other values of AoCc,

v2= 2H/{(~ _1)2+

(a- 1)2 I (a- 1)2 I (a- 1) 2

2.3 Limiting pressures

Minimum permissible bead. When water hammer causes a drop of pressure

2.4 Equivalent length of pipe

The equivalent length L' is therefore L1 + L2(A1/A2).

For a pipeline consisting of n sections, the equivalent length is given by

where L1 is the section nearest to the valve.

3.1 Sudden closure

3.2 Pressure increase in a rigid pipe

K~ = voy(pK) a= J(f;) J(X:)= (3.6)

TABLE 3.1. Elasticity of materials used for pipe walls

Young's modulus E Poisson's ratio

Aluminium alloy 68-73 0·33

TABLE 3.2. Some Properties of Liquids

Benzene 880 55 15 1·05 1·5 20 1320 15 1·2 1·45

3.3 Strain energy waterhammer theory

In general (SE)p = ALp2 ~ c

SOLUTION (a) p = vy(pK) . -

For water p = 10 3 kg/m 3 180 X 103

J(i: ,~) v~p J(i: e~)

c = 1 - tv; v = 0·25 :. c = 0·875

V = 180 X 103 J( 2·1 ! 109 + 0·0~~2~ ~~· 8: 510 9)

3.4 Fundamental differential equations of waterhammer

The convention used by Allievi is adopted. The positive direction of x

Since v is a function of x and t,

and op = p (ov- v ov) (3.12)

By continuity, the difference between inflow to and outflow from the