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Heat transport
Entropy generation and heat of Cu–water
transport of Cu–water nanoliquid nanoliquid

in porous lid-driven cavity

through magnetic field
Souad Marzougui Received 23 April 2021
Revised 17 July 2021
Industrial Chemistry and Processes and Civil Engineering Departments, Accepted 6 August 2021
High Institute of Applied Sciences and Technology, Gabès, Tunisia
Fateh Mebarek-Oudina
Department of Physics, Faculty of Sciences, Universite du 20 août 1955-Skikda,
Skikda, Algeria, and
Mourad Magherbi and Ali Mchirgui
Civil Engineering Department, High Institute of Applied Sciences and Technology,
Gabès, Tunisia

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the effects of Ha and the Nanoparticles (NP) volume
fraction over the irreversibility and heat transport in Darcy–Forchheimer nanofluid saturated lid-driven
porous medium.
Design/methodology/approach – The present paper highlights entropy generation because of mixed
convection for a lid-driven porous enclosure filled through a nanoliquid and submitted to a uniform magnetic
field. The analysis is achieved using Darcy–Brinkman–Forchheimer technique. The set of partial differential
equations governing the considered system was numerically solved using the finite element method.
Findings – The main observations are as follows. The results indicate that the movement of horizontal wall
is an important factor for the entropy generation inside the porous cavity filled through Cu–water nanoliquid.
The variation of the thermal entropy generation is linear through NPs volume fraction. The total entropy
generation reduces when the Darcy, Hartmann and the nanoparticle volume fraction increase. The porous
media and magnetic field effects reduce the total entropy generation.
Practical implications – Interest in studying thermal interactions by convective flow within a saturating
porous medium has many fundamental considerations and has received extensive consideration in the
literature because of its usefulness in a large variety of engineering applications, such as the energy storage
and solar collectors, crystal growth, food processing, nuclear reactors and cooling of electronic devices, etc.
Originality/value – By examining the literature, the authors found that little attention has been paid to
entropy generation encountered during convection of nanofluids. Hence, this work aims to numerically study
entropy generation and heat transport in a lid-driven porous enclosure filled with a nanoliquid.

Keywords Porous media, Mixed convection, Nanoparticle, Entropy generation, Hartmann number
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
Interest in studying thermal interactions by convective flow within a saturating porous International Journal of Numerical
Methods for Heat & Fluid Flow
medium has many fundamental considerations and has received extensive consideration in © Emerald Publishing Limited
0961-5539
the literature because of its usefulness in a large variety of engineering applications, such as DOI 10.1108/HFF-04-2021-0288
HFF the energy storage and solar collectors, crystal growth, food processing, nuclear reactors
and cooling of electronic devices. Many previous works concerning the transfer field in
porous media are accessible, namely, those of Nield and Bejan (2006), Vafai (2005) and
Ingham and Pop (2005). Recently, to enhance the rate of a proposal of mixtures of fluids and
nanoparticles was initiated. The innovative materials consist of diluted nanoparticles
suspensions recently considered as a new category of fluids that improves the thermal
performance of systems compared to heat transfer fluids. Many studies about heat transfer
processes focused on the use of nanoliquids.
Hwang et al. (2007) studied the thermal conductivity of nanoliquids and showed that
their thermal performance is higher than that of the base liquid. Garbadeen et al. (2017)
experimentally studied free convection of multi walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT)–H2O
nanoliquids in a square enclosure and showed the existence of an optimum particle
concentration at which heat transport is maximized. Mixed convection of (copper–H2O)
nanoliquid inside a square enclosure ventilated and partially heated from below was
analyzed numerically by Shahi et al. (2010). Leonard et al. (2017) examined free convection
inside a wavy enclosure containing (Al2O3–water) nanofluid. They focused on nanoparticles
volume fraction effect on heat transport rate. Other interesting studies of nanofluids heat
transfer processes include Buongiorno (2006), Kalidasan and Kanna (2017) and Kuznetsov
and Nield (2010). Saba et al. (2019) studied the flow field and heat transfer phenomena inside
an asymmetric channel using hybrid (CNT/Fe3O4/H2O) nanofluid to enhance the rate of heat
transport. Chamkha et al. (2020) numerically scrutinized nanofluid convection flow in a
magnetized 3D trapezoidal cavity through rotating cone. The study concerned the impact of
magnetic field permeability and aspect ratio of the cone over heat transport and liquid flow.
Siddique et al. (2021) examined free convection nanofluids flow through an upright channel
using five different nanoparticles. Outcomes concern the effect of diverse parameters on the
mass and heat transfers and fluid.
Because of its considerable importance in numerous industrial applications, the magnetic
field as a manage parameter of convection has been subject to many investigations in recent
years. Teamah (2008) numerically scrutinized double-diffusive free convection in the
rectangular enclosure through a magnetic field, showing that the magnetic field reduces heat
transport exchanges within the enclosure. Fares et al. (2021) scrutinized entropy generation in
a square cavity by applying the Darcy–Forchheimer model with a magnetic field.
Kasaeipoor et al. (2015) scrutinized the impact of magnetic fields over the convection of a
nanoliquid saturating a vented T-shaped enclosure. They found that the presence of
nanoparticles and the Hartman number tend to increase heat transport and liquid circulation
within the enclosure. Convection in a lid-driven porous enclosure with a magnetic field was
scrutinized numerically through Muthtamilselvan et al. (2009) and Rahman et al. (2010). The
heat transport is strongly dependent on Da and the strength of the magnetic field. Opanuga
et al. (2020) scrutinized chemical reaction and inclined magnetic field effects over entropy
generation by considering 2D mixed convection boundary layer flow of an electrically
conducting liquid. The entropy generation depends on Sc, magnetic parameter and chemical
reaction parameter.
The other topic that studies the prediction of convective processes is the second law
applied to investigating the irreversibilities in terms of entropy generation. Baytas (2000)
numerically illustrated that the minimum entropy generation optimization strongly depends
on Ra and the geometric parameters. Hooman et al. (2007, 2008) analyzed entropy generation
for convection in different geometries systems. It was found that irreversibility depends on
Br, the dimensionless heat flux and the porous media shape factor. Ilis et al. (2008) prepared
an investigation on entropy generation in rectangular cavities with different aspect ratios
and the same area. Al-Salem et al. (2012) scrutinized the entropy generation for convection in Heat transport
a trapezoidal cavity. of Cu–water
Mebarek-Oudina et al. (2021a) studied the laminar and stationary flow of hybrid
nanoliquid in a trapezoidal cavity with zigzagged wall subjected to a magnetic field. The
nanoliquid
variations of the entropy production and heat transport are low by growing the magnetic
field inclination angle.
Zaim et al. (2020a) scrutinized the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) convection flow of
nanoliquid in baffled U-shaped cavity using a single-phase homogeneous nanofluid model.
The Nanoparticles (NP) volume fraction has a good impact on heat transfer.
Mebarek-Oudina et al. (2020a) study numerically the convection in a grooved porous
enclosure filled through H2O-based hybrid-nanoliquid with external magnetic field. The
magnetic field has a well regulating effect for the liquid flow and the heat transport in
porous media.
Jawad et al. (2019) studied 3D MHD Darcy–Forchheimer thin-film nanoliquid, including
flow over an inclined steady turning plane. Nanoliquid thin-film flows are thermally
radiated, and the injection/suction impact is explored. They found that the radiation
phenomenon is because of energy in the fluid system. For more rotation parameters, the
thermal boundary-layer thickness is diminished (Hussein et al., 2017). Hussein et al.
experimentally prepared a mixture of aluminum nitride NPs and ethylene glycol, which
operates as a base liquid and is considered as a new model of hybrid nanoliquids that can
rise heat transport. It is a combination of aluminum nitride NPs with the EG base liquid that
tends to increase heat transport performance substantially. Selimefendigil et al. (2016)
investigated the flow and heat transport of MWCNTs–MgO/EG hybrid nanoliquid in a
complex cavity subjected to radiation and inclined magnetic field effects. Magherbi et al.
(2007) numerically studied the steady convection heat transport and liquid flow
characteristics of hybrid nanoliquid flowing via an isothermally heated tube with different
NP shapes. They determined the friction factor of both nanoliquid and hybrid nanoliquid
flow.
Sheremeta and Rashidi (2021) simulated thermal convection of Al2O3–H2O nanofluid in a
chamber having thermal sink and local heat production unit. They concluded that the
Rayleigh number affects the convective motion and thermal transmission. The increase in
nanoparticle fraction generates a decrease of nanofluid circulation strength and is without
effect in the mean Nusselt number. They noted a degradation of all considered parameters
when the height of the radiator fins increases.
Hidouri et al. (2007) performed a study on entropy generation for convection of
nanoliquid-filled lid-driven enclosure with the impact of inclined magnetic fields. The
entropy generation diminishes with the rising values of Ri numbers and when the solid
volume fraction rises. Taghizadeh and Asaditaheri (2018) and Tayari et al. (2015) studied the
Dufour and Soret effects over entropy generation for double-diffusive convection in a fluid
saturating a square enclosure. Hayat et al. (2018) numerically scrutinized the entropy
generation and convective heat transport inside an inclined lid-driven cavity through a
circular porous cylinder situated at the center. At high Richardson numbers, the impact of
the inclination angle over the heat transport and the entropy generation is more perceptible.
Their results show that the proportion of the irreversibilities because of liquid friction and
heat transport fluctuates as the examined parameters vary.
Abbas et al. (2021) scrutinized the entropy generation over MHD peristaltic flow for an
incompressible fluid in a diverging pipe using lubrication. They found that the entropy
generation decreases in the central part of the pipe; however, it augments close to the pipe.
Thus, the entropy generation is a key aspect of every heat transport development. Other
HFF recent surveys about this topic can be found in references (Rashad et al., 2018; Basak and
Roy, 2010; Abbas et al., 2021; Mondal et al., 2021; Sahoo and Nandkeolyar, 2021; Mebarek-
Oudina, 2019; Abo-Dahab et al., 2021; Marzougui et al., 2021a; Shafiq et al., 2021; Dadheech
et al., 2020; Djebali et al., 2021; Warke et al., 2021; Rajashekhar et al., 2021; Swain et al., 2021a;
Mebarek-Oudina, 2017; Mebarek-Oudina et al., 2020b; Mebarek-Oudina et al., 2021b;
Marzougui et al., 2021b; Zaim et al., 2020b; Swain et al., 2021b; Mebarek-Oudina et al., 2021c).
By examining the literature, we found that little attention has been paid to entropy
generation encountered during convection of nanofluids. Hence, this work aims to
numerically study entropy generation and heat transport in a lid-driven porous enclosure
filled with a nanoliquid.

2. Modeling
The scheme under consideration is a 2D square enclosure filled through a Newtonian,
incompressible nanofluid, as shown in Figure 1. The right and left walls are submitted to
different but uniform temperatures Tc and Th, respectively, while the two parallel walls are
adiabatic, and the top is moving at a fixed speed U0 from right to left. A uniform magnetic
field of strength B0 is applied in the x–y plane of the cavity. The magnetic field makes an
angle g with the horizontal direction.
The density of the liquid assures the Boussinesq approximation such that:
r ¼ r 0 ½1  b u ðu  u 0 Þ (1)
where r 0 and u 0 are the reference mass density and the reference temperature, and b u is the
thermal expansion coefficient given by:


1 @r
bu¼  (2)
r 0 @u P
The dimensionless conservation equations of mass, momentum and energy in the presence
of a magnetic field are, respectively, given by:

Figure 1.
Physical problem in
x–y coordinate
system
Continuity equation: Heat transport
@U @V
of Cu–water
þ ¼0 (3) nanoliquid
@X @Y

X-momentum equation:
" #
1 @U 1 @U 1 @U rf @P m nf 1 m nf U
þ 2U þ 2U ¼   r2 U 
« @t « @X « @Y r nf @X m f « Re m f DaRe
(4)
r f s nf Ha 2   Fc p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
þ Vsin g cos g  Usin2 g  pffiffiffiffiffiffi U U 2 þ V 2
r nf s f Re Da

Y-momentum equation:
" #
1 @V 1 @V 1 @V rf @P m nf 1 m nf V ð r b Þnf
þ V þ V ¼   rV 2
þ RiT þ
« @ t « 2 @X « 2 @Y r nf @y m f « Re m f DaRe ð r b Þf
r f s nf Ha2   Fc pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Usin g cos g  Vcos2 g  pffiffiffiffiffiffi V U 2 þ V 2
r nf s f Re Da
(5)

Energy equation:


@T @T @T anf 1 @2T @2T
þU þV ¼ þ (6)
@t @X @Y af PrRe @X 2 @Y 2

The governing equations are acquired by using the following dimensionless variables:

x y u v p U0 t u  uc
X¼ ;Y ¼ ; U ¼ ;V ¼ ;P ¼ ; t¼ ;T ¼ ;
H H U0 U0 r f U02 H uh  uc
rffiffiffiffiffiffi
U0 H K Ra sf f
Re ¼ ; Da ¼ 2 ; Ri ¼ ; Ha ¼ B0 H ; Pr ¼ ;
f H PeRe mf af
g b u ðu h  u c ÞL3 1:75
Ra ¼ ; Fc ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; Pe ¼ RePr
 f af 150« 2
(7)

The parameters FC, Ha, Ri, Pe and Pr are, respectively, Forchheimer, Hartman, Richardson,
Peclet and Prandtl numbers.
The terms of density, thermal expansion, heat capacitance, dynamic viscosity, electrical
conductivity, thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of the nanoliquid are identified
as follows:

ð r b Þnf ¼ w ð r b Þs þ ð1  w Þð r b Þf (8)

ð r cp Þnf ¼ ð1  w Þð r cp Þf þ w ð r cp Þs (9)
HFF m nf 1
¼ (10)
mf ð1  w Þ1=4

s nf 3ða  1Þ w
¼1þ (11)
sf ð2 þ aÞ  ða  1Þ w

ss
a¼ (12)
sf

 
knf 2kf  2 w kf  ks þ ks
¼   (13)
kf 2kf þ 2 w kf  ks þ ks

knf
anf ¼ (14)
ð r cp Þnf

The dimensionless initial and boundary conditions are as follows:

Initial conditions:

U (X,Y) = 0; T (X,Y) = 0; V (X,Y) = P = 0.

Vertical adiabatic walls:

U (1,Y) = 0; V (1,Y) = 0; T (1,Y) = 1

U (0,Y) = 0; V (0,Y) = 0; T (0,y) = 0

Horizontal active walls:

@T
Uð1; yÞ ¼  1; Vð1; yÞ ¼ 0 ; ¼0
@X

@T
Uð0; YÞ ¼ 0; Vð1; yÞ ¼ ¼0 (15)
@X
Heat transport rate via the heated wall is articulated through average Nusselt number given
by:
1ð

knf @T
Nu ¼  dX (16)
kf @Y
0

The physical properties of H2O and Cu are given in Table 1.

2.1 Second law formulation

Woods (1975) gives the expression of the local entropy generation in porous media. On the
right-hand side of equation (14), the first expression is the irreversibility because of heat
transport, the second represents the Darcy viscous dissipation expression, the third is
compatible with the clear fluid friction and the fourth is relative to the magnetic impact.
 !


knf @T 2 @T 2 m nf  Br* 2 Heat transport
Sl ¼ þ @Y þ ðU þ V 2 Þ
kf @X m f Da of Cu–water

m 
 2  2  2 
 2 nanoliquid
nf s nf
þ Br* 2 @U
@X þ 2 @V
@Y þ @U
@Y þ @V
@X þ Br* Ha2 UsinðaÞ  VcosðaÞ
mf sf
(17)

The modified Brinkman number Br* is expressed as follows:

2
mf u 0 U0
Br ¼
*
(18)
kf uh  uc

The dimensionless total entropy generation is given through:

ð
S ¼ Sl dW (19)
W

The local Bejan number Be, defined as the proportion between the thermal entropy
generation and the total entropy generation, is given by:

SiTh
Be ¼ (20)
SiTot

When the Bejan number is strictly greater than 0.5, the irreversibility because of heat
transfer dominates. While if the Bejan number is strictly smaller than 0.5, the irreversibility
because of viscous effects dominates.

2.2 Numerical procedure

We solve the model of Navier–Stokes and energy equations in dimensionless form and for a
Newtonian incompressible nanofluid with appropriate boundary conditions. To this end, a
numerical code, under the COMSOL Multiphysics platform, was established by coupling
fluid flow and heat transfer models. The liquid flow physics interfaces use a Galerkin least-
squares finite element technique to discretize the governing equations of the flow, which are
usually highly nonlinear, and create the numerical model in space. Furthermore,
discontinuous Galerkin formulations are used to conserve momentum, mass and energy
over external and internal boundaries. The test function is considered to stabilize the
hyperbolic expressions and the pressure expression in the transport equations. The finite
element method is widely used and well presented in the literature (Lewis et al., 1991a; Lewis
et al., 1991b; Lewis et al., 1996; Navti et al., 1998; Lewis et al., 2004; Lewis et al., 2005; Lewis
et al., 2006; Bevan et al., 2016; Nithiarasu et al., 2016). Figure 2 shows diverse level of
refinements. Shock-capturing techniques further decrease numerical specious oscillations,

r (kg/m3) Cp (J/kg K) k (W/mK) b (K1) s

Table 1.
Water 997.10 4179 0.613 2.10  10–4 0.050 Properties of H2O
Cu 8,933 385 400 1.67  10–5 5.960 and copper
HFF which can occur at the beginning of numerical calculation and especially in time-dependent
problems. To solve the numerical model equations and for large computational fluid
dynamics problems, the automatic solver settings choose a suitable damped Newton
technique. The linear iterations in the Newton technique are accelerated through algebraic
multi-grid or geometric multi-grid techniques specially designed for transport problems.
The no-slip boundary condition is used over the walls of the enclosure. To confirm our
findings given through the present COMSOL code, we compared them through those
acquired by Al-Salem et al. (2012) for Re = 100, Pr = 0.015, Gr = 105 and Ha= 30, by using
the same boundary conditions. The comparison in terms of isotherms and streamlines
shows a good conformity through those of Al-Salem et al. (2012). Hence, the current code is
considered entirely reliable (see Figure 3).

Figure 2.
Schematic of different
meshes

Figure 3.
Results comparison
(streamlines and
isotherms) for Re =
100, Ha = 30 and
Gr = 105 with those of
Al-Salem et al. (2012)
Tables 3 and 4 present different values of thermal entropy generation and total entropy Heat transport
generation via inclination angle for diverse meshes. The details of the meshes used for the of Cu–water
test are illustrated in Table 2. The finer mesh is the ideal choice for this numerical nanoliquid
investigation.

3. Outcomes and discussion

The present paper aimed to scrutinize entropy generation because of mixed magneto-
convection inside a saturated porous lid-driven square enclosure using the Darcy–
Brinkman–Forchheimer formulation. The physical configuration considered in this work
was filled by water and copper nanoparticles with Pr = 7. The study leads to several
numerical results by varying the dimensionless parameters that control the problem
physics.

3.1 Effect of volume fraction

Figure 4 shows the evolution of magnetic entropy generation via volume fraction for diverse
Hartmann number values. One can see that the magnetic entropy generation rises through
the NPs volume fraction for a relatively small Ha. In this case, the Lorentz force is weak. The
rise in the nanoparticles volume fraction leads to an improvement of the convection, which

Mesh Coarse Normal Fine

Mesh vertices 732 1,038 1,620

Triangles 818 1,262 2,230
Quads 276 348 432
Edge elements 92 116 144 Table 2.
Vertex elements 4 4 4 Statistics of diverse
Number of elements 1,094 1,610 2,662 meshes

Magnetic field inclination angle Coarse Normal Finer

Table 3.
0 4.598 4.5979 4.6084
Test grid for diverse
15 4.3954 4.3975 4.4084
30 4.3101 4.3113 4.3166 inclinations angle of
45 4.4692 4.4671 4.4697 magnetic field of
60 4.6147 4.6134 4.6208 thermal entropy
90 4.3123 4.3147 4.3228 generation

Magnetic field inclination angle Coarse Normal Fine

Table 4.
0 9.4876 9.5338 9.5943
Test grid for various
15 8.4027 8.4444 8.4947
30 7.745 7.7851 7.8285 magnetic field
45 8.2851 8.3396 8.3987 inclination angle of
60 9.3962 9.4501 9.5158 total entropy
90 7.8766 7.9159 7.9597 generation
HFF Ha = 0
Ha = 10

0.15 Ha = 20
Ha = 30

0.1

SiMag

0.05
Figure 4.
Magnetic entropy
generation versus
0
volume fraction for 0 0.02 0.04 ́ 0.06 0.08
different Hartmann
numbers
Notes: Da = 10−4, Re = 30, Ra = 5.105, Fc = 0.2, ε = 0.8

increases the liquid velocity; thus, the magnetic irreversibility increases. This behavior is
completely reversed when the Ha takes high values. The rise in the NPs volume fraction
decreases the magnetic entropy generation. At a high Ha, the Lorentz force is large enough
to overcome the buoyancy force. The flow decelerates, which reduces the magnetic
irreversibility. Remark that this phenomenon is more significant as the Hartmann number
increases.
It is showed that, for a fixed NP volume fraction, the magnetic entropy generation
augments when the Hartmann number rises. This increase, which is more pronounced at
small volume fraction, can be the result of an intrinsic effect, via equation (17), of Ha over the
magnetic entropy generation.
The influence of NPs volume fraction on thermal entropy generation is plotted in
Figure 5 for different Hartmann number values.
Let us start with the case where the magnetic field is zero (Ha = 0). As shown in
Figure 5, thermal entropy production decreases by almost 10% when the nanoparticle
volume fraction increases by 8%. This result was not predictable, especially because we
know that an increase in the nanoparticle volume fraction increases the thermal
conduction, which in turn improves convection by increasing both thermal gradients and
the thermal entropy production. However, this reasoning is not always true. In fact, it is
important to note that the properties of nanofluids are linked to the properties of the base
fluid and the nanoparticles. The properties of nanofluids are changed compared to the
base fluid and vary to a greater or lesser extent depending on the model adopted.
Nevertheless, in all cases and for all models, the thermal conductivity and the dynamic
viscosity increased for a nanofluid compared to its base fluid and the intensity of this
increase depends on the chosen model. The increase of these two main quantities in such
a study gives rise to two directly opposite effects. Indeed, the increase in thermal
conductivity gives rise to an improvement in heat transfer, which would lead to an
increase in the thermal entropy generation via the improvement of convection. On the
other hand, the increase in dynamic viscosity generates an increase in viscous friction
forces that tend to slow down the fluid, thereafter reducing convection and heat transfer,
and consequently decreasing the thermal entropy generation. In addition to these two
 9 Heat transport
Ha = 0
of Cu–water
Ha = 10
8 nanoliquid
Ha = 20
Ha = 30
7
SiTh

5
Figure 5.
Thermal entropy
4 production via
volume fraction for
diverse Hartmann
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 numbers
́

opposite extrinsic effects, there are two other analogous intrinsic effects directly linked to
the equation of entropy generation. We are therefore in the presence of two physical
quantities having analogous intrinsic effects and opposite extrinsic effects. So the
quantity which will dominate the flow and which will impose its effect on the generation
of entropy (increase or decrease) is the one which is the most (armed) reinforced and
supported through the characteristic physical parameters of the flow, namely, the
numbers Ra, Re, Pr, Da, Br and Br*.
The same reasoning remains true in the presence of a magnetic field (Ha other than zero),
except that in this case the Lorentz force tends to slow down the flow, thus significantly
reducing the convection and consequently the thermal entropy production and likewise the
total entropy production. In this context and for a Hartmann number = 30, thermal entropy
production decreases by almost 38% when the volume of nanoparticles increases by 8%. It
is important to remark from Figure 5 that the thermal entropy generation reduces almost
linearly through the volume fraction for all Hartmann number values.
As can be seen from Figures 6 and 7, the viscous fluid and viscous Darcy irreversibilities
decrease as the volume fraction rises regardless of Ha. Indeed, the augment in the volume
fraction increases the viscous liquid forces, which tend to reduce the convection
phenomenon in the flow and, in this case, reduce the viscous fluid entropy generation. It is
also observed that, for a viscous fluid, entropy generation reduces when Ha rises. The
enhancement of the convection through the rise of the volume fraction is, here, directly
compensated through the extrinsic impact of the magnetic field by the Lorentz force over the
flow, which tends to slow down the liquid. It is obvious, as mentioned above, that when Ha
becomes comparatively high, the Lorentz force becomes predominant through its extrinsic
impact over the flow, which results in an important diminution of the convection and
consequently of the motion and the speed of the liquid. In this regard, a rise in the volume
fraction of the NPs can decrease the convection through rising the viscous forces and the
effective dynamic viscosity.
The average Nu along the left vertical hot wall is displayed in Figure 9. As the value of
Hartmann number rises, the average Nu reduces, which indicates that rising the value of Ha
decelerates the flow in the bulk of the enclosure and temperature gradient.
HFF Ha = 0
0.5 Ha = 10
Ha = 20
Ha = 30

0.4

SiVf
0.3
Figure 6.
Viscous fluid entropy
generation versus
volume fraction for 0.2
diverse Ha 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
́

12
Ha = 0
Ha = 10
10 Ha = 20
Ha = 30

8
SiVD

Figure 7.
Viscous Darcy
4
entropy generation
versus volume
fraction for different 2
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Hartmann numbers
́

Figure 10 shows isotherms (Column 1), streamlines (Column 2), local thermal entropy
generation (Column 3) and local fluid viscous entropy generation (Column 4) obtained
numerically for different nanoparticles volume fractions.
Let us start by analyzing the case where the volume fraction of the nanoparticles is equal
to 2%. As shown in Figure 10, the isotherms are very tight at the lower and upper corners of
the hot wall and at the upper corner of the cold wall. These regions exhibit high thermal
gradients and therefore are subject to significant thermal entropy generation. This
observation is clearly observable on the plot of the thermal irreversibility maps, which
indicates a generation of thermal entropy at the lower and upper corners of the hot wall as
well as at the upper corner of the cold wall. Note that at the hot wall, the isotherms at the
upper corner are tighter than isotherms located at the lower corner. As a result, the vertical
thermal gradients will be markedly significant, which in turn induces significant thermal
entropy generation at this location. Indeed, this is well illustrated by thermal isentropic
 20 Ha = 0
Heat transport
Ha = 10
of Cu–water
18
Ha = 20
nanoliquid
16 Ha = 30
SiTot

14

12

10

8 Figure 8.
Impact of the volume
6 fraction over the total
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 entropy generation
́

9
Ha = 0
Ha = 10
8 Ha = 20
Ha = 30

7
NuAvg

5
Figure 9.
Average Nu via
4 volume fraction for
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
diverse Ha
́

production lines that are very tight and more intense at the upper corner of the hot wall.
Note also that in the center of the cavity, the isotherms are relatively spaced, presenting
almost zero horizontal gradients and insignificant vertical gradients. This may reveal an
absence of thermal entropy generation at the center of the lid-driven porous cavity, which is
proven on maps related to the thermal irreversibility (Column 3).
The plot of the streamlines in Figure 10 indicates that the flow is characterized by two
convective cells. The first cell is at the top of the cavity and near the driven cover with
counter-clockwise circulation. The second is a clockwise circulation cell. It is larger and
located in the lower part of the cavity.
As seen in Figure 10 (Column 2), the streamlines are relatively tight at the driven wall of
the cavity. The stream function presents relatively large values, just near the driven wall
and in the region where the two cells meet in co-current. These observations reveal the
HFF

Figure 10.
Isotherms,
streamlines and
thermal and viscous
irreversibilities maps
for different
nanoparticle volume
fraction for Fc = 0.2,
g = 15°, « = 0.8, Pr =
7, Ra = 105, Re= 30,
Ha = 10, Da = 104.
(a) f = 0.02; (b) f =
0.04; (c) f = 0.06; (d)
f = 0.08

existence of fluid viscous irreversibilities, which should be significant in the places indicated
above. Indeed, maps giving the viscous entropy production show that fluid viscous
irreversibilities are important close to the upper wall of the cavity. These irreversibilities are
mainly because of the Darcy term. Indeed, the inertia forces given by of the moving wall
provide the fluid with a large quantity of kinetic energy generating an increase in the fluid
velocity that leads to an increase in Darcy viscous irreversibilities. Maps of viscous entropy
production also show that viscous irreversibilities spread over the lower region of the
entrained wall while remaining close to it. This region corresponds well to the area where
the two cells interfere in the same direction giving rise to an increase in the flow velocity and
consequently an increase in fluid viscous irreversibilities. Note that the viscous
irreversibilities at the vicinity of the other walls are practically insignificant. On the other
hand, it should be noted that the clear fluid viscous irreversibilities are low. This is mainly,
first, because of an insignificant extrinsic effect because of the low values of the gradients of
the velocity vector components throughout the porous cavity, and, second, because of the
insignificant intrinsic contribution because of the selected low value of the modified
Brinkman number [Term 3 of equation (17)].
As can be seen in Figure 10 (Column 3), the length of the active walls induced by the
thermal entropy generation decreases as the volume fraction of the nanoparticles increases.
This is the result of a decrease in thermal gradients and therefore a decrease in heat transfer
in the cavity. One can see from Figure 10 a decrease in the area induced by the fluid viscous
entropy generation when the nanoparticles volume fraction decreases. The decrease of both
the thermal and the fluid viscous entropies productions leads necessarily to a decrease of the
total entropy generation when NP volume fraction increases. These results are fully
compatible with the results of Figure 8, which shows that the total entropy generation
decreases when the nanoparticle volume fraction increases, highlighting the dominant Heat transport
power of the extrinsic effect of the dynamic viscosity of the nanofluid. of Cu–water
Figure 11 shows the variation of the local Bejan number with the nanoparticle volume
fraction. As can be seen from Figure 11, the Bejan number reaches significant values close to
nanoliquid
the active walls of the cavity, showing a dominance of thermal irreversibilities in these
locations. On the other hand, the Bejan number takes relatively low values close to the driven
wall and in its vicinity, more precisely in the region where the two cells interfere. These results
were predictable from the plots of the thermal irreversibility maps which show their dominance
near the active walls of the cavity and from the plots of the fluid viscous entropy generation
maps which prove that the fluid viscous irreversibility dominates the upper part of the cavity.
The influence of Darcy number on total entropy generation is plotted in Figure 12. At
fixed NPs, Figure 12 shows that as Da rises, entropy generation amplitude reduces and
tends to a minimum constant value for relatively high Da. This is because rising Da
provokes the rise of the medium permeability and the system passes from a solid behavior
to a clear fluid behavior. In this context, the Darcy fluid viscous irreversibility, which is the
dominant irreversibility’s term and which is the result of the existence of the porous matrix,
begins to disappear and tends to zero at relatively high Darcy number. Thus, total entropy
generation diminishes and tends toward a constant value at high Darcy number. These
observations remain the same when the nanoparticles volume fraction varies.

3.2 Impacts of the magnetic field inclination angle

Figure 13 gives the variations of magnetic, fluid viscous and thermal entropy generation in
the lid-driven porous cavity. In this part, the Hartmann, Reynolds, Rayleigh, modified

Figure 11.
Local Bejan number
contours for different
nanoparticle volume
fraction for Fc =
0.2,g = 15°, « = 0.8,
Pr = 7, Ra = 105, Re=
30, Ha = 10, Da =
104. (a) f = 0.02;
(b) f = 0.04; (c) f =
0.06; (d) f = 0.08
HFF 18
́ =0
16 ́ = 0.02
́ = 0.04
14 ́ = 0.06
́ = 0.08

SiTot
12

10
Figure 12.
The total entropy 8
generation versus Da
for different volume
fraction, Ra = 6
5  105, Re = 30, Fc = -4 -3 -2
0.2, « = 0.8, Ha = 10 10 10 10
Da

Brinkman and Darcy numbers were considered constant and equal to 10, 30, 105, 103 and
104, respectively. The inclination angle of the magnetic field varies from 0° to 90°.
At first view, note that the magnetic irreversibility takes relatively low values, as shown
in Figure 13(a). This is mainly because of the extrinsic effect of the Lorentz force via the
Hartmann number and the intrinsic effect of the low value of the modified Brinkman
number through the magnetic entropy production equation.
At constant NP volume fraction, the magnetic entropy generation is minimum at 0°
(absolute minimum) and 60° (relative minimum) while it is maximum at a magnetic field
angle inclination equal to 30° (absolute maximum) and 90° (maximum relative). It is very
interesting to note that although the inclined magnetic field is uniform in intensity, the
resulting volume Lorentz force is not. In fact, the intensity of the Lorentz force depends on
the values of the velocity components and the inclination angle of the magnetic field. Its
magnitude is entirely proportional to the magnetic entropy generation expression. The
minimum values of the magnetic irreversibility obtained at 0° and 60° can be explained by
the feeble influence that the Lorentz force takes for these angles. In contrast, the maximum
values of magnetic irreversibility obtained at angles 30° and 90° correspond to the angles
where the intensity of the Lorentz force is relatively significant.
Figure 13(b) shows the variations of thermal entropy generation in the lid-driven porous
cavity. As can be seen from Figure 13(b), at constant NP volume fraction, the thermal
entropy generation is maximum at 0° (relative maximum) and 60° (absolute maximum)
while it is minimum at a magnetic field angle inclination equal to 30° (relative minimum)
and 90° (absolute minimum). It is important to notice that angles for which the generation of
magnetic entropy is minimal correspond to the angles for which the generation of thermal
entropy is maximum and vice versa. This result is entirely consistent with the explanation
given above. Indeed, when the production of magnetic entropy is low, the intensity of the
Lorentz force is weak and its effect on the flow is therefore insignificant. The convection in
the cavity remains well developed and the thermal gradients remain relatively large giving
rise to a significant thermal entropy generation. On the other hand, the angles inducing a
large magnetic entropy production correspond to high intensities of the Lorentz force. Thus,
the effect of the Lorentz force on the flow becomes noticeable, thereby reducing convection
 ́ = 0.02
Heat transport
0.08
́ = 0.04
́ = 0.06
of Cu–water
́ = 0.08 nanoliquid
0.06
SiMag

0.04

0.02

0 20 40 60 80 100
Magnetic field inclination angle, γ
(a)

4.5
SiTh

́ = 0.02
3.5 ́ = 0.04
́ = 0.06
́ = 0.08
3
0 20 40 60 80 100
γ
(b)
6
́ = 0.02
́ = 0.04
́ = 0.06
5 ́ = 0.08

Figure 13.
Magnetic (a), thermal
SiVf

4 (b) and fluid viscous

(c) entropy generation
versus magnetic field
3 inclination angle for
different volume
fraction (Ra = 105,
Re = 30, Fc = 0.2, « =
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.8, Ha = 10,
γ
Da = 104)
(c)
HFF and thermal gradients and accordingly the thermal entropy production. The same
observations and interpretations relating to the variation of thermal entropy production as a
function of the magnetic field inclination angle remain valid for the viscous entropy
production plotted in Figure 13(c). Taking into account the results above, concerning the
variation of thermal and fluid viscous irreversibilities with the magnetic field inclination
angle, one can confirm that to minimize the total irreversibility for the studied system, the
magnetic field must be perpendicular to the driven wall or at 30° related to the X-axis.
It is important to note that the use of an intense magnetic field (high Ha) to minimize
irreversibilities can lead to undesirable situations, such as slowing the flow, suppression of
convection and reduction of heat and/or mass transfer. In this context, the use of a magnetic
field must be moderated in intensity but targeted in space and/or time; first, targeted in
space, by giving it a specified orientation to favor a desired direction for the flow or for the
treatment of recirculation zones, which disturb the fluid flow, or by acting on certain
thermoconvectives cells; and second, targeted in time by reducing pics (high value) of
irreversibility that can appear in some situations for system evolving in transient state. For
the latter case, we cite the work of Magherbi et al. (2010) regarding the use of an evanescent
magnetic field to reduce the huge thermodynamic irreversibilities encountered at the onset
of natural convection in a differentially heated square cavity (Magherbi et al., 2003).
Finally, it should be noted that, for constant inclination angle of the magnetic field,
thermal irreversibility decreases when the volume fraction of nanoparticles increases. This
was explained above when interpreting the results related to the plot in Figure 5. On the
other hand, the effect of increasing the nanoparticles volume fraction leads to an increase in
the magnetic entropy generation. This result, opposite to that obtained for the thermal
entropy generation, can be explained by an intrinsic increase of the magnetic entropy
production [equation (17)], as a direct consequence of an increase in the nanofluid electrical
conductivity [equation (11)] via an increase of NP volume fraction.

4. Conclusion
In this study, we investigated the effects of NP volume fraction and the Hartman number
induced by an inclined magnetic field over the irreversibility and heat transport in Darcy–
Brinkman–Forchheimer nanofluid saturated lid-driven porous medium. The main findings
related to this study are as follows:
 At fixed NP volume fraction, the magnetic entropy generation augments when the
Hartmann number rises via an intrinsic effect.
 At zero magnetic field, thermal entropy production decreases by almost 10% when
the nanoparticle volume increases by 8%. For Ha = 30, thermal entropy production
decreases by almost 38% when the volume of nanoparticles increases by 8%.
 Nanofluid thermal conductivity and nanofluid dynamic viscosity are two physical
quantities having analogous intrinsic effects and opposite extrinsic effects. The
quantity which will dominate the flow and which will impose its effect on the
entropy generation is the one that will be the most supported through the governing
parameters of the flow.
 Thermal entropy generation reduces almost linearly through the NP volume
fraction for all Hartman number values. Clear fluid viscous and Darcy fluid viscous
irreversibilities decrease as the NP volume fraction rises regardless of Ha.
 Thermal irreversibility maps indicate a generation of thermal entropy at the lower
and upper corners of the hot wall as well as at the upper corner of the cold wall.
  Absence of entropy generation in the center of the lid-driven cavity. Heat transport
 Viscous irreversibilities are important close to the upper driven wall of the cavity. of Cu–water
These irreversibilities are mainly because of Darcy term. Viscous irreversibilities nanoliquid
near the active walls are practically insignificant.
 Bejan number reaches significant values next to the active walls of the cavity,
showing a dominance of thermal irreversibilities in these places. Bejan number
takes relatively low values next to the entrained wall and in its vicinity, viewing a
dominance of viscous irreversibilities.
 Total entropy generation amplitude reduces and tends to a minimum constant value
as Da rises.
 At constant NP volume fraction, magnetic entropy generation is minimum at 0° and
60° and maximum at a magnetic field angle equal to 30° and 90° while thermal
entropy generation is maximum at 0° and 60° and minimum at a magnetic field
angle inclination equal to 30° and 90°.
 The angles for which the generation of magnetic entropy is minimal correspond to
the angles for which the generation of thermal entropy is maximum and vice versa.
 At constant angle of the magnetic field, the thermal irreversibility decreases
whereas the magnetic entropy generation increases when the volume fraction of
nanoparticles increases.

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Corresponding author
Fateh Mebarek-Oudina can be contacted at: oudina2003@yahoo.fr and f.mebarek_oudina@
univskikda.dz

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