RESERVOIR GEOSCIENCE

DIFFERENT METHODS OF EXPLORATION

MAPPING AND SURVEYS

 GEOLOGICAL MAPPING
Geological mapping locates and identifies rock types and geological structures relative to the
landforms and topography. It is often the first exploration method undertaken on the ground, and
can take place at a local detailed scale or a regional scale. Geological mapping typically involves
a visit to the area of interest by a geologist to look at rock outcrops, and to observe the location,
orientation and characteristics of the rocks or sediments exposed at the surface. It may involve
light vehicle access to a property, recording measurements, and gathering small samples from
rock outcrops, soils, or streams for chemical analysis. This information can then be used to
prepare a geological map of the exploration area, recording the distribution of rock types and
structures.

 DESKTOP SURVEYS
Desktop surveys include researching the available geological information for an area of
interest. This may include researching and analyzing previous company exploration reports,
exploration data, and published geological information. This process allows an exploration
company or prospector to make an informed decision prior to applying for a license or
commencing any actual field reconnaissance.

 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS
Geophysical surveys can help identify resources without the need for sampling and are usually
undertaken with minimal surface disturbance. Different geophysical surveys measure various
physical properties of the Earth and have different applications and equipment. Geophysical
surveys can be conducted from the air (airborne geophysical surveys) or on the ground (ground
based geophysical surveys).
 AIRBORNE GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS
Airborne geophysical surveys may comprise of magnetic, radiometric, gravity, or
electromagnetic surveys. These surveys are typically conducted from low-flying helicopters or
light aircraft, which fly in a grid pattern, with measurement instruments either mounted on the
aircraft or towed underneath or behind.
 GROUND BASED SURVEYS
Ground based geophysical surveys may comprise seismic, magnetic, radiometric, gravity
or electromagnetic surveys. Depending on the type of survey being undertaken, a survey may
consist of a single geophysicist or team of geophysicists and technicians walking the survey area,
to the use of quadbikes, light vehicles, or seismic trucks.

 MAGNETIC GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS

 Magnetic surveys measure the variations of the Earth's magnetic field due to the presence
of magnetic minerals. These surveys are sensitive enough to detect subtle variations in the
abundance of magnetic minerals. They are used to interpret rock types and geological structures
and can assist in identifying resources. These surveys are typically undertaken from a low altitude
aircraft or helicopter survey or by a geophysical technician on foot carrying a magnetometer and
a sensor on a pole. They are most often used in metallic mineral exploration.
 RADIOMETRIC GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS
Radiometric surveys measure gamma rays, which are continuously being emitted from
the Earth by the decomposition of some common naturally occurring radiogenic minerals.
Generally most gamma rays emanate from the top 30 centimeters of rock or soil, which can be
detected by airborne surveys, or on surface rocks using a hand-held spectrometer. The surveys
focus on recording the amounts of isotopes of potassium, thorium, and uranium. These surveys
are most often used in metallic and industrial mineral exploration. Airborne radiometric data is
usually gathered at the same time an airborne magnetic survey is conducted.
 GRAVITY SURVEYS
A gravimeter measures the gravity field to determine variations in rock density in the
Earth's crust. These surveys are sensitive enough to detect small variations in the field, and thus
can interpret and map the locations of different rocks or geological formations which have
contrasting densities. Ground-based gravity surveys require a geophysical technician to take
gravity measurements at set intervals of distance and record the precise height at each location.
Access to the recording sites can be by vehicle or helicopter, depending upon remoteness.
Sometimes gravity is measured from the air by a special gravimeter housed in an aircraft. They
are used in both mineral and energy exploration.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SURVEYS
Electromagnetic (EM) surveys induce an electromagnetic field and measure the three-
dimensional variations in conductivity within the near-surface soil and rock. The variations in
conductivity can be studied to locate metallic minerals and to understand groundwater and
salinity. Ground readings are taken by a small crew using transmission and receiver cables.
Airborne EM surveys can also be undertaken by aircraft fitted with highly specialized sensors.
They are most often used in metallic mineral exploration and are also very useful for groundwater,
soil or salinity studies.
 SEISMIC SURVEYS
Seismic surveys measure vibration as it passes through the Earth. Ground-based seismic
surveys use the principles of seismology (earthquakes) to create a picture of the geology beneath
the surface. Seismic surveys can provide information about rocks down to many kilometers in
depth and are particularly suited to flat-lying sedimentary basins. They are most often used in
petroleum and coal exploration.

Seismic surveys use an energy source to create high-frequency vibrations, which can
either be truck-mounted vibrating weights or small explosives depending on the scale of the
survey. This gives information about the properties of the rocks, often down to depths of several
kilometers. At the surface, small sensors, or geophones, are linked by long cables and placed on
either side of the energy source to detect the arrival times of these vibrations as they return to the
surface. Sophisticated mathematical equations and computer software are used to 'process' these
arrival times into a 'seismic picture' (seismic section) of the sub-surface. These seismic pictures
are then interpreted by geologists and geophysicists, as to what the geology or resource potential
is likely to be.
 INDUCED POLARISATION (IP) SURVEYS
Induced Polarisation (IP) surveys induce an electric field in the ground and measure the
chargeability and resistivity of the subsurface. The technique can identify differences in resistivity
arising from aquifers, metallic minerals, and different rock types. Readings are taken by a small
field crew using transmission and receiver cables. They are most often used in metallic mineral
exploration.
 DRILL HOLE SURVEYS
Drill hole (or down hole) surveys involve lowering a variety of scientific instruments
(sondes) down exploration drill holes or boreholes on a thin wire rope. These sondes can measure
magnetic, radiometric, or electrical information from the rocks within the borehole, and measure
rock properties including density, porosity. and rock strength. This type of geophysical drill hole
survey is usually carried out in petroleum and coal exploration.
Drill holes can also be 'surveyed' by downhole depth and angle measuring instruments - these
are used to measure the downhole direction and inclination of the drillhole at specific hole depths
so that the drill cores can be accurately interpreted or mapped by geologists.

 GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS
Geochemical surveys are used to target areas for further exploration. The surveys usually
involve the collection of soil, rock and/or sediment samples. These samples are sent for laboratory
analysis to identify areas of potential mineralization. The surveys may comprise:
 SOIL SAMPLING
Hand-held tools such as shovels, picks, and hand augers are used to collect samples of
soil and subsoil. Samples are typically collected on a regular grid pattern and involve collection of
small samples of soil. Power augers, either hand operated or vehicle-mounted, may also be used.
Holes excavated during the program are typically back-filled and vegetation replaced immediately
following sampling.
 STREAM SEDIMENT SAMPLING
Approximately two kilogram samples of sediment are collected within drainage lines.
Three samples are usually taken at the junction of two creeks: one downstream of the junction
and two upstream of the junction (in each of the merging drainage lines). Samples are typically
extracted using hand tools and may be sieved during collection.

 ROCK CHIP SAMPLING

 Up to a few kilograms of rock material from outcrops are collected using hand-held tools.
Rock chip samples will usually be collected during geological mapping programs.
 CHANNEL SAMPLING
A series of samples of soil or rock are collected along the face of the excavation. This may
be a road cutting, the face of an existing open cut or underground mine, a trench or similar.
 COSTEANING (OR TRENCH SAMPLING)
Costeaning (also called trench sampling) is a form of geochemical sampling, in which a
shallow trench is dug and the exposed rock mapped, analyzed, and sampled. It involves digging
a 'costean' or trench, using a backhoe or similar equipment. The trench may range from 20cm
wide to more than a meter wide and from a few centimeters deep (where hard rock is near the
surface) to meters deep. The edges of the trench are typically geologically mapped and channel
samples collected for laboratory analysis.
Costeaning is only used in exploration for some minerals, including gold and lead, and is
rarely used in NSW. Strict regulations apply to costeaning and environmental safeguards ensure
all sites are rehabilitated.
 BULK SAMPLING
The bulk sampling method is used in very advanced exploration programs. Before making
a decision to apply to develop a mine, an explorer may extract a bulk sample of the material to be
mined to allow further metallurgical or chemical testing and refinement of the proposed mining
procedures. Extraction of a bulk sample typically involves excavation of a small open cut or
development of a small underground operation. The nature of disturbance associated with a bulk
sample depends on the nature and location of the mineral deposit to be sampled.