Bush Firefighter Manual

BF - (2003)
Bush Firefighter
Manual
THE NEW SOUTH WALES GOVERNMENT

A NSW Rural Fire Service (RFS) Publication
For use by
members of the NSW Rural Fire Service
Suggested distribution:
All BF, BFG and BFS trainees - one copy
All Firecoms and bases - one copy
Prepared by
NSW Rural Fire Service
3/175-179 James Ruse Drive
Rosehill, NSW, 2142
Tel: (02) 9684 4411 Fax: (02) 9638 6716
The consultative process for the development of this Manual consisted of:
• A “needs analysis” examining NSW Rural Fire Service and kindred organisation
accidents, operations, Service Standards, and standard operating procedures; relevant
national training packages, and existing national and interstate training materials.
• A “wants analysis” consisting of conducting focus groups of members from a wide
variety of areas across the state (participation invited through requests for expressions
of interest in Service Circulars) and examining formal and informal feedback.
• A period of review, trial and comment on the 10 draft chapters of the Manual extending
from 1 July 2002 until 30 June 2003, with inclusion of relevant feedback and comment.
• Final referral of the manual to NSW Rural Fire Service, Learning and Development
Systems section, for endorsement and production.
Dedication
This Manual is dedicated to the memory of the late Eric Hughes who produced the original Bush Fire
Personnel (BP) training modules in the early 1980s. Eric established a competency based training
system for bush firefighters in NSW more than a decade before it was introduced generally for
vocational training throughout the nation. The BP modules were adopted, in one form or another, by
virtually every Australian firefighting organisation, and strong echoes of their content remain in current
national fire training material and in this Manual. There is no doubt that the programs initiated by
Eric have saved the lives of firefighters and members of the public, and have helped to minimise the
losses from fires.
Copyright © 2003 - New South Wales Government
(NSW Rural Fire Service)
Note
The use of significant amounts of text in chapters 1 to 4 from national fire modules
produced by the Australasian Fire Authorities Council (AFAC) is acknowledged -
reproduced with permission.
The use of text and graphics from the Queensland Fire and Rescue Service / Rural
Fire Service in chapter 6 is acknowledged - reproduced with permission.
BF (2003) - Bush Firefighter Manual 1st October

Versions 1.1 2004
ISBN 0 9750611 9 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of contents
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Firefighting
1 Introduction 1
2 Basic Principles of Firefighter Safety 2
3 Basic Principles of Fire 4
4 Firefighting Agents 14
5 First Attack Firefighting Equipment 16
Summary 24
Self-Check Questions 26
Activities 27
CHAPTER 2
Bush Fire Behaviour and Hazards
1 Introduction 28
2 Factors Affecting Bush Fire Behaviour 28
3 Bush Fire Development 38
4 Typical Examples of Bush Fire Behaviour 43
5 Bush Fire Hazards and Precautions 48
Summary 71
Activities 74
CHAPTER 3
Bush Firefighting Equipment
1 Introduction 75
2 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 75
3 Hand Tools 89
4 Knapsacks 94
5 Ropes, Lines and Knots 96
6 Ladders 98
7 Hoses and Small Gear 99
8 Water Supplies and Equipment 113
9 Pumps and Pumping Operations 120
Summary 132
Activities 136
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 4
Bush Firefighting Techniques
1 Introduction 137
2 Responding to a Fire 137
3 Protecting People from Bush Fires 141
4 Bush Fire Suppression Techniques 142
5 Use of Firefighting Agents 150
6 Control Lines 156
7 Mopping Up and Patrol 159
8 Working as Part of a Team 161
9 Fireground Safety 162
10 Working with Tankers 169
11 Working with Machinery 171
12 Working with Aircraft 172
13 Backburning 176
Summary 181
Activities 186
CHAPTER 5
Hazard Reduction
1 Introduction 187
2 Principles of Hazard Reduction 187
3 Hazard Reduction and the Law 197
4 Bush Fire Precautions and the Law 199
5 Participating in a Prescribed Burn 201
Summary 208
Activities 211
CHAPTER 6
Immediate Emergency Care
1 Introduction 212
2 Casualty Assistance 212
3 Hygiene Precautions 219
4 Caring for Casualties 226
5 Moving a Casualty 240
6 Critical Incident Stress 243
7 First Aid Equipment and Recovery 245
Summary 248
Activities 250
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 7
Bush Firefighting Team Work
1 Introduction 252
2 A Typical Firefighting Operation 253
3 Principles of Team Work 260
4 Crew Resource Management (CRM) 266
5 The Incident Control System (ICS) 275
6 Fireground SOPs 279
Summary 281
Activities 286
CHAPTER 8
Radio Communications
1 Introduction 287
2 Communication Systems 287
3 Communications Phraseology 312
4 Communications Procedures 326
Summary 344
Activities 348
CHAPTER 9
Rural Fire Brigades
1 Introduction 349
2 The Brigade and the Community 350
3 The Rural Firefighting Organisation 357
4 The People in the Brigade 367
5 Brigade Equipment 372
6 Training and Certification 376
7 Non-Fire/Incident Activities 383
8 Legal Issues 389
Summary 394
Activities 398
continued
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 10
Local Familiarisation
1 Introduction 399
2 Brigade Safety Induction 400
3 Brigade Constitution and Members 401
4 Brigade Facilities 402
5 Brigade Equipment and Maintenance 403
6 Brigade Area Familiarisation 405
7 Brigade Information 406
8 Brigade Training 406
9 Brigade Procedures 407
10 The Local RFS District 408
11 Other Bush Firefighting Organisations 409
Summary 411
Activities 413
Answers to Self-Check Questions 414
Extinguisher Colour and Pictogram chart 415
Summary of Changes in Version 1.1 416
Acknowledgments 417
1
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Firefighting
1 Introduction
Welcome to the RFS

Welcome to the NSW Rural Fire Service, one of the largest and most
respected Fire Services in the world. Whether you have become
a member of the Service to help protect your own rural property,
to provide a service to your community, to learn new skills or be part
of a vibrant organisation, we trust that your association with the
Service will be rewarding and, above all, safe.
You will be using a ‘Workbook’ during your initial training.

It summarises the key points of learning, includes the activities you
should complete during your training, and explains how you will be
assessed to ensure you are competent in all you need to know and do.
There are different Workbooks, depending on whether you are doing
the standard BF course, the shorter Bush Firefighter Grassland (BFG)
course, or the Bush Fire Support (BFS) course for people who are not
firefighters but may be providing support (e.g. communications or
catering) near a bush fire.
You will find the relevant Workbook is much shorter than this Manual
because it focuses only on what is needed for your specific, initial
training. We hope you won’t put this Manual away after that training is
finished, however, as it will help greatly with your ongoing learning
after you become qualified. You should refer back to it regularly as you
grow in firefighting knowledge and skill.
2 INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING
2 Basic Principles of Firefighter Safety

You may have heard of the “three R’s” of basic education – Reading,
wRiting and aRithmetic. In firefighter safety there are also “three R’s” –
Responsibility, Reporting and Risk assessment. Let’s look at these in
more detail:
• “Responsibility” means that you take appropriate care for the

safety of yourself and others around you. Everyone else should
have done likewise, but you should not blindly assume that they have.
• “Reporting” means that you freely and openly exchange

information with others. If you see something that is not right,
you speak up. If others are concerned about something, you listen.
• “Risk assessment” means that you think through the

consequences of something before you do it. You identify the
hazards involved and take action to eliminate or control them.
Safety during firefighting has some important differences to safety in

most workplaces. In most workplaces you can usually control the safety
of the place itself to a large extent. For example, hazards can often
be fenced off or even entirely eliminated. During firefighting you
usually don’t have much control over the safety of the place in which you
are working. You have to rely much more on being a safe person.
This involves four aspects:
• Fitness – You should not fight fires if you suffer from a serious
chronic disease, are ill, recovering from a serious injury, fatigued,
medicated, intoxicated, stoned or severely stressed. Apart from the
risk of injury to yourself, you can become a hazard to your fellow
firefighters.
• Procedures – The fireground is no place for people to do their own

thing. You need to work in ways that are safe for you and your
fellow firefighters, and not get at cross-purposes with them.
RFS standard operating procedures (SOPs) are designed to
do that. They are not mere bureaucratic rules, but the result of the
(often painful) experience of firefighters before you.
INTRODUCTION TO FIREFIGHTING 3
• Training – Firefighting is challenging. Under the stress of a fire,

you need to be able to perform satisfactorily. You can’t do that with
half-baked skills. It’s not enough to just “know what you are doing”.
You have to be able to perform tasks almost without thinking about
them. If you can’t, you won’t have the “spare brain capacity”
available to also look out for hazards.
• Personal Protective Clothing and Equipment – Firefighting is a

tough activity. Even normal firefighting activities expose you to
wear and tear. You will be issued with personal protective
equipment (PPE) for firefighting. Look after it, keep it readily
available and use it. Know its limitations. It will protect you against
a fire, but only up to a point.
Obviously the way these things apply to you as a basic firefighter will be
different to the way they apply to a more senior officer of the Service.
Here is what is expected of you:
1. That you identify hazards and risks, and advise others about them.
2. That you use appropriate procedures to control those hazards.
3. That you review the effectiveness of those control procedures.
4. That you participate in applying good health and safety practices

in your brigade.
Throughout this Manual you will see hazards and control procedures
(or precautions) identified. These may be in relation to the fire itself,
the equipment you use to fight the fire, the strategies and tactics you use,
operating with others, and dealing with emergencies and casualties.
In effect, this whole Manual is a “Safety Manual for Bush Firefighting”
3 Basic Principles of Fire
(a) Introduction
The first step to identifying and controlling the hazards of fire is to
understand fire itself. This section describes briefly the fire triangle and
its three components: oxygen, heat and fuel, and the fourth component,
which forms the fire tetrahedron – the chemical chain reaction.
The section also describes how heat is transferred and the methods that
can be used to attack a fire.
(b) What is Fire ?

Fire is a chemical reaction. The most common chemical reaction is the
one between oxygen in the air and flammable vapours released by the
fuel. In fire suppression it is important to know the components that must
be present to bring about the chemical reaction of fire.
The components necessary for a fire to burn, or continue to burn, are

illustrated in the fire triangle as:
• Oxygen.
• Heat.
• Fuel.
The three components of the fire triangle are shown in the figure below:
EN
HE
YG
AT
OX
FUEL
Figure 1: Fire triangle.

(c) What is Combustion ?

Combustion is a process of oxidation. Oxidation is the combination of
oxygen with a substance. At varying temperatures, most substances will
combine with oxygen in the air (oxidise). When a substance is oxidising
at such a rate that heat and light are being released, it is described as
being ‘alight’ or ‘on fire’.
(d) The Fire Triangle

As discussed previously, a fire needs the components of fuel, heat and
oxygen for its continued existence. Given fuel and oxygen, a certain
amount of energy, as heat, needs to be applied before combustion will
occur. When it does occur, it releases much more energy than has
already been applied. The net result is excess energy which can:
• Contribute to the heating of air.
• Be radiated from flames or burning fuel.
• Be conducted as heat to other fuel particles.
OXYGEN
This is found in the air we breathe. It is a colourless, odourless gas,

which makes up about one fifth of the volume of the atmosphere.
Oxygen is necessary for fuel to burn. Heat plus oxygen causes a
chemical reaction to occur in fuel, which produces more heat and gases
and turns the remainder of the fuel into ash. In the process, oxygen is
consumed and needs to be replaced by fresh oxygen moving from
elsewhere for the fire to continue burning. This is why fanning a campfire
makes it burn more intensely.
HEAT
Every fuel has a particular temperature at which it begins to burn
(its ignition temperature). Fire will send a certain amount of heat energy
into adjacent unburnt fuel. Initially, most of the heat energy is used to
evaporate fuel moisture and other volatile liquids. This is why flammabil-
ity is less if fuel moisture content is high. Once the fuel has dried out,
it will quickly reach ignition temperature if the heat is still arriving.
When combustion occurs, the now burning fuel adds to the chain
reaction that drives the fire. Heat can be transferred to adjacent fuels by:
• Radiation.
• Convection.
• Conduction.
Each of these methods of heat transfer will be discussed later in this

chapter.
FUEL
A fuel is anything that will burn under suitable conditions. Fuels in

general are classified as:
• Class A – Involving common solid combustibles, like wood, grass,
paper, plastic and rubber.
• Class B – Involving flammable liquids like petrol, kerosene,
thinners, diesel fuel and oil.
• Class C – Involving flammable gases like LPG, natural gas and
acetylene.
• Class D – Involving combustible metals like magnesium swarf.
• While there is no official “Class E” fire, it is sometimes used
unofficially to refer to fires involving any fuel combined with live
electrical power.
• Class F – Involving fires in preheated fats or oils, such as a fire in
a deep fat fryer.
Note:
Wildfire (bush fire) fuels are a type of class A fuel, and can be
grouped according to:
• Type – Some fuels are more flammable than others due to

the volatile oils or compounds within them. (e.g. eucalypts)
• Size – Large fuel particles take longer to burn than small

particles.
• Quantity – More fuel may mean more heat being generated

and faster combustion.
• Arrangement – If fuel pieces are densely packed, they may

not dry out or oxygen may not be able to penetrate easily;
if widely separated, the heat transfer may not be sufficient to
bring pieces of fuel to ignition temperature.
• Moisture content – If there is too much moisture, then the

fuel may not reach ignition temperature.
(e) The Fire Tetrahedron

In a fire, a fourth component is also present during combustion –
the chemical chain reaction. In the combustion process, a chemical chain
reaction occurs between the fuel and oxygen and is promoted by heat.
This reaction is essential to sustaining a fire. If this process is inhibited
or interrupted, the combustion reaction is suppressed and the fire
is extinguished.
Thus the fire tetrahedron (a four sided triangular pyramid figure) shows
that fire requires the interaction of four separate components:
• Oxygen.
• Heat.
• Fuel.
• Chemical chain reaction.
The relationship between these four components is illustrated through

the fire tetrahedron.
Oxidising
Agent
Oxidising
Agent
Fuel
el
He
Fu
ta
Heat Chemical
chain reaction
Chemical
chain reaction
Figure 2: Fire Tetrahedron.
Some types of firefighting agents are capable of directly interrupting

the chemical chain reaction. Although not commonly used in bush
firefighting, you will sometimes find them in extinguishers fitted to bush
fire vehicles. Such extinguishers are usually provided to deal with small
flammable liquid or electrical fires, such as might even occur on the
firefighting vehicle itself.
(f) Heat Transfer

As already mentioned, a fire’s heat can be transferred to adjoining fuel
in three ways. They are radiation, convection, and conduction.
RADIATION
Any hot object loses heat by giving out infra-red radiation. This is a form
of heat energy which travels in all directions from its source (the fire) to
nearby objects. It is the direct heat you feel from a fire. Radiant heat does
not need a medium to travel through. It can travel through a vacuum.
For example, the sun’s energy travels through space, which is a vacuum,
and warms the earth. When this radiation hits an object, it is absorbed
and heats the object.
Burning fuel and flames radiate large amounts of heat. The intensity
of radiant heat will drop very quickly with increasing distance from
its source. Radiant heat will directly act upon fuel immediately around
the fire and bring it to its ignition temperature. The radiant heat comes
from the flames and any smouldering fuel. In summary, the hotter a fire,
the greater the amount of radiant heat, and the faster the fire will
spread by radiation.
Figure 3: Radiation.
CONVECTION
Convection is the movement of heat through the circulation of hot fluids

or gases. At a fire, heated air moves upwards when it is hotter than the
surrounding air. As air rises and moves sideways with the wind, it will
carry heat with it, and then gradually lose it to the surrounding air.
As a fire gains in intensity, it will heat more air which rises faster.
Air must move in towards the fire at ground level to replace it. This is
sometimes called an indraft wind. This process forms the convection
column of rising hot air above the fire. It also includes ash, embers and
the smoke plume. Volatile components of fuel continue to burn as they
rise. This is the main process occurring in flames.
The stronger the convection, the further the volatile components of fuel
travel as they burn, and the longer the flames. The flames from an
intense fire burning in heavy ground fuels may reach and ignite the
crowns of trees. Convection has several important implications for
firefighters:
• A fire may supply its own oxygen by continually drawing in a supply

of fresh air.
• Very large fires may create strong indraft winds that may, in turn,
alter the behaviour of the fire.
The hot air rising from a fire often carries pieces of burning fuel which
may then be carried forward in front of the fire and cause small fires to
start well ahead of the main fire. This is called spotting.
Figure 4: Convection.
CONDUCTION
Conduction refers to the transfer of heat through a solid object from a

region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature. Different
substances conduct heat at different rates. For example, metals are
more effective conductors of heat than wood.
In a fire, conduction refers to the movement of heat through the fuel itself.
Any large piece of burning fuel will conduct heat, but this is generally
a slow and minor source of heat transfer.
Figure 5: Conduction.
(g) Methods of Attacking the Fire

Understanding the fire triangle now gives you three ways to attack
a fire. Each method is designed to break the fire triangle. You can:
• Cut off the oxygen supply and smother the fire.
• Reduce the temperature and cool the fire.
• Remove the fuel from the path of the fire and starve the fire.
CUTTING OFF THE OXYGEN SUPPLY
This may be the quickest and most efficient form of attack with some
small fires. However, cutting off the oxygen supply of a large fire in the
open is usually too difficult. Firefighters can use the following methods to
cut off the oxygen supply to a small fire:
• Stamping out and beating out the flames along the edge of a
control line at a grass fire.
• Shovelling soil onto a fire. In most cases this will help to put the
flames out, but embers may continue to burn slowly.
• Laying foam on burning fuels.
• Using a fire extinguisher that applies a smothering substance to

a fire.
• Using a fire blanket to extinguish a small cooking fire or a fire

involving a person’s clothing.
HE
AT
O
FUEL
Figure 6: Cutting off the oxygen supply.

REDUCING THE TEMPERATURE
This is one of the most effective ways of stopping a wide range of fires.
When water is added to a fire:
• It absorbs a lot of the heat energy, and removes it as the water

evaporates.
• It cools the fuel below its ignition temperature.
The main purpose of using water when fighting fires is to cool the fuel
to the point where combustion stops. Water must be directed initially
to the base of the flames, where combustion is occurring. Adding water
to unburnt fuel increases its moisture content and makes it harder for
it to reach its ignition temperature.
EN
YG
OX
FUEL
Figure 7: Reducing the temperature.
REMOVING THE FUEL
Removing the fuel may be an effective way of stopping a fire.

For example if a fire involves leaking gas, turning of the gas supply will
extinguish the fire. Additionally, it may be the best way to prevent large
bush or grass fires from occurring. Dry firefighting is the term used to
describe firefighting techniques that do not involve the use of water.
The following techniques are examples of dry firefighting of bush and

grass fires:
• The use of hand tools to break up fuel and remove it from the heat
of a low to moderate intensity fire.
• The use of hand tools to remove fuels and create a narrow control
line as an edge for back burning to control a moderate intensity
fire.
• The use of machinery such as bulldozers to make a wide break or

to clear a large area to stop a large fire, or to provide an edge for
a large back burn.
• Back burning and burning out, that is removing fuels from the path
of a bush fire.
EN
HE
YG
AT
OX
Figure 8: Removing the fuel.
COMBINATION OF METHODS
Although the methods of extinguishing a fire have been dealt with

separately in this section, it should be understood that, in many
instances, it is a combination of methods that inevitably brings
about extinguishment. For example, the main effect of water is to cool the
fire. However, the production of steam has a minor secondary effect.
It helps smother the fire by keeping out the oxygen. Also, where water
is used to extinguish a flame front, a control line bare of fuels may also
be constructed to minimise the possibility of the fire re-igniting
and spreading.
4 Firefighting Agents
Firefighting agents are substances that can extinguish a fire. There is
no single agent that can extinguish all types of fires. Each has its
own characteristics and limitations. The most common firefighting agents
include:
(a) Water
Water is a cooling agent for use on Class A fires, but can be dangerous
to use on any other class of fire. Water absorbs very large amounts of
heat when it vaporises. It is the most common agent used for fighting
bush and grass fires. It can be applied from hoses, hose-reels, knapsack
sprays and water extinguishers.
Wetting agents are sometimes added to water to improve its ability to

cling to and penetrate porous combustible materials. This can improve its
cooling effectiveness on many fires.
(b) Class A Foam

Class A foam is an aerated mixture of water and a foam-making
chemical. It is mainly used for fighting bush and grass fires and is some-
times called bush firefighting foam (BFFF). It is more effective at
extinguishing such fires than plain water and can also be used to coat
buildings to help protect them from an approaching bush fire.
Most RFS tankers have foam-making equipment permanently installed

into their pumping system. It only takes the operation of a few valves to
allow foam concentrate from a special tank or 20 litre drum to be drawn
into the water being delivered into hoses from the tanker. In the RFS,
foam mixtures of up to about 1% foam (1 part concentrate to 99 parts
water) are used for protecting buildings and attacking fires, while the
mixture may be adjusted down to as low as 0.1% to 0.25% for mopping up.
(c) Class B Foam

Class B foam is an aerated mixture of water and a foam-making
chemical. It is mainly used for fighting Class B (flammable liquid) fires.
It can also be used on Class A fires, but can be dangerous to use on any
other class of fire or a fire involving live electrical equipment. Foam can
be applied from special foam making nozzles and from foam fire
extinguishers.
Most RFS tankers have foam-making equipment permanently installed

into their pumping system. It only takes the operation of a few valves to
allow foam concentrate from a special tank or 20 litre drum to be drawn
into the water being delivered into hoses from the tanker. In the RFS, the
Class B foam normally used is Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF)
used at a concentration of 6%.
(d) Extinguishing Powders

These are smothering and chemical chain reaction inhibiting agents
mainly for use on Class B (flammable liquid) fires. They are sometimes
also referred to as “dry chemical powders” (DCP). They do not conduct
electricity and can safely be applied to fires involving live electrical
power. The most common type of powder is sodium bicarbonate (baking
soda), but other higher performance powders are available, while others
(Multi-class or Tri-class powders) are also effective against Class A fires.
Extinguishing powders have little cooling effect and the fire might
re-ignite once the cloud of powder has dispersed, if there is a spark or
hot spot still present. The powder residue is messy, requires clean up,
and might damage or corrode some types of equipment.
Powder extinguishers are frequently carried on RFS vehicles. Most will

have a small extinguisher of this type in the cabin in case of a fire in the
vehicle’s engine or equipment. Tankers often carry one or more larger 9
Kg powder extinguishers to handle small flammable liquid fires.
(e) Carbon Dioxide

This is a smothering gas that occurs naturally in small quantities in the
atmosphere. It is used mainly for extinguishing small electrical and Class
B (flammable liquid) fires. It is not as powerful a firefighting agent as the
extinguishing powders, but it has the advantage of not leaving any mess
or residue. In large quantities in a confined space it can cause asphyxi-
ation.
Carbon dioxide (or CO2 for short) extinguishers are sometimes carried
on RFS tankers, especially those that regularly deal with vehicle or
electrical fires. As with extinguishing powders, the fire might re-ignite
once the cloud of CO2 has dispersed. It also makes a loud roaring noise
when applied from an extinguisher and the discharge is intensely cold,
so you should avoid directing it onto a person’s skin.
(f) Vapourising Liquids

These are smothering and chemical chain reaction inhibiting agents
mainly for use on Class B (flammable liquid) and electrical fires.
They were quite common until it was discovered that most of them
caused depletion of the earth’s ozone layer. Some industries are still
allowed use of them, notably on aircraft in flight.
Newer, ozone friendlier vapourising liquids, such as NAF P-III can be

found in some extinguishers, but are not common. You might find similar
agents sometimes used as fire protection in diesel railway locomotives.
They are not in use within the RFS.
(g) Wet Chemicals

These are smothering agents for extinguishing Class F fires in deep fat
fryers or similar situations. They are corrosive liquids that react with the
surface of the burning fat to produce a soapy layer that smothers the fire.
You might typically see wet chemical extinguishers installed in the
kitchens of fast food outlets. They are not in use in the RFS.
(h) Other Agents

Other firefighting agents may include dry earth or sand, special
chemicals and powders. Though not strictly a firefighting agent, using
a fire blanket is another way of smothering small fires. If using a fire
blanket for this purpose, be sure to hold it so that your hands are
protected from the fire as you approach. To eliminate the risk of contact
with any flames, you should also always hold and apply the blanket so
that it is draped over the near side of the fire first.
5 First Attack Firefighting Equipment
In this section we will cover first-attack firefighting. This will serve three
purposes:
• It will introduce you to the use of first-attack firefighting equipment.
• It will give you an example of how you should identify the hazards
of any activity and take action to eliminate or control them.
• It will reinforce your knowledge of how fire behaves and how it is

extinguished.
First attack firefighting is safely dealing with a fire that has just
commenced to burn. It commonly involves the use of a hose-reel, fire
extinguisher or other light firefighting equipment that is immediately to
hand. First attack fire training is frequently provided to people in their
workplace. Examples might include extinguishing:
• A small fire in farm machinery before it spreads.
• A small fire in an electrical appliance.
• A small fire in its very early stages in a house or shed.
• A small grass or stubble fire that has just started.
(a) First Attack Firefighting Equipment

“First attack” firefighting equipment can be found in many buildings and
similar equipment is carried on most RFS vehicles. It includes hose-
reels, fire blankets and extinguishers.
HOSE REELS
A hose reel usually consists of a 20 mm diameter plastic hose, wound on

a reel and connected to a supply of water. The water stream will usually
throw to a distance of about 6 metres and the nozzle often provides for
a jet or spray pattern to be selected. You will see two types:
• Those mounted in buildings are usually about 30 metres long, and

have a nozzle similar to that on a typical garden hose. They are
connected to the building’s water supply and are often designed so
that you can’t remove the nozzle from its holder without first
opening the main water valve.
• Those mounted on firefighting vehicles are usually much longer

and have a more sophisticated nozzle. They use water supply from
the vehicles tank and pump system, or an external supply to the
pump. They can only operate while there is water available and the
pump is operating. ( Note: Some tankers may have larger 25mm
diameter hose-reels).
A hose reel can be used to extinguish a Class A fire (common solid

combustibles), but can be dangerous to use on any other class of fire or
live electrical equipment. It can be operated by one person, but help is
often needed to run out the hose around any corners to get to a fire.
To operate a hose reel, you need to ensure the water supply to the hose
is on, advance the hose to within a safe striking distance of the fire, and
open the nozzle valve.
Hose Reel
Figure 9: A typical hose reel on an RFS tanker.
A fire blanket consists of a piece of fire resistant fabric that can be used
to smother a small fire or wrap around a person whose clothing is alight.
Fire blankets are often installed in kitchen areas where small cooking
fires may occur.
When using a fire blanket make sure you hold it with your hands
protected from the fire by the blanket. Place the bottom of the blanket on
the near side of the fire. Do not throw the bottom of the blanket onto the
far side of the fire as flames can then run up the blanket to your hands.
Note: that the woollen blankets carried on RFS vehicles are primarily for
protection of crew members in the case of a fire overrun, rather than for
firefighting.
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
Fire extinguishers are cylinders containing a firefighting agent which

can be discharged on to a fire when needed. Most extinguishers
are “portable” (i.e. can carried by hand) and are mounted on brackets at
a convenient height on walls or in vehicles. Larger types are sometimes
mounted on a wheeled trolley and called “mobile” extinguishers.
The most common way in which an extinguisher is operated is by pulling

out a safety pin on the head of the extinguisher and then squeezing
the operating handle while directing the stream of agent at the base of
the fire. The acronym PASS is sometimes used to describe the operation
of this type of extinguisher. It stands for:
P - Pull out the safety pin.
A - Aim at the base of the fire.
S - Squeeze the operating handle.
S - Sweep the stream of firefighting agent back

and forth across the base of the fire.
Some older types of extinguishers operate in different ways. If you might

have to operate these, have your trainer explain their operation to you or
read the instructions on the label.
Extinguishers are marked according to the firefighting agent they

contain. In the past in Australia, extinguishers were colour coded
according to the agent contained inside. From 1997, the international
colour code (red for all extinguishers) was adopted, with only a band
around the top half of the extinguisher being colour coded.
The table that follows shows the types of extinguishers, their band colour
code, the types of fire on which they can be used, and other comments.
Refer to the extinguisher chart on page 415.
Type of Colour Code Suitable for Comments

Extinguisher of band (class of fire)
Water Red A Not safe on other classes of fire
Foam Blue B, A Not safe on other classes of fire
Powder White B, (E) ‘AB (E)’ - Type powder is also

suitable for use on Class A fires
Carbon Black (E), B Has a loud and cold discharge

Dioxide
Vaporising Yellow (E), A,B Older types (e.g. BCF) have been
Liquid withdrawn from general use
Wet Oatmeal F Can also be used on Class

Chemical A fires
Extinguishers vary in their range (“reach”) and time of discharge.

A water extinguisher, for instance, has reach of 4 to 5 metres and takes
about 60 seconds to empty. A carbon dioxide extinguisher, on the other
hand, has a reach of only 1 to 2 metres and may discharge in only 10 to
15 seconds.
(b) First Attack Firefighting Hazards and Precautions

The hazards and precautions involved in first attack firefighting include:
POSSIBLE INJURY WHILE WORKING ALONE
Hazard - It’s possible you might encounter a fire in its early stages while
working alone. If you attack the fire without reporting what you are doing
to anyone else first, you run the risk of no-one coming to help you if you
are injured or need assistance.
Precautions – Always report the fire first; to those nearby and to the
brigade. If you are not alone, have one of you report it while the other/s
safely fight/s the fire.
FIRE TOO LARGE TO HANDLE
Hazard – First attack firefighting equipment has limited capabilities.

It is easy for a fire to grow to a size where it can overpower your efforts
and threaten your safety.
Precautions – Only use first attack equipment when the fire is small.
As a rule of thumb, a fire extinguisher will usually handle a fire up to
about 1 metre by 1 metre in area (even that might be too large in a con-
fined area where fumes and heat from the fire are rapidly accumulating).
If you are experienced in firefighting you might be able to extinguish a
larger fire in some cases. Don’t open doors that are hot, or show other
signs that an intense fire might be behind them.
FIRE INVOLVES DANGEROUS SUBSTANCES
Hazard – A fire might involve dangerous substances, like explosives,

sealed containers of flammable liquid or gas that might explode; toxic,
reactive or radioactive materials. All of these are too risky to attack using
first attack equipment. Flammable liquid spill fires may run downhill and
be intense.
Precautions – Check to see what the fire involves before attacking it.
If the fire or its immediate surroundings contains dangerous substances,
get well away from it and do not use first-attack equipment. Do not get
downhill of a flammable liquid spill fire. Keep a safe distance from any
fire. Use the maximum discharge range of your equipment until it is safe
to approach closer.
DANGEROUS FIRE PRODUCTS

Hazard – The smoke, heat and gases produced by a fire are dangerous,
particularly in a confined space. You could be overcome or become
disoriented and unable to find your way out safely.
Precautions – Approach the fire from upwind. If indoors, always make

sure you have a clear escape route available behind you. Evaluate
the smoke, heat and gases being produced by the fire. If you are even
slightly affected by them, it’s too risky to use first attack equipment - back
off! Keep a safe distance from any fire. Use the maximum discharge
range of your equipment until it is safe to approach closer.
INCORRECT EQUIPMENT SELECTED
Hazard – Some firefighting agents are dangerous to use on the wrong

class of fire.
Precautions – Check to see what the fire involves before attacking it.
Check that your equipment uses an agent that is safe for the type of fire
involved.
EQUIPMENT FAULTY OR DEPLETED
Hazard – First attack firefighting equipment might malfunction.

Extinguishers might be depleted (i.e. already have been discharged).
Precautions – Maintain your equipment properly. Check that your

equipment works just before you commit yourself to firefighting by
operating it briefly off to the side of the fire. This will also help you judge
the range of discharge of the extinguisher. Once an extinguisher has
been used ( even momentarily ), lay it on its side to indicate it has been
operated, and have it serviced and recharged before placing it back
in service.
(c) First Attack Firefighting Procedures

Based on the above analysis of hazards and precautions, the following
procedures are specified for the use of first attack firefighting equipment:
WARN ANYONE IN DANGER
• Tell anyone in immediate danger about the fire and that they
should get out of the area.
REPORT THE FIRE
• Report the fire, or make sure it has been reported, to the brigade
(i.e. by calling ‘000’ or by radio).
DECIDE WHETHER TO ATTACK THE FIRE
Decide whether or not to attack the fire based on the four “Ss” for safety:
• Your support – Never fight a fire alone. Always have someone

backing you up and/or who can get help for you.
• The fire’s size – Unless you are very experienced, a fire bigger
than about one metre by one metre is too large for first attack fire
fighting.
• The fire’s surroundings – A fire that involves or threatens

containers of flammable, reactive, sealed or compressed material,
or hazardous chemicals, may suddenly explode or give off toxic
fumes. They are too dangerous for first attack firefighting.
• The fire’s smoke, fumes and heat – If they are affecting you, it is
too dangerous for first attack firefighting.
If the fire is too dangerous to be attacked, evacuate the area and

(if in a building) close any doors behind you when you and other
occupants are clear.
IF SAFE, SELECT THE CORRECT FIREFIGHTING AGENT AND

EQUIPMENT
• If the fire is safe to attack, then the type of material burning will
determine the most appropriate agent and equipment to use.
• Use the information in the following table as a guide to selecting

the agent and type of firefighting equipment.
Class Type of material Extinguishing method Fire equipment

of fire on fire recommended recommended
A Common solids Cooling Hose-reel

Water extinguisher
AB(E) Powder
B Flammable and Smothering Foam, Powder, Carbon

combustible liquids Reaction Inhibition Dioxide or Vaporising
Liquid extinguisher
C Flammable Gases Starving (Shut off gas supply)
D Combustible metals Special Smothering Special agents
(E) Fires involving Smothering or Reaction Vaporising Liquid, Carbon

electricity (not an Inhibition, using a NON- Dioxide or Dry Powder
official fire class) conducting agent extinguisher
F Hot fats and oils Special Smothering Wet chemical fire exting-
uisher or a Fire Blanket
SAFELY APPROACH AND ATTACK THE FIRE
• Attack the fire from upwind if it is out of doors or in a breezy area.
• Attack the fire from uphill if it involves spilt flammable liquids.
• Don’t open a door that is hot or shows signs of fire behind it.
• Always have a safe escape route available to you.
• Check your equipment before committing yourself to firefighting.
• Keep low and stay clear of smoke, fumes and heat.
• Knock down the fire from a distance, using the maximum effective
range of your equipment.
• Lay used extinguishers on their side to indicate they are

discharged.
• If the fire is not being safely extinguished, evacuate the area and
close doors behind you when you and other occupants are clear.
AFTER THE FIRE
• Disturb the fire area as little as possible. This allows any

investigators to determine the cause of the fire more easily.
• Keep out of smoke and fire affected areas, even if the fire
appears out.
• Do not re-occupy the area until it is confirmed to be safe.
• Arrange for any firefighting equipment used to be serviced

and recharged.
SUMMARY
• The “three R’s” of firefighter safety are responsibility, reporting

and risk assessment. Safety during firefighting largely
depends on being a safe person. Aspects of being a safe
person include fitness, procedures, training and personal
protective clothing and equipment.
• As a firefighter you will be expected to identify hazards and
risks, advise others about them, use appropriate procedures to
control those hazards, review the effectiveness of those control
procedures, and participate in applying good health and safety
practices in your brigade.
• A fire is a chemical reaction that requires a fuel, oxygen, heat
and an uninhibited chain reaction to occur. Heat can be
transferred by radiation, conduction and convection. Fires are
classified according to the type of fuel that is burning.
• Wildfire (bush fire) fuels are a type of class A fuel, and can be
grouped according to type, size, quantity, arrangement and
moisture content.
• Methods of attacking a fire include to cut off the oxygen supply
and smother the fire, to reduce the temperature and cool
the fire, and to remove the fuel from the path of the fire and
starve it.
• Firefighting agents include water, Class A foam, Class B foam,
extinguishing powders, carbon dioxide, vaporising liquids,
wet chemicals and other agents.
• First attack firefighting equipment includes hose-reels, fire

blankets and fire extinguishers.
• Hazards associated with first attack firefighting include possible
injury while working alone, fire too large to handle, fire involving
dangerous substances, dangerous fire products, incorrect
equipment selected, and faulty or depleted equipment.
• First attack firefighting procedures include to warn anyone in
danger, report the fire, decide whether to attack the fire, select
the correct firefighting equipment, safely approach and attack
the fire, and take appropriate actions after the fire is out.
• In deciding whether or not to attack a fire you should consider
your support, and the fire’s size, surroundings and the smoke,
fumes and heat it is producing. If the fire is too dangerous to be
attacked, you should evacuate the area and close any doors
behind you when you and other occupants are clear.
Self-Check Questions
Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: T F
1. The three R’s of firefighter safety are responsibility,

reporting and risk assessment.
2. The four aspects of being a safe person include

your fitness, procedures, training and
personal protective clothing and equipment.
3. A factor present in the tetrahedron of combustion,

but not the triangle of combustion is the presence
of sufficient heat to sustain combustion.
4. A Class D fire is one that involves pre-heated fats

or oils as a fuel.
5. Large sized bush fire fuel particles or components

take longer to burn.
6. Heat transfer by radiation does not involve

the heating of air.
7. Water can be dangerous to use on a fire involving

live electricity.
8. The acronym ‘PASS’ can be used to describe the

method of operation of the most common type
of fire extinguisher.
9. A fire extinguisher colour coded red with a white

band would be safe to use on a fire involving
live electricity.
10. Unless you are very experienced, a fire bigger than

about one metre by one metre is too large for
first attack firefighting.
ACTIVITIES
1. Look at typical materials and objects around you at home,

at work or at the fire station/shed. What type of fuel do they
involve? If they were on fire, what class of fire would they be?
What would be the best method to use to extinguish them?
2. Look at the fire extinguishers carried by your brigade.

What type are they? Where are they stowed and how are they
released from their holder? How are they operated? On which
class/es of fires should they be used and not used?
3. Imagine that a fire has occurred among particular materials or

objects at your fire station/shed. What would be your actions?
How would you decide if it was safe to attack? What are the
“fire’s” surroundings like? What would be your escape route?
4. Find out what type of fire extinguishers are not carried by your
brigade, but might be installed in workplaces and around other
structures or vehicles in your brigade’s area.
5. Under supervision of a trainer, participate in exercises using

fire extinguishers, hose-reels and/or blankets on simulated or
actual training fires. Evaluate your own performance. What can
you do next time to improve that performance?
28
CHAPTER 2
Bush Fire Behaviour

and Hazards
1 Introduction
Chapter 1 covered fire behaviour in general. This Chapter will cover the
behaviour of bush and grass fires in particular; or “wildfires” as they are
called at a national and international level. There are three reasons for
doing this:
• It will enable you to understand the behaviour of fire, so that you

can better anticipate fire hazards and take precautions to
safeguard yourself and others against them.
• It will enable you to understand the behaviour of fire, so that you

can more effectively protect people and property from it.
• It will ensure that you understand and use the same terminology
that is used by other firefighters, so that you do not misunder-
stand orders and/or work at cross purposes to others.
2 Factors Affecting Bush Fire Behaviour
(a) Bush Fire Factors

Fires are dynamic by nature. Their movement and behaviour can be
described in terms of flame height, rate of spread (how quickly the fire is
moving through the fuels), spotting behaviour and overall intensity.
Fire behaviour depends on three main factors, namely fuel, weather and
topography.
BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS 29
(b) Fuel
Fuel may be rated as one of the most important factors influencing
the way fire behaves and travels. You need to know about fuel to
understand fire behaviour. Fuel varies in its:
• Type.
• Size and quantity.
• Arrangement.
• Moisture content.
TYPES OF FUEL
In Australia, common fuel components include:
• Grass (usually after it is partly or fully cured; that is,
dried out after it dies).
• Litter (e.g. leaf litter) lying on the ground.
• Small herbs and shrubs.
• Decomposing humus and duff (fine ground litter).
• Shrubs (heathlands or as an under-storey layer).
• Trees (eucalypts, wattles, she-oaks, pine trees).
• Material remaining after logging (including sawdust).
Most of these fuels will ignite and burn readily given the right conditions.
They will burn with different degrees of intensity. Grass fires, for
example, may spread more rapidly than a fire in a tall, dense forest which
generally burns slower but more intensely. Eucalypt fuels, in particular
bark, are well known for causing spotting.
FUEL SIZE AND QUANTITY
Fuel is normally classified as fine or heavy (coarse). Fine fuels (less than
6mm in diameter) such as leaves, twigs and grasses burn readily and
cause spotting as the burning embers are carried through the air,
starting new fires ahead of the main fire. Coarse or heavy fuels (greater
than 6mm in diameter) such as sticks, branches and logs tend to ignite
less readily and burn more slowly.
30 BUSH FIRE BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARDS
It is mainly fine fuels that drive the forward spread of a fire, while the
heavy fuels are consumed in the smouldering zone behind the main fire
front. The fine fuel is ignited first, and then this heats the heavy fuel,
enabling it to burn. The proportion of fine fuel and heavy fuel affects the
rate of spread and intensity of the fire. The volume of fuel affects fire
behaviour. Generally, the more fine fuel there is, the greater the rate of
spread, and the greater the intensity of the fire.
ARRANGEMENT OF FUEL
Depending on the size of the individual fuel particles, the way pieces
of fuel are arranged in relation to one another affects how they burn.
Well-separated pieces of fuel are harder to ignite than more closely
grouped collections of the same material. This is because radiant heat
diminishes rapidly the further it travels.
Fuels that are tightly packed together or compacted, such as peat,

smoulder slowly because of the lack of oxygen and generally higher
moisture content.
Fine, loosely stacked materials burn quickly and fiercely. A continuous

“ladder” of fine fuel from the ground surface to the crown of the
vegetation encourages crown fire development.
MOISTURE CONTENT
Fire behaviour is affected by how damp fuels are, that is their moisture
content. The fuel moisture content will vary depending on factors such as
weather conditions, vegetation type, the moisture content of the soil and
whether the fuel pieces are living or dead vegetation. Fuel that is dry and
fine will burn better than heavy fuels that are wet. Some grasses for
instance, will not burn readily until fully dried out (cured).
All dead fuels take up or give off moisture according to:
• The daily temperature and humidity cycles. Dead fine fuels

change their moisture content rapidly in response to these
cycles, while heavy fuels vary slowly and rarely reach extremes
of wetness or dryness.
• The time since last rainfall and the amount of rain received.
Over a number of days, the effects of recent rainfall will
disappear. This happens more rapidly in fine fuels than in
heavy fuels.
• The dryness of the soil. Dry soil will dry out fuels in contact
with it, and wet soil will moisten such fuels.
As there is normally more moisture in heavy fuel, it takes more heat to

dry the fuel and cause ignition. For this reason, most heavy fuels burn
much slower than finer fuels. The dryness (or moisture content) of fuels
affects:
• Ease of ignition.
• Probability of spotting.
• Rate of combustion.
• Rate of fire spread.
• The amount of heat radiated from the flames.
The drier the fuel, the greater are these factors for the type of fuel that is
burning.
MEASURING FUEL MOISTURE CONTENT
Several techniques can be used to measure the moisture content of

fuels. Fuel moisture content is sometimes estimated by taking into
account weather conditions, temperature, relative humidity and the
current seasonal dryness. Visual assessment of grass and crop lands
can also be used.
The most common technique used, however, involves drying fuel

samples in an oven and determining the moisture content by measuring
the weight difference before drying and after drying.
(c) Weather
Weather is the second major factor that impacts on the spread of fire.
The four key elements of weather are:
• Air temperature.
• Relative humidity.
• Wind (speed and direction).
• Atmospheric stability.
AIR TEMPERATURE
The sun warms solid objects, such as fuels, and the surface of the land.
This has the effect of raising the temperature of the fuels and the air.
A change in the temperature, and the resulting change in relative
humidity, will change the fuel moisture content and subsequently the
ease of ignition. Therefore higher temperatures normally mean fuels that
are warmer, drier and more easily ignited.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
All air contains a certain amount of water in an invisible gaseous form

called water vapour. Relative humidity is a measure of the water vapour
content of the air as a percentage of its water vapour holding capacity at
the same temperature.
In the absence of rain, the amount of moisture in dead finer fuels,

for example leaves, litter and grass, varies according to the level of
humidity in the air. On humid days, fine dead fuels absorb moisture from
the air and burn more slowly or may not burn at all. On dry days with low
humidity levels, the air will draw moisture out of these fuels and they will
ignite more easily, and burn faster and more fiercely.
FIRE INTENSITY
DAY NIGHT
0600hrs 1800hrs 0600hrs
Figure 10: Fire intensity increases as the temperature rises and

relative humidity falls during the day. It is reduced as humidity
increases and temperature drops at night.
WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION
Wind speed is an important factor in determining the intensity of a fire,

the speed at which it travels and how it is controlled. Wind supplies
oxygen for the burning process, removes ash and smoke from the area
and has the effect of increasing the rate of burning. The stronger the
wind, the more oxygen is supplied to the fire and the more smoke
is removed.
Wind slants the flames over the fuel ahead of the fire and causes the
flames to be closer to the ground. This increases the heating effect of
flame and radiation on the unburnt fuels ahead. The effect of this is to
spread the fire more quickly from one piece of fuel to another.
Wind also bends the convection column through taller vegetation ahead
of the fire, causing it to dry out rapidly. This may allow the subsequent
ignition of this vegetation.
The wind may also lift burning materials, such as bark and other embers,
and carry them ahead of the main fire to start new fires. These are called
spot fires.
Figure 11: Effects of wind.
Wind direction refers to the direction the wind is coming from.

Sudden changes in wind direction can cause shifts in the fire front.
These shifts can be particularly dangerous if they occur unexpectedly.
Firefighters require information regarding any potential changes in wind
direction to help them attack a fire and to ensure crew safety in
the event of the fire changing direction. A knowledge of local wind
patterns is helpful to firefighters.
A dangerous aspect of wind change is that it can alter the direction

of the fire without warning. This can cause long and relatively quiet fire
flanks to suddenly become active fire fronts.
LEVEL OF ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
Atmospheric stability refers to the vertical movement of air masses which

occurs when hot air rises and is replaced by cooler air. Atmospheric
stability is important because vertical air motion can affect local wind
patterns. Atmospheric stability also determines, to a large extent,
cloud development and in particular the possibility of thunderstorm
development. In stable atmospheric conditions:
• The vertical movement of air is limited.
• Stratus type clouds (layered) are often present.
• Smoke columns drift apart after limited rise.
• There are fog layers.
• The winds are generally light and predictable.
Fire behaviour will be predictable in these circumstances.
In unstable atmospheric conditions, fire behaviour is erratic.

Convection columns will develop rapidly and intense spotting may occur
with little warning. In turn, the airflow into the fire at low levels is
increased, and this has marked effect on fire intensity. In unstable
atmospheric conditions:
• Vertical movement of air occurs easily.
• Cumulus (cotton wool) type clouds show noticeable

vertical growth.
• Smoke columns can rise to great heights.
• Winds are gusty and unpredictable.
• Lightning strikes may occur from thunderstorms.
• Strong winds may occur from thunderstorms and rain clouds*.
• Whirlwinds (“willy-willies”) may occur.
Fire behaviour can be unpredictable under these conditions.

Note: that an unstable atmosphere can also be indicated by clear,

blue sky, conditions. The Haines Index is a convenient measure of
atmospheric stability and moisture. It is a figure from 2 to 6. Up to three
points are allocated for the level of instability and up to three points for
the level of dryness. A Haines Index of 5 or 6 can indicate very unstable
and/or dry air and usually means fire behaviour will be unpredictable and
“flukey”. A map of the state is regularly provided to the Service by the
Bureau of Meteorology, showing the Haines Index for various areas.
* Strong outflow winds may occur from thunderstorms and rain clouds in
an unstable atmosphere. These are called “downbursts”. Small down-
bursts are called “microbursts”. While they last for only 10 to 30 minutes,
they can be quite strong and affect fire behaviour with little warning.
A “wet” microburst originates from storm clouds, but a “dry” microburst
can originate from fairly ordinary looking clouds. In a dry microburst,
falling rain causes a strong downdraft of air. As this rain falls it reaches a
dry layer of air and evaporates. This cools the air and makes it descend
even faster. The only sign of a dry microburst, before the wind hits, might
be “virga”. That is, rain that falls, but does not reach the ground. It will be
visible as wisps of rain below the affected cloud.
(d) Topography
Topography describes the lay of the land, that is the shape of the terrain.
The topography will affect the direction and speed at which a fire will
travel. The effects can be quite complex, as the topography will at the
same time modify the local wind speed and direction.
SLOPE
If a fire is travelling upslope, there will be a shorter distance for radiant

heat to travel from the flames to unburnt fuel. Upslope fuels will be
preheated to their ignition temperature more quickly. Slope can then
affect the speed of a fire. A rule of thumb that may be used is, for every
10 degrees of upslope, double the rate of spread. For every 10 degrees
of downslope, halve the rate of spread. A 20-degree upslope gives a
four-fold increase.
Figure 12: Effect of uphill slope.
Figure 13: Fires burn slower downhill.

ASPECT
Aspect is the direction that a feature or slope faces. This will influence
the amount of solar radiation that is received. Therefore, northerly and
westerly aspects will be warmer and drier than southerly and easterly
aspects. This will also influence the nature of the vegetation growing
on different aspects. For example, northern and western aspects will
generally have drier and more flammable vegetation than southern
and eastern aspects where vegetation will tend to be lush and less
flammable.
Therefore, fires on northern and western aspects will generally have

greater levels of intensity than fires on southern and eastern aspects.
WIND
The way that wind interacts with terrain can be quite complex. Exposed
faces of hills and ridges will have increased wind speeds, while their
leeside may be almost calm. Under some circumstances, the leeside
can have dangerous turbulent winds blowing in the reverse direction.
Valleys may have similar conditions.
Figure 14: Lee slope turbulence.

3 Bush Fire Development
(a) Introduction
Fires can be generally described in terms of the fuel in which they are
burning. This section briefly examines the characteristics of the different
types of fire, and defines important parts of a fire’s perimeter.
(b) Types of Fire

SURFACE FIRE
This type of fire travels just above ground surface in vegetation such as
grass, low shrubs and forest litter. It has the following characteristics:
• It is by far the most common type of fire.
• It burns in fuels lying on the ground.
• It consumes only litter and low vegetation, such as grass.
• It does not extend into the crowns of trees.
GROUND FIRE
This type of fire burns the organic material in the soil layer, as happens
in a peat fire, and often also the surface litter and small vegetation.
It has the following characteristics:
• It occurs only in a few parts of Australia.
• It smoulders with no flame and little smoke. This can be a

problem because they can burn unnoticed and may later ignite
surface fires.
CROWN FIRE
This is a fire which burns in the crowns of trees ahead of, and above, an
intense fire in the undergrowth. Radiant heat and direct flame contact
resulting from the surface fire ignites the tree tops. Strong winds
carry the fire along the upper storey vegetation. It has the following
characteristics:
• It is a fast-travelling fire that is most destructive and usually

consumes all in its path.
• Crown fires are followed shortly afterwards by an intense

surface fire.
• Often crown fires are accompanied by short or long distance

spotting. Spotting distances of 2.5 kilometres are not
uncommon.
• Falling material from a crown fire can start further surface

fires below.
• Crown fires are exposed to higher wind speeds in the open

air and because of this can move faster than surface fires.
Ground fire Surface fire Crown fire
Figure 15: Types of fire.
BUILDINGS AND BUSH FIRES
Bush fires can involve buildings by three ways:
• Through exposure to radiation generated by a fire near the building.
• Through fire spreading through combustible material around

the building.
• By burning embers penetrating the building or igniting nearby

combustibles.
The most common and serious method of buildings becoming involved in

fire is ember attack. Embers can enter openings in the building such as
vents or broken windows and ignite combustibles inside. They can also
be caught in the corners of roofs, beams, fence posts or any fixtures,
fittings or furnishings around the house.
(c) Spotting
A spot fire is a new fire which has been ignited ahead of a main fire by
embers or a burning object often called a fire brand. This occurs when
hot, convected air from a fire lifts the embers and drops them in front of
the main fire.
Factors that impact on spot fires are:
• Atmospheric instability, which determines how vigorous the

convection column is and how easily it can carry embers aloft.
• Fuel moisture content.
• Breaks in a forest canopy which cause downdrafts.
• The nature of the fuels being burnt - eucalypt stringy bark is

most prone to causing mass spotting. Stringy bark eucalypts are
commonly associated with mass, short-distance spotting (up to
one or two kilometres), whereas candle barked eucalypts may be
associated with very long-distance spotting.
Some problems arising from spot fires are:
• The effective rate of spread of a main fire front may accelerate

rapidly if spot fires start ahead of it.
• In a wind of varying direction, the spread of spot fires will be

unpredictable.
• Turbulence on lee slopes and elsewhere may drive spot fires

back towards the main front and may cut off firefighters.
If fire brands start to fall in the area around you and many spot
fires begin to occur in the area, the situation is critical. You must
evacuate from the area immediately. Do not attempt to suppress
multiple spot fires unless you have sufficient resources and a large,
safe refuge is available.
(d) Parts of a Bush Fire

The shape of a fire may be defined by its perimeter – the edge of the
burnt area. Within this there may be burning areas, smouldering areas
and blackened areas, as well as pockets of unburnt fuel. There will also
be a point of origin that may or may not be identifiable without detailed
investigation. Components of the perimeter, as illustrated, include:
• Point of origin.
• Rear or heel.
• Head of a fire.
• Flanks or sides.
• Fingers.
• Spot fires.
Rear or Heel
Point of origin
Flanks/sides
Finger
Finger
Unburnt pocket
or island
Head Spot Fire
Flanks/sides
Finger
Finger
Spot Fire
Figure 16: Parts of a wildfire.

POINT OF ORIGIN
This is the area where the fire started. The likely point of origin
should, if possible, be left undisturbed and secured for later fire cause
determination.
HEAD OF A FIRE
The head of a fire is where the fire is making its greatest progress
(usually downwind or upslope) measured by its forward rate of spread.
The head is also called the fire front. Flames are tallest and intensity
of the fire is greatest at this point. The head of the fire is influenced
by wind direction, fuel factors and topography and will change
accordingly.
FLANKS OR SIDES
Both sides of the fire between the head and the rear are called the
flanks. They are roughly parallel to the main direction of spread.
The intensity of the fire at the flanks is less than at the head. Often they
are described by their geographic location (for example, the eastern flank
of a fire) or by their orientation as viewed from the rear of the fire
(for example, the left or right flank).
A dangerous aspect of wind is that it can change the direction of the

fire without warning. This can cause long and relatively quiet flanks
to suddenly become active fire fronts.
FINGERS
These are long and narrow slivers of the advancing fire which extend
beyond the head or flanks, and are caused by varying wind direction or
variations in fuel.
REAR OR HEEL
This is the section of the perimeter opposite to, and usually upwind, or
downslope from, the head of a fire. It is the least intense part of the fire’s
perimeter with the lowest flame height and slowest rate of spread.
It may be described as the back of the fire.
4 Typical Examples of Bush Fire Behaviour
(a) Introduction
Bush fires in different fuels can behave quite differently. In this section we
will cover some typical examples, showing how the general principles of
bush fire behaviour can apply in different ways.
(b) Sclerophyll Forest Fires

Sclerophyll forests cover much of the coastal and mountainous areas
of the state and extend well into the interior in many places. The most
obvious species in these forests are eucalypt trees. The forest may be
dry or wet, the latter being more common in higher rainfall areas and
sheltered valleys. A fire in a sclerophyll forest is what most Australians
probably visualise when they hear the words “bush fire”.
Photo by Adam Hollingworth
Figure 17: Fire in a sclerophyll forest.
The main fuel in sclerophyll forests is the leaf litter that continually falls
to the ground, dries out, accumulates and gradually decomposes. It is
this leaf litter that provides most of the fine fuel for any surface fire.
The leaves of eucalypt trees contain flammable oils. If fire conditions are
severe enough, the surface fire will spread to the leaves in the trees,
forming a crown fire. In a severe fire, the heavier fuels such as
branches, logs and tree trunks can become involved in fire, particularly
if they are already dead and dried out. Under severe conditions,
burning embers and brands will be produced by the fire, which can be
carried forward by convection currents and the wind and start spot fires
well ahead of the main fire.
Here are some typical figures to give you a ‘feel’ for how fires of this type
might behave:
• A typical dry sclerophyll forest fire burning in moderate fuels

under low to moderate fire danger conditions will typically have
flame heights of about 2 to 3 metres, travel at about a few
hundred metres per hour, and be unlikely to spot.
• Under high fire danger conditions, the same fire might have
7 or 8 metre flame heights, move at around a kilometre per hour,
and spot up to about two kilometres ahead.
• Under extreme conditions, the fire would be crowning, moving

at a couple of kilometres an hour, and spot up to 6 kilometres
ahead.
Fire is a natural part of the environment in a sclerophyll forest. Not only

are many of the species fire resistant, but some actually depend on fire
to trigger new growth and to germinate seeds. How severe and how
often fires occur (the “fire regime”) will determine the mix of vegetation
that will develop in such a forest. There is debate over just what fire
regime is “natural”.
(c) Grass Fires

Grasslands occur in virtually all cleared areas and across a significant
part of the interior of the state. Some are natural, some consist of
improved pasture and others consist of crops such as wheat. Most are
“annual grasses”. That is they grow, develop, die and dry out over a
yearly cycle. During their growth phase they may be quite green and
resistant to fire, but as they dry out and become “cured” they transform
into a highly combustible fine fuel. In pasture, the fuel load is often
dependent on how much the grass has been grazed.
Figure 18: Grass fire.
Grass fires are mainly made up of burning fine fuels and therefore
have a very short “residence time”. That is, the fuel burns out very quick-
ly. Persistent fires may occur in patches of scrub, trees, fence posts,
stumps and in areas with lots of cow pats. Grass fires are less prone to
spotting than forest fires, but some grass, such as Phalaris, will some-
times have seed heads that can catch alight, be blown ahead of the fire
and cause spot fires.
For the same conditions, fires in grasslands travel much faster than fires
in open forests.
• On average, in fully cured pasture, under low to moderate fire

danger conditions, a grass fire will typically have flame heights
of up to a few metres, and travel at a couple of kilometres
per hour.
• Under high fire danger conditions, the same fire might have 3 or
5 metre flame heights, and move at several kilometres per hour.
• Under very high to extreme conditions, the fire may have flame
heights exceeding 5 metres, and move at well over 10 kilometres
an hour.
Wide fire breaks (e.g. 10 metres wide) can stop fast spreading grassfires
most of the time. However, if there are any trees near the upwind side of
the fire break, they can often become involved in fire and generate spot
fires on the other side of the break.
(d) Scrub Fires

The word “scrub” can mean a wide variety of things. Generally scrub fires
involve either one of three situations: scrub within a sclerophyll forest,
thick scrub with few or no trees (e.g. coastal heath), and more open
scrub (e.g. mallee) typical of the drier western areas of the state.
A problem common to all is that the scrub reduces visibility, making it
more difficult for firefighters to see hazards around them.
The absence of fire in a sclerophyll forest over several years often

leads to the development of a scrubby understorey. This significantly
increases the fire fuel load and is arranged so as to allow much faster
burning. Fires in scrubby forest are less predictable than in open forest
and may travel up to three times faster under the same conditions.
Photo by Robert Tito
Figure 19: Fire in coastal scrub.
Scrub in coastal areas can also have unpredictable fire behaviour.

The arrangement of the fuel may vary considerably within a short
distance. In one spot the fuel may be widely separated and fire
behaviour may be mild. Close by, however, may be a patch where the
fuel is more closely arranged and is just the right arrangement for
sudden and severe combustion.
The more open scrub in western areas might sometimes be too widely
separated to support a spreading fire. Under more severe weather
conditions, however, the larger flames encountered will allow fire to
travel readily through the same scrub.
(e) Pine Plantation Fires

There are large stands of pine plantation forest in many areas in the
state. Pine trees are not fire resistant and even moderate fires can kill
them, especially up to the age of about 10 to 12 years.
Photo supplied by State Forests NSW
Figure 20: Pine plantation.

Stands of plantation trees are generally all of the same age, and the fire
characteristics will vary as they grow. For example:
• Young trees will be surrounded by grass and any fire will

basically be a grass fire.
• Pine trees have branches that extend almost from the ground
to the top of the tree. From 3 to 6 years old, even moderate fires
may crown.
• From 7 to 10 years old the pine canopy closes over and the
surface grass may be replaced by a mat of pine needles.
The dead needles are most combustible when they turn “red”.
• From 11 to 20 years, harvesting may take place and grass may

reappear as the forest is thinned.
Pine slash may be on the ground after forest crews clear low hanging
branches. Fires in pine needle “duff” may smoulder deeply, and fires can
smoulder through root systems underground.
(f) Severe Fires

Severe fires can occur after a period of hot, dry weather that lowers the
fuel moisture content. A spate of windy weather and/or atmospheric
instability can then result in any fires easily getting out of control.
In these conditions fire behaviour will be extreme. There may be

extensive spotting and ragged fire fronts. Thick smoke may reduce your
ability to see what the fire is doing and there may be sudden flare-ups as
the fire hits areas of heavy fuel, steep slopes or strong wind gusts.
Firefighting under such conditions can be difficult and confusing.

Communications systems may sometimes become overloaded.
People can be excited and afraid. If firefighting units do not work to
procedures they can easily get at cross-purposes with each other.
Safely protecting your community during such conditions might be one of
your biggest challenges as a firefighter.
5 Bush Fire Hazards and Precautions
(a) Introduction
In this section we will cover hazards that are typical to bush firefighting
and the precautions you need to take against them. You will find many of
these precautions being mentioned again in this Manual when it covers
the firefighting situations in which they would normally be applied.
It might come as a surprise to you to know that most deaths and injuries
to firefighters are not directly related to a fire. In a recent 10 year period
there were 15 volunteer firefighter deaths in the state. These included:
• 5 due to heart attacks.
• 3 due to falling trees.
• 3 due to fire overruns.
• 2 due to vehicle accidents.
• 2 due to other medical conditions.
In addition, there were about 200 injuries each year serious enough to
warrant a compensation claim. Again, only a minority of these were
directly related to fires. The most common were sprains, strains,
fractures, dislocations, cuts and bruises; usually caused by trips, slips

and falls.
(b) Heart Attacks

Hazards – Firefighting is demanding and strenuous work. It can require
physical activity over a long time with moments of extreme exertion,
in hot and hazardous conditions. It can ask a lot of a fit person. It can be
too much for a person who already has a high risk of heart attack. Nearly
all who have died of heart attacks while firefighting had pre-existing heart
conditions known to them, but not to others in their brigade.
Figure 21: Firefighting can be strenuous.
Precautions – If you have a heart condition or have high heart disease

risk factors (e.g. a family history of heart disease and high blood
pressure and cholesterol levels), consult with your Doctor. There are
many other activities that need to be done at fires apart from being at the
sharp end of activity. Use a common sense approach and volunteer for
activities that are safely within your range of fitness.
Some members believe that heart attack victims should not be counted
as “real” firefighter fatalities. Remember that, regardless of the cause,
if you die in the course of duty you are still just as dead! Think also of the
effect it will have on others around you. Apart from the distress that any
death within a brigade causes, you might become incapacitated at a
critical moment and endanger others.
For some activities (e.g. the use of compressed air breathing apparatus)
regular medical examinations are required. These have been specifical-
ly designed to ensure the activities involved do not pose a threat to a
person’s health.
(c) Other Medical Conditions

Hazards – Apart from heart disease there are other medical conditions
that might place you at unusual risk during some firefighting activities.
In particular, any chronic condition that might result in a sudden loss of
consciousness, that affects your mobility, dexterity or perception, or
which can be made worse by unexpected exertion, excitement, heat or
smoke.
Apart from these chronic conditions, temporary illness and injury can
affect anyone. For example, over-exertion while you are suffering
an infection like the flu can sometimes result in a (possibly fatal) heart
condition. An injury such as a sprain or fracture can also be made worse
if you over-exert yourself before it has properly healed.
Precautions – If you have a chronic condition, consult with your Doctor.

Again, there are many other activities that need to be done at fires apart
from being at the sharp end of activity. Use a common sense approach
and volunteer for activities that are safely within your range of fitness.
If you are recovering from an illness or injury, check with your Doctor
about how soon you should resume such activities as firefighting.
Don’t assume that because you are OK to go back to work you are OK
to go firefighting, especially if you do sedentary work.
(d) Falling Trees and Branches

Hazards – Trees and branches fall all of the time. It is a natural part of
their life cycle. During fires it is very common for branches and trees to
fall as a result of fire damage, or simply because vegetation that was
holding dead branches aloft has now been burnt away. Falling branches
and trees are deadly hazards. It is unusual to be struck by one without
being killed or severely injured.
Some “falling tree” accidents have occurred during tree falling

operations with chain saws, but the most common have involved a tree
falling onto the occupied cabin of a brigade vehicle that just happened to
be parked nearby. A particularly dangerous time is during mopping up as
you are often fatigued and less alert for such hazards.
For some activities (e.g. the use of compressed air breathing apparatus)
regular medical examinations are required. These have been specifical
Figure 22: Fire damaged trees can fall with little warning.
Precautions – Treat fire or storm damaged trees as if they were a

minefield. Actively look out for falling tree and branch hazards. Look up
for them and think about where it is safe to position. Avoid positioning in
any potential “drop” areas. Wear your helmet at incidents (except when
in a vehicle cabin), especially during mopping up operations. Chain saw
operators are often better at looking out for tree and branch hazards as
they are more used to assessing how trees are likely to fall. Seek their
advice and learn how to spot the hazards from them.
A similar hazard, especially in hilly areas is from rolling logs and rocks.
Fire damage might remove vegetation that previously prevented them
from rolling or falling. Don’t position or traverse areas where such
hazards exist on the slope above you. If you are extinguishing or
mopping up fires in logs, chock them if safely possible, don’t get below
them and don’t disturb them such that they could roll down on to people.
(e) Fire Overruns

Hazards – A fire overrun is when firefighters are trapped on foot, or while
in a vehicle, by a bush fire. It past cases the firefighters involved often
had less than one minute’s warning of it occurring, although the
conditions leading up to it may have developed over quite a long time.
While personal protective clothing (PPE) and vehicle protective devices

will often help, it is not possible to make them such that they can
withstand a close exposure to a severe fire overrun. Your safety largely
depends on avoiding fire overrun situations in the first place.
(positional only)
pic to be scanned in from
photo
Figure 23: Burnt out tanker.
Fire overruns typically occur when people are operating on a slope

above a fire, and/or there is a change in wind direction. Often the
attention of firefighters is focussed on something else at the time, which
delays them from realising the danger they are in.
Note that most fire overruns do not occur at big, severe fires, but at small
incidents or in “quiet” sectors of larger incidents. Few seem to occur
during actual firefighting. Most happen while entering, transiting or
exiting an area, or while “going to have a look” at a fire.
CSIRO bush fire researchers have coined the phrase, “The Dead Man
Zone” to describe any area within about 5 minutes of possible overrun
from a fire. If you’re operating in this area you need to be able to see,
or be warned immediately about, any change in fire behaviour, have a
refuge available close by, and go to it straight away if your safety is
threatened.
Precautions – Before any firefighting or related activity, the risk of

fire overrun needs to be assessed. Always wear your issued personal
protective clothing when operating in the vicinity of a fire. Never light
a back burn, or conduct burning out, without specific orders from
your supervising officer and confirming that the affected area is clear
of people.
Before any bush firefighting or related activity, your Crew Leader should
appoint someone to act as lookout for the crew against any threat from
the fire, warn the crew of any danger, and ensure that suitable
safety refuge/s are close by. The RFS uses the LACES checklist,
(Lookout – Awareness – Communications – Escape Route/s – Safety
Refuge/s).
As a firefighter, you should always stay aware of what the fire is doing
and have an “out” planned and agreed with others in the crew, in case
things go wrong. You should always know where your safety refuge is
located and how to get to it. If you are on foot in the open a safety refuge
needs to be clear of significant vegetation to a distance of about 4 times
the expected height of the flames (or a place of equal safety) and should
be no more than about 30 seconds jogging time away.
Your tanker should always keep enough reserve of water to use for
self-protection (e.g. 1000 litres in the case of large Cat 1 tankers) and
you should be familiar and well practiced in the use of your fire overrun
emergency procedures.
(f) Vehicle Accidents

Hazards – As a firefighter you will typically be a passenger and perhaps
sometimes a driver on a firefighting vehicle. You might also be driving
your own private vehicle to or from your fire station/shed or the
incident. Vehicle accidents typically occur when surface conditions are
wet and slippery, when speeding and/or when the driver is fatigued.
Accidents are more common during “on road” than “off road” driving.
(positional only)
on final hi-res scan need to erase district
name, brigade name, logo and NSW Rural
Fire Service markings on crashed vehicle.
Figure 24: Crashed tanker.

Some severe vehicle accidents have involved “modifications” made to

vehicles. Typically the water tank or other large items of equipment have
been relocated without considering the effect on axle loading and the
controllability of the vehicle. Some serious accidents have involved crew
members riding on the backs of vehicle or trailers, or not wearing
seatbelts.
Precautions – Remember that when you are driving your private

vehicle, including to a fire, you are required to obey all road rules and
drive safely for the conditions. Drivers of emergency vehicles using lights
and sirens have some exemptions from road rules, but are still expected
to operate safely at all times.
Drivers of fire tankers, especially those who are mostly familiar with
driving heavy road vehicles or their own car, should remember that the
tyres used on fire tankers are a compromise between the needs of
“on road” and “off road” conditions. They will not grip a surface as well as
purpose designed road tyres, especially in wet conditions. Never carry
out unauthorised modifications to vehicles.
Always wear seatbelts. The “you’re safer without a seatbelt” story is

a dangerous myth. It is also the law that they be worn, and drivers
should refuse to move the vehicle until all the crew are “belted up”.
Apart from during actual firefighting from the crew operating area of a
tanker during a grass fire, you should always travel within the cabin of
the vehicle. Don’t wear helmets while travelling within a vehicle as their
weight can make you more vulnerable to a whiplash injury.
(g) Traffic
Hazards – Bush and grass fires may occur along the edges of busy
roads. Fire vehicles may need to operate close to passing traffic,
sometimes in smoky conditions. The risk exists of a vehicle hitting a
firefighter, colliding with a firefighting vehicle or equipment. These risks
are usually greater in built up areas, along major highways and for
brigades who regularly respond to vehicle fires and accidents.
Photo by Dean Sewell
Figure 25: Roadside operations.
Several tankers may also be used in a moving “attack formation” while

fighting running grass fires, and a risk of collision may exist, particularly
in smoke.
Precautions – Keep off the road as much as possible. Check for, and
avoid traffic before entering and while on any road. Don’t enter a
roadway when visibility is poor (e.g. due to smoke). Help set up vehicles,
lights, signs, cone markers and/or personnel to warn, slow, stop or divert
traffic as instructed by your Crew Leader. Make sure you are wearing
your protective clothing (which incorporates high visibility day colours
and night time reflective material).
While attacking a running grassland fire, vehicles should stay in a

constant “attack formation” relative to each other, in sight of each other,
and sufficiently clear of each other. Vehicles leaving the attack formation
(e.g. to refill with water), should look out for other vehicles, advise their
intentions on the radio, pull away from the fireline into a safe area, and
not back track until well clear. Vehicles joining the attack formation
should generally approach, and join from behind the others, along the
already extinguished fireline.
(h) Extreme Temperatures

Hazards – Bush firefighting is often conducted during hot and
sometimes humid, conditions. In addition you are subject to the heat
radiated from the fire, and the heat your body is producing, especially
when you are working strenuously. These can lead to heat exhaustion
and heat stroke. Heat stroke is a very serious condition and is
potentially fatal.
Photo by David Miller
Figure 26: Firefighters in hot conditions.
RFS activities are also conducted during quite cold conditions.

Night-time temperatures can drop significantly, even during summer; and
most brigades respond to incidents of various types throughout winter.
Cold temperatures combined with moisture from hoses, rain, sleet, dew,
snow or sweat, can create a risk of hypothermia, especially during windy
conditions.
Precautions – Work at a comfortable pace. Wear appropriate protective

clothing (e.g. do not wear a structural fire coat over your bush fire
jacket). Drink plenty of water. Don’t rely on your thirst as an indicator,
drink more water than you think you need. Do not drink alcoholic,
caffeine-rich or sugary soft drinks. Share the workload and take
regular breaks. Don’t expose yourself to the heat of the fire or the
sun unnecessarily.
Recognise the symptoms of heat exhaustion and heat stroke.

Heat exhaustion’s symptoms may include: cramps, clammy skin, feeling
faint, light-headedness, dizziness, headaches and nausea. Heat stroke’s

symptoms may include high body temperature; red, hot, possibly dry
skin, weakness or collapse, deliriousness, rapid pulse and breathing
rate, and seizures.
Where heat exhaustion or heat stroke is evident, you should: remove

the affected person from further exposure to heat sources, loosen the
person’s clothing to allow for the evaporation of perspiration, and provide
an adequate intake of fluids (small sips of water or weak cordial) at
regular intervals if conscious. If heat stroke is suspected, it is a life
threatening emergency. You must get medical help at once.
Wear appropriate warm clothing when working in cold conditions and try
to keep dry. Signs of hypothermia can include shivering, apathy,
confusion, disorientation, exhaustion, slow pulse rate and collapse.
The treatment is to get the victim sheltered, gently re-warm them and get
medical help.
(i) Trips, Slips and Falls

Hazards – Bush firefighting often involves clambering on and off
firefighting vehicles, setting up equipment in unfamiliar locations, and
operating over rough and/or steep ground. These activities are often
done under urgent conditions and sometimes in poor light and/or smoke.
Occasionally you may need to work at heights or use ladders. Trips, slips
and falls can occur readily if precautions are not taken.
Precautions – Avoid running or leaping from one point to another on the

fireground. Pace yourself and do not allow the urgency of a situation to
blind you to hazards. Wear your issued boots and ensure they are done
up so as to provide strong but comfortable ankle and foot support.
Set up equipment such that it is less likely to be a trip hazard.

Face towards the steps when getting on or off a fire vehicle and use the
hand rails provided. Pass equipment down from a tanker rather than
climbing down with it. Always properly fold/extend/lock and position lad-
ders before use, and tie off and/or foot ladders while in use. If working at
heights, use railings or safety equipment to prevent you from falling.
(j) Electrical Hazards

Hazards – Damaged or broken power lines, and power lines arcing when
blown in contact with each other in the wind can start fires. Wooden
power poles and cross-arms can become involved in fire. Fallen power
lines can energise any conductive thing they contact. Metal fences, for
example, can become electrified. Actual contact with power lines is not
needed to receive a shock. The ground around fallen wires will be
electrified for some distance. High voltage power transmission lines can
arc violently to the ground if a significant fire is burning underneath them.
Figure 27: High voltage lines over fireground.
Vehicle accidents might involve a collision with power poles, or

electrical apparatus such as transformer boxes, traffic light control boxes,
lighting stanchions and telephone boxes. A vehicle involved in such an
accident might be electrified and hazardous to approach.
One of the greatest electrical hazards to firefighters is contacting

overhead lines while carrying, setting up or using ladders, or even just
coming into close proximity of such wires in such cases. Most buildings
have overhead electrical wires running into the eaves at the front.
Carrying a ladder vertically under such wires can easily result in
electrocution.
Precautions – Look out for and keep clear of power lines. Assume any
fallen wires are live until power supply authorities have confirmed
otherwise. Do not approach within 8 metres of a fallen power line.
Warn others of fallen power lines, or vehicles or items that might have
become electrified. Look out for electrical wires and hazards when
carrying and setting up ladders, and when working aloft. Don’t set up
ladders close to where powerlines feed into a building.
Do not use water on electrical fires. (Later you will be shown some
circumstances where it is safe to use water, with certain precautions,
on some types of electrical fires under strict supervision. These precau-
tions, for example, can enable water to be applied safely onto a house
involved in fire from well clear on the outside; or onto a fire involving the
tops of electrical poles.) Do not position or apply water on any
significant fire within 25 metres of any point under high voltage power
transmission lines.
(k) Bush Fire Smoke

Hazards – Exposure to heavy smoke can be a hazard to firefighters.
Smoke irritates eyes and lungs and, in serious cases, can lead to lung
collapse. Heavy bush fire smoke may also contain harmful gases,
especially if hazardous substances become involved in the fire
(e.g. fumes from materials dumped in the bush or in buildings that
become involved). Smoke can also increase your level of fatigue and
restrict your visibility, making you less able to see and avoid other
hazards.
Figure 28: A firefighter uses eye wash to treat the effects of smoke
irritation.
Precautions – Avoid unnecessary exposure to smoke, use your smoke

mask and goggles to protect your eyes, mouth, breathing passages and
lungs. Take extra care for other hazards when conditions are smokey.
(l) Burning Buildings and Vehicles

Hazards – Burning buildings and vehicles involve some hazards that are
different from those of a bush fire. Fires in buildings and vehicles involve
a range of natural and synthetic materials, most of which give off dense
smoke and dangerous gases when burnt. In the confined space of a
building or vehicle, these will quickly build up to deadly levels.
Nearly 70% of the heat of a fire is given off as hot convection currents.
At a bush fire this heat can escape upwards, but at a fire inside a struc-
ture it is often trapped inside. This can lead to a very rapid development
of a fire. It can go from a small flame to totally involving a room in under
two minutes. Sometimes, if a building is fairly well closed up, the devel-
opment of the fire can be limited by the shortage of air. If you were to
open a door on such a fire, thus restoring a good air supply, an explosive
increase in fire intensity called a backdraught can occur.
Once well involved in fire for several minutes, many building materials
will weaken and fail. The roof and walls may collapse, inwards or
outwards. Live power lines feeding into the building may break and fall to
the ground. Power cables within a building may be exposed as their
insulation is burnt away. In addition, many buildings may contain
hazardous materials like gas cylinders, flammable liquids, corrosives,
poisons and other chemicals.
Vehicles on fire involve additional hazards such as fuel tanks and sealed
components (e.g. shock absorbers, tyres and tail shafts) that might
explode. Some vehicle incidents will involve electrical hazards and many
might involve hazardous materials in the luggage or cargo. Vehicles
might also roll or tip over during a fire.
Figure 29: Protecting property from a bush fire.

Precautions - Keep well clear of any smoke or gases given off by a struc-
ture fire. If you are in a building or vehicle that becomes involved in fire,
you need to get out before conditions become dangerous. That might be
a matter of only two minutes or less.
Unless you are equipped with compressed air breathing apparatus

(CABA) and trained in its use and interior firefighting techniques, do not
enter, or open up, a building to fight a fire. Keep well clear of the
structure itself, potential wall collapse areas, and potential power line
collapse areas.
Fight any fires involving a building or vehicle from a safe distance, in

clear air. Always assume some hazardous materials might be involved.
Look out for, remain well clear of, and report any hazardous materials, or
cylinders, drums or bottles that might contain hazardous materials, and
any part of the fire that burns with an odd intensity, flame colour, smoke
colour or odour. Look out for any electrical hazards (e.g. downed power
lines or vehicle collision with light poles or electrical equipment) and keep
clear of any areas where a vehicle might suddenly roll or tip.
(m) Fatigue
Hazards – Firefighting is often long and arduous. Fatigue is a problem in
a number of ways: it can lead to physical or psychological exhaustion, it
can make you less able to make clear decisions and see and avoid
hazards, and it can lead to you falling asleep at a dangerous time
or place.
Figure 30: Fatigued firefighters.

Precautions – Stop, revive, survive! Pace yourself, make good use of

your rest breaks, keep well hydrated (drink plenty of water), get adequate
meals, avoid alcohol or using stimulants (like caffeine) and, when
you have been relieved from firefighting, leave immediately and get
some rest.
(n) Cuts, scratches, burns and bruises

Hazards – Injuries of this type are associated with working with hand
tools, clambering through fences and thorny vegetation, catching
fingers in nip points (like the spokes of a hose reel) and contact with hot
embers, exhaust pipes (e.g. on pumps), ash or other hot substances.
Other variations include being poked in the face by tree branch ends,
and stepping into hotspots where the fire is burning below the surface of
the ground. Tetanus is a serious disease that can be contracted from cuts
or scratches in some cases.
Precautions – Always wear your protective clothing while operating on

the fireground, including gloves and goggles when needed. Keep a safe
distance from others using hand tools. Ensure people are clear
before you use hand tools. Carry hand tools safely (so you will not hit
the blade if you should fall). Avoid working when fatigued and keep a
look out for hazards. Having current vaccination against tetanus is
recommended.
(o) Exposure to sunlight

Hazards – Bush firefighting is an outdoor activity conducted
predominantly during the summer. Exposure to sunlight over several
hours can lead to severe sunburn. It might also contribute to the long
term development of skin cancers. Glare may lead to eye strain and not
seeing other hazards.
(positional only)
pic to be scanned in from photo
Figure 31: Firefighter applying sunscreen - during a rest break.
Precautions – Slip, slop slap! Wear your protective clothing and use
SPF15+ sunscreen on exposed parts of your body. Re-apply sunscreen
every two hours when needed. Wear sunglasses when appropriate.
(p) Poor Hygiene

Hazards – Consuming contaminated food or water can make you sick.
Firefighting is an activity that can make you fairly grubby. Washing and
toilet facilities may be very basic at times. Eating food with contaminated
hands can lead to disease. Eating food that has been kept in warm,
unhygienic conditions can lead to food poisoning.
Precautions – Ensure your drinking water is clean. Don’t drink water

from fire tankers or hoses; it may be contaminated with firefighting
chemicals. Wear protective gloves while working. Wash your hands
before eating and after going to the toilet. Don’t eat food that has
been made or kept under unhygienic conditions. Be especially cautious
about foods that can easily deteriorate in warm conditions, such as meat
and cheese.
(q) Critical Incident Stress

Hazards – Firefighting might involve seeing horrific sights, like a person
that has been badly injured or burned, or that is in distress. For most
people, the sight of injured animals is also upsetting. It is a completely
normal human response for you to feel bad about such events.
Sometimes the stress of such events might lead to feeling ill or faint;
or to bad dreams, anxiety, anger, drug or alcohol problems, sleepless-
ness or other personal problems. This can sometimes persist well after
the event.
(positional only)
pic to be scanned in from photo
Figure 32: Some fires may involve tragic losses.
Precautions – Expect that you will feel bad about critical incidents, and
know that it is OK to feel that way. The Service provides Critical Incident
Support Services (CISS) for all members involved in a critical incident.
These services can help you deal with any critical incidents much better
and are available on request (if not provided automatically) from your
Fire Control Officer. If any problems persist following a critical incident,
further professional assistance can also be provided.
(r) Hazardous Materials

Hazards – You might occasionally run across hazardous materials
during bush or grass firefighting. Hazardous materials include
explosives, flammable liquids and gases, other compressed gases,
reactive materials, oxidising substances, poisons, biological hazards,
radioactive materials, corrosives, dusts, and materials stored at very high
or low temperatures or pressures.
Typical examples might include farm chemicals, flammable liquid

containers and/or gas cylinders, herbicides, pesticides, grain dust (which
can be explosive in some circumstances) and waste materials. These
might be in bulk facilities, in farm sheds, and in and around
houses. They might not always be in marked containers. Sometimes
such materials might be dumped in an area susceptible to grass or bush
fires. In some areas the production of illicit drugs might introduce
additional hazards. The production of some drugs involves the use of
chemicals that can explode or catch fire if mishandled. Drug production
facilities and drug plantations will obviously not be marked. There may be
“security” systems including fences, bars, locks, booby traps, dogs and
armed occupants.
Figure 33: Dangerous goods may be present at a bush fire.

Chemicals used in firefighting, such as wetting agents, retardants and

foam concentrates can also involve health hazards. Many fire
stations/sheds will also have stocks of cleaning chemicals.
Precautions - Become familiar with where such materials may exist in

your area through pre-incident planning. Always expect that any incident
might involve hazardous materials. Be suspicious of any package, item,
leak or fire with an unusual odour, appearance or behaviour.
Approach from, and remain, upwind and well clear of fires as far as
possible. Your Crew Leader will call for specialised assistance (e.g. NSW
Fire Brigade hazmat teams) if the presence of hazardous materials is
suspected. Safely “decontaminate” and wash equipment after use.
When handling chemicals, follow the precautions specified by the

supplier. Material safety data sheets (MSDS) for chemicals used within
the Service include such precautions. They have been supplied to all Fire
Control Officers for issue to each brigade. The precautions typically
involve the use of protective gloves and eye goggles as a minimum.
(s) Manual Handling

Hazards – The most common form of injury in Australian industry is back
injury due to inappropriate manual handling; although its occurrence
among volunteer firefighters is relatively low. Firefighting sometimes
involves the need to handle heavy items such as portable pumps, and to
stow and retrieve awkward items, such as hoses and chain saws, from
lockers on tankers. If such actions are not done correctly, it might lead to
injury or make an existing injury worse.
You might have to retrieve items stored up on vehicle roof lockers and
pass them down to fellow firefighters. In addition, you may often have to
operate under stressful conditions where there is pressure to complete
tasks quickly. Unless you have well-ingrained, good manual handling
habits, you might slip back into “bad habits” that could lead to injury.
Precautions – As far as possible, the stowage of equipment on your

vehicle/s should be designed so that relatively heavy and/or frequently
used items are stored in positions where they are the easiest to access.
The three basics rules of manual handling are to not exceed your
personal carrying capacity, use your legs not your back for lifting, and to
avoid twisting while lifting. As you cover each task during your training,
the precautions needed as regards any manual handling (e.g. how to lift
and carry hoses) should be followed.
Figure 34: Firefighters carrying a portable pump.
Heavy items should not be lifted by one person alone. Such items will
normally be placarded (e.g. “two-person lift”). Good lifting technique
requires some practice before it becomes an automatic habit. Whenever
lifting an item, think through how you will do it first, so as to use your legs,
avoid using your back and to avoid twisting.
When carrying out “locker drill”, especially for items that are stored on the
roof of a tanker, note and practice the correct way to pass them down to
others at ground level safely. Don’t carry items up or down while you are
using vehicle access steps. Get in the habit of moving items correctly
all the time. That way, under the stress of an incident you will do it
correctly and not injure yourself.
Manual handling injuries can also be related to a person’s level of fitness.

A poorly conditioned person, for example, or someone with an existing
injury or weakness from an old injury or illness may be more prone to
injury. In you fall into any such categories, you should speak with your
Doctor or a physiotherapist about the matter, and advise your brigade if
you need to avoid certain activities.
(t) Hearing Loss

Hazards – Some equipment (e.g. chain saws and some types of pumps)
used at fires or other incidents may have a high noise level. Exposure to
high noise levels over time will lead to hearing loss.
Precautions – Know which equipment requires the use of hearing

protection when in use. Wear the specified hearing protection, such as ear
plugs and/or ear muffs when exposed to equipment with a high noise level.
(u) Bites and Stings

Hazards – Bites or stings from ants, bees, wasps, spiders or (to a
lesser extent) ticks, snakes, lizards and larger animals are a common
injury to firefighters working in the bush. Leeches may also be a problem
in some areas.
Precautions – Watch out for insect nests and trails, and other animals.
In particular, check where you stand or sit, before stopping in one spot.
Wear your protective clothing and keep an eye out for spiders or insects
that may drop onto other people. Consider buttoning up the cuffs of
your protective pants if that will help and will not lead to heat stress.
After being in areas where they occur, check yourself for leeches and/or
ticks. Seek immediate medical attention if you receive any significant
bite or sting.
(v) Violence
Hazards – Most people are happy to see firefighters, but that is not
always so. Some people may regard firefighters as unwelcome guests,
an intrusion into their privacy, a threat to criminal activity they are trying
to conceal, or as representatives of a society they hate. Sometimes
people may be upset that you are not taking action they believe you
should, or not doing it quickly enough. Sometimes you might just
happen to be a convenient target when someone is already cranky.
Precautions – Be aware of places in your brigade area where people

with negative attitudes to firefighters might exist. Be aware of the mood
of people at the scene of an incident. Avoid doing or saying anything that
could provoke a violent confrontation. Wear your protective clothing and
equipment. In the case of criminal activity, civil disorder or persons
armed with weapons, keep a safe distance until the situation has been
stabilised by the Police.
(w) Poor Communications

Hazards – If some information or orders are not received or not
properly understood, you might start to work at cross-purposes to
other firefighters or not become aware of a developing hazard.
Poor communications might be due to technical problems with radios,
but more commonly it is because of misunderstandings about verbal
communication.
Precautions – Maintain regular contact with other firefighters around

you. When you are given an order (either face to face, or by radio),
repeat back the key points so that the other person knows you have
received and understood it correctly. Follow the communications
procedures given in more detail later in this Manual.
(x) Poor Team Work

Hazards – Firefighting is a hazardous activity that requires a sensible
and disciplined approach. Safety can often depend on working together
cooperatively. Ignoring the need for effective teamwork and just
“doing your own thing” might put others in great danger.
Precautions – Stay together and work together as a team. Don’t do

things on your own initiative without checking whether they could
endanger or get at cross purposes with others. Follow the team work
principles given in more detail in a later section of this Manual.
(y) Poor Decision Making

Hazards – Most of the key decisions will be made by your Crew Leader
and other officers in the chain of command. Their ability to make good
decisions (i.e. that keep you safe) is affected by the quality of information
they have about what is going on, and how much attention they can
focus on what is happening. If they have to spend most of their time
coaching and correcting what you are doing, they will have less time to
watch out for hazards and look after the entire crew.
Precautions – Assist officers in decision making by providing them with

relevant and timely information about what is happening, especially
about anything that could be a hazard. Develop and maintain your own
level of competence. Follow the crew resource management (CRM)
principles given in more detail in a later section of this Manual.
(z) Other Hazards

The above are by no means the only hazards associated with fire
fighting. For example each piece of equipment has its own hazards,
and needs appropriate precautions to be applied when in use. Later in
this Manual, different pieces of equipment, their hazards and precautions
will be described.
Every activity has its own hazards. It is essential, before you engage in
any firefighting or related activity, that you think about what hazards are
likely to be involved and what precautions you need to take. This is called
“risk assessment”. It will be explained in more detail in a later chapter.
SUMMARY
• An understanding of fire behaviour is needed to avoid fire

hazards, protect people and property from fire and not get at
cross-purposes with other firefighters.
• Factors affecting bush fire behaviour include fuel, weather and
topography.
• Bush fire fuels vary as regards their type, size and quantity,
arrangement and moisture content. Types of fuel include leaf
litter, herbs and shrubs, humus and duff, trees and logging
waste. It is fine fuels (i.e. less than 6 mm in diameter) that drive
most of the forward spread of a fire. Tightly arranged fuels are
more difficult to ignite. Widely dispersed fuels will not carry fire
easily. Fine, loosely stacked fuels can burn quickly and
fiercely. The lower the moisture content of the fuel the more
combustible it becomes.
• The key elements of weather include temperature, relative
humidity, wind and atmospheric stability. A higher temperature
and lower humidity will mean drier, more combustible fuels.
Wind speed can determine the speed of fire travel. Wind
direction can determine the main path taken by a fire.
An unstable atmosphere can increase the unpredictability
of a fire.
• Topography refers to slope and aspect, and may affect how
wind behaves across terrain. Fires travel twice as fast for every
10 degree increase in slope. Northern and western aspects
get more sun and the fuel is likely to be drier. Terrain can
modify how wind behaves.
• Fires may be burning in surface, ground (e.g. peat) or crown
fuels. Under some conditions burning embers and brands may
be carried ahead of the fire by the wind and cause spot fires.
• The parts of a bush fire include the point of origin, the rear or
heel, the head of the fire, the flanks or sides, fingers and spot
fires.
• Fires in sclerophylll forests burn mostly in the leaf litter, but
under severe conditions will also involve the crowns of trees.
• Grass fires occur in cured (dead, dry) grass. They are much
faster moving than fires in forests.
SUMMARY
• Scrub fires spread faster than forest fires and may have
unpredictable changes in behaviour.
• Pine trees can be destroyed by moderate fires. Pine plantation
fires vary in characteristics according to the age of the trees.
• Severe fires can occur after periods of hot, dry weather and can
be difficult to control.
• The main causes of firefighter fatalities in the RFS are heart
attacks, falling trees, fire overruns and vehicle accidents.
• Bush firefighters need to be familiar with the hazards and
precautions relating to heart attacks, other medical conditions,
falling trees and branches, fire overruns, vehicle accidents,
traffic, extreme temperatures, trips, slips and falls, electricity,
smoke, buildings or vehicles on fire, fatigue, cuts, scratches,
burns and bruises, sunlight, poor hygiene, critical incident
stress, hazardous materials, manual handling, hearing loss,
bites and stings, violence, poor communications, poor team
work and poor decision making. Before undertaking any activity
you should carry out a risk assessment.
1. It is fine fuels that mainly drive the forward spread

of the fire, whereas heavy fuels are consumed in the
smouldering zone behind the main fire front.
2. The drier the fuel the lower the intensity of the fire.
3. A higher temperature and a lower relative humidity

will decrease the moisture content of a fuel.
4. A Haines Index of 6 indicates an unstable

atmosphere and may lead to “flukey” fire behaviour.
5. A fire travelling up a 20 degree slope would move

four times as fast as a fire in the same conditions
on level ground.
6. A ground fire typically involves grass and scrub.
7. The head of the fire is where the fire started.
8. For the same conditions, fires in scrub can move faster

and less predictably than fires in open sclerophyll forest.
9. If you have a heart condition or high heart disease

risk factors it is wise to consult with your Doctor about
your participation in strenuous firefighting activities.
10. Fire overruns are the main cause of fatalities to

bush firefighters.
ACTIVITIES
1. Visit parts of your brigade area with a trainer or officer.

Discuss the sort of fuel, topography and typical weather
patterns that occur and their likely effect on fire behaviour?
2. Read articles about fire overrun accidents in the Firefighter

Safety Digest. How did fire behaviour, and an appreciation of
that behaviour, figure in the accident?
3. If you are over 40, suffer from a chronic illness or have high
heart disease risk factors, discuss how your activities within
the RFS might relate to them next time you visit your Doctor.
4. Visit areas of bushland (especially if they have been fire

damaged). Have an experienced officer and/or chain saw
operator point out how to recognise and avoid falling tree
and branch hazards.
5. During your day to day activities, deliberately look for things

that could be a hazard during firefighting. For example: thick
bush, cured grass, north-west aspects, sloping terrain, power
lines, damaged trees, busy roads, and hazardous materials,
equipment and tasks. Consider how you would keep yourself
safe from each.
75
CHAPTER 3
Bush Firefighting Equipment
1 Introduction
This Chapter will describe the features, and cover the safe use and care,
of equipment typically used for bush firefighting. In particular:
• Personal protective equipment (PPE).
• Hand tools, knapsacks, ropes and ladders.
• Hoses and small gear.
• Water supplies and equipment.
• Pumps and pumping.
2 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

You are required to be issued with a set of firefighter’s personal
protective equipment, to use it and to care for it correctly. Bush fire
fighter personal protective equipment consists of:
• Two piece firefighter protective clothing or overalls.
• Firefighter’s helmet.
• Firefighter’s boots.
• Firefighter’s gloves, goggles, disposable respirator and water bottle.
• Firefighter’s emergency protective hood.

76 BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT
In addition, you might also see other personal protective equipment in

use, namely:
• Black wool jacket.
• Offensive structural firefighter’s protective equipment.
• Hazmat (hazardous materials) protective equipment.
Warning
Your PPE is “fire resistant”, but no PPE is “fire proof”. That is, it won’t
self-sustain a flame, but it can be damaged if an external flame or hot
ember is continuously applied to it. If you are exposed to a fire overrun,
your PPE will protect you past a point that you would not normally
be able to survive without injury. But remember that a bush fire can
easily produce a fire intensity that can destroy both you and your PPE,
or for that matter any PPE that is possible to make. It may well give you
the vital few extra seconds of protection you need to get to a place of
safety, but it is not an indestructible “suit of armour”.
(a) Bush Firefighter’s Protective Clothing

Your bush firefighter protective
clothing consists of a two-piece set
of trousers and jacket, or single
piece overalls. They are designed
for both bush firefighting and
defensive structural firefighting
(i.e. firefighting from outside the
building). They are manufactured to
meet (International Standard) ISO
15384 and (Australian Standard)
AS 4824 (Int) 2001.
The garments are designed to allow

your body heat to escape readily
and minimise heat stress. They do
this by having a loose fit, underarm
vents, and loose cuffs on the
sleeves and ankles, so that air
can circulate freely. They should
be worn with the press-studs down
the front of the overalls or jacket Figure 35: Bush firefighter
fastened up. in protective clothing.
BUSH FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 77
The garments are designed to protect you against normal levels of

exposure to radiant heat from a fire, normal wear and tear associated
with firefighting, and survivable fire entrapment conditions. They do this
by being made from a heavy cotton fabric, reinforced at key points (e.g.
the knees) and treated with Proban flame retardant. The retardant
is designed to prevent the material from self-sustaining a flame.
This treatment will last the life of the garment, provided it is cared for
correctly. The garments are designed to be worn over your own normal
natural fibre clothing (e.g. wool or cotton). Do not wear undergarments or
socks of non-fire resistant synthetic material.
In case of a fire entrapment, the collar can be raised and closed at the
front, the cuffs on the sleeves and ankles can be closed up with press
studs, and a drawstring around the bottom of the two piece jacket can be
tightened by overlapping the drawstrings and re-affixing them to the front
Velcro patches. The retro-reflective tape markings on the garment are
also flame resistant and have an extra layer of fabric underneath them
for additional insulation against conducted heat.
The garments feature several pockets for gloves, goggles, disposable

respirator, entrapment hood and other accessories. The trousers of the
two piece set can be fitted with a webbing belt for carrying a water
bottle. The bright yellow fabric and retro-reflective tape markings make
the garments highly visible during both the day and night, to the
extent that additional high visibility clothing is not required if working
near traffic.
The garments can be washed in any conventional washing machine on

a cold or warm wash cycle. Only synthetic detergents should be used
(e.g. Cold Power, OMO, Dynamo, Bio-zet, Spree, Castle, Drive, FAB,
Radiant or Surf). Do not wash them in soap based powders (e.g. Lux,
Velvet or Advance) or in hypochlorite based bleaches (e.g. Domestos
or White King) as this may affect the fire retardant qualities of the
garments. Garments should be hung out to dry naturally.
Firefighting garments often become quite dirty and should normally

be washed separately from other clothes. If excessively stained or
soiled, pre-soaking for up to 2 hours might be useful. Garments may be
dry-cleaned. If a garment has been contaminated with a hazardous
substance they may require safe decontamination or disposal. Your Fire
Control Officer will arrange for this if needed.
(b) Bush Firefighter’s Helmet

Your issued bush firefighter’s helmet is designed for both bush fire
fighting and defensive structural firefighting (i.e. firefighting
from outside the building). They are manufactured to meet (Australian
Standard) AS 1801 Type 3.
Figure 36: Bush firefighter’s helmet.
The helmet is designed to protect you against falling objects, radiant heat
from a fire and hot embers. It is fitted with a fire resistant neck flap, an
adjustable head-band and a neck strap. You should ensure the head
band and neck strap are adjusted to your size, so that they fit firmly, but
not tightly. The height of the head band can also be adjusted, but do
not reduce the clearance between the head-band and the helmet shell
as this can reduce both its protective effect against impact and the
circulation of cooling air.
Helmets have an indefinite shelf life, provided they are properly

maintained. They need only be condemned if they are split, cracked,
discoloured, distorted or weathered. Parts, such as the neck strap and
head band, can be replaced separately if needed.
Do not modify the helmet in any way, drill holes in it, paint it or affix
non-standard markings to it. Do not store it in direct sunlight or leave it
exposed to the weather. Do not use solvents or harsh cleaners to clean

the helmet: Use only warm water and household detergent.
Helmets should be inspected regularly. Inspection should include

checking the harness for ease of operation, cracks, breakages and
correct adjustment. Check the harness is attached properly to the helmet
shell, and for any splits, cracks, discolouration, distortion or weathering
of the shell of any other components. Wash or replace the headband and
neck strap. Check markings are still properly affixed.
You will be issued with a badge and retro-reflective tape to be fitted

to your helmet. (In some cases they will come supplied already fitted).
Apart from making your helmet more visible at night, these markings also
identify the various ranks in the Service. You should be familiar with the
following colour code:
AL FIRE AL FIRE
UR S
UR S
R
ER
R
N.S.W
ER
N.S.W
VICE
VICE
Firefighter Deputy Captain
AL FIRE AL FIRE
UR S UR S
R
R
ER
ER
N.S.W
N.S.W
VICE
VICE
Senior Deputy Captain Captain
Figure 37: Bush firefighter’s and brigade officer’s helmet colour code.
(c) Bush Firefighter’s Boots

Your bush firefighter’s boots are to be worn during either bush fire
fighting or defensive structural firefighting (i.e. firefighting from outside
the building). They are manufactured to meet (Australian Standard) AS
4821 (Int):2001 firefighter’s footwear type 1.
Figure 38: Bush firefighter’s boots.

The boots are designed to help protect you against conducted heat from
burning material, smouldering ash or hot water, radiant heat from the
fire, and sharp objects. They will also provide ankle support to help
prevent ankle injury when working on uneven ground. The boots should
always be worn with clean socks made from a natural fibre such as wool
or cotton.
Most bush firefighter’s boots have a traditional lace-up design, but a

version is also available with adjustable laces and a zip fastener to allow
for quicker donning. These are more commonly used by firefighters who
are more likely to need to respond quickly to structure or vehicle fires.
The boots need to have a secure and comfortable fit to provide best
protection. New boots will take some time to wear in and the laces
may need to be adjusted as this occurs. Any pattern of lacing that is
functional and comfortable is acceptable.
Boots should be cleaned after use with a damp cloth, after removing any
debris with a brush. Wet boots should be allowed to dry naturally
at room temperature. Do not use artificial drying as this may cause
the leather to shrink, harden and crack. The leather uppers should be
treated with a leather preservative. Boots should be stored in a clean, dry
place out of direct sunlight.
You should regularly check your boots for any deterioration to the
leather, laces or soles; and replace them if needed. In particular, you
should check for any separation between the sole and the upper,
excessive scratches or tears to the leather, and any cracks, excessive
wear or damage to the sole. Check the stitching and seams for breaks,
separation and splitting.
Check the zipper (if fitted) for ease of operation and attachment.
New zippers can be lubricated with soap or wax. Boots should be
regularly cleaned. Replace any defective parts and return the boots to
the manufacturer for any major repairs.
(d) Bush Firefighter’s Gloves

Your bush firefighter’s gloves are for use during either bush firefighting or
defensive structural firefighting (i.e. firefighting from outside the
building). They are manufactured to meet (International Standard)
ISO 15383 type 1 and (Australian / New Zealand Standard) AS / NZS
2161.6 (Int):2001.
Figure 39: Bush firefighter’s gloves.
The gloves are designed to help protect your hands against conducted
heat, radiant heat, sharp objects and similar hazards. Painful injuries to
hands and fingers occur commonly to bush firefighters unless gloves are
worn. Always carry a pair of gloves with you and wear them while using
hand tools and while working near the fire. They should be worn such
that they overlap with the sleeves of your firefighting jacket or overalls.
Gloves are available in a range of sizes. You should select a pair that
provide a comfortable fit and allow time for them to wear in.
Gloves should be regularly checked for tears, cuts, holes, loose or open
seams, abrasion damage or excessive wear. You should also check
for substances that might have impregnated the gloves, discolouration,
charring or other deterioration. Replace the gloves, if needed. Gloves
should only be repaired by the manufacturer or supplier, or other
authorised person. They should be stored in a cool, dry area, out of
direct sunlight and away from sharp objects.
Check the gloves regularly for cleanliness. If needed, and at least

once every six months, gloves should be washed in warm water.
Gloves should be cleaned as soon as possible if they have been
contaminated or exposed to tar, fuels, oils, or resins. If they have been
contaminated by hazardous materials they should be decontaminated or
disposed of in a safe manner.
To clean gloves, remove any debris by brushing. Scrub them with

a medium bristle brush for about three minutes then rinse them
thoroughly in clean water. Gloves should be dried in a shaded,
cool place, and should not be wrung dry. Gloves can be machine
washed, but only in a front loading machine with a tumbling action at
a temperature between 50 to 60 degrees Celsius. Do not use chlorine
bleach or chlorinated detergents to clean gloves.
(e) Bush Firefighter’s Goggles

Your bush firefighter’s goggles are for use during either bush fire
fighting or defensive structural firefighting (i.e. firefighting from outside
the building). They are manufactured to meet (Australian Standard)
AS 1337:1992 and other specifications set by the NSW Rural Fire Service.
Figure 40: Bush firefighter’s goggles.

The goggles are designed to help protect your eyes against

bush, embers, dust, smoke and similar hazards. Always carry goggles
with you in a pocket of your protective clothing or on your helmet.
Don and wear them while working near the fire or other similar hazards.
Make sure the headband is adjusted to give a snug fit. Generally goggles
are donned before your helmet is put on.
Goggles should be regularly checked for scratches, chips, cracking or

other damage. Replace the lens if needed. Check the open cell foam for
any damage and replace it, if needed. Check the headband is attached
securely and properly adjusted. Goggles should be stored in a cool,
dry area, out of direct sunlight and away from sharp objects. Do not store
them such that their shape will become distorted.
Check your goggles regularly for cleanliness. Wash goggles, when

needed, with mild soap and water and rinse with clean water. Air dry
or pat dry with tissues. Do not use ammonia, abrasive or alkaline
cleaners. If using a lens cleaner, use only those recommended by the
manufacturer.
(f) Disposable Respirator

Your disposable respirator is for use during bush firefighting, when
needed. It is specifically designed to filter out smoke sized particles and
is constructed of fire resistant materials.
You should carry your disposable respirator in a pocket of your

protective clothing and don it whenever working in smoky conditions.
Current versions of the respirator are designed to withstand distortion
when stored in your pocket. Check your respirator regularly and replace
it if it has become contaminated or damaged.
(g) Firefighter’s Flash Hood

Your firefighter’s flash hood is for use if in danger from bush fire
overrun. It is also worn by firefighters trained in offensive structural
firefighting (i.e. firefighting from inside a building using breathing
apparatus). They are manufactured to meet (International Standard)
ISO 11613.
Your flash hood should be carried in a pocket of your protective

clothing. If in danger from fire overrun or entrapment, remove the flash
hood from your pocket. Don your respirator and goggles (if not already
donned). Raise the protective collar of your protective clothing. Don the
flash hood over your goggles, respirator, head, face and collar. Check the
hood is closed around your goggles, but does not impede your vision.
Finally, don your helmet. Do not wear the flash hood on your head
or around your neck during normal bush firefighting as it will cause
unnecessary heat stress.
Figure 41: Firefighter’s flash hood.
Regularly check that your flash hood is available and free from damage
such as burns, charring, tears, holes, abrading, fraying or loss of shape.
Replace it, if needed.
Regularly check that your flash hood is clean, and dry. Hoods should be
washed in regular detergent in warm water. Do not use chlorine bleach
or detergents containing chlorine bleach. Shape and lay flat in a cool
shaded location to dry. Do not wring or squeeze the hood dry. Hoods may
be dry-cleaned. Store the hood in a cool, dry place, out of direct sunlight.
(h) Water Bottle

Firefighting is demanding work, often carried out during hot conditions.
Without water you can become less effective, dehydrated and even
dangerously ill. Drink water often during breaks while firefighting.
Always carry a water bottle when bush firefighting, and fill it only with
fresh, clean water. Cordial or other additives can slow down the rate at
which you can absorb the water, and plain water can also be used for
first-aid purposes.
Water bottles are designed to be carried in pouches that can be attached

to a webbing belt that fits onto your two piece firefighter’s trousers.
Your appliance should have a generous supply of drinking water on it to
replenish your water bottle when needed. Water carried on the appliance
for firefighting is unsuitable for drinking as it may be contaminated with
wetting agents or other additives.
(i) Black Wool Jacket

In some areas, firefighters may be issued with a black wool jacket.
These have a yellow shoulder cape and high visibility, retro-reflective
taping and back marking. They can be used during defensive structural
firefighting (i.e. firefighting from outside of a building) and operations in
cold weather conditions. They are not to be used during offensive
interior structural firefighting.
The jacket features a zip front with a flap that closes over the zipper
with Velcro. A high collar can also be raised and closed over at the front.
Pockets are provided on the front of the jacket, plus a water proof
pocket inside the liner. When not in use, the jacket should be stored in
a clean, dry place.
Figure 42: Black wool jacket.

If you have been issued with a black wool jacket, regularly check it for
any fraying, contamination, deterioration or other damage. Minor repairs
to change the length of cuffs, stitch small holes or frays, or repair closure
fittings are acceptable. Otherwise, have it repaired by an authorised
person to the original manufacturer’s standard or replaced, if needed.
If the jacket gets wet, hang dry it in a cool shaded place. Dry clean only.
(j) Other (non-bush firefighting) PPE

You might see other forms of personal protective equipment in use by
firefighters engaged in offensive structural firefighting or handling
hazardous materials (hazmat) incidents. A brief description of each is
given below:
OFFENSIVE STRUCTURAL FIREFIGHTING PPE
About two thirds of the heat of a fire in the open air escapes as hot
convection currents. In a building fire, however, this hot convected air
can become trapped within the structure. The result is a much hotter
firefighting environment for firefighters, although the fire can usually be
extinguished fairly quickly. PPE for offensive structural firefighting
(i.e. fighting fires inside structures) is more resistant to such heat.
It is bulkier and holds in body heat much more than bush firefighting
PPE, but usually does not have to be worn for as long a time.
It consists of firefighting over-trousers (worn over the standard bush

firefighting trousers), an offensive firefighter’s jacket (with an outer shell
and an inner insulating layer, worn over a normal natural fibre under-
garment), structural firefighter’s boots, structural firefighter’s helmet,
structural firefighter’s gloves, flash hood and compressed air breathing
apparatus (CABA). It is used by rural firefighters in larger villages who
have special training and certification in offensive structural firefighting.
The multi-layer jacket and single layer trousers are made from a
synthetic, fire resistant material called aramid. While some natural fibres
can have similar fire resistance, aramid has an additional advantage:
If damaged by severe heat it will not fall apart as easily when flexed (e.g.
by a person moving while wearing it) and it might therefore continue to
provide protection for just a few seconds longer in the same conditions.
The boots are similar to bush firefighter’s boots but incorporate a quick
donning zipper. The helmet is much heavier than that used for bush
firefighting and incorporates a close fitting aramid ear and neck protector
and a clear, retractable visor. The weight of the helmet is such that it is
not recommended for long duration bush firefighting. The gloves are
similar to bush firefighter’s gloves but have an inner liner. The breathing
apparatus set consists of an air cylinder, backpack and harness and
facemask. The set usually has a working duration of around 30 minutes
and operators have to work under strict safety procedures. The flash
hood is worn around the breathing apparatus facemask and is donned
before putting on the helmet.
Figure 43: Bush firefighter in offensive structural firefighting PPE.
HAZMAT PPE
Some emergencies can involve hazardous materials, such as various

chemicals. By law, only firefighters from the NSW Fire Brigades can
handle hazmat incidents in NSW. However, RFS personnel might be first
on the scene, and may keep people away from it and take other safe
actions to contain the incident until specialised NSW Fire Brigade
hazmat crews arrive.
RFS firefighters are authorised to handle small incidents involving

common flammable liquid or gas fuels (e.g. petrol, diesel, kerosene,
natural gas and LP gas) that do no normally require the use of hazmat
PPE. In some areas there might also be special arrangements for
selected RFS personnel to provide support (e.g. water supply) to NSW
Fire Brigades during hazmat operations.
Hazmat firefighters usually use airtight suits made of chemical-resistant

material. The suits are usually designed to be decontaminated and
re-used, but disposable suits are sometimes used. Decontamination
(“decon”) facilities have to be set up to support hazmat operations.
Decon is carried out very meticulously as firefighters might otherwise
accumulate minute, but dangerous, “doses” of hazardous chemicals over
several incidents, even just in the process of getting out of the PPE.
Photo supplied by NSW Fire Brigade
Figure 44: NSW Fire Brigades’ firefighters in hazmat PPE.

3 Hand Tools
Some simple common handtools can be extremely effective in fire
fighting operations. The most common handtools used in bush fire
fighting are the axe, the rakehoe (combined heavy rake and hoe) and
various types of slashers. The pulaski handtool (combined axe and hoe)
may also be used in specific types of vegetation.
(a) Axe
The axe is used for many activities other than fire suppression.
Many axes are abused and may become unsuitable for cutting tree
trunks or branches. Once an axe has been used for breaking up stumps,
it should be correctly re-sharpened to make sure it is ready to be used
for fire suppression activities such as:
• Felling small trees.
• Removing branches.
• Cleaning bark from trees.
• Splitting logs.
All axes must have secure handles because an axe head flying off
a handle can cause serious injury. Axe head covers should be used to
protect the axe head when not in use, and to protect firefighters
from injury.
Figure 45: An Axe.

HOW TO SHARPEN AN AXE
It is difficult to sharpen an axe safely in the field. The cutting edge can
be maintained by using a pocket axe stone, but if an axe requires
extensive sharpening, the axe head needs to be firmly secured in a vice
or a ‘G’ clamp.
A. Just Right B. Too thin C. New
Figure 46: Sharpening an Axe.
(b) Rakehoe (McLeod tool)

The rakehoe is equipped with:
• One pronged edge for raking.
• One sharpened edge for cutting, chipping

and scraping down to mineral earth.
Figure 47: Rakehoe.

The rakehoe is used for:
• Raking and scraping away surface fuels to create control lines.
• Raking litter and vegetation into the burnt area.
• Scraping bark from tree trunks.
• Raking out hot coals from logs and stumps.
HOW TO SHARPEN A RAKEHOE
The cutting edge of a rakehoe must be sharp. A working angle for

the cutting edge of a rakehoe is 30 degrees. As with axes, a blade
sharpened at too fine an angle can be easily damaged and the tool
rendered useless. You should sharpen a rakehoe with a file.
angle too
about fine will blunt
30 very quickly
Figure 48: Sharpening a Rakehoe.

(c) Slashing Tools

There are two types of slashing tools, brush hooks and fern hooks.
These are used for:
• The initial clearing of scrub by a crew cutting a fire break

or control line.
• Clearing a large area for the safe siting of a tanker and crew.
• Clearing a helicopter landing zone.
Brush Hook
Fern Hook
Figure 49: Slashing Tools.
HOW TO SHARPEN A SLASHING TOOL
Slashing tools should be sharpened with a file. When you sharpen a

slashing tool, follow the angle ground by the manufacturer, and make
sure the angle is slightly less than the machine-ground edge.
30º
Figure 50: Sharpening angle for a slashing tool.

(d) Pulaski Tool

The Pulaski tool is a combination of a hoe and an axe. It is used mainly:
• In rocky terrain where there is a lot of tussock type grass.
• For splitting open and raking out logs or stumps.
Figure 51: Pulaski tool.
The chipping edge is sharpened like a rakehoe, while the cutting edge is
sharpened like an axe. Pulaski Tools are not on general issue in the RFS,
but may be used in some brigades and in some interstate agencies
(e) Sharpening all hand tools

When you sharpen any hand tool, you must:
• Where possible, secure blades in a vice, for easier and safer

sharpening.
• Use a file or sharpening stone. A power grinder may be faster,

but you can easily soften the steel in the tool as a result of the
heat generated by grinding. Power grinding is only acceptable if
you repeatedly cool the cutting edge with water, or preferably,
soluble oil.
• Angle strokes away from the cutting edge.
• Never use a file without the correct handle.
Note: Wooden handles fitted to hand tools are easier on the hands if
lightly smoothed with sandpaper and oiled with linseed oil.
(f) Carrying Hand Tools

When carrying hand tools, you must:
• Carry them close to your body and parallel to the ground.
• Not carry them over your shoulder. If you swing a tool around,
it may strike another person, or if you fall, it may cause you serious
injury.
• Carry tools on the downhill side when walking on steep side slopes.
This way, if your feet slip out from under you, you will fall onto the
hill and not on top of the tool.
• Make sure that all sharp edges are covered whenever the tools
are stowed or carried. This is not only a safety precaution but is
good firefighting practice as blunt tools can be ineffective.
4 Knapsacks
(a) Description
A knapsack is a portable spray pump containing about 16 litres of water
and fitted with shoulder straps for carrying on the back. It has a hand
operated force pump which can be used to deliver water either in the
form of a jet or a spray. Most modern knapsacks have containers made
of polythene. This makes them lighter than the older types made from
galvanised iron. On the fireground, you can use a knapsack to:
• Make a direct attack on a low intensity flank fire.
• Support a hand tool crew who are constructing a control line close
to the fire edge.
• Assist in mopping-up operations.
(b) How to use a knapsack

The hand piece has a nozzle that can be adjusted to give:
• Either a straight jet for long distance work, or
• A fantail spray for close work. The fantail method uses water more
economically and effectively when a firefighter is working close
to a fire.
Hose
Filler Cap
Tank
Pump
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Nozzle
Shoulder Straps
Figure 52: Knapsack.
(c) How to care for a knapsack

Knapsacks need to be kept clean. The pump plungers on knapsacks
need to be lubricated on a regular basis and the valves and other
components need to be cleaned if they are to work properly. Procedures
for the maintenance of knapsacks are given in NSW RFS Equipment
Standard Operating Procedures and/or the NSW RFS SP/5 Equipment
Officer’s (EQO) Manual. Your brigade Equipment Officer should be able
to show you a copy.
5 Ropes, Lines and Knots
Ropes and lines may be used in fire suppression for a range of activities
including:
• Lifting or lowering equipment.
• Attaching a line to a suction hose and strainer.
• Securing a line to an object.
The strands of a rope may be of fibre or wire and the diameters and
lengths of ropes and lines will vary. The following information provides
you with a brief overview of two types of knots that you may need to use
in suppression activities.
(a) Clove Hitch

This type of knot can be used for securing a line to a suction strainer.
This knot consists of two half hitches, one of which is reversed.

By passing over one another, the parts of the line bind and form a secure
hitch that can be easily untied but will not slip under a steady, direct
strain. This hitch may slip if exposed to a sideways strain.
1. 2.
Figure 53: Clove Hitch.

(b) Round Turn and Two Half Hitches

This knot can be used to lift or lower an object, particularly a round object
such as a log.
This knot is formed by making a round turn on a ring or other round

object and making two locking half-hitches on the standing part of
the line. It has the advantage that whenever strain is placed on it, it will
never jam yet, after the weight is removed, it is easy to untie.
1.
2.
3.
Figure 54: Round turn and two half inches.

6 Ladders
Many bush fire tankers carry a ladder. Usually it is a 4.5 metre
(combination folding) access ladder, but vehicles with a village
firefighting role may also carry a rescue (long extension) ladder.
The latter is covered in more detail in the Village Firefighter (VF) course.
An access ladder can be used as an extension ladder, a stepladder or a
trestle ladder, depending on which way it is unfolded and set up.
When carrying and positioning a ladder make sure it does not strike
persons or objects and is kept well clear of overhead power lines.
When setting up the ladder, ensure it is locked into the desired
configuration (extension, step or trestle) before using it.
When in use as an extension ladder, it should be placed on firm level

ground, leaning against a well supported object, with the foot of the
ladder about one quarter the distance out of the height being scaled.
Unless firmly tied in position, a ladder must be footed (securely held) by
another firefighter whenever in use. When climbing a ladder grip the
rungs, rather than the strings (sides of the ladder), with the hands and
feet moving together in a smooth rhythmic climbing motion.
Figure 55: Combination folding access ladder.

7 Hoses and Small Gear

Fire services within Australia use different types of hoses and small gear
in their firefighting activities. This section examines the following
firefighting equipment and their uses on the fireground:
HOSES
• Couplings.
• Adaptors.
• Breechings.
• Branches and nozzles, and the different types

of water streams they produce.
(a) Hoses
The three main types of fire hose you may use on the fireground are:
• Suction hose (wire reinforced).
• Hose reel hose (flexible).
• Delivery hose (“layflat”).
Be aware that you should be able to identify the types of hose your
agency uses at an incident.
SUCTION HOSE
A suction hose conveys water to a pump when taking water from a tank,
dam or river (a process called draughting). Draughting is the action
required to pump water when a pump is situated in a position higher than
the water supply.
A suction hose is reinforced to withstand external pressure so that it

will maintain its shape and not collapse when the pump is draughting
water. When working with a suction hose, you must be careful not to
puncture it. A hole in the hose or leaking coupling seals will make it
useless as it will not be able to maintain sufficient vacuum to obtain a lift,
that is draw up the water.
A suction strainer is connected to the end of the suction hose to prevent

solid objects from entering the pump.
Rubber and
Canvas Layers
Rubber Lining
Inner Wire
Spiral
Outer Cover Outer Wire
Spiral
Not to scale
Figure 56: Suction Hose and strainers.
HOSE REEL HOSE
This is a lightweight, flexible hose usually stored on the revolving drum

of a “live” reel (a hose reel able to supply water without fully unrolling
the hose). It is reinforced to withstand internal pressure (sometimes
very high) and covered with an abrasion resistant outer layer. Hose on a
“live” reel is permanently connected to the appliance’s pump. Common
parts of a hose reel include:
• Hose.
• Nozzle.
• Reel.
• Inlet pipe.
• Connection fitting.
• Stop valve.
• Hose guide (where required).

Hose reel hose is usually either 19mm (sometimes called 20mm) and
25mm in diameter. You can use it at an incident:
• When it is necessary to take a line of hose quickly to a fire using

the available water supply on the appliance.
• For the rapid deployment and delivery of water.
• When rapid retrieval of hose is important.
Figure 57: Hose reel hose.
DELIVERY HOSE
Delivery hose is used for conveying water from pumps or hydrants to

where the water is needed. It is designed to withstand internal pressure.
This hose is also used as a supply line; that is, from the hydrant to the
pump. Two types of delivery hose often used in rural firefighting are:
• Unlined – percolating, this hose is constructed so that, when

charged (full of water) it continually emits droplets of water.
This offers resistance to burning and scorching when the hose is
in contact with heated materials and embers.
• Lined – non-percolating. It does not absorb water. An internal

lining of rubber or plastic prevents water seepage.
HOSE SIZE
In bush fire suppression, three broad categories of hose size are used:
small, medium and large.
• Small hose line (e.g. 25mm diameter) - A light-weight hose line that
can be used to attack a small fire, and/or to attach to the end of a
hose-reel to extend its reach.
• Medium hose line (e.g. 38mm diameter) - Due to its size and
weight, this line is fast to deploy on the fireground. It allows you to
deliver a medium volume of water. This line is excellent for fighting
more intense bush fires.
• Large hose line (e.g. 65mm diameter) - Due to its larger size and
weight, a large hose line is slower to deploy on the fire ground.
The larger diameter of the hose allows for a greater volume and
flow of water, enabling it to be supplied efficiently over longer
distances. Because of its weight, it would be quite unusual to use a
large hose for fire attack on a bush fire.
HOSE CARE AND MAINTENANCE
Hose requires specific care and maintenance to ensure long life.

General care of hoses includes:
• Avoiding running them over hot, sharp or abrasive objects.
• Not subjecting them to sudden increases in pressure.
• Not dropping them or putting strain on their couplings.
• Flushing them (e.g. to remove foam) and cleaning them after use.
• Storing them in a clean, dry condition, out of direct sunlight.
Procedures for the maintenance of hoses are given in NSW RFS

Equipment Standard Operating Procedures and/or the NSW RFS SP/5
Equipment Officer’s (EQO) Manual. Your brigade Equipment Officer
should be able to show you a copy of these.
(b) Couplings
Couplings are fittings used for connecting two lengths of hose together,
or a piece of equipment to a length of hose. Some of the most common
types of couplings used in Australia are:
• Storz (hermaphrodite).
• Screw or threaded.
• British Instantaneous.
• External lug hermaphrodite.
STORZ (HERMAPHRODITE)
“Storz” (pronounced “storts”) is a proprietary name coupling used on

delivery and suction hoses in both the NSW Fire Brigades and NSW
Rural Fire Service. Identical hermaphrodite (both male and female)
couplings are fitted to each end of a hose. The coupling is connected by
inserting the two lugs of each coupling into the mating part of the other,
then turning each half coupling about half a turn in opposite directions.
The coupling washers on delivery hose may have either a flat or grooved
face. However, those used on suction hose must have a grooved face so
that they can seal tightly when suction is applied within the hose.
It is important that the sealing washers on storz couplings are regularly
checked and kept clean.
SCREW OR THREADED COUPLINGS
Various types of screw or threaded couplings are in use on all types

of hose lines, including delivery and suction, in many interstate fire
services. Screw threaded couplings used to be the standard type in
NSW, and many building hydrants still have screw threaded outlets.
A Storz to thread adaptor is needed to enable hoses to be connected
to such hydrants.
Hoses to be connected need to be positioned so that the male coupling

of one hose can be connected to the female coupling of the next hose.
It is important to keep the threads clean, and any washers must be in
a serviceable condition.
BRITISH INSTANTANEOUS (BI) COUPLINGS
This is a very quick connecting coupling used in fire services in the UK

(hence the name) and by federal fire services in Australia (e.g. military
and airport fire services). These fire services will generally always be
carrying adaptors to allowing interconnection with hoses used by other
fire services operating in their vicinity.
BI couplings are connected by pushing the opposite parts together until

they click home. Two lugs on the outside of the female coupling are
pulled outwards to release the coupling. Some outlets and fittings
may only have a single, winged lug, which is operated by twisting it.
BI couplings can only be used on delivery hose, as they cannot form an
effective seal for suction work.
EXTERNAL LUG HERMAPHRODITE
These couplings are similar in concept to Storz but the lugs are external
to the coupling face for easy cleaning in dusty or muddy conditions. They
are commonly used in rural firefighting operations in some other states.
External lug
Hermaphrodite
Storz
couplings
British Instantaneous
couplings
Threaded couplings
Figure 58: Hose Couplings.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF COUPLINGS
You should treat couplings with care because damage may cause air
leaks. When working with these couplings, you should:
• Never drop or drag them along the ground.
• Tighten them at the joints using the correct size spanner.
• Visually inspect their seals for wear.
• Not treat them with lubricants.
(c) Adaptors
These are fittings used to couple different sized hoses, hoses of the
same size with different threads, different types of couplings, or to
connect the male to male, or female to female parts of the same type of
coupling.
Figure 59: Hose Adaptor.

(d) Breechings
Breechings are devices used for:
• Dividing one line of hose into two (dividing breeching).
• Uniting two lines of hose into one (collecting breeching).
Figure 60: Typical Breeching.
DIVIDING BREECHING
A dividing breeching, as its name implies, allows you to divide one

hoseline into two. Its purpose is to reduce loss of pressure due to friction
by “twinning” the supply hose line, or to allow streams of water to be
delivered to separate parts of the fire. Some texts might call them a “wye”.
Dividing breechings may or may not have control valves fitted to the
outlet. A common use of a controllable dividing breeching (i.e. one with
control valves) is to connect it to a hydrant outlet, so that a second line
can be connected later on without interrupting the water supply to the
first line.
COLLECTING BREECHING
A collecting breeching brings two hose lines into one. The breeching
is usually used to reunite a delivery hose which has been divided
(or ‘twinned’) to reduce friction. It enables the delivery of a maximum
volume of water to a pump or branch. Some texts might call them
a “siamese”.
Collecting breechings may or may not have automatic shut-off valves on

the inlets so that any unused inlet is shut off when water is supplied into
the breeching.
As storz couplings are hermaphrodite (i.e. both ends are identical),

an uncontrolled storz breeching can be used for either dividing or
collecting purposes.
(e) Branches and Nozzles

A branch is fitted at the end of a delivery hose to allow water or other
extinguishing medium travelling through the hose to form an effective
firefighting jet or spray. It is used to control and direct water at a fire.
A nozzle is a fitting that is used with a branch to control the size, pattern
and/or velocity of water or extinguishing medium being discharged.
A separate nozzle may be fitted to the end of a branch, or the branch and
nozzle may be a combined unit.
Branches and nozzles come in various types and sizes. They provide
you with a range of options for delivering water at a fireground.
It is important to select the branch and nozzle most suited to a
particular task.
Figure 61: Standard Branch and Nozzle.
Most branches are fitted with controls to allow you to control the flow of
water and the stream pattern.
TYPES OF BRANCHES AND NOZZLES
The branches and nozzles most commonly found may be divided into
two main types:
• Standard branches - used to create a jet stream by increasing

the velocity of the water.
• Variable control branches – that may have options such as:
- shut off control.
- water volume control.
- jet and spray selector.
- independent control of jet and spray.
- variable spray patterns from a jet to a fog pattern.
- water fog.
Some types of branches may be operated to supply a fog water curtain

and a jet at the same time. Most variable branches are capable of being
shut off at the branch and some have a pistol grip that makes them
easier to operate. These branches operate at different pressures and
the manufacturer’s specifications should be consulted.
Note: It is always preferable to select a variable control branch if the

opportunity arises because you then have full control of the flow of water
and the shape of the stream.
There are special types of variable control branches that operate

automatically. These automatically adjust to maintain a constant
pressure at the branch over a wide range of flow rates.
USING A BRANCH
When using a branch, it is essential that you hold it correctly. This will
reduce fatigue, prevent accidents and ensure efficient and effective
firefighting. Pumps working on too high a pressure will always make
branch handling difficult. If you are unsure what to do, ask your
supervising officer.
(f) Water Streams

You can extinguish fire by applying water in several ways. The following
techniques are described:
• jet stream.
• spray pattern.
• fog pattern.
JET STREAM
A jet stream is an unbroken stream of water projected from a nozzle.

It is designed to give maximum throw. The principal purpose of a jet
stream is to achieve a long reach, penetrate the flames and attack the
seat of the fire.
When using a jet, you should direct the stream onto the seat of the fire
and move the jet across all burning material to achieve maximum
cooling. The jet can also be used to break up the burning material and
to penetrate to the seat of the fire.
The advantages of a jet are:
• it has longer reach.
• it provides greater penetration.
• it is least affected by wind.
• it is less affected by radiant heat.
The disadvantages of a jet, depending on the size of branch selected,

are:
• jet reaction (the rearward force generated by the stream of water)

is increased with high pressure and firefighters tire quickly.
• it causes considerable damage if misused.
• it may conduct electricity.
• a lot of water may be wasted.
• it may blast hot coals across a control line.

Figure 62: Jet Stream.
SPRAY PATTERN
The spray nozzle or variable control branch breaks the water stream into
small droplets. These small droplets have a much larger total surface
area than a jet of water. A given amount of water in a spray will absorb
more heat than the same amount of water in a jet.
The absorption of heat converts water to steam and extinguishes the fire
by reducing the heat, and to a lesser extent by smothering the fire.
The advantages of a spray pattern are:
• it provides a water curtain for firefighter protection.
• it accelerates the rate at which water is converted to steam,

removing more heat from the surrounding fire.
• it covers a large area and is therefore more economical in its use

of water.
The disadvantages of a spray pattern are:
• it has a shorter reach.
• it will not effectively cool hot spots or objects unless it is applied

directly onto them.
• it has less penetration capability.
Figure 63: Spray Pattern.

FOG PATTERN
A fog pattern is an extremely fine spray of particles of water forming

a mist pattern.
The advantages of fog are:
• it covers a larger surface area than water spray.
• it absorbs heat rapidly within a contained area. It enhances

the rate at which water is converted to steam, removing more
heat from the surrounding fire than a spray pattern.
• it minimises the damage to property.
• it maximises the effective use of water.
• it provides protection to firefighters from radiant heat.
The disadvantages of fog are:
• it has a shorter reach.
• it will not cool hot objects unless it is applied directly onto them.
• it is affected by wind.
• it can impede visibility.
Figure 64: Fog Stream.

(g) General Hose Care

Take care when handling hoses and hose reels. Note the following
points:
• Direct high pressure water jets carefully. Firefighting pumps and

hydrant water supply is at high enough a pressure to cause
injury to anyone struck at close range. Take proper control of the
hose outlet, ensure nobody is in the way and then turn on the
water supply.
• Ensure that the ends of hose lines are either securely held,
or securely tied off, before they are pressurised with water,
so they cannot flail about.
• When running hose in or out, be on the lookout for couplings

or fittings in the hose line. Do not close your hand around a
running hose.
• Keep your hands clear of hose reels as these are of a “spoke”

construction and your hand could be caught between the spokes.
8 Water Supplies and Equipment
(a) Introduction
Water is the most commonly used medium for extinguishing fires.
This section provides you with broad information about reticulated and
static water supplies and hydrants. It explains how to use them and how
to operate ancillary equipment.
The taking of water from reticulated and static supplies is controlled by

legislation. The Rural Fires Act enables firefighters to take water from
any source for use during firefighting or related activities.
(b) Water Supplies

You can obtain water for firefighting primarily from two sources:
RETICULATED SUPPLIES
Reticulated water supplies consist of water mains (pipes). In most cases

water is collected from rivers or dams, and fed into reservoirs.
From these reservoirs, a network of water mains delivers water under

pressure to consumers for domestic and industrial purposes.
To enable water to be obtained from mains for firefighting, fittings called

hydrants are attached to them at various points.
STATIC SUPPLIES
These are bodies of water, such as dams, rivers, lakes, the sea, tanks,
reservoirs or swimming pools. Some may be marked with a ‘SWS’
(static water source) sign. When using water from a static supply,
firefighters must draught water using firefighting pumps and
suction hoses.
Draughting is the action of removing the air from the suction hose and
pump casing, so creating a vacuum. Atmospheric pressure then forces
water up the hose and into the pump to replace the vacuum.
In some rural areas covered by your agency, water may be drawn from
a reticulated or static supply elsewhere and transported to the incident in
water tankers. You should familiarise yourself with the reticulated and
static water supplies available in your local area.
(c) Hydrants
Hydrants are devices that allow you to connect a hose or a standpipe to
a water main. A standpipe is a portable piece of equipment used to bring
the outlet of a below ground hydrant to above ground level. Hydrants are
situated at regular intervals along mains. You can use hydrants to:
• supply water to a fire appliance.
• supply water to a branch via a hose.
Fire agencies across Australia have access to different types of hydrants.

You should familiarise yourself with the types of hydrants in your local
area. Hydrants can be classified as being either above ground or
below ground.
ABOVE GROUND HYDRANTS
Above ground hydrants work on the principle of a screw valve being

operated to control the flow of water. In some cases, you will need to use
a hydrant key or spanner. The types of above-ground hydrants used vary
throughout Australia. Some examples are:
• Pillar hydrant.
• ‘L’ type hydrant.
• Millcock hydrant (most common type in NSW).
BELOW GROUND HYDRANTS
These hydrants are used in conjunction with a standpipe:
• Screw valve hydrant.
• Ground ball hydrant (ball valve).
• Spring valve hydrant (most common type in NSW).
Note: In some areas, large water tanks with hydrant fittings and valves
may be available. These outlets are gravity fed and are not pressurised.
In some areas there might be “dry hydrants”. These consist of an outlet
with a pipe running down into an open water supply like a dam. A tanker
can connect to the outlet with a suction hose and draught water from
the dam.
HYDRANT INDICATORS
Water supply authorities, councils and fire authorities may provide

markers to indicate the locations of hydrants. These markers are
designed to be seen easily by firefighters, in day or night conditions.
The marking systems in use vary. In NSW, three common systems
are in use in various areas:
• “HP” or “HR” markers (red lettering on a white plate) are used

to indicate that a below ground hydrant is in the adjacent path or
road. The plate faces the direction of the hydrant while the
distance to the hydrant (in metres) and the size of the main
(in millimetres) is stamped on the plate. A black horizontal line
across the middle of a marker indicates the hydrant is on the
opposite side of the road. These plates are often fitted to power
poles and will have a secondary indicator (a green “H” marker
plate) on the opposite side of the pole.
(Note: Primary marker plates indicating a hydrant supplying

recycled water have a lilac background and include the letter ‘R’
before the H, HP or HR. Recycled water is not suitable for
drinking, but is not considered a health risk for firefighting.)
• Blue reflectors fitted to the road surface adjacent to the hydrant

location. (Note: A line of blue reflectors is also used at the side of
some motorways and highways to indicate an exit for emergency
vehicles off the road into adjacent property.)
• Yellow or white triangles painted on the roadway, with the

“sharp end” of the triangle pointing towards the hydrant’s
location.
(d) Ancillary Hydrant Equipment

When operating a hydrant, there are several pieces of equipment
available to assist you. They are:
• Hydrant key.
• Hydrant bar.
• Standpipe.
HYDRANT KEY
This piece of equipment is used for:
• Lifting and removing the cover plate.
• Loosening dirt and rubble underneath a hydrant cover plate.
• Turning the hydrant on or off (e.g. screw valve type hydrants).
HYDRANT BAR
A hydrant bar is used to:
• Lift and remove the hydrant cover plate.
• Loosen dirt and rubble underneath the hydrant cover plate.

STANDPIPE
A standpipe is a portable piece of equipment used to raise the outlet of

a below ground hydrant to above ground level. Once you have done this,
you can connect a hose to the standpipe outlet. As previously described,
when you use a standpipe, be aware that:
• Because the hydrant is below ground, it may be full of dirt

and debris.
• Dangerous wildlife may hide under a hydrant cover.
• Syringes may be placed in the hydrant pit.
Spindle
Blank Cap
Rubber
Seal
Swivel Head
Handles
Leather Threaded Collar

Washer
Figure 65: Standpipe.

(e) Operating Hydrants

When operating a hydrant, you should:
• Flush the hydrant to remove debris before connecting a hose.
• Open the valve slowly to prevent water hammer and damage

to the hose, especially if the hose is connected directly to the
branch. This also prevents injury to firefighters.
• Close the valve slowly to prevent water hammer and a possible

burst water main.
In addition, when operating a spring valve hydrant, which requires

a standpipe, you should:
• Check there are no snakes, spiders or other insects when

removing the hydrant cover plate and be alert for broken glass or
syringes in the hydrant pit.
• Clear debris from around the hydrant lugs and sealing ring.
• Do not stand with any part of your body over the top of the
standpipe while it is being inserted and operated.
• Before inserting the standpipe into the hydrant, ensure the lugged
collar at the base of the standpipe is wound fully down, and that the
standpipe plunger is fully retracted (spindle wound up inside the
end of the standpipe).
• Insert the standpipe into the hydrant so that the bottom end of the
standpipe mates onto the hydrant outlet.
• Turn the whole standpipe (clockwise as viewed from above)

so the collar lugs engage on the hooks on the hydrant, and keep
turning the standpipe until it locks firmly in place.
• Turn the standpipe outlet (in the same direction used to tighten
the standpipe) until it points in the desired direction.
• Turn the standpipe spindle valve (clockwise, viewed from above)

so that the plunger will depress the hydrant spring valve and allow
water to flow up the standpipe.
• Open the valve sufficiently to flush the hydrant until the water
flow is clean.
• Turn the valve off (anti-clockwise, viewed from above) and connect
the required adaptor, breeching and/or hose.
• Open the valve gradually to charge the hose-line, then open it

sufficiently to allow the full flow rate, but do not turn the valve down
as far as it will go as this may jam the hydrant spring valve open.
After use:
• Do not disconnect the standpipe from a hydrant if water is
unavailable, or the flow has failed, until the valve has been closed.
This removes the danger of the valve remaining open when the
supply is restored.
• Turn off the standpipe valve (turn anti-clockwise, as viewed

from above).
• Relieve the pressure in the hose and/or fittings and then remove
them from the standpipe.
• Remove the standpipe from the hydrant by turning the whole

standpipe (anti-clockwise as viewed from above).
• Check that the hydrant is properly closed so that there are no

water leaks, and that the hydrant pit is left clean of debris.
• Get help from your supervising officer if the standpipe will not shut
off, or the hydrant is leaking.
(f) Checking Hydrants

Some brigades regularly check hydrants to detect any problems.
A basic procedure for checking hydrants is as follows:
• Ensure hydrant marking is readily visible.
• With below ground hydrants, makes sure the lid of the hydrant
box is accessible.
• Check the hydrant box, and clear debris if necessary.
Note: that some above ground hydrants are sealed (with a wire seal that
breaks when the hydrant is first opened) by the water authority to deter
unauthorised use of un-metered water. Your officer in charge will need to
report their use for firefighting, so they can be resealed.
It is not uncommon for below ground hydrants to become covered or

overgrown. If problems are discovered during checking, notify your
officer-in-charge of their location and the nature of the problem.
9 Pumps and Pumping Operations
(a) Introduction
After firefighters have located a source of water for fire suppression,
the water needs to be fed into a pump to enable the pressure and flow
to be controlled. In this section, you will learn about the main types of
pumps used in fire suppression and the broad guidelines for operating
them. This should give you enough knowledge to be able to operate the
smaller types of pumps used for bush firefighting. To operate some of the
larger, more sophisticated, pumps used in the RFS you should
complete the pumps and pumping component of the Advanced
Firefighter’s (AF) course.
A pump is a machine, powered by an external source, which imparts

energy to a fluid or gas. Pumps used by firefighting agencies may be
divided into two broad categories:
• Centrifugal pumps.
• Priming pumps.
(b) Centrifugal Pumps

The most common types of pumps used on fire appliances in Australia
are centrifugal pumps. These pumps are designed to only pump water;
they cannot also pump air. For this reason, a separate priming device
must be fitted in order to get the water into the pump so that it can begin
pumping. Priming devices are described later in this section.
In a centrifugal pump, energy is imparted by centrifugal force. That is, the

force generated by rotation of an object. This force drives outwards from
the centre of rotation.
The construction of the centrifugal pump is relatively simple. It consists

of two main parts, the impeller and the pump casing, and they each have
a separate function. The impeller imparts a high velocity (speed) to the
water. The casing contains the water and transforms this velocity energy
into pressure energy. There is minimum clearance between the pump
and the moving parts.
IMPELLER
The impeller is a circular, metal casting mounted on a shaft which

rotates. Once the pump is full of water, rotation of the impeller forces the
water outwards from the centre (eye) along the vanes of the impeller by
centrifugal force to the outer edge (periphery) of the pump casing at high
velocity. This induces an ongoing flow through the impeller passages by
creating a low pressure area at its inlet, therefore drawing more water
into the pump.
Figure 66: Typical Impeller.
CASING
As described previously, the important function of the casing is to

convert the kinetic energy of the water (energy resulting from the
movement of water) to pressure energy when it leaves the impeller.
This is done by forcing the water through an increasing diameter
passage which reduces the velocity of the water and so converts the
kinetic energy into pressure energy.
The simplest form of such a passage in the pump casing is a “volute”.

The volute reduces the velocity and turbulence of the water, and
increases its pressure as it channels the water to the outlet.
Volute
Impeller Outlet
Intake Eye
Vane
Figure 67: Centrifugal Pump.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Centrifugal pumps have the following characteristics which need to be

understood. For a given pump:
• Pressure is at maximum and flow is at minimum when all outlets

are closed.
• Pressure is at minimum and flow is at maximum when all outlets are

wide open.
• Pressure drops as outlets are opened, given constant pump speed.
• Pressure and flow vary directly with pump speed, as long as the
size of the delivery nozzle is maintained.
Centrifugal pumps, as mentioned previously, do not displace air.

A self-priming pump is needed to exhaust air from within the pump
casing and suction hose (this is called “priming the pump”), so that the
centrifugal pump can draught water. Most, if not all, pumpers and tankers
use centrifugal-type pumps. These pumps may be driven by a vehicle’s
engine or have their own drive engine.
WHY THE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP IS THE MOST COMMON TYPE
Centrifugal pumps are used by agencies because of the benefits they

offer during firefighting operations. Centrifugal pumps:
• Have only one moving part. This makes it very unlikely that the
pump will break down when in use.
• Are simple to maintain.
• Can be run whilst the valves are closed without damage or

danger. (Note: On more powerful types of pumps the water may
become heated if the pump is run for a while with the valves
closed.)
• On arrival at an incident, the pump can be immediately primed

(filled with water so that it can be operated), and the impeller can
be turning, ready to be used.
• Can be driven directly by an internal combustion engine.
Pumps can be located at the front, rear or centre of the appliance.

Most pumps in the RFS are mounted on the rear of tankers.
Pumps employed by firefighting agencies vary in their:
• Size.
• Weight.
• Capacity.
• Design.
• Motor power.
• Connections.
• Controls.
• Gauges.
These variations, and the variety of priming devices used, make it

impractical to attempt to cover all configurations in this Manual.
Your trainer and brigade officers will familiarise you with the particular
pumps you are likely to use.
(c) Priming Pumps

There are a variety of priming pump designs. Two types of priming
pumps are:
• Mechanical.
• Ejector.
MECHANICAL PUMP
A mechanical pump (positive displacement) is one in which air

is pumped by displacement (movement) between a plunger or rotor,
and the casing of the pump. The moving parts make an air and
watertight seal with the pump casing.
A bike pump is an example of a positive displacement pump, and so

is the rotary vane pump commonly used as a primer for many larger RFS
centrifugal pumps.
Rotor Vanes
Rotor
Casing
Figure 68: Positive Displacement Rotary Vane Pump.

EJECTOR PUMP
An ejector pump has no moving parts but operates by venturi effect.

A passage or pipe is constricted at one point so that fluid or gas passing
through it increases in velocity at the point of constriction. This increase
in velocity energy is counter-balanced by a corresponding drop in static
pressure energy, and the (static) pressure in the gas or fluid drops below
atmospheric pressure. Fluid or gas entering via an inlet located at this
point is therefore drawn into the main stream due to the difference
in pressures. (To see this effect, place a straw into a glass of water
and blow across the top of the straw – it will cause water to be drawn up
the straw)
Ejector type pumps, using the exhaust discharge from the pump engine
(an “exhaust ejector primer”), can displace (pump) air and act as a
primer. They are used to prime some types of RFS centrifugal pumps.
The venturi effect is also used for the mixing of foam concentrate with
water in a foam making system and for water driven ejector pumps used
to remove water from flooded buildings.
Main
Stream
Pressure Drops
below
INLET Atmospheric
Pressure
Point of
Constriction
Increases
in velocity
Check Valve
Passage or Pipe
Figure 69: Ejector Pump.

Note: Many of the small so-called “self-priming” pumps used in fire

fighting are actually normal centrifugal pumps. They are fitted with a filler
cap on the top of the pump casing so they can be filled with water
manually, and so be primed with sufficient water to operate, before use.
(d) Pump Output

Pressure and flow from a pump should be carefully controlled.
Any changes should be gradual. The importance of this cannot be
over-stated. Sudden changes in pressure and flow alter jet reaction
(force) at the branch. This makes the branch difficult to hold and can
place the branch operator at risk. Sudden shutting down of a valve can
also cause “water hammer” which can burst hoses or water mains
upstream of the valve.
(e) Pump Gauges

Most pumps have gauges to indicate inlet and outlet pressures.
Inlet pressure is the positive or negative pressure of the water coming
into the pump. This depends on whether the pump is operating from a
reticulated (positive) or static (negative) supply. Outlet pressure is the
pressure of water being delivered from the pump. These pressures are
registered in bars or kilopascals (kPa).
The inlet gauge is in the form of a compound gauge that indicates

the negative or positive pressure on the inlet side of the pump.
The outlet pressure is measured by the delivery pressure gauge.
0 100 9 10 11
8 12
500 7 13
6 14
-50 1000 5 15
4 Pressure
16
1500 3
x 100 17
KPa 2
2000 x 100 18
1 KPa 19
-100 2500 0 20
Compound Gauge Delivery Pressure Gauge
Figure 70: Compound and Delivery Pressure Gauges.

(f) Draughting from a static supply

As you have already read previously, a static water supply is a body
of water, such as a dam, river, lake or tank, which can be used for
firefighting. Draughting (pumping) from a static water supply will enable
water to be delivered for firefighting when there is no reticulated
supply available.
When draughting, the tanker should be sited close to the water surface
and on solid ground. This is because the greater the height of lift from the
water surface to the eye of the pump impeller, the more the capacity
of the pump is reduced. The maximum practicable vertical lift
obtainable under ideal conditions when pumping from a static supply is
approximately eight metres.
When draughting, you should be aware that:
• Mud, weed or other foreign bodies can render pumps inoperable.
• The quantity of water needs to be sufficient for the purpose, and it

must be sufficiently deep to draught.
• Tidal water sources can rise and fall. As the tide ebbs, it may
expose the end of the suction hose and draughting will cease.
To set up a pump for draughting, it is necessary to:
• Couple the suction hose lengths and connect one end to the inlet
of the pump.
• Attach a strainer to the free end of the suction hose and place it
in the water. In addition, it may be necessary to place the strainer
in a basket or attach it to a float to prevent mud, weeds or other
foreign objects from entering the suction hose. The suction hose
should always be supported by a rope line. (Caution: Do not bend
or strain the suction hose lengths because this may damage them).
• Use coupling spanners to obtain airtight joints at the suction

hose couplings.
• Do not place the suction hose over a point higher than the pump
inlet (an air pocket may develop).
• Connect the delivery hose to the pump outlet.
• Prime and operate the pump in accordance with your equipment

operating procedures.
(g) Pumping from a reticulated water supply

When pumping water supplied from a hydrant, use the largest size hose
available between the hydrant and the pump to minimise pressure loss
due to friction. The pump operator should:
• Connect the supply line from the hydrant (standpipe) to the

pump inlet.
• Ensure that the hydrant or standpipe is opened slowly to avoid

water hammer.
• Operate the pump according to agency procedures.
• Monitor the pump gauges to ensure that inlet pressure does not
fall to zero.
• Monitor the branch operators to ensure they are receiving

an appropriate water supply pressure and flow.
• Close pump and hydrant valves slowly to avoid water hammer.
(h) Pumping from a tanker

Pumping from a tanker is often the most common operation undertaken
during fire suppression. It is the most simple pumping operation and
involves:
• Checking that the correct valves are open, particularly the tank
supply valve.
• Monitoring the rate at which water is being used from the tank.
• Adding wetting agent or foam concentrate if required.
• Operating the pump according to equipment operating procedures.

(i) Hose and pump work hand signals
WATER ON WATER OFF

Arm raised above the head One arm extended
vertically and dropped to side, horizontally from the
fist clenched. shoulder and swung
across the body.
INCREASE PRESSURE
As for "WATER ON". For
each display of the signal
pump pressure is to be
increased by 100kpa.
DECREASE PRESSURE MAKE UP EQUIPMENT

One arm extended to the Both arms extended to
side horizontally from the the side horizontally, and
shoulder and dropped to held for a few seconds.
the side. Each display of
the signal requires pump
pressure to be reduced by
100kpa.
Figure 71: Pumping Hand Signals.
(j) Water Relay

Water relay involves spacing a number of pumps at regular intervals
along a route between the water source and the point where water
is needed. A water relay is used when the water supply is distant from
the fireground. It involves connecting lines of hose from one pump to
another to where the water is required.
The three methods you can use are:
• Closed circuit relay.
• Open circuit relay.
• Tanker relay.
CLOSED CIRCUIT RELAY
Water is pumped by the first pump at the water source through hose lines
connected directly to the inlet of the second or booster pump.
The second pump may in turn be connected to the inlet of a third pump,
and so on until water is delivered to the fireground.
UZ U SI UZ U SI
007 007
0 4 5T 0 4 5T
Figure 72: Closed Circuit Relay.
OPEN CIRCUIT RELAY
The first pump takes water from a source and pumps it through hose
lines into some form of reservoir (e.g. a portable dam). The second pump
draughts water from that reservoir through its suction hose and delivers
it to another reservoir and pump, or to its final destination.
UZUSI
007
045T
Figure 73: Open Circuit Relay.
TANKER RELAY
In some fire situations, closed and open circuit pump relays are not
practical because the distance between the water supply and the
incident is too great. In these situations, relay tankers or water carriers
are used to maintain an adequate supply of water to the fireground.
(k) Hose Lay

Before delivery lines are charged with water, check that all excess hose
is taken to the fire and laid out in ‘S’ bends to prevent kinking.
As the hose is charged, clear any kinks that might develop. The last three
to five metres to the branch should be laid out straight.
If, during operations, a length of hose is damaged, you should:
• Provide a new length of hose.
• Roll out the hose alongside the damaged length.
• Turn the water off, break the coupling and connect

the new length.
• Turn water on.
• Identify the damaged length by tying an overhand knot in the

hose near one coupling.
• Mark the damaged length with a tag indicating the problem and
send it for repair.
UZUSI
007
045T
Figure 74: Hose Lay.

SUMMARY
• Personal protective equipment (PPE) includes two piece

firefighter protective clothing (or overalls), helmet, boots,
gloves, goggles, disposable respirator, water bottle and
emergency protective hood. In some cases it might also
include a cold weather firefighter's jacket or offensive
structural firefighters protective equipment.
• Your PPE meets various Australian and International
standards. It is fire-resistant, but not fire-proof or
indestructible.
• You are required to be issued with appropriate PPE. You are
responsible for using it and caring for it correctly.
• Bush firefighting hand tools include axes, rake-hoes (McLeod
Tools) and slashing tools (like the brush hook and fern hook).
Some areas might also use Pulaski Tools. All hand tools need
to be carried, used, and cared for correctly.
• Knapsacks consist of a portable, hand-operated, spray pump
fed from a back pack water container. Knapsacks need to be
carried, used and cared for correctly.
• Rope lines may be used to lift, lower, attach or secure
equipment. The clove hitch, and the round turn and two half
hitches, are two knots that you might need to use.
• Three types of hoses are used in the RFS: suction hose
(for draughting water), hose-reel hose (to supply water from
hose-reels) and delivery or "layflat" hose (to deliver water
under pressure to tankers, branches or nozzles).
• Storz couplings are used to connect fire hoses in NSW,
although some hydrants might still have threaded outlets.
Interstate agencies may use various types of threaded and
hermaphrodite couplings. Federal fire services may use
British Instantaneous couplings.
• Breechings are devices used to split up or unite hose lines.
Dividing breechings divide a single line of hose into two or
more lines. Collecting breechings unite two or more hose lines
into one. Some breechings may be fitted with control valves or
non-return valves.
SUMMARY
• A branch is a device fitted to the end of a hose to form an

effective jet or spray. A nozzle is a device fitted to the end of
a branch, or forming part of a branch, which controls the size,
pattern and/or velocity of the discharge. Standard branches
create a jet of water. Control branches can have a variety of
controls allowing the discharge to be varied and/or
controlled in various ways.
• Water jets have a long reach, penetrate better and are less
affected by wind or radiant heat; but, have a high jet reaction
force, can cause damage if misused, may conduct electricity,
can waste water or blast hot coals from the fire.
• Sprays can provide a protective water curtain, accelerate
the removal of heat from the fire and cover a large area; but,
they have a short reach and less penetration capability.
• A fog pattern can cover a large surface area, absorb heat
rapidly, minimise damage, use water effectively and protect
firefighters from radiant heat; but, have a short reach, can be
affected by wind and can impede visibility.
• When using hoses you should direct water jets carefully,
ensure the ends of hoses are held or tied securely, and keep
your hands clear of running hoses and hose-reel spokes.
• Water supplies may be reticulated or static. Reticulated
supplies consist of various types of hydrants fitted to water
mains. Static supplies consist of open water sources like
dams, pools, lakes or tanks.
• Hydrants are devices that allow water to be drawn from
water mains for firefighting. In NSW the most common type
of above ground hydrant is the millcock, and the most com-
mon type of below ground hydrant is the spring valve type.
• Hydrant indicators may vary, and can include HP, HR and H
marker plates, blue reflectors on the roadway surface, and/or
yellow or white triangles painted on the road surface.
• Ancillary hydrant equipment can include a hydrant key,
hydrant bar and standpipe.
SUMMARY
• A standpipe is a device for raising the outlet of a below

ground hydrant to above ground level. You need to ensure you
follow the correct precautions and procedures when using
a standpipe.
• Centrifugal pumps are commonly used in fire services. They
consist of a rotating impeller inside a casing. While they have
many advantages in pumping water for firefighting, they need
to be primed with water before they can pump.
• Priming pumps are used to prime centrifugal pumps and
associated equipment with water. A common type used in the
RFS is the rotary vane priming pump.
• When using pumps you need to be aware of the standard
hand signals used, and to change pressure and flow
gradually to avoid endangering the branch operator or
causing water hammer.
• Most pumps have an inlet pressure gauge showing the
pressure of the water entering the pump and an outlet
pressure gauge indicating the pressure of the water leaving
the pump. The inlet pressure may be positive (if drawing water
from a pressurised source, such as a hydrant) or negative
(if draughting water from an open source).
• Whether using water from a reticulated supply, an open water
source or the tank of a firefighting vehicle, you need to
observe the appropriate precautions and procedures when
using a pump. Pumping directly from the water supply carried
on a tanker is probably the simplest and most common form
of pump operation.
• Water can be relayed over a distance using several pumps.
A closed circuit relay involves pumping directly into the inlet of
the next pump in the relay. An open circuit relay involves
pumping into a reservoir of some sort from which the next
pump in the relay draughts water.
• When laying hose you need to ensure excess hose is laid out
in ‘S’ bends, all kinks are removed and the last few metres of
hose before the branch is in a straight line. If a hose becomes
damaged, it should be replaced, marked and sent for repair.
1. The sleeves, cuffs and bottom of your (two piece)

bush fire jacket should always be buttoned up or
tightened during firefighting.
2. You should not use hypochlorite bleach on your

personal protective clothing.
3. A rake-hoe (McLeod Tool) is used for raking,

scraping and chipping.
4. A brush hook is an example of a slashing tool.
5. You should never carry bush firefighting hand

tools over your shoulder.
6. A knapsack spray is normally used for knocking

down the main head of a fire.
7. Storz couplings are not ever fitted to suction hose.
8. A water jet has a longer reach, but not as efficient

a cooling effect as a spray.
9. A standpipe is used to get water from a

millcock hydrant.
10. A centrifugal pump needs to be primed with water

before it can pump.
ACTIVITIES
1. Familiarise yourself with your personal protective clothing

and equipment (PPE). Practice donning and adjusting it.
Practice the actions needed to gain maximum protection
from your PPE in the event of a possible fire overrun.
2. After instruction from your trainer, practice the safe use

and care of hand tools and knapsack sprays.
3. After instruction from your trainer, practice the safe use

and care of hose-reels, delivery hoses, couplings, adaptors,
breechings, branches and nozzles. Participate in hose drills
to practice how to deploy and operate hoses, add extra
lengths of hose and replace a damaged length.
4. Under supervision and after instruction from a trainer,

practice setting up a standpipe and obtaining water from
a below ground hydrant and/or obtaining water from
the tank of a firefighting vehicle via its pump.
5. Under supervision and after instruction from a trainer,

participate in drills involving getting water supply from
a hydrant and/or an open source, the use of rope lines to
raise, lower or secure equipment, and relay pumping.
137
CHAPTER 4
Bush Firefighting Techniques
1 Introduction
This Chapter outlines the techniques used to fight bush fires. The tech-
nique/s used will vary according to the situation. A technique that might be
safe and effective in one situation, might be dangerous and ineffective in
another, so it’s important to know under what circumstances each of the
various techniques should be used. Regardless of the type of fire,
the weather or other circumstances, however, the basic priorities of
firefighting remain the same. They are:
• Overriding priority - firefighter safety.
• First priority - protect people.
• Second priority - protect property.
• Third priority - help restore normality.
Note: that “property” is used in a broad sense of the word. It can mean
anything of personal, environmental, cultural or economic value.
Note that protecting your own safety is always the overriding priority.
2 Responding to a fire
This section outlines what you need to consider when responding to a fire.
It covers:
• What procedures to follow when a call is received by your agency.
• Locating the site of an incident.
• The signs that you should watch out for en route to, and on arrival at,
a fire.
138 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES
Note: In most brigades you respond to a fire as part of a crew. Navigating

the way to the scene is done by your crew leader or an experienced crew
member. However, if you are in a brigade where responding to a fire
requires you to navigate by using a map (other than a local road map or
street directory), your initial training may also need to include the Map
Reading component of the Advanced Firefighter’s course.
(a) Responding to a Call

Usually the firefighting agencies nearest to an incident are notified
immediately a call is received. Firefighters will then respond in accordance
with their local procedures. Because of variations in the numbers and
types of fire appliances and availability of firefighters, the Standard
Operating Procedures (SOPs) for the initial response may vary. In most
cases, at least two firefighting vehicles and crews are initially sent to a call.
As a firefighter, you must be aware of the SOPs used in your Brigade so

that you are clear about your role and responsibilities. You must know
what action is appropriate and what is hazardous to your personal safety
and that of your fellow crew members.
Your crew leader will tell you the procedures to be followed when
responding to a call. Copies of these procedures should also be available
at your station/shed. You should know what you are required to do.
Before responding you should decide whether or not you are fit to attend
the call. You can use the I’M SAFE checklist given below as an aid:
I - Illness/injury - Am I sufficiently recovered?
M - Medication - Am I under the effects of any medication?
S- Stress - Am I under severe stress from work or personal worries?
A- Alcohol/drugs - Am I under their influence, or badly hung over?
F- Fatigue - Am I tired and not adequately rested?
E- Expertise - Am I currently competent?
If you are not fit to go, it’s OK to say “no, I can’t go”. Indeed if you are in
a busy brigade and you know you are sick or can’t attend fires for
some other reason it’s a good idea to let whoever normally calls you
out to fires know.
BUSH FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES 139
If you are OK to go, then while you are responding to a call, you need to:
• Wear the correct protective clothing.
• Undertake all preparatory tasks according to procedures.
• Avoid taking unnecessary risks.
• Drive according to RTA requirements.
(b) Indicators of Fire

Information about the possible location of a fire will come from a range of
sources including:
• Fire tower reports.
• Aircraft.
• The public.
• Other brigade members.
En route to the fireground, the most obvious indicator of the location of the
fire is smoke, which can usually be seen or smelt from some distance
away. A word of caution - the appearance of smoke can be misleading.
The volume of smoke does not always indicate the size of a fire.
For example, different fuel types give off varying amounts of smoke when
burning in the same conditions. The colour of smoke can, however,
pinpoint where the head of a bush fire is burning; the greater the fire’s
intensity, the darker the smoke colour.
Note: Where the fire itself cannot be seen, wind direction must be
considered when tracing the source of smoke. In doing this, you will need
to allow for localised variations in wind direction caused by the topography.
(c) En-route Briefing

A soon as he/she gets the call, your crew leader will be starting to
develop a plan of attack to handle the incident. While en-route to the fire,
they should brief you about the known details, remind you of the hazards
to look out for and precautions to take, and allocate tasks to various
members of the crew. Your briefing should follow the SMEACS format.
That is:
S- Situation - E.g. Known details of the incident - weather -

other units attending.
M - Mission - E.g. Your objectives - the basic “job” your unit

will be doing.
E- Execution - E.g. Strategies and/or tactics to be used - who is to do

what at the scene.
A- Assistance/Administration/Logistics
- E.g. Water supply - technical advice.
C- Command/Control/Comms. - E.g. Who to report to -

what radio channels to use.
S- Safety - E.g. Hazards/precautions - ‘LACES’ checklist -

Safety Officer/s - PPE check.
The SMEACS checklist is used for all types of briefings at all levels of the
organisation. You may hear various adaptions of it used for briefings
whenever your crew is allocated a new task at a fire.
While you do not have to know the SMEACS format as well as your crew
leader and other senior officers, you should know it well enough so that
you can tell if something has been missed. If some key piece of informa-
tion has been omitted in a briefing, always speak up and ask about it.
Sometimes when you arrive at the scene you might find the situation is
different than what was described in the call. For this reason, your crew
leader might often start your en-route briefing with words like, “Unless I tell
you otherwise...”. For example, he/she might say, “Unless I tell you
otherwise, on arrival I want you and John to run out a hose-reel and
extinguish the fire”.
(d) Observations En-route and on Arrival at the Scene

On the way to a fire, you can make observations which will assist fire
investigators in their work. You should note and report to your Officer-In-
Charge or crew leader:
• Details of people and vehicles leaving the scene.
• Gates on access routes to the fire (whether closed, open or locked).
• The nature of the fire (one smoke column or more).
• The nature and behaviour of the fire at the time of your arrival.
(e) Protecting the Scene

The point of origin may contain evidence about the cause of the fire.
During firefighting operations, it is important that this area is protected as
much as possible from damage. This will be more likely if you are respond-
ing to a small fire. In these situations, cordon off the point of origin using
rope and tape. This will help protect the scene for later investigation.
3 Protecting People from Bush Fires

Safely protecting people is always your first priority. At most bush fires
people are not directly under threat. In some cases, however, they might
be. For example, if say a picnic area, scout camp or nursing home was in
the path of a bush fire, it would be a priority to safeguard them first.
Fires often attract onlookers and you may need to warn people away
from danger.
On bad bush fire days, houses, other buildings and their occupants may
be under threat. It is up to the Police to decide whether to evacuate an
area or not. Generally speaking, people are safer to stay with their homes,
provided they are able-bodied and provided their house is reasonably well
prepared to resist a bush fire. It is generally more dangerous for people to
evacuate down smoke logged roads at the last minute. The elderly, the
very young and infirm should be evacuated, but it needs to be done early;
not when the fire is about to hit.
4 Bush Fire Suppression Techniques

In an earlier chapter, you were introduced to the basic principles of fire
behaviour and how bush fire spread can alter dramatically depending on
changes in fuel, weather and topography. In this chapter, the techniques
involved in suppressing a bush fire are covered. These fall broadly into
two categories:
• Offensive strategies where the fire can safely and effectively be

attacked or extinguished.
• Defensive strategies where the fire is too remote or too intense to be

safely or effectively attacked or extinguished.
Offensive strategies usually include:
• Direct attack.
• Parallel attack.
• Indirect attack.
Defensive strategies usually include:
• Observe and patrol.
• People/property protection.
The technique you will be asked to use will depend on the fire’s intensity
and other factors.
(a) Offensive Strategy - Direct Attack

A direct attack is used mainly on low intensity bush fires that can be
easily and safely reached by firefighters. Firefighters work directly on the
edge of the fire. This edge then becomes the established control line.
In forest or scrub, firefighters, using handtools or mechanical equipment

such as bulldozers, can clear a strip of exposed earth (called a mineral
earth control line) along the fire’s perimeter. Be careful not to drag burning
material across the control line. You may need to push fuel into the fire in
some circumstances. Firefighters may also use water, foam and fire
retardants to extinguish a fire. In grassland situations, water is commonly
used to extinguish the burning edge of the fire. A mineral earth control line
might not be required, or might be constructed with a plough or grader.
To make a direct attack you can use:
• Water contained in knapsacks or tankers, or in hoselines from a

static water source.
• Bulldozers and other machinery.
• Handtools such as axes, rakehoes (McLeod tools), slashers and

chainsaws.
The advantages of a direct attack are:
• Less area is burnt.
• Fuel is removed from the immediate path of the fire, allowing the
earliest possible control.
• Parts of the fire edge that may have gone out may be quickly
incorporated into the fire line.
The disadvantages of a direct attack are:
• Firefighters working at the fire’s edge can be exposed to heat

and smoke.
• An irregular control line has to be constructed in a short time

(if the fire’s perimeter is irregular).
• Fences and natural barriers may present obstacles.
• Patrol of the constructed control line can be difficult.
Direct attack
from unburnt side
at most forest fires.
Direct attack
from burnt side
at many grass fires.
wind
direction
Figure 75: Direct attack.

A head attack involves directly knocking down the head of the fire.
This type of attack is used only for low intensity bush fires where you can
get close enough to attack the burning edge and where you can be sure
that the fire will not flare up unexpectedly.
Head attack
from unburnt side
at low intensity
forest fires.
Head attack
from burnt side
at many grass fires.
wind
direction
Figure 76: Head attack.
By contrast, a flank attack involves approaching the fire from the flanks
and working directly on them if possible. A version of flank attack is to work
from the rear progressively towards the head of the fire in an attempt to
‘pinch’ it out. This technique is used when it is impractical or unsafe to
approach the head of a fire front on.
wind
direction
Figure 77: Flank attack on a grass fire with two tankers operating within
the burnt out area.
(b) Offensive Strategy - Parallel Attack

This technique is used for low to medium intensity bush fires. It involves
the construction of a control line parallel to the fire, just a short distance
away from the fire’s edge. The distance back from the fire will depend on:
• The intensity of the fire.
• The type of the fuel.
• Weather conditions.
• Topography.
In general, control lines are constructed as close as possible to the flanks

of the fire and irregularities in the fire’s perimeter can be by-passed using
this technique. You can use a range of equipment to construct control
lines, for example handtools, ploughs, bulldozers and chain saws. The fuel
between the main fire and the control line can be burnt out by other
firefighters as the work on the control line proceeds. If this is not possible,
you must patrol the control line to ensure that it is not crossed when the
main fire reaches it.
wind
direction
Figure 78: Parallel attack.

The advantages of a parallel attack are:
• Control line may be shorter and straighter than in direct attack.
• Crews may be less exposed to heat and smoke.
The disadvantages of a parallel attack are:
• There is an increased risk of fire escaping.
• The total fire area will be greater.
When using this technique, keep in mind the fact that the fire is constant-
ly moving. You may start a control line 10 metres from the fire only to find
that before it is complete, you are too close to the intense heat of the fire.
When using the parallel method, you must:
• Monitor the progress of the fire front and note any weather changes.
• Have a clearly defined refuge area and escape route.
(c) Offensive Strategy - Indirect Attack

This technique is used for intense and/or inaccessible bush fires.
The indirect method requires the use of either a natural fire barrier or
the construction of a control line some distance from the fire’s existing
perimeter. The fuel between the control line and the main fire is back-
burned. By backburning some distance from the fire’s existing perimeter,
the fire is robbed of fuel. This technique is generally used when firefight-
ing at close range is not possible, either because of the terrain, or because
the fire is too intense.
Not to scale
Control Line
wind
direction
Figure 79: Indirect attack.

The advantages of an indirect attack are:
• It can be used to control a more intense bush fire.
• It reduces the exposure of firefighters to the effects of bush fire.
• It allows choice of better locations for control lines.
• It allows more time for control line construction.
The disadvantages of an indirect attack are:
• The size of the fire is increased.
• The increased size gives a greater area to be controlled and

patrolled and there is a greater chance of the fire breaking through
the control lines
• The fuel between the fire and the control line may have to be
backburned. The two fires joining may result in intense fire activity
at the junction zone (where the fires meet) and an increased chance
of spotting.
Note: Backburning is potentially hazardous and needs experience and

knowledge. Refer to the later section on the subject.
(d) Defensive Strategy - Observe and Patrol

If a fire is of no immediate threat and/or is burning in inaccessible terrain,
a strategy of “observe and patrol” typically is used. In this case, the
perimeter is patrolled and the fire’s behaviour is observed. Firefighting
resources may be committed to areas that could present problems when
the fire reaches them.
This strategy relies on the person in charge having a good knowledge

of the terrain, the weather and previous fire history, so that they can
reasonably predict the movement of the fire. Changes in weather can
bring about dramatic changes in fire behaviour, so the fire must be
constantly checked and resources kept in a state of readiness. Some fires
classified as “inactive” in an accessible area have later come out and
caused damage to property.
In good conditions, specially trained remote area firefighting teams may

hike in or be flown in by helicopter to deal with the fire before conditions
worsen. While air attack seldom completely extinguishes a fire, it may
sometimes be used to slow the progress of the fire, or delay its impact on
a built up area to a time of the day when fire behaviour will not be as
severe (e.g. later in the evening).
(e) Defensive Strategy - People/Property Protection

At times when fire behaviour is extreme, it will probably not be possible to
safely use any of the offensive strategies. If the fire is not threatening
people or property the fire will usually be observed until the conditions
improve (e.g. as it gets cooler in the evening). However, if a severe fire is
a threat, a defensive strategy of people/property protection will generally
be used.
Your safety always remains paramount. Stay together with others in your
crew and follow the instructions given by your crew leader. Work from
within a safe refuge area. Do not go into the bush to tackle a severe fire.
It is too dangerous. Avoid places vulnerable to fire overrun, such as slopes
and ridge tops above fires and in heavily vegetated areas.
Ensure you have your kit of bush firefighter protective clothing on and
appropriately adjusted. You should also test your radios and any
protective devices fitted to your vehicle, and review your emergency
procedures, prior to commencing firefighting activities.
Expect that conditions will be confused on extreme fire days. There may
be multiple fire outbreaks, extensive fire spotting, unpredictable fire behav-
iour, poor visibility due to heavy smoke, ill-defined fire fronts, overloaded
communications systems, and stressful and demanding situations.
Under these conditions, the number of firefighters and firefighting units

may not be enough to initially control the fire, or the fire may be beyond
any control efforts. Firefighting at such times may be confined to simply
protecting people and property as the fire front passes, and leaving
actual suppression of the main front until conditions are more favourable.
You may be asked to help evacuate the young, elderly and infirm to a safe
refuge well before the fire front arrives. Alternatively, you may be asked to
monitor the location of people in the area and assist able owners/occu-
piers to prepare their property to better survive the approaching fire front.
You might also be asked to apply water or foam onto buildings as a
protective measure, as the fire approaches.
During the passage of the fire’s front, you should shelter in a suitably
positioned and prepared building or vehicle. After it has passed, you may
then help check that everyone is safe, patrol the area and extinguish any
residual fire that is threatening to involve property. On some occasions you
might have to accept that there is some property that you cannot save.
Concentrate on safely protecting people and what property you can, with
the resources you have available.
At times it may be possible to defend property during the impact of a bush

fire if operating from suitable safe refuges. Such safe refuges may include
streets or suitably prepared yards or buildings. Suburban street networks
can provide suitable safe refuges to which to defend property from the
impact of a bush fire.
Note: Properly installed household supply LPG cylinders are unlikely to

rupture during a passing bush fire. You should turn the main valve off,
safely keep any cylinders cool with water and leave the cylinders in an
upright position.
(f) Selection of Techniques

In fighting bush fires, your officer in charge will select the technique/s to be
used, based on several factors, such as:
• The rate of spread of the fire.
• The intensity of the fire (directly proportional to the height

of the flames).
• Spotting activity.
• Fuel ahead of and being burnt by the fire.
• Available firefighting resources.
• Safety, including access and escape routes.
A direct attack is not normally used in forests if the actual or expected

flame height is more than about 1.5 metres. In grassland, this is also true
if the fire is being fought from the unburnt side. However, a safe attack on
a grass fire is often possible at much higher flame heights, if (and only if)
the fire is attacked from the burnt side (i.e. the fire is moving away from the
firefighters). Such an attack is not usually safe in forests as the fire burns
for longer in the heavier fuels and there is the risk of being seriously
injured by falling trees or branches.
A parallel attack is used typically when flame heights are 1.5 to 3.0 metres
in forests. An indirect attack is generally used when flames heights in
forest are more than 3.0 metres, but less than 5.0 (or 10.0 metres if the
fuel is not very susceptible to spotting). Above that intensity only defensive
operations are usually conducted.
These are not hard and fast rules, and might be varied according to the
spotting behaviour, an expected change in weather, and available
resources. However, they do indicate the typical worst conditions in
which you could expect a particular technique to be safe to use.
Sometimes combinations of techniques may be used. For example, the
lower intensity flanks of a fire might be controlled using, say, a direct
attack, while a people and property are protected against the intense head
of the fire, using a defensive strategy.
5 Use of Firefighting Agents

This section covers the use, hazards, precautions, characteristics and
limitations of the firefighting agents commonly used for bush firefighting
operations.
(a) Water
Water is one of the most common and effective mediums for extinguishing
a fire. It does this by wetting the fuel and reducing its temperature.
The efficient use of water is a major factor in fire suppression.
Heat causes a fuel to give off vapours. The vapour burns and produces
additional heat which causes more vapours to be given off as well as
heating other nearby fuels. As these nearby fuels are heated, they give off
vapours which can ignite and allow the fire to spread. To interrupt this
process, you need to cool the fuel, not the flames.
This is a key principle in firefighting. Flames are a result of gases burning,

that is the gases given off by the burning fuel. Attempting to extinguish the
flames will not stop this process because the fuel will simply continue to
give off more gases. To cool the fuel, you should always direct the water
stream at the burning fuel and not at the flames. By doing this, you will also
conserve water.
Figure 80: Directing the stream.
You should also adjust your nozzle to obtain the most effective firefighting
stream. It is a good tactic to initially attack a fire, where possible, with a
strong stream of water and cool down one area. Then move in and turn
the nozzle to a wide spray, widening the area covered. When you are able
to move around the fire, use water wisely by spraying along, rather than
across, the fire edge.
Incorrectly directing
hose streams across
fire line instead
of along it
is ineffective
Spray along edge

and from unburnt side
so that all of spray
is effective
Figure 81: Spraying along the fire edge.

When working on a fireground, plan your activities carefully to avoid

wasting water. You should:
• Use an appropriate hose and always select the smallest nozzle that
will do the job effectively.
• Shut off the nozzle when water is no longer required.
• Use a jet stream for initial knock down, but then change to spray so
that water covers the greatest possible area (or combination of a jet
and a back-up spray).
• Direct water at the point where it will have the maximum effect,
that is, at the base of the burning fuel and not the flames.
• Where appropriate, use additives such as foam or wetting agents

to make the water more effective.
(b) Wetting Agents

These are chemicals which reduce the surface tension of water causing it
to spread out and so cover a greater area. The use of a wetting agent will
mean more economical use of water.
The figure below shows a leaf sprayed with water and the same leaf
sprayed with a similar volume of water to which a wetting agent has been
added.
Without
wetting agent
With
wetting agent
Figure 82: The effect of a wetting agent.

Note: Some wetting agents can be corrosive. Thoroughly clean all pumps,
knapsacks and sprays with clean water after using any wetting agent, and
replenish with fresh water.
Do not drink from tanks that have had wetting agents added to the
water inside.
(c) Foam
Foam is a blanketing and cooling agent. It consists of a mass of bubbles,
made from a mixture of water, foam concentrate and air. It is used when
water alone would not be effective or appropriate in firefighting. Foams
extinguish fire by:
• Shielding fuel surfaces from the radiant heat from

the adjacent flames.
• Cooling the fuel and isolating it from the oxygen in the air.
CLASS A FOAM
Class A foam is used in bush fire suppression and property protection.

It is especially formulated for use on Class A type fires in natural fuels,
such as grass, forest litter or wood. This foam:
• Lowers the surface tension of water, allowing it to penetrate fuels

more easily.
• Clings to vertical surfaces, reducing waste through run off.
• Is visible when applied, allowing firefighters to avoid under or

over-application.
• Enables fires to be put out more efficiently.
This foam is produced by mixing Class A concentrate with water to form a

foam solution. The solution is then aerated to form a large quantity of foam
bubbles. Class A foam can be applied to a fire through a spray nozzle or
a special foam-making nozzle, or it can be spread by aircraft.
Note: Class A concentrate is a powerful detergent which can remove skin

oils. Drums of this concentrate should be handled carefully. The lids or
caps should remain properly sealed to prevent spillage or splashing.
You should wear gloves, eye protection and long sleeves when emptying
containers of Class A concentrate. Your hands and face should be washed
after using the foam.
When using Class A concentrate, follow your Standard Operating

Procedures. The concentrate should not be allowed to enter, or be
handled near, creeks or rivers. Do not drink from tanks into which
Class A concentrate has been placed or which have been used to
store Class A concentrate.
Note: Do not confuse Class A foams with Class B foams such as aqueous
film forming foam (AFFF). AFFF is designed for use in oil or petroleum
fires, and is not normally used in fighting bush fires.
USING FOAM
Most recently built RFS tankers have a foam system integrated into
the pump plumbing. The pump operator only has to select a couple of
valves to have foam delivered via hoses or hose-reels in the required
concentration. The foam concentrate is fed to the foam system from
a 20 litre container or a specially designed foam concentrate tank.
RFS Fireground Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) 16 specifies that
Class A foam is to be used in the following concentrations:
• 0.10% to 0.25% - for mop-up.
• 0.25% to 0.75% - for general bush firefighting.
• 1.0% - for protection of structures threatened by a bush fire.
Foam should be applied to a fire as gently as possible, ensuring uniform

coverage. It can be sprayed onto buildings to help protect them from an
approaching bush fire, or applied on scrub or the trunks of trees near
the edge of a control line just before lighting a backburn. The maximum
projection distance of the stream should be used, letting the foam do the
work. Foam is also particularly effective in mopping-up work (detailed later
in this Manual).
(d) Fire Retardants

A retardant is any firefighting substance applied on, or ahead of, a fire’s
flame front to reduce the fire’s rate of spread or intensity, rather than to
directly suppress combustion in the flaming zone. Fire retardants can be
broadly categorised as short term and long term.
SHORT-TERM RETARDANTSjj
Short-term retardants, the most common example of which is Class A

foam, rely almost entirely on their ability to retain moisture, thereby
cooling the fire and keeping fuels ahead of the fire too moist to burn.
Once the water evaporates, the retardant action ends. When used as a
retardant, Class A foams may be effective for 20 to 40 minutes depending
on the foam concentration and weather conditions.
LONG-TERM RETARDANTS
Long-term retardants are chemicals (usually ammonium salts) which are

mixed with water to form a slurry with a consistency similar to tomato
sauce. The slurry not only coats the fuel, therefore acting as a physical
barrier, but the chemical also retards the combustion process. Long-term
retardant slurries are effective after the water has evaporated from them,
and may continue to retard combustion for more than 24 hours.
Long-term retardants can be applied by tanker type equipment, but are

more commonly used in aerial fire-bombing operations, particularly to slow
the spread of fires in remote areas while ground crews travel to them.
Figure 83: Retardant in use.

Note: RFS Fireground Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) 16 specifies

that firefighting chemicals (foam, retardants, etc.) not be used in areas
where run off will enter rivers, streams or other watercourses.
6 Control Lines
A control line is a man-made or natural fuel-free path. It prevents the
spread of fire. When constructing control lines, the term mineral earth is
sometimes used. This term refers to ground where all vegetation cover
has been removed and only rocks and soil are exposed. The mineral earth
should be exposed for the length and width of the control line.
The width of a control line may vary from one to ten metres, depending on
the incident. Temporary control lines can also be established by laying
foam or retardant. A control line can be constructed by using:
• Handtools (axes, slashers, rakehoes).
• Bulldozers.
• Other machinery such as graders and farm tractors with a blade.
Figure 84: Mineral earth break.

There are two methods for constructing a control line using handtools:
• The step-up method.
• The one-lick method.
(a) The Step-Up Method

The Step-up method is normally used for constructing a control line when
crew size is up to 10 or 12 firefighters. This involves firefighters in a crew
working in a line on individual sections of the control line. Crew members:
• Stand approximately three metres apart (distance is dependent on

fuel type and terrain).
• Clear their individual section of the fire break down to mineral earth,
raking the fuel away from the fire.
When a member of the team reaches the end of a section up to where the
next crew member commenced, he or she calls out, ‘Step-up’. This signal
is repeated all along the line and then:
• All workers in front of the person who called, ‘Step-up’ move on to the
next incomplete section.
• Workers behind the person who first called, ‘Step-up’, continue until
their section is completed and then call, ‘Step-up’.
This way the group moves along at a steady rate and no-one overtakes
the person in front. The last member of the crew checks that the control
line is cleared to the required standard. The crew leader usually works at
the head of the team, selecting the route for the control line.
Figure 85: Step-up method.

(b) One-Lick Method

In the one-lick method, each person removes a portion of the fuel by
raking it away from the fire as they move along the line. This continues
until the mineral earth is exposed and a control line is established.
This method may suit situations where large crews (say more than 12
firefighters) must be deployed as a unit.
In both the step-up and one-lick method of control line construction, the
last member of the team must be responsible for ensuring the line is
completed to the necessary standard.
Figure 86: One-lick method.
Note: Control lines constructed with hand tools are often called ‘handtool
lines’ or ‘rakehoe trails’.
(c) Key Points in Control Line Construction

Key points to remember when constructing a control line are:
• Make the most of natural fire breaks such as:

- exposed rock shelves.
- open ground.
- creek beds.
- animal tracks, or
- old logging trails.
• Keep the control line as straight as possible. This will provide

firefighters with a clear view and will enable them to move along the
control line easily.
• Keep the length of the control line to a minimum, avoiding sharp

bends, as fires can often spot over at these points.
• Avoid heavy concentrations of fuel as the fire’s intensity will increase

close to the control line.
• Cut saplings and small trees at ground level to minimise the

potential for the sharp stumps to cause accidents.
• Keep the control lines clear of dead trees or stumps with rough bark
as the bark can cause spotting. Rake around these if it is not
possible to avoid them.
• Be sure that the fuel is removed down to mineral earth.
7 Mopping Up and Patrol

Mopping-up (or blacking-out) operations involve making sure that a con-
tained or checked fire does not restart. Patrolling consists of monitoring
the fire area until it is reasonably certain no reignition will occur.
(a) Mopping Up
When the perimeter of a bush fire is extinguished, a strip inside the
perimeter must be mopped up (“blacked out”) to extinguish all smoulder-
ing material. The width of this strip will vary. Your Officer-in-Charge or crew
leader will tell you how far inside the control line this work should be taken.
The depth will depend on:
• The size of the fire - it may be possible to mop-up the entire area
of a small fire.
• Nature of the fuels - lots of heavy, smouldering fuels inside the

mopped-up perimeter increase the risk of re-ignition. The mopped-up
margin may need to be deeper.
• Terrain or topography - control lines on slopes with burnt ground

above have a risk of smouldering material tumbling down across
the line. Mopping up must be extended further upslope to reduce
this risk.
• Weather conditions - the likelihood of severe weather in the near

future may make a deeper mopped-up zone desirable.
A mopping-up operation involves locating and extinguishing any

smouldering fuel above or below ground. This is done manually with
handtools, or by wetting the fuel, or both. You should:
• Extinguish any smouldering and hot materials.
• Place any smouldering fuel found outside the control line into the
burnt out area.
• Break up fuel concentrations to release the heat.
• Turn smouldering logs into a position where they will not roll into an
unburnt area.
• Dig out and extinguish burning roots and stump holes.
• Extinguish any fresh outbreaks.
Apply water efficiently so as to conserve your water supply as much as

possible.
Look out for, and avoid, trees or branches that are in danger of falling.
The felling of burning trees or other “problem” trees should only be
conducted by suitably trained and qualified personnel.
(b) Patrolling a Fire

When fire spread has been checked by the construction of a control line,
its perimeter must be constantly monitored by patrolling firefighters.
This needs to be done in conjunction with and following mopping-up work.
If you are required to assist in patrolling a bush fire, you must look out for:
• Burning material within the fire area which could threaten the control
line (especially overhead in trees).
• Spot fires beyond the control line.
• Weak spots in the control line where further work is required.
• Trees and overhead limbs in trees which may fall and endanger you.
If you are patrolling in a vehicle, follow these precautions:
• When travelling in smoke or dust, reduce speed, switch on lights and

occasionally sound the horn.
• Do not block access or escape routes.
• When travelling along fire breaks, take note of the nearest turning
areas and refuges, and be aware of other vehicles and firefighters
on foot.
8 Working as Part of a Team

Firefighting depends on individuals working together as part of a team.
As a member of a team, you must stay in contact with other people either
by sight or radio. You must make sure:
• You understand your task, and how it fits in with the work of other
firefighters around you.
• The person in charge knows where you are and what you are doing.
• You know where other firefighters are and what they are doing.
• You stay in contact regularly with your crew leader.
• That you have adequate drinking water.
• That you have the escape plans in the event that you may have to
leave the area quickly.
9 Fireground Safety
Working on the fireground requires that you are conscious of working
safely at all times. This section discusses safety under the three headings:
• Situational Awareness.
• Selection of Safe Techniques.
• Survival in Life-Threatening Situations.
(a) Situational Awareness

Situational awareness means knowing what’s going on, so you can figure
out what to do. In regard to safety it means being aware of:
• What hazards to look out for in the situation.
• What is going on around you right now.
• What could happen next.
Bush firefighting hazards and precautions have already been covered in

Chapter 2. Keep in mind that such hazards can come:
• From the fire (e.g. smoke, radiant heat and fire overrun).
• From your surroundings (e.g. falling branches and rolling logs).
• From within yourself (e.g. heat stress, fatigue and dehydration).
• From firefighters nearby (e.g. use of sharp hand tools

and moving vehicles).
• From other firefighting activities (e.g. back-burning and water

drops from aircraft).
• From activities other than firefighting itself

(e.g. while on reconnaissance, or while entering, transiting
or leaving the fire area).
By constantly scanning for hazards you should be able to build up a

mental picture of what is going on around you. You should share this
information with the other members of your crew, so that the whole crew
has a clear idea of what is happening.
By applying your understanding of fire behaviour you can also get a good
idea of what is likely to happen next and anticipate hazards. For example,
if a bush fire is burning slowly downhill, your knowledge of fire behaviour
should tell you that it will pick up speed when it gets onto flat ground and
accelerate rapidly when it runs up a slope. You should also consider what
might happen next. For example, what would the fire do if there is a
sudden wind change?
(b) Safe Techniques

The fire situation determines which firefighting techniques are safe and
appropriate to use. Usually the technique selected depends on the actual
or expected intensity of the fire. A rough guide to the intensity of the fire is
given by its flame height. Generally speaking:
• A direct attack on a fire from unburnt ground would only be safe and
effective if flames heights are about 1.5 metres or less.
• In grassland fires only, it might be safe to do a direct attack on a fire

with a much higher flame height, but only if it is approached from the
already burnt side (upwind).
• A parallel attack is generally appropriate when flame heights are

about 1.5 to 3.0 metres.
• An indirect attack might succeed at flame heights of up to 10 metres

in vegetation that does not spot readily, but only be safe and
effective for flames heights up to about 5 metres in vegetation that
readily causes spot fires.
While the overall firefighting techniques used will be decided by your crew
leader or other more senior officer, you should always be aware of whether
they are appropriate to the situation. If you see a change in fire behaviour
that requires a change in tactics, you can then recognise and report it
straight away.
You have a more direct role to play in the techniques you use to operate
your equipment. Always use vehicles, pumps, hose-lines, water streams,
hand tools and other equipment in a manner that is safe for you and for
those around you. Later sections in this chapter will cover safety when
working with firefighting tankers, machinery and aircraft.
Always start your attack on a fire from a safe position, sometimes called
a “safe anchor point”. Always have an “out” planned and available to you,
in case things go wrong. For instance, always have a suitable safety
refuge available nearby and know exactly under what circumstances you
will stop what you are doing and go to that refuge.
Never rely on luck or the continuation of good weather to guarantee your

safety. Avoid the “Dead Man Zone”; the area within about 5 minutes
burning time of the fire, including the flanks and heel of the fire if a wind
change suddenly occurred.
(c) Survival in Life Threatening Situations

When working on the fireground, you must avoid putting yourself at risk.
Conditions on the fireground can alter quickly and can lead to significant
changes in the overall fire situation. If you find yourself in a position where
fire is threatening your immediate location, immediately activate your “out”
plan and go to a safe refuge.
RFS Fireground Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) 12 - Part A

specifies the actions to be taken in the event of being threatened by a bush
or grass fire as:
• In vehicles;
- Warn everyone who may be in immediate danger.
- Send an emergency radio call giving details, callsign and location.
- Ensure all firefighters are wearing full personal protective

equipment (PPE), and that all PPE is correctly fastened
and adjusted.
- Park vehicle in an open space or burnt ground (if possible), close

all vents and windows and leave engine running.
- Ensure all crew are sheltered under blankets, if available.
- Operate protective equipment (spray bars).
- Operate emergency lights and headlights.
- After the fire has passed, assess the situation and, if the vehicle is
still safe, remain with the vehicle.
- If the vehicle has become hazardous, remain together as a crew

and move to a safer location, (crew members are to take blankets
with them, if available, for supplementary protection).
• On foot;
- Move to bare ground or the area of least vegetation.
- Ensure all PPE is correctly worn and fastened.
- Attempt to shelter in a depression or embankment, or behind

other shelter.
• In a structure;
- Turn off all electrical and gas systems.
- Fill bath and sinks with water.
- Ensure gutters are clear, then block downpipe and fill with water.
- Close all doors and windows and seal gaps with towels or similar
material.
- If possible have a battery powered radio and torch in working

order.
- Once the fire has passed, move outside and extinguish any hot
spots, and check the house for any signs of fire, especially the roof
and under the house.
Generally speaking a safe refuge is an area free of significant combustible

vegetation to a horizontal distance of about four times the expected flame
height. A safe distance might be less if you also have effective shelter
against the radiant heat of the approaching fire.
RFS Fireground Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) 43 specifies that:
• A safety refuge needs to be available to firefighters while operating

at any bush or grass fire.
• A safety refuge is an area clear of any significant combustibles to a

horizontal distance (in the direction of an approaching fire) of at least
four times the predicted flame height.
• All firefighting is to be anchored from (commenced from) a suitable

safety refuge.
• Under conditions when a direct attack is safely possible, the already

burnt out area may be regarded as a safety refuge.
• Under conditions when a parallel attack is safely possible, the area

already back-burned out may be regarded as a safety refuge.
• During indirect firefighting operations:
- A safety refuge is to be available within 100 metres of where any

firefighter is working, if only one escape route to a safety refuge is
available.
- The distance to a safety refuge may be increased to 250 metres if

two or more different escape routes to safety refuges are available.
- The escape route shall be such that a firefighter could move along
it on foot to the safety refuge at a jogging pace, if needed.
- Firefighters are to be told where their safety refuge is located

and how to get to it.
- A lookout is to be posted to warn firefighters of any approaching fire

or spot fire.
- A means of immediately warning firefighters of any danger is to be

available.
- Firefighters are to proceed to their safety refuge area if warned of

danger from any approaching fire or spot fire.
• During defensive firefighting, firefighters are to operate only from

within safety refuges.
• A vehicle or building should not be regarded as a safe haven from

a fire unless it is located within a safety refuge area and has been
properly prepared as a safe haven from fire. (Note: In a life
threatening emergency, a poorly situated building or vehicle might be
the only available shelter from a fire, but safety cannot be assured.)
If you do not have a safe refuge nearby, your chances of survival are less,
but there may still be things you can do to protect yourself. The key is to
protect yourself from radiant heat. You can:
• Shelter in a vehicle - make sure that it is not adjacent to heavy fuels.
• Shelter in caves or hollows, running streams or other large bodies

of water.
• Dig or scrape out a refuge (the deeper, the better) and lay face down.
• Shield yourself with whatever is available, such as woollen blankets

or heavy coats.
700
T540
Figure 87: Sheltering in a vehicle away from heavy fuels

(cut-away view of cabin).
Note: Remain calm. Do not run uphill away from a fire unless you know a
safe refuge is nearby.
Radiated heat
Built-up earth
Trench
Figure 88: Protecting yourself from an approaching fire.

Note:, The following “DON’Ts” apply. Do NOT:
• Take refuge in vehicle tanks.
• Take refuge in above ground tanks.
• Run blindly from the fire.
• Attempt to run through flames unless you can see clearly

behind them.
(d) The LACES checklist

The LACES checklists summarise safety actions for the fireground. For all
firefighters, LACES means:
L- Lookout - Everybody looks out for everybody else.
A- Awareness - Everybody is aware of the fire’s current and

anticipated behaviour, and of other fireground hazards and
precautions.
C- Communications - Everybody speaks up and everybody listens,

about what is happening and about their concerns at the fire.
E- Escape route/s - Everybody always has an “out” planned and

agreed, just in case things go wrong.
S- Safety refuge/s - Everybody helps everybody to survive.

Everybody supports the decision to get clear of a hazard.
Your crew leader will also use the LACES checklist to help protect the
entire crew, by ensuring the following actions are carried out:
L- Lookout - Lookout assigned at a safe vantage point in

communication with him/her.
A- Awareness - Terrain, weather, fire behaviour, the assignment

and nearby activities.
C- Communications - Suitable radio contact maintained.
E- Escape route/s - Suitable escape route/s, checked and known

by all the crew.
S- Safety refuge/s - Suitable, big enough, close enough

and free of hazards.
10 Working with Tankers

At most fires, you will be working from, or with, a firefighting tanker or
similar appliance. Become familiar with your tanker. Look out for hazards,
so that avoiding them becomes a habit. The diagram below shows some
typical hazards present on a fire tanker.
Flammable
Sharp tools liquids
ISUZU
700
T540
High
pressure
hose lines
and spoked
hose reels
Beware of
vehicle moving
Use caution when Hot exhausts and
climbing on/off flywheels on
appliances motorised equipment
Figure 89: Typical hazards around appliances.
Become familiar with the correct way of getting on and off your tanker.
Always use the steps and hand-holds provided. Always climb up and
down facing the steps, not facing outwards from them. Do not take a nap
leaning up against the wheels of a tanker or lie in the shade underneath.
The tanker might be required at short notice and you could become
seriously injured when it drives off.
Wind up windows when travelling to and around fires. This will stop
branches or sticks entering the cabin and causing injury, and prevent
embers entering the cabin when you arrive at the fire. Do not travel to or
from fires except in the cabin, with your seat belt on. If using a fire trailer,
do not ride on the trailer at any time.
At some grassland fires, firefighting may be conducted from the backs of

moving tankers from special areas shielded from the heat of the fire.
Typically a 38mm branch, angled forward, is used to knock down the fire,
while another 38mm branch or a hose-reel nozzle is angled rearward and
used to reinforce the attack. A follow up tanker may stop to completely
extinguish any residual points of fire using hose-reels, usually operated by
firefighters working on the ground. The lead tanker may need to adjust its
speed so that the follow up tanker does not get left well behind.
At large grassland fires, several tankers may be organised into a flank

attack task force. A tanker starts at a safe anchor point and moves along
the flank, knocking down fire as it goes. Tankers following behind back it
up so that complete containment by the first unit is not needed. This
enables the speed of the attack to be virtually doubled. Normally larger
units are placed at the front of the task force. Some units are deployed for
mopping up and others are kept in reserve to replace units when their
water supply gets low. If water is scarce, the lead unit might be grader.
RFS Fireground Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) 14 specifies the

techniques for grassland firefighting from moving vehicles as:
• Generally work from within the burnt out area if safely possible.
• Generally use the larger units for knock-down and the smaller units
for mop-up.
• Generally work with headlights and available warning lights on.
• If smoke or flames are too intense, circle out into clean air and drop
in behind the following tanker/s.
• Do not reverse when thick smoke conditions exist on the fire line.
• Drive with crew safety in mind at all times.
• Firefighters operating hoses are to remain behind heat shields at all

times and not be in an area where they can fall from the tanker.
• Vehicle speed should be adjusted so that the firefighting remains

safe and effective.
• When cutting fences, stagger the cuts in alternative wires to facilitate

closing the gap later and mark the gap. Make the gap far enough
from the fire so it remains safely accessible during firefighting
operations.
• The Officer in Charge (OIC) at the fire should take up a safe vantage
point and allocate and co-ordinate units so that they are used to best
effect, allowing for rotation and replenishment of units.
• Except when operating on the fireground as described in this SOP,

all crew are to be correctly seated in the vehicle in an enclosed crew
compartment and wearing seatbelts.
11 Working with Machinery

Machinery used at fires typically may include bulldozers, graders, ploughs
and bobcats. They can be used for:
• A direct attack on the fire.
• Construction of a firebreak for a parallel or indirect attack.
• Digging out or exposing material burning underground.
• Construction or improvement of fire trails and refuge areas.
• Construction or improvement of helipads, assembly areas

and camp areas.
• Mechanical assistance to deal with hazardous logs,

trees and other obstacles.
• Earthworks to help with environmental recovery

of an area after firefighting operations.
Machinery will not be used when the anticipated flame height is more than
about 5 metres. Machinery is accompanied by a firefighting unit while
working, to keep other units/personnel at a safe distance, and to provide
communications and fire protection.
Keep at least 30 metres (or at least a distance equal to twice the height of
the trees in the area) clear of operating machinery. Keep away from the
downhill side of the machinery. Watch out for any sudden movements from
the machinery. Attract the operator’s attention and wait to be signalled by
them that it is safe, before approaching machinery.
12 Working with Aircraft

This section covers the various uses of aircraft at a fire, the safety
precautions you should take when working in and around aircraft, and
what to do in an in-flight emergency situation and if you are caught in a
firebombing zone.
A range of aircraft are used in fire suppression activities. The uses of

aircraft at an incident can vary widely. The main uses are:
• Fireground command and control.
• Detecting fires.
• Applying water or aerial retardants (that is, firebombing).
• Aerial ignition.
• Transporting crews and equipment.
• Observing and mapping fires using infra-red

equipment and other technology.
• Fire bomber co-ordination.
(a) General Safety Precautions

When working in and around aircraft, there are general safety principles
that apply. You should observe these precautions at all times:
• Always follow the directions given by the pilot, flight crew or

aircraft coordinator.
• Wear correct eye, ear and head protection when working on or near
an airstrip or helipad. Do not wear loose head gear, for example,
a baseball cap.
• Stand clear of landing and take off areas and do not smoke within
30 metres of an aircraft or refuelling equipment.
• Be aware of propellers and rotors, particularly when engines are

idling, during warm up and brief stops. Never lean on them as this
may cause the engine to turn over and cause injury.
• Do not handle moving parts such as flaps, aerials and airspeed

sensing tubes as these can be easily damaged.
• When boarding or leaving aircraft, be careful to avoid using panel

areas marked “No Step”.
• Assist with loading equipment or materials only under the

supervision and guidance of the pilot, as the pilot is responsible for
the correct weight and balance of the aircraft.
(b) Working Around Helicopters

The nine points outlined below should be remembered at all times when
working around helicopters.
• Stay in the pilot’s field of view at all times.
• Stay away from spinning main and tail rotor blades as these may not
be readily visible whilst turning at high speed.
• Stand outside the main rotor disc area and wait till the pilot gives
the thumbs up sign, then approach the helicopter in a crouched
position. Be aware of aerials and other easily damaged attachments.
• A slowing main rotor can tilt downwards, especially in windy

weather. Do not approach the helicopter until the rotors have
completely stopped or are spinning at operating speed.
• Be aware of ground irregularities on uneven, sloping terrain.

Approach and leave a helicopter from the lowest downslope side,
within the pilot’s view, to have maximum clearance.
• Carry stretchers, tools and other objects horizontally, firmly held

below the waist. Never carry equipment upright or over the shoulder.
Carry long objects between two people.
• Cover eyes, if blinded by dust, and crouch down with back to the
helicopter.
• Think, observe and do not rush when approaching a helicopter as it

can move in any direction.
• Look after your own gear and be ready to board when directed
to do so.
PILOTS
FIELD OF
VISION
DO NOT approach or leave without the

pilot's knowledge and clearance.
Stay in pilot's filed of vision.
DANGER AREA
Crouch down as you approach for extra

rotor clearance. Helmets must be removed
or fastened securely by a chin strap.
DO NOT reach up, run or chase after articles
that blow away.
Carry tools horizontally below waist level-

never upright or on shoulder.
On sloping ground always approach or leave

on the down-slope for maximum
rotor clearance.
If blinded by swirling dust or grit, STOP - sit
down and await assistance.
On entering helicopter
fasten and adjust seat
belt and leave it
fastened until pilot
DO NOT approach or leave helicopter signals to get out.
when the engine and rotors are running
down or starting up.
Figure 90: Safety around helicopters.

(c) Dos and Don’ts when Travelling in Aircraft

Do
• Close and latch doors carefully as they can bend easily.
• Fasten seat belts and keep them fastened at all times unless the pilot
instructs otherwise.
• Sit where instructed by the pilot or flight crew.
• Stow objects so that they do not move around and affect the controls.
Do not
• Distract the pilot during take off and landing. Signal an intention to
speak and wait for a response. Identify any potential hazards
if required.
• Throw objects from the aircraft.
• Open doors in flight unless instructed by the pilot.
(d) What to do in an In-flight Emergency

You must follow the pilot or flight crew’s instructions immediately. In an
emergency situation:
• Do not panic, stay calm.
• Fasten seat belts or harnesses.
• Secure any loose objects.
• Brace for impact. This will vary according to the aircraft.
- In a helicopter, remain in an upright position with hands gripping

the seat edge between the legs, feet should remain firmly on
the floor.
- In a fixed-wing aircraft, keep your head on your knees, and arms

grasped under your legs.
After an emergency landing:
• Wait for all movement to stop.
• Leave the aircraft in an orderly manner, as directed by the pilot

and flight crew.
• Disembark from the aircraft in an upwind direction in case of fire.

(e) What to do if Caught in a Firebombing Drop Zone

Firebombing is a term used to describe the dropping of water, foam or
retardants in bush fire suppression activities. Firebombing activities are
usually carried out by helicopters or fixed-wing, agricultural type aircraft.
If caught in a firebombing zone:
• Move away from the fire line.
• Do not run or panic.
• Watch out for dead or suspended branches.
• Place handtools well clear of you.
• Hold your helmet on or protect your head with your arms.
• Watch your footing.
• Wash with cold water if hit with foam or retardant.
13 Backburning
This section describes the basic principles involved in a backburn, its
advantages and disadvantages, and the types of lighting patterns that
are used. This information is intended to provide you with a basic
understanding of the procedures involved.
(a) What is Backburning

A backburn involves burning a strip of land ahead of a main bush fire
in order to remove fuel from between the advancing fire edge and the
established control line. A backburn must be lit from a prepared control
line. A backburn should never be lit without appropriate approval and the
supervision of a crew leader.
Technically a backburn is lit so that it burns “back” against the wind from
the control line. The term “burning out” is sometimes used to describe a
fire lit to consume fuel between control lines and/or already burnt areas,
such as during a parallel attack, when it is not burning against the wind.
Similar precautions apply to it as for backburning.
A successful backburn may:
• Stop the progress of a rapidly moving bush fire.
• In difficult terrain, be one practicable method of fire suppression.
The disadvantages of a backburn are:
• It increases the total fire area.
• If the backburn escapes control, the progress of the main fire is

accelerated.
• It can endanger the lives of firefighters.
• It may produce intense fire behaviour when it meets with the main
fire, and this may cause an increase in spot fires.
• It requires considerable time to effectively establish.
• It requires substantial resources to light and patrol.
In the RFS, a distinction is made between strategic and tactical

backburning and the precautions needed are specified in Fireground
Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) 17, which states:
• Backburning is used in indirect and parallel attacks and may be used

to help defend a specific asset during defensive operations.
• Strategic backburning is used as the primary means to halt the

main fire. It needs to be carefully co-ordinated, suitably resourced
and must only be conducted under orders from the overall
Incident Controller.
• Tactical backburning is used to protect a specific asset. It must not

interfere with other firefighting operations and must only be
conducted under orders from the officer in charge of the area which
it will affect.
• All backburning must be strictly supervised. Officers in charge

must ensure:
- Weather and fuel conditions are suitable for a controllable

backburn.
- Adequate time and resources are available for the backburning

operation (eg: tankers, firefighters, look-outs, communications,
etc).
- Backburning is commenced from suitable, safe “anchor” point/s.
- Firefighters light-up on the correct side of the firebreak.
- Spotovers can be quickly extinguished.
- Firebreaks are sufficiently wide to be effective.
- Wind direction and strength and relative humidity are monitored

for change.
- If firefighters can no longer see or communicate with one another,

they are to cease lighting-up until they can.
• Backburning is not to be conducted when:
- People or savable property is in the path of a backburn.
- The fire is running in extreme conditions or the weather is forecast

to create extreme conditions before the backburn is likely to be
secured.
- Long distance spotting is occurring.
- The location of the fire edge is unknown.
- There are no adequate control lines.
- There is insufficient time or resources to conduct the backburn.
(b) Ignition Devices

To start a backburn, a range of ignition devices can be used, such as the
gas torch or the drip torch. The most common of these is the drip torch.
DRIP TORCH (FIRELIGHTER)
The driptorch is used for lighting backburns and for other prescribed
burning activities. A driptorch is a container holding a fuel mixture which
runs, drop by drop, out of a nozzle over a lighted wick, dripping burning
liquid onto the fuel to be ignited.
A driptorch is made up of:
• A tank - This is an alloy cylinder consisting of a handle, filler cap

and air vent.
• A wand - This is a section of brass tube, about a metre in length and

containing a coiled section to prevent flashback from the lighted tip
to the tank.
• A burner - This is made up of a nozzle and an ignition wick.
Nozzle Gauze
and wick
Wand
Filler cap
Air vent Tap
Handle
Fuel tank
Figure 91: Driptorch.
HOW TO USE A DRIPTORCH
• Away from any sources of ignition, unscrew the filler cap and fill the
tank with a pre-mixed fuel (such as kerosene or a diesel/petrol
mixture - normally in the ratio of three parts diesel to one part petrol).
Avoid spilling the mixture.
• Replace the filler cap and check that its neoprene ‘O’ ring is in place
and sealed correctly. Wipe off any spilt fuel before lighting.
• Loosen the air vent screw and tilt the driptorch so that the wand is
pointing to the ground.
• Let fuel drip from the nozzle onto the wick.
• Ignite the wick with a match or lighter. The wick will serve as a
pilot flame. As fresh fuel drips onto the wick, the fuel will catch alight
and fall to the ground and onto the vegetation to be lit. The flow of
the driptorch fuel is controlled by the air vent screw. In some cases,
there is a tap at the base of the wand.
• When finished, tilt the torch upright to stop the flow of fuel.
• When the lighting is completed, the fuel must be stopped and the
pilot flame extinguished or blown out. Driving the burner into loose
soil is not recommended as it blocks the nozzle and may damage
the burner.
WHAT TO DO WHEN STORING A DRIPTORCH
• Switch fuel tap off.
• Close air vent.
• Ensure ignition wick is extinguished.
• Place driptorch in an upright position.
(c) Conducting a Backburn

As already stated, no backburn should be carried out by firefighters unless
under the direction and supervision of an experienced Officer-in-Charge.
Backburns can be dangerous. Your Officer-in-Charge or crew leader
will instruct firefighters in what to do.
SUMMARY
• Fire calls can come from many sources. You need to be familiar
with the procedures for responding to a call of fire. You should not
respond to a fire call unless you are fit to attend (e.g. confirm you
are fit by applying the I’M SAFE checklist). When you respond to
a fire call, you should do so in a safe manner.
• Smoke may indicate the location of a fire. While en-route you

should be briefed on the known details of the call. This should
use the SMEACS format and include the hazards you are likely
to encounter and the precautions you should take. If the situation
is different on arrival, you may be given an updated briefing.
• When approaching, and when at the scene of the fire, you should
observe details that may assist fire investigators. You should also
protect the scene for investigation, especially the point of origin
of the fire.
• Safely protecting people from the fire is your first priority.

Generally, able bodied people are safer to stay with a prepared
property, but the elderly, young and infirm should be evacuated
early from the potential danger area.
• Bush fire suppression may use offensive or defensive strategies,

depending on the situation. Offensive strategies include the
direct, parallel and indirect attacks. Defensive strategies include
observe and patrol, and people/property protection.
• A direct attack is used mainly on low intensity fires and involves

direct extinguishment of the fire’s edge. A head attack is
sometimes possible. If not, a flank attack is commonly used.
• A parallel attack is used on medium intensity fires. It involves the

construction of a control line a short distance away from the fire’s
edge and usually the burning out of the fuel between the control
line and the fire.
• An indirect attack is used on intense fires and involves falling

back to a natural or constructed fire break and carefully back
burning the fuel from the “fire” side of the control line.
SUMMARY
• “Observe and patrol” is a technique used for fires burning in

inaccessible areas. Firefighting resources are kept ready in case
the fire “comes out” and threatens people and property.
• “People/property protection” is a technique used when a severe
fire is a threat to people and property.
• The technique used to fight a bush fire needs to be matched to
the situation, in particular the intensity of the fire. Sometimes
combinations of techniques may be used at different parts of
the fire.
• Water is the main firefighting agent used in bush firefighting.
Water needs to be applied to the fuel that is burning (so as to
cool it), not to the flames. You should operate the nozzle so as to
get the most effective use out of the available water.
• Wetting agents, foam and retardants are used to improve the
extinguishing properties of water.
• Wetting agents change the surface tension characteristics of
water so it spreads out further.
• Foam consists of bubbles of an aerated mixture of water and
foam concentrate. Foam can cling to surfaces for a persistent
cooling and insulating action.
• Foam is also the most common form of short-term fire retardant.
Long term retardants are chemicals mixed with water into a
slurry. They can remain effective for more than a day.
• Firefighting chemicals should not be used close to water
courses.
• Control lines are natural or man-made paths cleared to mineral
earth. They may be constructed by using hand tools or
machinery. Temporary control lines may also be produced using
foam or retardant. Control line construction with hand tools may
use either the step-up or one-lick method and should be carried
out using safe and appropriate techniques.
• Thorough mopping up is essential to prevent re-kindles of fires.
It consists of the elimination of all smouldering material in the
area where re-ignition might occur. The perimeter of a mopped
up fire then needs to be patrolled to ensure no further re-ignition
occurs.
SUMMARY
• During firefighting it is essential to work safely as a team.

Your safety on the fireground depends on having good
situational awareness, using safe techniques and taking the
appropriate action in the event of a life threatening situation.
• Situational awareness consists of actively looking out for

hazards, appreciating what is going on around you, and using
your knowledge (e.g. of fire behaviour) and your observations to
determine what is likely to happen next.
• Safe techniques include using the appropriate strategy, using

your equipment safely, starting from a safe anchor point, and
avoiding the Dead Man Zone.
• If an unsafe situation develops, you should activate your “out”

plan and go to a safe refuge. You should practice your
emergency procedures regularly and use the LACES checklists.
LACES = Lookout - Awareness - Communications - Escape
Routes - Safety Refuges.
• You should become familiar with your tanker (or other

appliance/s), the hazards they involve and the precautions that
need to be taken. Get on and off tankers correctly. Don’t rest or
sleep up against or under tankers. Wind up windows in the
vicinity of a fire. Travel inside the cabin and wear your seat belt
while travelling. Do not ride on trailers at any time.
• At grassland fires, the fire may be fought using nozzles operated

from a heat shielded area on the back of the tanker. At larger fires
several tankers may deal with the fire using an organised flank
attack task force. Tankers need to operate with care and
cooperation to carry out such attacks safely and effectively.
• Machinery such as bulldozers, graders, ploughs and bobcats

may be used at fires for constructing control lines and other
activities. They are not used when the fire is intense and should
always be accompanied by a firefighting unit. Keep at least 30
metres (or a distance twice the height of trees) from machinery
when operating. Don’t get downhill of operating machinery.
Do not approach operating machinery unless the operator signals
it is safe.
SUMMARY
• Aircraft are used for a variety of purposes at a fire, including

command and control, reconnaissance, bombing, aerial ignition,
crew transport, mapping and observation. You should be familiar
with the general hazards and precautions regarding aircraft,
working around helicopters, travelling in aircraft, in-flight
emergency procedures and what to do if caught in a fire-bombing
zone.
• Backburning involves burning of fuel between a control line and

an approaching fire. It a potentially hazardous activity and should
only be conducted with appropriate approval and supervision.
• Strategic backburning is used as the primary means of stopping

the main fire. It needs to be carefully co-ordinated, suitably
resourced and must only be conducted under orders from the
overall Incident Controller.
• Tactical backburning is used to protect a specific asset (e.g.

property). It must not interfere with other firefighting operations
and must only be conducted under orders from the officer in
charge of the area which it will affect.
• A driptorch is commonly used to light a backburn and for

prescribed burning activities. It consists of a container holding a
fuel mixture (kerosene, or a 1 part petrol to 3 parts diesel mix)
which runs out of a nozzle over a lighted wick when the wand of
the driptorch is tipped downwards. The burning fuel runs onto the
ground, igniting the vegetation. Driptorches must be filled, used
and cared for safely.
1. It is always OK to fight a fire while you are on medication,

as long as it has been prescribed by a Doctor.
2. You will not be briefed about a fire until after you have
arrived at the scene and your crew leader has had time
to size up what is happening.
3. The point of origin of a fire should be preserved intact

for fire investigators, if possible.
4. It is generally safer for able bodied people to stay with

a well prepared property threatened by a bush fire,
than evacuating.
5. A direct attack is normally used on high intensity fires

in forests.
6. Protecting people/property is a defensive firefighting

technique used when the fire is too intense to be
attacked safely.
7. Foam can act as an effective fire retardant for more

than 24 hours.
8. A safe distance from operating machinery is 30 metres

or a distance equal to twice the height of the trees.
9. Backburning is a hazardous activity that should only

be conducted with appropriate approval and supervision.
10.1 part petrol to 3 parts diesel is a suitable mixture for

use in a drip torch.
ACTIVITIES
1. Listen to typical briefings given by experienced crew leaders

using the SMEACS format. Note and query them if any details
have been omitted.
2. Look at photographs or video of a range of bush fires, From your

observation of the fire’s intensity, what sort of firefighting
techniques do you think would have been appropriate in each
case. Discuss with your trainer and/or officers.
3. Under supervision, go to an area where property adjoins

bushland. Discuss and/or practice how you would set up safely
to protect people/property in the event of an intense fire impact.
4. Under supervision, become thoroughly familiar with your tanker.

Discuss and practice how to safely get on and off the vehicle.
Learn where various pieces of equipment are located and how to
gain safe access to them. Discuss and look at where hazards are
located and the precautions you need to take.
5. Under supervision, visit an airport or earthmoving contractor in

your District. Discuss with your trainer or officer how aircraft
and/or machinery are typically used for firefighting in your area.
Discuss/practice the precautions to be used when operating with
aircraft and/or machinery.
187
CHAPTER 5
Hazard Reduction
1 Introduction
In previous chapters you have learned about safety, fire behaviour, bush
firefighting equipment and techniques. You are now going to cover what
measures can be taken to prevent the spread of fires, or to reduce the
intensity of fires to containable levels. This chapter will examine:
• The principles of “hazard reduction”.
• Hazard reduction and the law.
• Bush fire precautions and the law.
• Safe participation in prescribed burning activities.
2 Principles of Hazard Reduction
(a) Bush Fire Hazard, Risk and Threat

Bush fires are part of the normal cycle of events in Australia. A bush fire
hazard exists wherever there is bush fire fuel.
The risk is the likelihood of damage to a particular asset from a bush fire.
For example, the risk would be greater to houses on a steep slope above
a bush area than to those on flat ground.
188 HAZARD REDUCTION
Bush fires can be a threat (have bad consequences) to people when they
occur near, or move towards, people and things of value. Things of value
include not only property such as livestock, buildings, crops, forests and
fences, but things of environmental, cultural or heritage value.
(Note: In training programs at more advanced levels the terms, ‘hazard’,

‘risk’ and ‘threat’ will be defined more precisely).
(b) Reducing the Hazard

You will recall that there are three ways to suppress a bush fire:
• Remove the fuel.
• Remove the oxygen.
• Cool the fire.
If you consider these three options you will realise that there is really only
one step that can be taken before the start of the fire season - we can
reduce or remove fuel. Hazard reduction is the practice of reducing or
removing fuel before the onset of a bush fire, so as to minimise the
damage by such a fire.
It is not possible to change the weather and so cool the fire; it is not
possible (or even desirable) to remove all the oxygen from the
atmosphere. The only realistic move to reduce the hazard from a bush fire
is to reduce the fuel available to the fire.
Complete removal of fuel means, of course, that the area will no longer
support fire, but such a practice may be harmful to the environment.
Soil erosion is one possible consequence. The more common practice
is to reduce the amount of fuel, in which case you would find that a
subsequent bush fire would:
• Generate less heat and therefore be less dangerous for firefighters

and the general public.
• Travel more slowly.
• Have a lower flame height and therefore be less likely to develop

into a crown fire.
• Be less likely to spot and therefore easier to suppress.

HAZARD REDUCTION 189
In general, a hazard reduction program means you are more likely to

encounter bush fires later on that can be fairly easily contained, as
opposed to fires that you might not be able to contain at all. Hazard
reductions make it possible to safely protect people and property from
bush fires that otherwise would be impossible to control.
(c) Bush Fire Fuel

The question of hazard reduction relates to fuel quantity and location.
Few people really appreciate the intensity of a bush fire and of the
relationship of the intensity to the available fuel. Any study of hazard
reduction techniques means that you must have:
• An understanding of the relationship between fuel quantity and

fire intensity.
• An understanding of how fuel quantities are measured.
In chapter 2, it was mentioned how fuel size and quantity can affect fire
behaviour, but no figures were given. The table below will show how a
change in the fuel quantity affects fire behaviour.
(i) In Forest Fuels:
On a particular day of high fire risk, we could expect the following fire
intensities:
Fuel Load Fire Intensity
7.5 Tonnes per ha. 300 kW/m
In the above table, fire intensity is shown in kW/m which stands for
kilowatts per metre of fire front. A kilowatt is equivalent to the power of a
normal single bar electric radiator. Look closely at the fire intensities.
A total power output of 5200 kW/m is a tremendous amount of power and
yet the same forest, with a fuel loading of 7.5 tonnes per hectare may
generate only 300 kW/m.
When the officers responsible for planning hazard reduction measure the
amount of fuel in a forest, they do so by referring to the fuel load. This load
is measured in tonnes per hectare and is determined by measuring the dry
weight of litter (all material less than 6 mm diameter) on the forest floor.
Note the following points of interest:
• Only the fine fuel, such as twigs and leaf litter is measured, as this
is the material immediately available to the fire.
• Large branches and log materials burn after the main fire front
has passed and, although they contribute indirectly to fire
behaviour under drought conditions, they are not included in fuel
measurement.
• A shrub layer can contribute to the intensity of a fire and may,

therefore, be considered when assessing available fuel.
• A good rule-of-thumb: 1 cm depth of fuel in a eucalypt forest

represents about 5 tonnes per hectare of fuel. A more accurate way
of determining the fuel in forest leaf litter is to take a sample of fuel,
dry it and weigh it using the following steps:
• Step 1 - Sampling frames are used to collect

the litter in a given area.
• Step 2 - The litter found within each frame

is dried and weighed.
• Step 3 - The average fuel load is calculated

from the samples.
• As a guide - Five tonnes per hectare is considered to be a light fuel

loading which would only carry a mild fire, while 30 tonnes per
hectare is a heavy fuel load that could support an uncontrollable
bush fire.
(positional only)
pic to be scanned in from
photo.
Figure 92: Typical forest fire fuel.
(ii) In Grassland Fuels:
Grassland fuels are not measured by weight, but are estimated by using
the following criteria:
• Degree of curing - ranging from green (virtually non-combustible)

grass to fully cured (highly combustible) grass.
• Density of grass - that is; eaten out, grazed or natural pasture.
On a particular day of high fire risk, you could expect that a fire in fully
cured, grazed pasture would result in a fire with a flame height of only 1.5
metres. A fire in fully cured, natural pasture, on a similar day, however,
would result in a fire with a flame height of around 3.5 metres.
0% Cured 50% Cured 100% Cured
Figure 93: Curing of grass fire fuel.
(d) Fuel Location

Apart from fuel quantity; the other factor that must be considered when
planning hazard reduction is that of fuel location. Remember that while
dense fuels are always a hazard, it is where they can endanger life or
property that they become a threat.
The two main points to consider are:
• Terrain - slope and aspect.
• Wind direction.
Remember that fires accelerate as they travel uphill, so that particular

attention must be paid to the protection of areas such as ridge-top
housing developments. Be aware of the direction of winds which have
previously caused the greatest threat during a bush fire. You can usually
predict, with a reasonable degree of certainty, the most likely direction to
produce intense bush fire activity. Adding the effects of terrain and winds,
in N.S.W. we can generally say that the most potentially dangerous areas
are generally on sloping land facing the North-West.
(e) Methods of Hazard Reduction

There are many individual techniques of hazard reduction. Here are two
basic methods:
• Burning is known as ‘controlled’ or ‘prescribed’ burning. This is one

of the most common form of hazard reduction and is covered in
more detail later in this chapter. In addition to hazard reduction,
prescribed burning can also be used as a land management tool.
For example, it can be used to reintroduce the natural fire patterns
in an area.
• Mechanical methods can be safer than burning, are more

predictable and do not produce smoke. They are usually more
expensive than burning and cannot be used in some areas.
Mechanical methods include mowing, slashing, trittering, removal
of trees with chain saws, use of hand tools, and the use of ploughs,
graders or other earthmoving machinery.
Burning
Ploughing
Slashing
Figure 94: Methods of hazard reduction.

(f) Bush Fire Risk Management Zones

Planned hazard reduction involving rural fire brigades is most often
conducted to protect specific assets from the effects of bush fires. This is
usually achieved by reducing the bush fire fuel in accordance with
the Bush Fire Risk Management Plan (BFRMP). This plan outlines risk
management strategies based on defined zones. These zones are
discussed in more detail below.
(i) Asset Protection Zones (APZs)
Asset protection zones (APZs) are in bush areas that immediately

surround assets such as dwellings, crops, pasture, sheds and facilities.
They consist of areas cleared of most vegetation, with minimal
under-storey and a few trees. The intention is that a severe bush fire will
cease to crown and be controllable by direct attack once it hits this zone.
The width of APZs can vary from about 20 metres to 100 metres,
depending on the vegetation, the slope, the type of asset and the method
used for clearing. The steeper the slope leading up to an asset, the wider
the APZ needs to be. APZs are usually established and maintained using
mechanical equipment, but burning may be used in difficult terrain where
using such equipment would be difficult.
(ii) Strategic Fire Advantage Zones (SFAZs)
Strategic fire advantage zones (SFAZs) are areas of reduced fuel

designed to provide firefighters with an advantage in controlling a bush
fire. Generally they are next to APZs, but may also be located along roads,
powerlines, boundaries between public and private land and in areas with
a history of frequent fires. SFAZs are usually established and maintained
by prescribed burning and may be as much as 500 metres wide.
(iii) Land Management Zones (LMZs)
These are areas which do not involve a risk to life or property, but in which
prescribed burning may be conducted to achieve land management
objectives.
(iv) Fire Exclusion Zones (FEZs)
These are areas from which fire should be excluded. They include
rainforest, other ecologically sensitive areas, fire sensitive plantations and
commercial crops.
Hazard Reduced Asset

Native Bush Strategic Fire Protection Zone
Advantage Zone (APZ)
(SFAZ)
Figure 95: Typical hazard reduction zone/s .
(g) Prescribed Burning

Prescribed burning is an effective method of bush fire hazard reduction.
It usually enables assets to be protected from what would otherwise be
an uncontrollable bush fire. It also enables firefighters to protect the
community effectively while placing themselves at less risk of injury.
Prescribed burning may also be done for reasons other than hazard
reduction. For example, in some parts of Australia, fire has sometimes
been excluded from an area through human intervention. As a result, the
environment in that area has been changed. Prescribed burning may be
used by land management authorities to restore and maintain the “natural”
condition of the environment in such an area, and/or to imitate the use of
fire by its traditional owners over tens of thousands of years.
Prescribed burning is not just a matter of “lighting up the bush”. It is always

carried out to achieve specific objectives that give an effective balance
between the need to protect life, property and the environment.
The conditions needed to meet those objectives will form a ‘prescription’
for the way in which the work is carried out. For example, the prescription
may include the maximum temperature, lowest humidity and maximum
wind speed acceptable for the burn to proceed.
There are many points to consider when carrying out a prescribed burn,
but at this stage we will familiarise you with two only:
(i) Weather
Even though a prescribed burn is carried out under relatively mild

weather conditions, sudden changes in weather - particularly a change in
wind direction - can cause a prescribed burn to endanger crew members
or escape the planned perimeter. The officer in charge of any prescribed
burn will be continually monitoring weather conditions and you should
advise him/her of any change in fire behaviour which could indicate that
the weather has changed.
(ii) Acceptable Scorch Height
This is a term that indicates the intensity of the fire in relation to the
vegetation. The scorch height will vary, depending on the type of
vegetation, but you must bear in mind at all times that the aim of the
exercise is to carry out a burn to a prescription; not to simply burn the
bushland. The burn plan will usually define the acceptable scorch height.
This will usually limit the weather conditions under which the burn can be
conducted satisfactorily.
In order to have the right weather conditions and achieve an acceptable

scorch height, most prescribed burning is done during the cooler months
of the year.
Acceptable scorch height.

The scorch height
is typically 4 -5 times
the fire's flame height.
Figure 96: Acceptable scorch height.

3 Hazard Reduction and the Law

The legal aspects of hazard reduction are covered in more detail in
more advanced programs of training. For now, however, the following
information will give you a quick appreciation of it.
(a) Bush Fire Management

The Rural Fires Act includes provisions such that:
• Bush fire management across NSW is co-ordinated by the (state)

Bush Fire Co-ordinating Committee.
• Local bush fire management committees are established and

prepare local bush fire risk management plans to manage bush fire
risks in their area.
• Public authorities and private land owners and occupiers are

required to prevent bush fires. It is an offence to allow or not take
practical steps to stop or contain a fire.
• Local authorities may require bush fire hazard reduction work to be

carried out. If that work is not done, they can have it carried out and
charge the costs to the owner or occupier.
• Bush fire hazard reduction may also be initiated by the

Commissioner of the RFS on public or private land.
• Local authorities are required to review the incidence of bush

fire hazards.
• People may make a complaint to the RFS if they believe their

property is at risk from a bush fire hazard on private land.
These must be investigated and the person making the complaint
advised of the outcome. The Commissioner of the RFS can
investigate complaints about such risks on public land (and can
review an investigation conducted by a council) and, if necessary,
may require that work be done or have it carried out.
(b) Local Planning and Bush Fire Risks

Amendments to Environmental Assessment legislation in 2002 requires
councils to:
• Identify and map bush fire prone land, and have the Commissioner
verify their accuracy.
• Warn potential purchasers of that bush fire risk.
• Refer residential, rural residential and other vulnerable

developments requiring special bush fire protection to the
Commissioner for authorisation.
• Not approve such developments without the relevant RFS

authorisation, including any conditions related to bush fire
protection.
• Consult with the Commissioner about planning for bush fire

protection.
(c) Bush Fire Hazard Reduction Certificates

Amendments to legislation in 2002 considerably simplified the process
of gaining environmental approval to conduct a hazard reduction. Instead
of having to gain approval under several different pieces of legislation,
a person now only needs to obtain a single Hazard Reduction Certificate.
In most cases this is issued by the RFS.
Note that a Hazard Reduction Certificate is not a ‘Permit to Burn’ during

the bush fire danger period. Such a permit is a fire safety approval to carry
out the burn and is described in more detail in the next section of this
Chapter.
Owners of managed public land (national parks, state forests, councils,

etc.) can issue their own Hazard Reduction Certificates, provided they’re
consistent with the local bush fire management plan and a bush fire
environment code.
A Hazard Reduction certificate is valid for 12 months and includes all the
conditions under which the hazard reduction is permitted to be conducted.
A Hazard Reduction Certificate is not required for burning crop stubble or
diseased orchard pruning, but a fire permit will still be needed if it is done
during the bush fire danger period.
4 Bush Fire Precautions and the Law

The following information is a brief summary of key bush fire precautions
in NSW. More detailed information can be found in pamphlets available
from your Fire Control Officer.
(a) The Bush Fire Danger Period

The bush fire danger period is declared by the Commissioner, in
consultation with local councils, and is typically from 1 October until 31
March in the following year. During this time there are restrictions on
the use of fire so as to minimise the risk of bush fires being started
accidentally. These fire restrictions include:
Barbecues and Campfires
• Only light fires in a permanently constructed fireplace surrounded

by ground that is clear of all combustible matter for a distance of at
least 2 metres, or
• at a site surrounded by ground that is clear of all combustible

matter for a distance of at least 3 metres, and (in both cases).
• make sure the fire is completely out before leaving the area.
2 metres
clear of combustible
material 3 metres
clear of combustible
material
Figure 97: Safe distances around barbecues and campfires.

Smoking
• Don’t drop or throw down any lighted cigarette, match or anything

burning on any land, bridge, wharf, pontoon or similar.
• Don’t light or carry a lighted cigarette or match within 15m of

stacked or standing crops.
Burning off in the open
• You need a permit to burn off.
• Notify your neighbours at least 24 hours before you light the fire.
• Make sure someone is there all the time the fire is alight.
• Observe all conditions of the permit.
(b) Permits to Burn

While land owners and occupiers have a responsibility to ensure that fire
does not escape from their property, they are not allowed to burn-off
during the bush fire danger period without first obtaining a permit. A permit
is also needed for a prescribed burn to be conducted by a private person
or organisation, but not by a firefighting agency or other authority.
A permit will not generally be issued until any approvals to enable a burn
to be carried out have been obtained. Permits are automatically cancelled
if a day of total fire ban is declared. Your Captain or Fire Control Officer
should be able to tell you who is authorised to issue permits to burn in your
local area.
(c) Total Fire Bans

On days of extreme fire danger caused by a combination of certain
weather conditions and dry vegetation, the Commissioner may declare a
Total Fire Ban in part/s or all of the state. Your Fire Control Officer and your
brigade will be notified of the ban. During a total fire ban:
• No fire may be lit in the open. This includes incinerators and

barbecues which burn solid fuel, (e.g. wood or charcoal).
• People may use a gas or electric barbecue, but only if:

- it is on a residential property within 20m of the house or dwelling,
or in an area with council approval and
- it is under the direct control of an adult and

- the ground within 3m of the barbecue is cleared of all materials
which could burn and
- there is a continuous supply of water available.
If a Total Fire Ban is declared, a media release will be issued listing the
weather forecast districts involved. Total Fire Bans will also be announced
through newspapers, radio and television. A Total Fire Ban usually lasts for
24 hours (usually from 12 midnight), but can last for several days.
(d) “No Burn” Days

When air pollution levels are bad, the Environmental Protection Authority
(EPA) may declare a “no burn” day, restricting the use of fire so as to
minimise air pollution. “No burn“ days are not related to the level of fire risk
on a particular day. Exemptions can be obtained to allow essential hazard
reduction activity to proceed on “no burn” days, but prescribed burning
may be limited or discontinued on such days.
5 Participating in a Prescribed Burn

It is not unusual for the first “bush fire” that you attend to be a prescribed
burn. Prescribed burns are planned events and are an opportunity for new
firefighters to apply the skills they have learned in their training and to
observe actual fire behaviour.
Because they are generally conducted during the cooler times of the year,
they are often thought of as being a lower risk activity than actual fire
fighting. However, several firefighters have been killed or badly injured
during prescribed burns under very mild weather conditions. In addition to
all the normal firefighting hazards, prescribed burns also involve the
following risks:
• The mild conditions may lead to people becoming complacent

about safety.
• Fire behaviour may be more variable than usual. Patchy moist and
dry areas in mild conditions may lead to unexpected lulls and bursts
of fire behaviour.
• As firefighters have full control over where, when and how the fire
is lit, they also have a greater responsibility and liability for what the
fire does.
• The attention of officers may be split between supervising the burn

and mentoring inexperienced firefighters. This might limit their
alertness for hazards.
In this section, you will be given an insight into how a prescribed burn
should be conducted. This will make your first prescribed burn a better
learning experience. More importantly, it will let you know how things
should be done, so that if something starts to go wrong you can recognise
it, report it, and avoid or control any hazards before they become
dangerous.
(a) Planning for the Burn

Planning for the burn takes place in a number of stages. A comprehensive
local bush fire risk management plan looks at all the bush fire risks in your
area and works out a systematic way of dealing with them, giving priority
to the more serious risks. Individual prescribed burns are then planned in
detail, including such aspects as the burn prescription, public safety,
firefighter safety, smoke management, traffic control, asset protection and
control of any escape of fire.
The resources needed to carry out the burn are worked out. These may
include the number and type of firefighters, tankers, equipment and
supplies needed for the activity. The prescribed burn may also be
assessed for its suitability as a training or assessment event for new
firefighters. If suitable, trainers, mentors and/or assessors will need to be
organised.
(b) Preparing for the Burn

A date is usually set for a prescribed burn well in advance. This gives the
officer assigned to be in charge of the activity sufficient time to study the
plan, ensure the area is still as described in the plan, and to assemble and
prepare the resources needed to conduct it. Any needed certificates and
permits are obtained, and any required notifications are also typically
given at this stage.
It is at around this time that you may be asked to participate. You should
not be asked to take part in a prescribed burn until your competency is
sufficient that you can use equipment, follow procedures, and have an
understanding of bush fire behaviour and safety at BF level. You will also
need to have been issued with a full set of bush firefighting personal
protective equipment (PPE).
If you are ill, injured, not yet competent, or not equipped with the full set of
bush firefighting PPE, you should not take part in a prescribed burn. If you
are unsure about what is involved, or worried about participating in the
activity, you should discuss your concerns with your trainer or Captain.
Before the burn itself there might also be quite a lot of preparation of
the site needed. This can include constructing control lines, setting up
markers, manually removing fuel around specific assets and habitats, and
notifying neighbouring residents. These activities can also be valuable
training opportunities.
(c) Before the Burn

Before the burn itself, you should be given a comprehensive briefing about
what is to take place. This will be given in the standard SMEACS briefing
format:
S - Situation
• The characteristics of the area, including terrain, vegetation,
access, and current and forecast weather conditions.
M - Mission
• The purpose and objectives of the burn.
E - Execution
• How the burn is to be conducted, control lines, lighting patterns,
contingency plans, etc.
A – Assistance/Administration
• Logistical support including water supply, fuel supplies, food
and drink, first aid, communications facilities, etc.
C – Command/Control/Communications
• Who’s in charge of who, the chain of command,

the communications network etc.
S – Safety
• Hazards and precautions, competency requirements, standard
procedures, escape and refuge arrangements, emergency
procedures/facilities, safety officers and PPE, etc.
Unless the area of the prescribed burn is small and/or open enough for all
parts of the area to be fairly readily visible to all participants, a map or
accurate sketch will be supplied as an aid to briefing and operating at the
prescribed burn. If there is something in the briefing you are not sure
about, or has not been covered, always ask for further information.
Prior to lighting up, you should be familiarised with the area in which you
will be working and the location of any refuges and emergency
facilities/equipment. Personal protective equipment should be donned and
checked. Radios should be tested to ensure they are working correctly.
Equipment and supplies should be distributed and checked to ensure they
are suitable and serviceable.
The area should be checked for members of the public and access to the
area controlled. Sometimes traffic control arrangements are needed, such
as if smoke might reduce visibility on adjacent roadways. You should be
reminded of any contingency plans and emergency procedures before the
burn commences.
(d) During the Burn

All the usual safety rules that apply during bush firefighting also apply
during prescribed burns. In particular, you should never work alone and
always apply the LACES checklist. If you are inexperienced, you should
work together with a mentor. This might be a trainer, but quite commonly
it will be a competent, experienced firefighter assigned to work as a
“buddy” with you. Watch how they do things, ask questions, share any
concerns with them and listen to their advice.
The lighting patterns used during a prescribed burn are rarely the same
as those used during back burning at a bush fire. In particular, most
prescribed burns will use fire lit in spots or strips, rather than as a
continuous line. This is to enable the fire to be kept well under control and
to stay within the intensity specified in the burn prescription.
A fire lit in a continuous line will build up to its full intensity very quickly,
whereas when lit in spots or short strips it will take some time to build up.
Prescribed burning is usually designed to remove the combustible ground
litter but leave upper level vegetation intact. It should therefore nearly
always be a low intensity fire. A fire that is fierce or crowns is unlikely to
meet the objectives given of the burn and may need to be discontinued.
Spot /strip lighting.
Line /layer lighting.
Figure 98: lighting patterns.

In most prescribed burns, the perimeter of the burn area is burnt first to
secure it better against the escape of fire and then the interior of the area
is allowed to burn out. Sometime the interior of the burnt area may be
ignited by incendiaries dropped by an aircraft or fired from a special gun.
If the interior is lit by hand or from a ground vehicle, the sequence of the
lighting up and refuge arrangements must be planned so that the crew can
operate safely.
As in bush firefighting, during a prescribed burn you should ALWAYS have

a refuge area nearby and a suitable escape route available to get to it.
Many fatal fire overruns have occurred with as little as about 30 seconds
warning between when the fire is recognised as being dangerous and
actually arriving. As a rough rule of thumb you should therefore have a
refuge area no more than about 30 seconds jogging distance away.
Two types of refuge areas are used in prescribed burns. One is existing
cleared or very damp areas. The other (and more common) are refuges
that are “constructed” as the burn progresses. Usually the burn is
commenced at a safe “anchor point”. That is, an area which is a refuge in
its own right. A section of bush is burnt from the anchor point. Once this
section has burnt out sufficiently (and is checked to see it is free of other
hazards, such as potential for falling trees or branches) it then becomes
the refuge area for the next section of the burn, and so on.
Future Refuge
Refuge
Burnt out area as refuge

Refuge
Anchor Point
Figure 99: Safe anchor point and progressive refuges.

Throughout the burn, officers will monitor the weather and fire behaviour,
and may adjust the lighting sequence or pattern to provide for a safe burn
that best meets the prescription. If you see any hazards, or a change
in the weather, vegetation patterns or fire behaviour that you think is
significant, report it to your crew leader immediately.
As when operating at a bush fire, great attention needs to be given to

mopping up, blacking out, making burning trees and logs safe, and
patrolling, before the burn is completed.
(e) After the Burn

After a prescribed burn, a debriefing should take place. This is aimed at
learning from the experience of the burn and improving arrangements for
such activities in the future. You should participate in the debriefing and
use it as a learning opportunity, not only while you are inexperienced, but
right throughout your life as a firefighter.
Equipment used during the burn will need to be cleaned, sharpened,

replenished, serviced and re-stowed (as applicable). Water tanks, foam
and fuel containers will need to be checked and refilled. Supplies carried
on vehicles may need to be replaced. Your PPE will need to be checked,
cleaned and, (if needed), repaired or replaced.
SUMMARY
• Bush fires are a normal event in Australia. A bush fire hazard

exists wherever there is bush fire fuel. The risk of bush fires is
greater under certain conditions (e.g. above steep bush slopes).
The threat is greatest when bush fires move towards people and
things of value.
• Bush fire hazard reduction consists of reducing the fuel to a level

where control of any subsequent bush fire would be possible.
• Hazard reduction in forests is aimed at reducing the surface litter

fuels so that a crown fire could not be sustained in the area
during a fire later on. Particular attention may be needed for
vulnerable areas, such as developments on ridge tops or slopes
facing North-West.
• Two basic methods of hazard reduction are burning and

mechanical removal of the fuel. Bush fire risk management zones
includes asset protection zones (APZs), strategic fire advantage
zones (SFAZs), land management zones (LMZs) and fire
exclusion zones (FEZs).
• Prescribed burning can be used for hazard reduction and other

purposes. It is not simply “lighting up the bush”, but carried out to
achieve specific objectives. Things considered for prescribed
burning include the weather and acceptable scorch height.
• The Rural Fires Act includes provisions for overall co-ordination

of bush fire management, local bush fire management, the pre-
vention of bush fires, local review of the incidence of bush
fire hazards, the carrying out of hazard reduction work and
preparation of firebreaks, and the handling of related complaints.
• Councils are required to map bush fire prone land, warn potential
purchasers, refer significant developments to the Commissioner
for authorisation, and consult with the Commissioner about bush
fire protection planning.
• Bush Fire Hazard Reduction Certificates enable all the approvals

to conduct a hazard reduction to be obtained using a single form.
They are valid for 12 months. Burning of stubble and diseased
orchard prunings does not require a Certificate, but a burn permit
is still needed to light a fire during the bush fire danger period
SUMMARY
• The bush fire danger period is declared by the Commissioner.

It is usually between 1 October and 31 March each year.
During this time there are restrictions on the use of fire for
barbecues, campfires, smoking in the vicinity of crops and
burning off in the open. A permit is required to burn off during
this period. A permit is automatically cancelled if a day of total fire
ban is declared.
• On days of extreme fire danger, the Commissioner may declare

a total fire ban. This prohibits the lighting of fires in the open,
(with a few exceptions). “No burn” days may be declared by
the EPA to minimise air pollution. Essential hazard reductions
may be exempted on a ‘no burn’ day.
• Prescribed burns are normally carried out in mild weather

conditions, but they are not without safety risks. The mild
conditions may lead to complacency, the fire behaviour may be
more variable, attention to hazards may be diverted, and
firefighters have a greater responsibility for what the fire does.
• Planning for prescribed burning starts with a systematic local

bush fire risk management plan. Individual burns are then
planned in detail. As a firefighter you may be asked to participate
during the preparation stage. You should not participate if you are
not ready for it.
• Before the burn you should be given a comprehensive briefing

covering the situation, mission, execution of the plan,
assistance/administration, command/control/communications
and safety. If there is something you do not understand or has
been omitted, ask about it. You should be familiarised with the
area and the proposed burn plan, and ensure everything is ready
to proceed before lighting up.
• All the usual precautions for bush firefighting also apply during a
prescribed burn. Lighting patterns may be different than used at
a bush fire to ensure the correct fire behaviour is achieved.
Normally the perimeter is secured first, then the centre of the
area burnt.
SUMMARY
• Always have a refuge area available nearby during a burn.

Refuge areas may be pre-existing or may be “constructed” as the
burn progresses. Weather and fire behaviour are monitored
during the burn. Report anything unusual to your crew leader.
Give great attention to mopping up and related actions before the
burn is completed.
• After a burn, participate in the debriefing and return your
equipment to service.
1. Bush fire hazard reduction involves removing

ignition sources.
2. 30 tonnes per hectare is a light bush fire fuel load.
3. A fire in fully cured, natural pasture will be more intense

than a fire in fully cured, grazed pasture, given the
same weather conditions.
4. In NSW the most potentially dangerous bush fire areas

are on sloping land facing the north-west.
5. A good prescribed burn should involve the burning

of the crowns of trees.
6. Local authorities may require bush fire hazard

reduction work to be carried out.
7. A Bush Fire Hazard Reduction Certificate

is valid for a year.
8. A permit to burn is automatically cancelled

on a day of total fire ban.
9. The briefing given to you before a burn should

include (among other things) details of escape
routes and refuge arrangements.
10. Refuge areas at a prescribed burn may be “constructed”

as the burn progresses by using the section already burnt
as the refuge for the next section of the burn.
ACTIVITIES
1. Examine a map showing any bush fire prone areas in your

brigade area.
2. Visit bush fire prone areas. Discuss what factors make it bush
fire prone and what sort of fire behaviour you might expect if no
hazard reduction was conducted.
3. Visit an area where a hazard reduction has taken place.

Discuss the fuel load compared with surrounding areas,
Discuss how the hazard reduction would change the behaviour
of a fire moving through the area.
4. Find out who is authorised to issue fire permits in your area.
5. Under supervision, safely participate in a prescribed burn.

212
CHAPTER 6
Immediate Emergency Care
Note: This chapter is a slightly modified version of the Queensland

Fire and Rescue Service / Rural Fire Service training unit 103,
Emergency Care – Copyright: State of Queensland (represented by
the Queensland Fire and Rescue Service) – reproduced with
permission.
1 Introduction
Looking after your personal safety and protecting others on the fireground
is basic to all rural firefighting. In this chapter, you will identify and assess
those situations calling for immediate emergency care; ensure the safety
of a casualty while avoiding any hazards facing the care giver; and learn
how to give assistance in a calm, caring and reassuring manner.
Danger, Response, Airway, Breathing and Circulation (DRABC)

procedures for implementing immediate emergency care until qualified
personnel can be contacted will be explained, as will the ways of
maintaining the readiness of first-aid equipment and the need for complete
documentation of any event requiring immediate emergency care.
2 Casualty Assistance
(a) Introduction
Rural firefighters are working in situations where fellow firefighters or
members of the public may be injured. You may need to provide
assistance to casualties at an incident until qualified medical, ambulance
or first-aid support can be arranged. This unit provides information for
urgent, on-the-spot response to life-threatening emergencies where
IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE 213
no expert assistance is available. The following material gives ideas on

what to do on arrival at an incident where there are casualties. Your initial
assessment has to determine:
• The extent and nature of immediate emergency care required.
• Potential dangers to self and others.
• When to call for assistance.
• Hygiene precautions that need to be taken.
• The type of emergency care you can give.
As a firefighter, you may sometimes need to provide support and

assistance to casualties at a fire or other incident. Fellow firefighters
or members of the public who are injured or in danger may require
immediate emergency care. In the event that you are the most
experienced or most capable person at the scene of an emergency, your
decisions on how to respond to the emergency can make a difference in
the recovery of those casualties.
(b) Emergency carers

In providing immediate emergency care, your focus will be on assisting
casualties who are conscious. Certified first aid training covers the
treatment of unconscious casualties more deeply. This study guide is
designed to give you sufficient knowledge and skills to provide immediate
emergency care at an incident. It does not provide you with the training
needed to achieve a First Aid Certificate. While all firefighters need to be
skilled in immediate emergency care procedures, not all need to be
qualified First Aiders. However, you are encouraged to extend your ability
to assist casualties by achieving and maintaining first aid qualifications.
With these qualifications, you will be able to help on-scene Ambulance
Officers in a greater range of situations.
(c) Working with ambulance crews

Ambulance officers are highly trained to provide emergency care for
casualties and transport them to hospital while providing the appropriate
support. You may need to work closely with Ambulance Officers and other
emergency personnel, not only to provide fire protection for their activities,
but also to assist them when required.
214 IMMEDIATE EMERGENCY CARE
Teamwork and co-operation are vital between agencies. Where medical

personnel are present at an incident, your Officer-in-Charge (OIC)/
Incident Controller should make contact with the Ambulance Officers
as soon as possible after arrival. You should follow the directions and
instructions given by ambulance personnel.
Activities you may have to undertake will vary according to the type of
incident. They may range from helping place a stretcher in an ambulance,
providing support to the casualty while waiting for treatment, to fetching or
holding equipment.
In all emergency care activities you are to assist trained personnel by

carrying out their instructions and directions, regardless of their rank.
Figure 100: Co-operation at an incident between agencies.
Because of the nature of the work of firefighting, you or your crew could
be first on the scene of an incident or accident. Certainly this will be the
case if your partner on the fireline goes down with heat-related illness or
smoke inhalation. It will certainly be the case if your first-response vehicle
reaches a motor vehicle accident before other agencies arrive.
What do you do until assistance from qualified medical staff arrives?

You will need to undertake an initial assessment of the incident.
(d) Initial assessment at an incident

For the OIC/Incident Controller, the first and vital step is to assess the
whole scene and any potential dangers to you, other members of your
crew, casualties and bystanders. This requires:
• Identifying the type of incident.
• Identifying any potential hazards.
• Determining the number of casualties and the extent of their injuries.
• Taking appropriate precautions.
• Protecting both carers and casualties.
• Requesting appropriate assistance.
Figure 101: Typical incident.
At the incident, your first action may be avoiding danger, or making the
scene safe – for you and others. Don’t approach a fire or accident scene,
or enter a building when such actions could put you or others at risk.
ASSESSMENT OF LEVEL OF CARE REQUIRED
Here is an example of the process you would undertake to establish the

level of emergency care a casualty needs.
During a direct attack on a fire, you come across a fellow firefighter

wearing a knapsack, on the ground and semi-conscious. Your first step is
to note the visual signs of injury to the firefighter. Are there cuts, bruises,
obvious fractures? What is the level of consciousness?
To put this visual assessment into context, identify the history of events
leading up to the collapse and assess the circumstances.
Figure 102: Assessment of a casualty.
These are some of the facts that would feature in your considerations:
• Strenuous firefighting activities may contribute to exhaustion, lack of

concentration and diminished reflexes.
• Smoke reduces visibility and causes breathing difficulties.
• Uneven ground can lead to sprain/strain or broken limbs.
• Extra weight of a knapsack can lead to back injury by increasing the

impact with the ground.
• If the head strikes the ground in a heavy fall, concussion can result.
Because you have found the firefighter to be semi-conscious, you know

that he/she needs medical assistance beyond the level of care you
can give.
You need to report your findings to the OIC/Incident Controller who will
take appropriate action by bringing in the necessary resources to handle
the situation. The OIC/Incident Controller will record the incident so that
documentation is available for the injury reporting process. Details of any
communication between Firecom and the OIC/Incident Controller will also
be on record.
(e) Complexity of incident

Where, why and how accidents happen can be the result of complex
factors. In emergency situations firefighters have to think clearly, analyse
carefully and act cautiously to select the best options for helping injured
parties.
What appears to be a straightforward incident may not be so simple.

Take the case of a motor vehicle accident.
• The motor vehicle accident may

involve power lines down, fuel spills,
hazardous materials, LPG or
entrapment.
• The number of casualties in the

accident could be more than the two
or three trapped – others may have
wandered off in a daze.
• A casualty may be trapped under a

fallen tree but other vegetation,
power poles or structures may be on
the point of collapsing.
Figure 103: Urban Firefighters • The injuries that casualties have

at a vehicle accident. may vary from superficial to severe.
A careful assessment of the type of incident you are dealing with is

essential, as is the need to work out any potential hazards. These hazards
have to be identified before anyone can provide emergency care.
The worst outcome would be carers being injured and becoming victims
because they failed to assess the dangers of the situation accurately.
Some of the ways to make yourself aware of potential hazards that may
confront you are suggested by Occupational Health and Safety practices:
• Walk-through surveys of accident scenes.
• On-the-job experience of emergency situations.
• Safety inspections of protective clothing and equipment.
• Reviews of injury and first aid records.
• Discussion of accident investigation reports.
• Incident debriefing – what can we learn from our last incident?
Note: The first rule of immediate emergency care is to ensure your own
safety and not add to the problem by becoming a casualty yourself.
(f) Hazards at an incident

Hazards you could encounter at an incident can be grouped into
categories.
These categories are:
• Electrical hazards such as live fallen wires.
• Trees or branches at risk of falling.
• Fire or explosion.
• Hazardous materials.
• Toxic fumes.
• Damaged overhead structures involving buildings, poles and

transformers.
• Hazards from vehicles.
Your actions at an incident need to take these hazards into consideration

and you have to avoid them to ensure your own safety. Report any
hazards to your officer and follow their instructions. Failure to do so may
endanger the safety of casualties, bystanders and firefighters.
What are the potential hazards facing firefighters in the incidents

illustrated below?
Figure 104: Hazards around a road and accident scene.
One further category of hazards that must not be overlooked is the rather
remote possibility of contracting a communicable disease while providing
immediate emergency care.
3 Hygiene Precautions
There is growing concern about the risk of contracting an infectious
disease. For some people in the community – such as doctors, nurses,
social workers and emergency service personnel – the risk is higher
because of contact with ‘at risk’ groups in our society. Treating or caring for
people who may be infected means emergency carers have to be aware
of the risks and take common sense measures to protect themselves.
The best way of guarding against infectious disease is to ensure that
‘standard precautions’ (sometimes also referred to as “universal
precautions”) are followed as a minimum level of protection. This conforms
with the latest recommendations from the Australian National Health and
Research Council (Version 2.0, revised June 2001).
As an RFS volunteer, you may be called to attend and assist at incidents

such as road accidents where you may be exposed to infectious diseases.
It is important that you recognise the risk and use the ‘standard
precautions’ to prevent the spread of infection, as well as any ‘additional
precautions’ necessary to prevent transmission of infection.
(a) Risks of infection

While firefighting activities pose a greater risk than that of contracting
communicable diseases, you need to be aware of the risk and make sure
you do not leave yourself open to infection.
Bacteria and viruses (i.e. blood-borne pathogens) found in the blood of

infected individuals or animals are the source of communicable diseases.
These blood-borne pathogens may be transferred through:
• Absorption of blood and bodily fluids from an infected individual.
• Breathing in infected droplets.
• Swallowing contaminated fluids.
• Injection through being pricked by a used needle (referred to as

needle-stick injuries) or cut by a contaminated edge.
There are many infectious diseases but those of main concern are
HIV/AIDS, Hepatitis B (HBV), Hepatitis C and Tetanus. Other potential
infections include Hepatitis A, Non-A Non-B Hepatitis, Glandular Fever
and more common diseases such as Influenza. The potential for
transmission of HIV is less than for HBV.
HIV/AIDS
HIV stands for Human Immuno-Deficiency Virus and is the virus that
causes the disease called Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).
Figure 105: Firefighters at an accident scene.

The risk of transmission in a workplace setting is extremely low. To date

there has been no known transmission in emergency service workers in
Australia through occupational exposure.
HIV is transmitted in the following ways:
• Infected blood/blood products.
• Unsafe sexual practices.
• Injecting drug use.
• Transmission from infected mother to baby.
HEPATITIS
Hepatitis is a disease causing inflammation of the liver. A number of

different types exist, but the most common types are those caused by
viruses, including Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C.
Hepatitis B is transmitted in a variety of ways including:
• From mother to baby at time of birth.
• Tattooing with unsterilised needles.
• Sharing razors/toothbrushes.
• Occupational exposure (e.g. needle stick-injury).
Hepatitis C is transmitted in the following ways:
• From mother to baby.

Infection by HBV and HIV is transmitted through blood or bodily fluids

including saliva, vomit, urine and faeces. Bacteria and viruses may enter
your body through an existing cut or wound, a vulnerable area such as the
eye, or through a cut sustained at the accident scene from broken glass
or jagged metal.
Casualties may bleed heavily, providing the opportunity for blood contact
between casualties and firefighters. There is also the risk of infection
from contact with contaminated surfaces, equipment and clothing
(including contact with dried blood and other body substances).
Some highly infectious diseases, (e.g. influenza) can spread when
droplets contaminated with the virus are breathed in. These droplets may
have been sneezed or coughed.
While there are vaccines to protect against infection from diseases such
as Hepatitis B and Tetanus, there is no vaccine for protection against
Hepatitis C or HIV. Vaccinations should, therefore, be considered as only
a second line of protection.
So how do you safely administer immediate emergency care without

running the risk of infection?
(b) Infection control guidelines

Undertaking correct infection control procedures, commonly known as
‘standard precautions’ and ‘additional precautions’, are the primary forms
of protection at an incident. The guidelines indicating the principles of
these precautions must be followed.
Note: The importance of adopting standard and additional precautions

before, during and after an incident cannot be overstated.
With focus on getting onto the scene as soon as possible, it is important

not to overlook the necessary safety steps. In your haste to start
looking after casualties, you may think you do not have time to use
appropriate personal protection such as surgical gloves and a facemask.
This equipment, vital to your protection against infection, takes minimal
time to apply. A short delay is unlikely to make any difference to the
patient’s condition.
Figure 106: Facemask and gloves.
You wouldn’t go to a fire without the appropriate protective gear, so why go

without gear to protect yourself against disease?
Extreme care should be taken at incidents to avoid contact with sharp

objects, particularly where blood or body fluids are involved. This hazard
exists at motor vehicle accidents where there may be broken glass or torn
metal contaminated with blood.
BEFORE PROVIDING ASSISTANCE TO A CASUALTY
• If possible, wash hands thoroughly with soap and water.
• Cover all cuts and abrasions with waterproof dressings in situations

where there is a risk of contact with blood and bodily fluids.
• Always wear disposable gloves (plastic or rubber) and protective

gear whenever there is the potential for direct skin contact of the
hand with blood or other infectious material.
• Disposable gloves may not offer you sufficient protection when

conducting heavy work, so wear them under normal work / industrial
/ firefighting gloves when appropriate.
• Always wear protective eyewear such as goggles, face shields or

masks when contamination of the eyes, mouth or nose is possible.
DURING CASUALTY ASSISTANCE AT AN INCIDENT
• Do not use bare hands to pick up sharp objects such as broken glass
that may be contaminated. Clean up potentially dangerous material
using brush and dustpan.
• Use pocket resuscitation face shield when resuscitation is needed.
• Rinse eyes and mouth immediately if accidentally splashed

with blood.
• Wash surfaces of the body that have been exposed to bodily fluids
with soap and water at the earliest opportunity.
AFTER ASSISTING A CASUALTY
• Wash hands and any other exposed areas immediately with soap
and water following activities that may have resulted in
contamination. Personal hygiene to minimise the risk of infection
is essential:
- after removal of gloves or protective clothing.
- after hand contact with blood or other potentially infectious
materials.
- before leaving an incident where there has been potential contact
with blood, bodily fluids or bodily tissue.
• Place contaminated, non-disposable clothing such as overalls in a

bag labelled ‘CONTAMINATED’ and seal. This clothing should be
cleaned by a laundry equipped to deal with contaminated clothing.
• Clean boots, goggles, etc., that may have been contaminated by

bodily fluids and secretions.
• Use a disinfectant for cleaning your personal protective equipment.
• Clean contaminated and non-disposable equipment by wiping down

with disinfectant.
• Thoroughly clean all face masks with an appropriate disinfectant.
• Where appropriate use bleach for removing blood products.

Figure 107: Cleaning of gear.
ACTION TO TAKE IF EXPOSURE HAS OCCURRED
Report to an officer and document all exposures where blood or bodily

fluids may have penetrated the skin, eyes, nose or mouth. Your officer will
seek further medical assistance for you if required. In circumstances
where exposure has occurred, you need to apply the following first aid
procedures:
• Complete infection control procedures before applying first aid.
• Wash any wound with saline solution before bandaging.
• If blood and/or body fluids are in the mouth, eyes, ears or nose, flush
with lots of water for at least five minutes.
• In the event of an injury that punctures the skin, wash with saline and
seek medical attention.
• Seek further medical assistance if required.
Note: Accidental exposure to blood or bodily fluids does not

automatically mean a person will be infected with the HIV or Hepatitis B
virus. In fact the chance of infection is relatively small. If you do suffer
exposure, medical tests and ongoing assistance can be arranged for
you through your Fire Control Officer.
4 Caring for Casualties

Firefighting can be dangerous work and you need to focus on keeping safe
at all times. Your concern is for your own safety, the safety of your partner
or group, and the safety of members of the public. Despite your best
efforts, accidents may occur and you may be called upon to assist
casualties.
Every rural firefighter needs to know how to support life and minimise the
trauma suffered by an accident victim until qualified help is available.
(a) Emergency care plan

When you are required to respond to urgent, life-threatening emergencies
where no expert assistance is available, it is useful to have a plan that sets
out the appropriate way that you can assist a casualty. That plan – Danger,
Response, Airway, Breathing and Circulation (DRABC) – tells you the best
approach and the sequence in which to render emergency care.
Follow the steps of the DRABC plan while calling for ambulance and/or
medical assistance. Expert medical advice should be sought at the
earliest opportunity when you are dealing with any life-threatening
situation.
DANGER
Calmly assess the emergency for any possible danger to yourself, the
casualty and others. Do not proceed until that danger has been removed
and it is safe for you to give assistance to the casualty.
For example, if a patient is in contact with a high voltage power line, do not
approach closer than 8 metres until the electricity distributor’s personnel
declare the area safe. They will isolate and test wires before giving the
‘ALL CLEAR’ for the rescue to proceed.
Rapidly and accurately assess the whole situation, and prioritise the
assistance to be given. Deal with the most important things first; if the
victim is in danger from the surroundings, e.g., fire or explosion, it may
be necessary to remove the threat first or to remove the victim despite
any injury.
RESPONSE
Once it is safe to approach the casualty, check the level of consciousness

by getting the casualty to respond to ‘the shout and gentle shake’
technique.
If the casualty is conscious:
• Control bleeding from wounds.
• Reassure the casualty and attend to his/her comfort.
• Monitor and keep a record of vital signs.
A – Is the airway clear?
B – Is the casualty breathing?
C – Is circulation (i.e. pulse) present?
Figure 108: Casualty being checked.
AIRWAY
If the casualty is unconscious, check the victim’s airway and breathing.

An obstruction in the airway can be removed by using the following
technique:
• Roll the casualty onto their side, supporting the head and neck
during movement.
• Turn face slightly downward.
• Clear the mouth of any obstruction.

• If an obstruction is present and cannot be cleared with your fingers,

give up to four sharp blows between the shoulder blades.
• Open the airway by tilting the head slightly backward while

supporting the jaw.
Figure 109: Casualty in lateral (recovery) position.
BREATHING
To determine whether a casualty is breathing or not, put your ear close to

the nose and mouth of the casualty and look towards the chest.
• Look for signs of the chest rising or falling.
• Listen for breathing sounds.
• Feel for evidence of breathing on your cheek.
• Check breathing for 10 seconds.
If the casualty is unconscious but breathing:
• leave casualty on his/her side in the lateral (recovery) position.
• monitor and record vital signs.
If the casualty is unconscious and not breathing:
• commence breathing for the victim; that is, carry out Expired Air
Resuscitation (EAR) or call for assistance from any person who is a
qualified First Aider;
• after 5 full breaths in 10 seconds, check circulation.

CIRCULATION
Without pulse and without breathing, death is imminent. A casualty in this

situation needs a First Aider to take over the work of the heart and lungs
to ensure a continuous supply of oxygen to the casualty’s brain. Urgently
the casualty needs:
CPR = Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation.
CPR = EAR + ECC.
EAR = Expired Air Resuscitation (substitute for breathing).
ECC = External Cardiac Compression (substitute for circulation).
This procedure is to be carried out by a qualified first-aider only.

Monitor the progress of a casualty constantly and keep a record of his/her
vital signs.
Radial pulse Carotid pulse
Figure 110: Taking the radial pulse and carotid pulse of a casualty.
TAKING THE PULSE OF A CASUALTY
Check the victim’s circulation by feeling for the carotid pulse in the victim’s
neck.
• If pulse present / breathing absent, continue EAR – 1 breath every

4 seconds.
• Check pulse and breathing after 1 minute, then after every 2

minutes.
• CALL FOR ASSISTANCE.
• If pulse absent / breathing absent, commence CPR

(CPR = EAR + ECC).
• Check pulse and breathing after 1 minute, then every 2 minutes.
• CALL FOR ASSISTANCE.
Remember. A good way to jog your memory of the emergency care plan
for giving assistance to a casualty is DRABC, where the correct sequence
for assessment is:
D = Check for DANGER
R = Check for RESPONSE
A = Check for AIRWAY
B = Check for BREATHING
C = Check for CIRCULATION
(b) Treatment of casualties

Whenever you are providing casualty assistance, you need to be aware
that the casualty may be in shock or distressed because of pain.
The injured person should only be moved if he/she is in danger, or needs
to be moved to be resuscitated. Unnecessary movement may increase the
casualty’s distress. You can reduce the stress the casualty is feeling by
behaving in a comforting and reassuring manner.
When assisting a casualty, maintain a calm and supportive approach.

Speak in a relaxed and friendly voice and avoid conveying panic or
concern. Let the casualty know who you are, what is happening and what
you are going to do to help.
Figure 111: Casualty being reassured.
Make sure the casualty is as comfortable as possible. For example,

ensure he/she is protected from heat, cold, weather and embarrassment.
Place an unconscious but breathing casualty in the lateral (recovery)
position.
To place a casualty lying on his/her back in the lateral (recovery) position,

kneel close to the casualty’s upper body.
• Extend the casualty’s arm on his/her far side at 90 degrees

to the body.
• Place the nearside arm across the chest.
• Raise the nearside knee to make that foot sit flat on the ground.
• If assistance is available, ensure the casualty’s head is supported as

this next step takes place.
• Roll the casualty away from you, on to his/her side.
• Make the casualty comfortable as you support and maintain head-tilt

to help keep the airway open.
Figure 112: Moving a casualty to the recovery position.
A conscious victim will usually adopt the most comfortable position and
this position should not be altered without valid reason. It may be desirable
to help the victim into a more comfortable position to ease pain and
control shock.
(c) Shock
Shock can be a life-threatening condition. Factors that contribute to shock
are severe pain, continuous bleeding and fluid loss from burns. In severe
cases, shock can lead to collapse and death.
Shock usually occurs in casualties who have lost a large amount of blood
through either internal or external bleeding. It also occurs where
casualties have suffered serious burns, dehydration, prolonged vomiting
or diarrhoea. Shock can sometimes occur as a severe allergic or
emotional response.
Be aware that if your body has been overheated and you plunge into a
body of cold water (a possible action when taking refuge from fire) your
body could experience shock.
SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS OF SHOCK
Shock does not always occur immediately after an injury. In many cases
shock occurs gradually. Firefighters need to recognise the signs and
symptoms that indicate a casualty may be about to go into shock. Initial
signs include:
• Cold, sweaty pale skin.
• A weak and rapid pulse.
• Quick, irregular and shallow

breathing.
• Unconsciousness.
Figure 113: Casualty being reassured.
Casualties may not only show signs of shock but may also experience
symptoms. These symptoms are feelings of:
• Weakness and dizziness.
• Nausea.
• Thirst.
• Coldness.
• Nervousness and restlessness.
In cases of extreme shock a casualty may become:
• Drowsy.
• Confused.
• Unconscious.
ASSISTING A CASUALTY IN SHOCK
If there is bleeding, it should be controlled by direct pressure and/or

elevation (as described in the next section). The casualty’s limbs may be
elevated slightly if spinal injuries or fractures are not suspected.
1. Cover the casualty with a blanket to maintain body heat.
2. Reassure the casualty by speaking calmly and gently.
3. Do not give the casualty anything to drink or eat.
4. Monitor the casualty’s condition and do not leave the person

unattended.
5. At all times be aware of any potential dangers to the casualty and

assess the casualty’s response to gauge the level of consciousness.
6. Do not move the casualty unnecessarily.
Limbs elevated slightly to control bleeding.
Casualty covered with a blanket to maintain body heat.
Figure 114: Assisting a casualty in shock.

(d) Circulation and bleeding

Blood is circulated through the body by the arteries and veins. The arter-
ies take blood from the heart while veins return the blood to the heart.
Note: When treating a casualty, stemming arterial bleeding is a

priority.
BLEEDING FROM ARTERIES
Arterial blood is bright red in colour. It tends to spurt from wounds as it is

being pumped directly from the heart.
BLEEDING FROM VEINS
Venous blood is a dark red colour. It tends to ooze from wounds as it is

returning to the heart.
Figure 115: Principle arteries and veins in the human body.

CONTROL OF BLEEDING
The body has its own in-built mechanisms to stem the flow of bleeding.
• Blood will clot and prevent further bleeding.
• The cut ends of a blood vessel (especially arteries) will contract and
reduce the loss of blood.
• Blood pressure falls and, as a result, there is less force to push the
blood out of the vessel.
• The skin contracts, which reduces bleeding.
WHAT YOU CAN DO
Place the casualty at rest. This will slow down the heart rate and reduce
the flow of blood. Apply a dressing, with a pad if necessary, and bandage
firmly in position. An adhesive dressing may be suitable. Raise the injured
part and support it in position, unless you suspect there could be a
fracture in that area.
Figure 116: Controlling bleeding.

CONTROL BLEEDING
Apply direct pressure to the wound using a pad or clean cloth. Elevate the
injured area above the level of the heart if you do not suspect a fracture.
Apply a pressure bandage using either a folded triangular bandage, or a
rolled bandage.
FOR SEVERE BLEEDING
Apply direct pressure by pressing your protected fingers or hand to the

wound. The pressure will stem the flow of blood. Place a clean dressing
and pad over the wound and then firmly bandage the area. The pressure
exerted by the dressing will act to control the flow of blood.
Do not remove the bandage when bleeding ceases. Any wounds that
are exposed should also be covered before commencing to immobilise a
fractured limb
Figure 117: Stemming the flow of blood.
(e) Fractures
A fracture is a broken or cracked bone.
Signs and symptoms of fractures include:
• Limb at an awkward angle.
• An open wound with exposed bone.
• Swelling and bruising.
• Pain at or near the site of the fracture.
• Unbroken skin with substantial blood loss in the tissues.
Fractured limbs should be immobilised until medical aid arrives.

IMMOBILISING LIMBS
The procedures used to immobilise a limb vary according to the type of

fracture or break. They should be carried out by a trained First Aider.
If a casualty is in danger and needs to be moved urgently, try to support

and minimise movement of any suspected fractured limbs.
(f) Burns
A burn is an injury caused by contact with very hot, very cold (“cold burns”)
or corrosive materials (“chemical burns”). Burns can be very painful
and lead to shock. Burns to substantial parts of the body may be life
threatening.
Burns should be treated as soon as possible by cooling them with

water. If possible, keep applying the water for at least 15 to 20 minutes.
Get medical attention as soon as possible.
Figure 118: Cooling a burn with water.

(g) Heat related illnesses

Heat related illnesses include heat exhaustion and heat stroke.
Heat exhaustion may occur when people work strenuously under hot
and/or humid conditions. People who are very old, very young or infirm
may be more susceptible to heat exhaustion than most.
The signs and symptoms of heat exhaustion include tiredness, collapse

and profuse sweating. Heat exhaustion should be treated by getting the
casualty to cease any activity and lie in a cool area. Sponging them down
with water will help to alleviate the condition. They may be given water to
drink once their symptoms become settled.
Heat stroke is a serious, life threatening condition. In heat stroke, the

body’s heat regulation mechanism breaks down. Often they will cease
sweating, their skin will be dry and hot, and they will become unconscious.
The core temperature of the person may rise to dangerous levels. Even a
rise of only a few degrees or more in core body temperature can be fatal.
Heat stroke must be treated immediately by cooling the person down and
getting urgent medical assistance.
Figure 119: Treating a person with heat exhaustion.
(h) Documentation
Where documentation is required – such as accident/injury reports,
records for coroner’s inquests – notes should be made at the incident and
recorded fully on the appropriate forms on return to the brigade station.
5 Moving a Casualty
(a) When to move a casualty

A casualty should not be moved unless it is absolutely necessary. In most
cases, you should wait until medical help arrives.
A casualty should only be moved if that person is in immediate danger

(the collapse of a building, spread of fire or leak from a chemical spill),
or needs to be moved for first aid to be given.
In these circumstances, the casualty must be moved as quickly as

possible using appropriate handling techniques. Proper handling and
movement techniques will help ensure that the casualty does not
experience further injury or shock.
(b) How to move a casualty

Do not move a casualty who has not been assessed by medical
personnel unless the casualty is in danger. Any movement of a casualty is
best handled by firefighters working in a team. The team should identify
the most experienced first aider as the ‘leader’ of the group.
Figure 120: Casualty laying on ground.
The leader will direct and supervise the actions of the team members.
Before moving the casualty, explain what is about to happen and ask the
casualty to assist with the move if able to do so.
Stabilise the casualty by controlling bleeding and immobilising

fractures (as described in the previous chapter) before moving him/her.
The casualty’s head should be supported to allow the airway to remain
open during the move.
(c) Lifting or moving a casualty

When lifting a casualty, try to do so while protecting any injured parts and
supporting all parts of the body. Any movement should be carried out
gently and firmly, avoiding abrupt, jerky movements as these could cause
the casualty further shock, pain and discomfort. If the lift is carried out by
a team, it should be co-ordinated by the team leader.
MOVING A CASUALTY WITHOUT ASSISTANCE
In circumstances where assistance is unavailable, you may have to move

the casualty alone. There are several techniques that can be used.
THE CRADLE
This technique involves cradling a child or light casualty in your arms.

Place one of your arms around the waist and the other around the thighs
and lift the casualty.
Use your legs to lift. Keep your back straight and your head up to avoid
straining back muscles. Try to balance the weight evenly. Clearly this
technique is limited to lighter casualties.
The cradle The human crutch
Figure 121: The cradle and the human crutch technique.

THE HUMAN CRUTCH
The human crutch is used in cases where an adult casualty can walk with
assistance. This technique involves supporting the weight of the casualty
by placing the individual’s arm around your neck and holding on to the
hand. The other arm is placed around the waist of the casualty to give firm
support.
THE BACKWARDS DRAG
A casualty who is unable to move, or is too heavy to be lifted, may

need to be dragged clear of a dangerous situation. Depending on the
circumstances, there are several techniques you can use to move a
helpless casualty from danger.
In a crouching position, use an ankle grip or wrist or elbow grip to drag the
casualty along the ground.
Slip your arms under the casualty’s armpits to grasp the forearms.
Lean back, with your knees bent, and pull the casualty along.
Tug on clothing to drag the casualty clear.
Figure 122: Backwards drag.

(d) Multiple casualties

When confronted by a multiple casualty incident, trained Ambulance
Officers will usually ‘sort’ the casualties to determine the priority of
treatment. This sorting is called ‘triage’ and groups the casualties
according to the severity of their injuries. You may be asked to monitor the
less seriously injured while Ambulance Officers and First Aiders deal with
the more seriously injured.
6 Critical Incident Stress
(a) What is Critical Incident Stress?

Firefighters who have been involved in a recent traumatic incident may
experience some degree of Critical Incident Stress (CIS). CIS can be
described as the emotional pain or discomfort a person experiences after
a traumatic event.
The way in which each person responds to this type of stress will vary.
If you either attend or experience traumatic incidents of this type, it is not
uncommon for feelings of fear, helplessness and sadness to develop.
You may also experience the added emotions of guilt, shame and anger
that you were unable to prevent what has taken place, or do enough to
help relieve suffering. These feelings and reactions tend to be stronger of
you relate to the event on a personal level and if deaths were sudden,
violent and occurred in horrifying circumstances.
Firefighters who may be undergoing CIS often experience a range of

physical and mental sensations. The types of physical sensations
experienced include dizziness, heart palpitations, difficulty in breathing,
eating disturbances and muscular tension. The types of mental responses
can vary greatly from feelings of numbness, to tiredness, sleeplessness
and flashbacks, to loss of memory and depression.
(b) How to reduce the effects of CIS

Some useful steps that can assist with dealing with the effects of CIS:
• Participate in physical exercise and relaxation, and maintain a

healthy diet.
• Keep your life as normal as possible and make as many day to day
decisions as possible.
• Do things that are enjoyable and fun.
• Allow yourself to feel rotten and share feelings with others.
• Realize that it is normal to feel the way you do.
• Spend time with others but allow for some time out to relax, rest,
sleep and think.
• Ask for help.
(c) Getting Professional Support

In some situations, CIS cannot be dealt with effectively without some form
of professional support. The signs that indicate the need for professional
help can vary widely. Some general signs that indicate the need for
assistance are:
• An inability to handle intense feelings or bodily sensations.
• Chronic tension, feelings of confusion, emptiness and exhaustion.
• Nightmares and poor sleep.
• No outlet or person to share their feelings with.
• Emotional and sexual problems in personal relationships.
• Poor work performance.

(d) What To Do
Help is available. The Rural Fire Service has a Critical Incident Support
Services (CISS) Team. This team is made up of firefighters like you, who
have received extra training to help in such situations, and to refer you to
professional support if needed.
Simply contact:
• A peer debriefer.
• Your Fire Control Officer .
• The CISS team of the Rural Fire Service - Phone (1800) 049 933.
7 First Aid Equipment Recovery

When you are involved in immediate emergency care of casualties at
an incident, your job will not be finished until you have dealt with any first
aid equipment you have used. This may involve disposal, recovery and
re-stowing. The range of equipment used will vary considerably,
depending on the extent of the care and the level of your involvement in
administering that care.
Figure 123: First aid being given.

You may, for example, have assisted a fellow volunteer with a minor injury
– an ankle sprain, a splinter in the hand – and used bandages, tweezers
and dressings from your first-aid kit. At the other end of the spectrum, you
may have assisted an ambulance officer who was providing life-saving
care and used a broad range of equipment, instruments and dressings.
We will look at what is involved in the following four areas:
• Checking.
• Re-stowing.
• Cleaning.
• Disposal.
(a) Checking
Ensure that first aid supplies are ready for use.
• Inspect all dressing packs and bandages. Make a note of any with
damaged wrapping so that they can be replaced.
• Check use-by dates of vials of eye-washing solutions. Make a note

of any with an expired use-by date so that they can be replaced.
• Inspect scissors and tweezers. Note any that are damaged or rusted
and in need of replacement.
(b) Re-stowing
Where minor treatment has been carried out, re-stowing may be as
simple as putting the first-aid kit back in the vehicle. Once it is back at the
brigade station, cleaning, checking and replacement can be undertaken.
Where you have assisted an ambulance officer, you may be required to

recover items, replacing them in the appropriate kit and stowing all kits in
the ambulance, under direction from the ambulance officer.
(c) Cleaning
Following an incident where you have used supplies from the first-aid kit,
use an alcohol solution to clean used tweezers, scissors or thermometers.
The first-aid kit itself may need to be emptied and cleaned if it has been
open in an area where fire debris has been falling.
Where there is a possibility that instruments/equipment have been

contaminated, sterilisation will be necessary.
(d) Disposal
Because of the risk of contamination from medical waste arising
from treatment of casualties, all used wipes, swabs, cotton buds and
bandages must be taken to an ambulance centre or hospital for
appropriate disposal.
SUMMARY
• As a firefighter, you might sometimes be called upon to provide

immediate emergency care to a casualty until qualified first-aid or
medical help arrives.
• You should work closely with Ambulance Officers, and follow their
instructions (normally given via your crew leader) regarding
assistance given to casualties.
• If an incident involves casualties, you first need to assess the

scene to determine the type of incident, potential hazards,
number and extent of injuries, appropriate precautions for carers
and casualties, and the need for assistance. Incidents may be
complex. The first rule of immediate emergency care is to ensure
your own safety and not become a casualty yourself
• Hazards need to be reported, and avoided or removed. Hazards

may include electricity, falling trees/branches, fire/explosion,
hazardous materials, toxic fumes, damaged overhead structures,
vehicles and communicable diseases.
• Communicable diseases may be spread by absorption,

inhalation, ingestion or injection of germs. Communicable
diseases include Hepatitis, AIDs, tetanus, glandular fever and
influenza. Bleeding from casualties and other bodily fluids at an
incident may present a risk of infection.
• “Standard Precautions” are used to minimise the risk of infection.

These precautions assume that all bodily fluids present may be
infectious. Standard precautions include washing self and
equipment, covering of cuts and abrasions, use of protective
gloves, and the use of masks and eye protection.
• Tell your crew leader if blood or bodily fluids have entered your
skin, eyes, nose or mouth. Apply infection control procedures.
Where applicable, wash the wound with saline before bandaging.
Where applicable, flush the eyes, mouth, ears or nose with lots
of water. Seek further medical assistance.
• Follow the DRABC (Danger – Response - Airway – Breathing –

Circulation) emergency care plan. Maintain a calm and
supportive approach.
SUMMARY
• Shock can be life threatening. Signs and symptoms include cold,

sweaty pale skin; weak and rapid pulse; quick, irregular and
shallow breathing; thirst, weakness, dizziness, nausea, coldness,
nervousness, restlessness, drowsiness, confusion and
unconsciousness..
• To assist a casualty in shock you should control bleeding, cover

them with a blanket, reassure them, do not give anything to eat
or drink, monitor them, protect them from danger and do not
move them unnecessarily.
• To control bleeding you should place the casualty at rest,

bandage a dressing firmly in position and raise the injured part
unless there may be an underlying fracture. For severe bleeding,
use direct pressure, apply a clean dressing and pad, and
bandage firmly. Do not remove the bandage when the bleeding
ceases. Cover exposed wounds before immobilising fractures.
• Fractures should be immobilised by a person qualified in first-aid.

Burns should be treated by cooling them with water for at least 15
to 20 minutes. Heat exhaustion should be treated by getting the
casualty to cease activity, lie in a cool area and cooling them
with water. Heat stroke is a life threatening condition. Cool the
person down and get urgent medical attention.
• A casualty should not be moved unless absolutely necessary,

such as if they are in immediate danger. Control any bleeding and
immobilise fractures. When lifting a casualty, protect injured
parts, avoid further shock, pain or discomfort, and work as a
coordinated team. Techniques to move a casualty include the
cradle, the human crutch and the backward drag.
• Firefighters who have been involved in a traumatic incident may

suffer critical incident stress (CIS). Symptoms include a range of
physical, emotional and behavioural effects. Physical activity,
relaxation, having fun, sharing feelings and recognising that CIS
is normal are ways of reducing its effects. The RFS has a Critical
Incident Support Services (CISS) Team available on request and
professional help available if needed.
• After an incident, first aid equipment needs to be recovered.

This may involve checking, re-stowing, cleaning and disposal.
1. Direct pressure can be used to control bleeding.
2. Assessing the scene includes identifying potential

hazards and taking the appropriate precautions.
3. Standard precautions greatly minimise the risk

of transmission of blood borne pathogens.
4. Protective eyewear does not form a part of

standard precautions.
5. If they are splashed with blood, you should

immediately rinse your eyes and mouth with water.
6. Hot, reddish skin is a sign of shock.
7. Burns should be cooled with water.
8. Heat stroke is a life threatening condition.
9. Casualties should not be moved unless it is necessary.
10.Critical incident stress is a normal response.
ACTIVITIES
1. At a simulated incident, go through the process of assessing

the scene, identifying hazards and the precautions to be taken.
2. Practice the donning, using and care of protective equipment

used to help provide “standard precautions”.
3. Practice the actions to take if an exposure to possible blood

borne pathogens has occurred.
4. At simulated incidents, go through the procedures for assisting

conscious casualties with a variety of simulated injuries.
5. Practice methods of moving casualties, when that is a necessity.

List of Terms
(a) Standard Precautions
Standard Precautions are work practices required for the basic level of
infection control. They include good hygiene practices, particularly
washing and drying hands before and after patient contact, the use of
protective barriers in certain situations which may include gloves, gowns,
plastic aprons, masks, eye shields or goggles, appropriate handling and
disposal of sharps and other contaminated equipment or infectious waste,
and use of aseptic techniques.
Standard Precautions are recommended for the treatment and care of

all patients, regardless of their perceived infectious status, and in the
handling of:
• blood.
• all other body fluids, secretions and excretions (excluding sweat),
regardless of whether they contain visible blood.
• non-intact skin and
• mucous membranes.
Standard Precautions also apply to dried blood and other substances,

including saliva and equipment that has come into contact with these
substances.
(b) Additional Precautions

Additional Precautions are used for patients known or suspected to be
infected with highly transmissible pathogens that can cause infection by:
• air-borne transmission (e.g., mycobacterium tuberculosis, measles

virus, chickenpox virus), or
• droplet transmission (e.g., mumps, rubella, pertussis, influenza); or
• direct or indirect contact with dry skin (e.g., colonisation with
MRSA), or with contaminated surfaces; or
• any combination of these routes.
Additional Precautions are designed to interrupt transmission of infection

by these routes and should be used in addition to Standard Precautions
when transmission of infection might not be contained by using Standard
Precautions alone.
252
CHAPTER 7
Bush Firefighting Team Work
1 Introduction
Firefighting is a team activity. It is not something you can do safely or
effectively while working alone. Team work extends not only to actual
firefighting, but to almost every brigade activity, such as equipment
maintenance, training, community education, and even social events.
In this chapter we will look at a typical bush firefighting operation. This is

for two reasons. Firstly it will give you an idea how many of the activities
already covered in this Manual are integrated together at a firefighting
operation. Secondly it will highlight just how essential good team work is
to safe and effective firefighting. Good team work is your “final defence”
against errors and conditions that could lead to serious accidents,
especially in unusual fire situations.
From there we will look at the principles of team work in general, and then
a range of techniques and systems that can help to develop the team work
needed to deal safely with rapidly changing situations and potentially high
risk activities like firefighting. In particular, we will cover:
Crew Resource Management (CRM) – a set of techniques, based on

an understanding about how people behave, that enables normal
human errors to be detected and corrected before they lead to death,
injury or damage.
BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK 253
The Incident Control System (ICS) – a standardised way of delegating

functions and responsibility to firefighters at an incident so that workload
is evenly shared, nothing that needs to be done gets missed, nothing
is unnecessarily duplicated, and everyone works to the same basic
game plan.
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) – standard ways of doing things

at incidents that have been worked out in advance, to provide precautions
against hazards, enable everyone to work together more smoothly, and
reduce the mental workload during the heat of firefighting.
2 A Typical Firefighting Operation

In some ways it is difficult to describe any firefighting operation as
“typical”. They all differ according to the type and size of incident,
the weather conditions, the location and terrain, time of day, the season,
and the people, property, procedures and equipment involved.
What happens in your own brigade at a specific incident will not be

exactly the same as what is described here. However, it will give you an
idea of “what should go on” at a typical incident, and enable you to make
much more sense of what is happening when you start to attend fires.
Regardless of the type of incident, one thing that always stays the same
are the fundamental priorities. The overriding priority is always to protect
your own safety and that of fellow firefighters. After that the three priorities
are first to protect life, second to protect property* and third to help
restore normality to the area. (*Property means anything of economic,
environmental, cultural or personal value.)
(a) Call Out

Most incidents are reported by people ringing the ‘000’ emergency
number. These are transferred by a Telstra operator to the NSW Fire
Brigade. If a call comes from within a Rural Fire District, the NSW Fire
Brigade will alert the appropriate Fire Control Officer or duty officer.
They, in turn, will activate electronic pagers, telephones and/or local sirens
to call out the appropriate brigades.
In most brigades, the firefighting vehicles are located at a fire station or

shed. When you receive a fire call you should first assess whether you are
fit and available to attend. You can assess your fitness to go by using the
254 BUSH FIREFIGHTING TEAM WORK
I’M SAFE checklist as described in Chapter 4. If you are OK to go, make

sure you have your Personal Protective Equipment PPE, and proceed to
your fire station/shed (or direct to the incident if so instructed). If you are
driving, remember that you must observe all normal road rules, and you
should park your vehicle in a safe position and secure it.
(b) Departing Station

Many brigades practice the routine they will go through to depart their
station/shed. Getting this “down pat” saves a lot of time and is a much
safer and more effective way of improving the response time than trying
to drive faster to the scene. The routine needs to be flexible as you
will never be quite sure how many or exactly who will be available for
a particular call.
The routine will usually include unsecuring and opening up the station,
starting and briefly checking the vehicle/s are serviceable, closing and
securing the station and making the initial radio call. Most of your PPE
should be donned before departing the station. The only exceptions are
things like your helmet and gloves, which may be donned upon arrival at
the incident.
Figure 124: Station response activities.
In many cases, you will not know full details of the call until you arrive at
the station. The initial radio message serves to let people know the unit is
responding, and to get or confirm the details of the call. In a typical fire
tanker the crew leader will be sitting in the front left hand seat and will
make most, if not all, of the radio calls. The driver is usually also the pump
operator. The other crew members should be seated in the rear cabin.
The driver should not proceed until they have confirmed that everyone is
on board, all are seated within the cabin and have fastened and adjusted
their seat belts, and that the station has been appropriately secured.
The driver and crew leader will usually confirm the location of the incident
and cross check with each other about the route to be taken.
(c) En-route
While you are en-route, the crew leader should give you a briefing about
the known details of the call. This lets you know what to expect, reminds
you about the particular hazards to look out for, what precautions to take,
and what you are likely to need to do on arrival. The briefing helps you to
start to build up a shared “mental picture” of what is happening at the
incident. The briefing should use the SMEACS format, as described in
Chapter 4.
The call is to
grass alight....
....................etc
Figure 125: En-route briefing.
Most units will be carrying pre-incident planning data (PPD) sheets on

board. These give information about various risks in the brigade area, and
where firefighting resources (like hydrants or dams) are located. They will
often include maps, drawings and information sheets about particular
buildings, facilities or locations in your brigade area.
Another thing you might notice the crew leader do while en-route is fill in
a “T-card”. As the name implies, this is a T shaped card. The officer in
overall charge at a big fire collects these cards from crews and places
them in slots on a special board. The T-card system is used to keep track
of where all the crews are, who is in each crew, what each crew is doing,
and the times at which they start and finish various duties.
(d) Approaching the Incident

As your unit approaches the scene, the crew leader will start sizing up the
situation, adding to the “mental picture” of the incident that started with
the details of the call. There is a lot to consider; such as the type of
incident, the terrain, the weather, the fuel, whether people or property are
threatened, what other units are doing, and most importantly, any hazards
to the crew.
The crew leader will often get input from other crew members about
the situation and the action to take. As your training and experience
progresses you will be able to contribute to this discussion to a greater
degree. One of the reasons for including hazards and precautions in the
en-route briefing is so that all the crew members are “primed” to look out
for them, point them out, and avoid them, as they move in closer to the
scene. At the same time you can also start to look for clues about where
and how the fire started, so as to help later investigation.
If units are already at the scene, your Crew Leader will call the officer in
overall charge of the incident as you are approaching. They will reply with
instructions about where to go, what to do and what to look out for.
At big fires you might report to a staging area where you will be checked
in (using your T-card), briefed and then sent to where you are needed,
or held in waiting.
(e) Arrival and Initial Attack

As you arrive, your crew leader normally will give you some initial
instructions. These will usually either confirm or modify the instructions
given to you in the en-route briefing. Sometimes, you may be asked to
commence a particular type of attack on the fire straight away. Sometimes
you may be asked to set up ready to attack the fire. Sometimes you may
be asked to just wait. You should briefly confirm back those instructions,
so your crew leader knows you understand what to do.
The initial attack is one of the busiest times at an incident. Conditions are
often confused and a lot needs to be done quickly. The human brain has
a limited conscious information processing capacity. Training and practice
to develop firefighting skills, like running out hoses, is designed to make
those tasks automatic and largely unconscious, which releases your “brain
capacity” to observe what else is happening, detect and avoid hazards,
and plan non-standard activities.
Figure 126: Crew getting to work.
(f) During the Incident

As a firefighter, your main role will be to carry out the activities ordered
by your crew leader. This usually means using the correct firefighting
agent and equipment properly. Safety always remains your main priority.
Keep asking yourself questions like, “What hazards might be nearby?
How can I avoid, eliminate or control them?”.
Always have an “out” available to you in case things start to become

dangerous. Use the LACES checklist (see chapter 4) to help ensure your
safety. In a later section of this chapter, a system called Crew Resource
Management (CRM) will be introduced to you. It is a system to help
integrate safety into team activities.
Work consistent with the overall plan of attack. Follow the orders given by
your crew leader, but respectfully question anything that might lead to an
unsafe situation. Keep asking yourself questions like, “Am I using the best
agent and/or equipment for this task? Am I conserving agent or wasting
a lot of it? Is what I am doing helping to achieve our assigned mission
or task?”
During the incident conditions will change. You can be in danger if your
situational awareness is not keeping up with, and staying ahead of, the
changing situation. These changes may be sudden, like the arrival of a
cold front, or subtle like the gradual increase in temperature and decrease
in humidity from morning to afternoon. Both cases may require a change
in the plan of attack. A plan that is safe and effective early in the morning
might be futile, or even deadly, by mid-afternoon. If you see a significant
change in conditions, report it to your crew leader immediately.
If, during the incident, you or your crew are assigned to a new area or
job, you should be briefed about it using the SMEACS format.
Before commencing any new task you should also think through the
hazards it involves, and the precautions you should take to avoid,
eliminate or control those hazards.
Photo by David Miller
Figure 127: A crew leader directing a crew.
Most incidents will be small and probably easily handled by, say, two
firefighting units. Occasionally, however, larger operations will occur.
Regardless of the size of an incident, the operation needs to be well
organised and co-ordinated. In a later section of this chapter, the Incident
Control System (ICS) will be introduced to you. It details how an incident
should be organised and controlled. It is a very flexible system that can
grow and contract rapidly according to the needs of the situation.
Once the fire has been knocked down (i.e. no longer burning freely, but still
smouldering), the operation should move into a mopping up and patrolling
stage. While it might appear to be the less glamorous side of firefighting,

it is very important that this be done safely and thoroughly. Many fires
on “bad” days are often rekindles of previous fires that have not been
completely extinguished. Hazards might appear to be less obvious, but
you should not drop your guard. Some types of hazards; for example, logs
or rocks rolling down slopes, or falling trees or branches, are often more
likely at this stage of the fire.
(g) After the Incident

As operations at the scene (or at least your part in them) are completed,
you may be released to return to your station. In most cases, you will
collect, check and re-stow your equipment, and refill your water tank
before departing the vicinity. Although your equipment may need some
cleaning and maintenance, your vehicle should be available to attend
another call if needed.
Figure 128: Tanker being replenished.
Once you are back at station, your vehicle should be properly re-stowed,
used equipment and supplies replenished, and the vehicle thoroughly
cleaned. Your crew leader should conduct an operational debriefing.
This debriefing should use the incident as an opportunity for learning.
It is not a “witch hunt”, but an opportunity to work out “what we can do
to improve next time”. Finally the station needs to be closed down and
secured.
3 Principles of Team Work

A team is two or more people working towards a shared purpose. From the
description given above of a typical firefighting operation, you can see that
almost every firefighting activity is a team effort. This level of team work
does not just happen: it has to be specifically learned and maintained.
This is achieved through active participation, sharing information, and
giving and accepting support to/from team members.
(a) Active Participation

Active participation means taking part in activities in a way that helps the
team achieve its purpose. To do this you need to have a clear idea of the
roles and responsibilities within the team, so that you mutually support
each other and do not work at cross-purposes to each other.
The brigade officer rank system will be described in chapter 9. It is used

to define the roles and responsibilities of officers within your brigade and
the Rural Fire Service in general. The Incident Control System (or ICS)
will be described later in this chapter. It is used to define roles and
responsibilities at each particular incident, including those where many
brigades and many officers may be involved.
Whether your brigade is involved in an emergency or non-emergency

activity, active participation means contributing to identifying the goals
and objectives of the team. Through team meetings you can discuss
and help shape the future development of your brigade. Make a point of
participating in meetings and brigade gatherings whenever it is reasonably
possible for you to do so. Later in this chapter you will be introduced
to Crew Resource Management (CRM), a technique that uses the
contribution of team members to help achieve the goal of safe firefighting.
Working as a team implies working with each other in a consistent

direction. Many tasks that need to be carried out by brigade members
are already clearly defined in various policies and procedures. These help
ensure that activities run smoothly and safely, and consistently get good
results. Whenever you are given a task, you should always check if
there is already a procedure outlined for doing it, and complete it to
the needed standard.
As a new member you will not be expected to know and do everything

straight away. It is expected that you will need guidance and support to
learn and practice new tasks. If you are not sure about something, always
ask, and always acknowledge the help you are given. For example,
if you are not sure which nozzle to select on a hose-reel “dial-a-jet” for a
particular task, then ask; and acknowledge with a “thank you” for the
advice.
As you become more proficient, give support to the newer members.

Take the initiative to help them when needed. For example, many newer
members underestimate what is needed for effective mopping up.
Emphasise how important good mopping up is to preventing a rekindle of
the fire later on. Show them how to work as a team, one with the nozzle,
another with a suitable hand tool, so that they thoroughly mop up and
black out the affected area.
Finally, expect that roles and responsibilities within the brigade will change
over time and in different situations. Almost everyone has a role within
the brigade that they prefer to do, but there is also great value in swapping
roles with others as time goes on. Being flexible in what you can do is very
important in a volunteer Service, as you can never be certain about
which members will be available for any particular fire. At some types of
incidents, some members may have more expertise than others. It makes
sense to give those with the greatest expertise a more leading role in
such situations.
Figure 129: Crew working as a team at a bush fire.

(b) Sharing Information

The way a team performs depends on the way the members communicate
and inter-relate with each other. If team members work at cross-purposes
with each other, the confusion can be so great that they achieve little.
However, if they share knowledge, skills and information between them,
then the team can become much more effective than the sum of its
individual members.
Sharing information comes down to some basic communications skills;

like the ability to ask the right questions in a situation, to speak up when
something concerns you, to listen effectively, to resolve conflicts for
the better, and to evaluate objectively how things can be improved.
These skills are covered in more detail in a more advanced training
program, but for now here are some simple techniques you can use:
• Before you commence any task, seek the information you need to
carry it out, discuss what hazards are involved, and how they can
be avoided, eliminated or controlled.
• If you think a task is unsafe, or you are not confident about your
ability to do something competently, tell you crew leader your
concerns about that task (i.e. Speak up about what you think and
feel about the task, not about him/her for giving it to you!).
• When you are given an order, paraphrase it back to make sure you
understood it correctly (e.g. “I’ll just check I’ve got this right.
You want me to……”)
• If there is a disagreement about something, focus your attention

and discussion on “what is right” not “who is right”.
• Share important information with the others in your team. If you see
something hazardous or a significant change in conditions,
report it. If something concerns you, speak up about it.
• After each incident, participate in a debriefing. Agree on one thing

the team could do better next time around, and work out how to
make that improvement happen.
Figure 130: Firefighting team at work.
(c) Team Support

Team support works in both directions. It refers to the support you give to
others, and to accepting the support they give to you. Probably the person
who needs the most support is your crew leader. You might sometimes
think of them as an “all-knowing” person who deals out orders to
members. The reality is that their decisions are often based very much on
the information and advice the team members can supply to them, and on
the capabilities of the team to carry them out.
The best support you can give a crew leader is not just to mindlessly “do
whatever they say”, but to support their decision making by accepting that
they can make errors, feeding them good quality information, operating to
the required standard, and respectfully questioning their judgement when
you have objective concerns. Remember that crew leaders are only
human and will differ in leadership style and skills. Take that into account
in the way you inter-relate with each of them.
Look out for opportunities to support others in the team. Offer help if they
are in difficulty or have a high workload. Be aware of the limitations and
needs of others. Not everyone will always see things or be able to do
things the way you do, and you may need to adjust the way you work with
them. By interacting honestly and respectfully with other members you
can help create an atmosphere of mutual trust that allows errors to be
identified, admitted and corrected before they become dangerous.
Photo by Nick Moir
Figure 131: Crew at work at a bushfire.
Getting feedback is an important and ongoing part of being a brigade

member. No-one is doing anyone any favours by failing to correct a
problem that could become a real danger at an incident. Giving feedback
to others should be constructive, and focus on the person’s behaviour, not
the person themselves. Recognition and praise should be given when it
is deserved, but it should not be given if it might reinforce dangerous
behaviour, bad firefighting habits or poor performance.
Accepting support from others is often the most difficult aspect of team
support. Like everybody else, you need to acknowledge that you are
human, with a normal human capacity for making errors, needing help and
learning from feedback. When help is offered to you, don’t regard it as an
insult to your ability. Volunteer fire brigades depend heavily on having
members who are versatile and flexible. Helping one another out
with tasks is a good way of sharing the knowledge and skills held by all
members. Most feedback given to you is likely to be friendly and
constructive, but realise that not everyone has the skills to give feedback
in that way. However, even poorly expressed feedback can contain good
learning points and shouldn’t be totally ignored or rejected.
Something that has to be said is that if you refuse to take notice of well-
founded feedback on a serious matter, your brigade officers can take for-
mal disciplinary action against you. There’s more about that in chapter 9.
Rural fire brigades usually consist of people who are enthusiastic, if not
passionate, about what they do. They also frequently work together at
incidents that are challenging and sometimes emotionally charged. These
tend to build strong bonds between people. On a positive side this can
result in great friendships and teamwork, but on a negative side it can also
sometimes lead to tensions between people.
Conflict between members, if skillfully handled, can often lead to

positive outcomes. Sometimes the conflict is imaginary; simply a
misunderstanding of what each thought the other was on about.
But conflict can also be an indicator that some important issue needs to be
resolved. By focussing discussion on what people really need, a solution
that satisfies all can often be found. If things can’t be resolved informally,
the RFS has formal grievance handling procedures that can be applied.
These are referred to in chapter 9.
4 Crew Resource Management (CRM)

Crew Resource Management (CRM) is a set of techniques designed to
manage errors that can lead to death, injury or disruption at a fire or
incident. It is widely used by the military and airlines, although some of the
research behind it is based on observation of firefighting operations. CRM
is covered in more detail in more advanced programs of training. At this
level we will introduce you to some of its key principles and practices.
(a) Errors and Violations

Many catastrophic accidents occur not because of big failures, but
because of a string of minor human errors. Types of errors include lapses
(forgetting to carry out an intended action), slips (acting inappropriately
because of distraction or inattention) and mistakes (acting inappropriately
due to a lack of knowledge, understanding or judgement).
TYPES OF ERRORS
(unintentional)
Lapses Slips Mistakes
(e.g. forgetting (e.g. inappropriate (e.g. inappropriate

an intended action due to action due to lack
action) distraction or of knowledge etc.)
inattention)
Figure 132: Types of errors.
Human error is normal. It is not something to be denied or criticised, but it

can and should be managed. Research shows that most errors are due to
informational problems. Improving the quality and flow of information can
be used to manage errors.
Violations are different from errors. A violation is deliberately departing

from some rule, procedure or good practice. Violations are due to attitudi-
nal problems and often arise from within the culture of an organisation.
Contrary to common belief, they are often well-intentioned, and committed
in order to “get the job done”.
TYPES OF VIOLATIONS
(intentional)
Well-intentioned Reckless Malicious
(e.g. to "get the job done") (e.g. playing the "hero") (e.g. sabotage)
Figure 133: Types of violations.
(b) Typical Chain of Events at Serious Accidents

Investigations conducted into several serious firefighter accidents
indicates that the chain of events often goes something like this:
• The conditions often don’t appear to be particularly hazardous.

Therefore the level of alertness of people is relatively low.
• The situation is often unusual or different than anticipated.

There might be unexpected conditions, unavailable resources or a
change of plan.
• There is often some pressure in the minds of the people involved

to complete the work. This encourages them to “cut corners” or
operate without usual precautions.
• A series of delays, frustrations or hassles often narrows the

attention of the people involved, so that they lose touch with the
hazardous situation developing around them.
• The developing situation leads to a sudden change in conditions

that is often outside the experience of those involved. This takes
them by surprise. By then they do not have sufficient time to react
to their situation and avoid disaster.
• In hindsight, all of the information needed to recognise and avoid

the accident was present before it occurred, but this information
was not “put together” by the people involved in a way that enabled
it to be seen and avoided in time.
positional only - pic to be

scanned in from photo
positional only
Remove ‘place name’ on side of cabin

door (red letters on white) once hi -res
scan has been done.
Figure 134: Examples of firefighter accidents.

(c) Decision-Making
In the past it was assumed that all firefighting decisions were made on
a logical or analytical basis. That is, a person faced with a decision
considered the available options, analysed the advantages and
disadvantages of each, and picked the best option to take.
Research, however, shows that experienced people, especially when

working under pressure, do not use logical decision making. They use
what is called intuitive decision-making. That is, when faced with a
decision, they immediately select a course of action that has worked in
the past in a similar situation. It might not be the best decision, but it is
usually workable and successful.
Intuitive decision making is much faster than logical decision making,

but it has two disadvantages. First, if a person’s perception of the situation
is wrong, they might pick the wrong response to it. That response might
be ineffective or dangerous. Second, if they don’t recognise a developing
situation, (for example if they have never seen or heard about a
particular type of situation), they might not see the need to make a
decision at all, and through their lack of knowledge allow people to
become exposed to danger.
(d) Situational Awareness

Having good “situational awareness” means making sure what you think is
going on (your perception) is what is really going on (reality). Because of
the way intuitive decision-making works, you must have good situational
awareness to make the right decisions; and, making the right decisions is
essential for safe and effective firefighting. It’s also important to be able to
recognise when you are losing situational awareness. It is then that you
need to “step back” to a safe position and re-assess what is going on
before it gets dangerous.
Figure 135: Crew at work in a chaotic fire situation.
CRM has a number of techniques to enable errors to be avoided, to be

detected and trapped, and for their impact to be minimised. These are
described in the following sections of this chapter. You will find that many
of these techniques are covered in your Bush Firefighter (BF) training.
(e) Techniques to Avoid Error

Techniques to avoid error revolve around ensuring that you can gain good
situational awareness. They include:
• Personal Fitness – To avoid error you need to be fully alert.

This might not be possible if you are ill, injured, medicated,
stressed, intoxicated, dehydrated or fatigued. Minor stressors and
hassles can reduce your alertness, and erode your ability to see
hazards and errors. At such times you need to stop what you are
doing, regardless of the pressure, and sort things out before
proceeding. Keeping alert also means staying well hydrated, eating
nutritious food, and getting appropriate breaks and rest at incidents.
• Preparation – Preparation includes pre-incident planning,

familiarising yourself with Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)
and training. Pre-incident planning is gathering information about
possible incidents beforehand. SOPs are about working out how
to handle incidents in general, in advance. Training consists of

learning from the experiences of others so you know what to do in
advance. Through good preparation your mind is freed up to focus
on looking out for hazards and errors at incidents.
• Planning and Briefing – Planning means members of the team

participate in the process of working out what to do. This gives
them a shared situational awareness and a common approach.
Briefing is a way in which the team leader can share information
with team members about what’s happening, what’s to be done,
how it’s to be done, what to look out for, and (through feedback)
ensure all those things are understood. In particular, a briefing
primes all members of the team to look out for hazards, report
them, and deal with them.
• Incident Control System (ICS) – ICS is an organised way of

sharing the workload at an incident. It ensures that people do not
become overloaded and more subject to error.
(positional only)
Figure 136: Line up of fire units at a staging area.

(f) Techniques to Detect and Trap Error

Techniques to detect and trap error revolve around ensuring that you
constantly challenge and update your situational awareness, to make sure
what you think is happening is really what is happening. They include:
• Active Vigilance – This means always expecting something might

go wrong, knowing what to look out for, scanning for hazards and
errors, knowing what is (and is not), an acceptable situation, and
cross-checking what you think with others.
• Mutual Scrutiny – This means “everybody looks out for

everybody”. If something concerns you, you speak up. If somebody
else has concerns, you listen to them. When you are told
something, you don’t blindly accept it: You check that it’s correct
and query it if it does not make sense.
• Respectful Interaction – Using friendly respectful language within

the team encourages people to speak up and listen when needed.
It helps focus attention on “what is right” not “who is right” at
the incident.
• Use of Safety Officers – At larger incidents, the officer in charge

may assign a safety officer to scrutinise the safety of their actions.
Safety officers do not relieve anyone of their responsibility for
safety; but ensure that key people observe their safety
responsibilities.
• Reacting to Uncertainty – If you experience a situation that is not

expected, or seems odd or worrying, it may indicate something has
gone wrong; you may be losing situational awareness, or have
made an error of some sort. Act straight away. Tells others about
your concerns. Go to your safe refuge, work out what is going on,
and take safe action.
Figure 137: Crews at work at a bush fire in a chaotic situation.
(g) Techniques to Reduce the Impact of Error

Techniques to reduce the impact of error consist of having things to fall
back on if something goes wrong. They include:
• Always have an “Out” – This means always starting your fire

fighting activities from a safe position (called a “safe anchor point”)
and always having a safe escape route and refuge available.
Never tackle an incident without having an “out” planned, in case
things don’t go as expected.
• Set Personal/Team Limits – This means having a clear idea of

when to activate your “out” plan. If you leave it too late it can be
dangerous. As a team, set a time when you will confirm what you
are doing is still safe. As a team, set fire behaviour limits that, if met
or exceeded, will cause you to cease what you are doing. If you
seriously lose situational awareness (i.e. If you don’t know what’s
happening any more!) go to your safe refuge and re-assess what is
going on. Don’t wait for a full blown emergency to develop.
• Emergency Procedures – Know and regularly practice your

emergency procedures. You should be able to do them virtually
without thinking, in any conditions, because that’s how you might
need to do them under the stress of an emergency.
• Use Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) – Always wear PPE at

an incident, as most emergencies happen too quickly to don it at
the time. PPE cannot perform miracles, but it can buy you a little
more time in extreme circumstances, and that might be just enough
to enable you to survive.
Figure 138: Typical emergency procedures drill - Crew sheltering under

blankets inside the cabin of a vehicle parked in a safe refuge area.
5 The Incident Control System (ICS)

At the scene of a fire or other incident, the officer in charge will put
the Incident Control System (ICS) into operation. ICS is a system of
organising incident control activities and delegating tasks so that things
get done in the right order, the workload is shared, and the safety of
firefighters is monitored more effectively and easily.
(a) ICS – Formal or Informal?

At large incidents, the ICS may be a formal system with written plans.
At most small incidents, however, it will be informal, with the officer in
charge having it all in their head, or perhaps just referring to a map or a
sketch to keep track of what is happening.
To carry out the plan, the officer in charge will assign tasks to various
groups of firefighters. For example, some of you may be asked to use
hoses, or to construct a fire trail, or to rest so as to be refreshed when you
are needed later. The job of the officer in charge is to harmonise all these
actions together so the attack on the fire is safe and effective. In the ICS,
the officer in charge of an incident is called the Incident Controller. This is
regardless of the size of the incident or the rank of the officer.
(b) Sectors and Divisions

The area covered by an incident may be divided up into sectors.
The officer in charge of each is then called a Sector Officer or Sector
Commander. At large incidents, where there are many sectors, they may
be grouped into Divisions, each with a Division Officer or Division
Commander. For example, there might be three Divisions each with a
Division Commander reporting to the Incident Controller. Each Division
Commander might, in turn, have several Sector Commanders reporting
to them.
Note that “Sector Commander” and “Division Commander” are not ranks.
They are merely functions or roles that are carried out at that particular
incident. In principle, an officer of any rank can be appointed to any
position in the ICS. In practice however, Sector Commanders and Division
Commanders are usually people with the rank of Deputy Group Captain
or higher, as the training that corresponds to that rank includes how to be
a Sector or Division Commander. You will find more information about RFS
ranks in chapter 9.
Sectors and Divisions are normally given a name to identify them.

This might be a geographic name or a phonetic letter. For example,
“Sector West” or “Division Alpha”.
IC
Smith Cross High Main
INCIDENT MANAGEMENT TEAM
Division Boundary
Sector B Sector C
Sector F
Sector A
Sector E
Sector D
Sector Boundary
Figure 139: Sectors and divisions.

At a small incident, the Incident Controller may be your crew leader, and
there might not be any divisions or sectors. If an incident grows rapidly in
size, however, and more units are needed to control it, your crew leader
might appoint another officer (called an Operations Officer) to run the units
now at the scene. Meanwhile your crew leader retains the role of Incident
Controller, but focuses on planning how to use all the other units that have
now been called to the scene. Later a more senior officer might arrive and
take over the role of Incident Controller as the incident grows.
At a large incident in a neighbouring District, your crew leader might report

to a Sector Commander, who might be an officer from the neighbouring
District. Most of the time you will remain together with other members
of your brigade as a unit, but sometimes you might be asked to work with
firefighters from other brigades or services. Because common ICS and
training systems are used, however, you should not have any difficulty in
working safely and smoothly together.
(c) Strike Teams and Task Forces

At larger incidents, units may be organised into strike teams or task forces.
Technically a strike team has units all of the same type, like five tankers.
A Task Force, on the other hand has a mix of units designed to carry out
a particular task. For example, it might consist of two light tankers, two
heavy tankers, a bulldozer and a command vehicle.
Either way, a strike team or a task force will have a Commander and a
common communications system. In principle, an officer of any rank can
be appointed as the Commander, but they are often an experienced
brigade Captain or Senior Deputy Captain.
A typical strike team
A typical task force
Figure 140: Strike teams and Task Forces.

(d) Staging and Assembly Areas

At larger incidents, it would be dangerous if all the firefighting units
simply converged on the fire like an uncontrolled rabble. To make things
safer and more organised, staging areas are often used. Your unit may be
asked to go to a staging area (often just a convenient corner or area near
the incident) and wait until it is assigned a task on the fireground.
Figure 141a:
A typical staging area.
Figure 141b: A typical assembly area.
Assembly areas are usually larger than staging areas. They may be next
to a Fire Communications Centre or in a park, for example. They are
places where units going to, or coming from, a large incident can be
reorganised, resupplied, refuelled, briefed, debriefed, fed or rested.
(e) Incident Management

In the ICS, the only position that must be filled is the Incident Controller.
All other positions are optional. Research shows, however, that one
person can really only directly control up to about six to eight others
without becoming overloaded. The ideal is about five. The reason why
sectors and divisions are created is to make sure no one person has more
than about five people or units reporting directly to them.
When an incident gets quite large, even the job of being in overall charge
becomes too much for one person. When that point is reached, an Incident
Management Team (IMT) is appointed. The person in overall charge is still
called the Incident Controller, but they now have a team assisting them in
the functions of Operations (actually running the firefighting), Planning
(working out what to do) and Logistics (getting the resources to do it).
Figure 142: A typical IMT at work.
6 Fireground SOPs
Fireground Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) describe the minimum
standards to which various tasks and activities should be carried out at
incidents, and may give certain officers the authority to carry out those
activities. For example, the Incident Control System (ICS) described in the
previous section is specified for use by the Fireground SOPs. In addition,
it gives Incident Controllers the authority to do things like form sectors or
divisions within that system.
You should be able to find a copy of the Fireground SOPs at your Fire
Station and/or in your brigade’s vehicles. Crew leaders will also often have
pocket sized versions for personal reference. Firefighting is not (and
cannot be) something that is done “out of a book”, but the SOPs give
officers a valuable aide-de-memoire to help protect them from lapses
(normal errors of memory).
At firefighter level you are not expected to know the SOPs in detail. If you
read them, however, you will find a lot of familiar things, because they are
the official procedures upon which much training material is based.
There are over 40 Fireground SOPs, with most no longer than a single
page, and with each covering a specific aspect of firefighting.
For example:
• Fireground SOPs 1 to 10 are about firefighting in general.

They cover the basic priorities and what should take place from the
time of call until the end of an operation.
• Fireground SOP 11 covers all the specific procedures for specific

incidents. It is subdivided into sections covering bush fires, grass
fires, structural fires, and so on.
• Fireground SOP 12 covers procedures in the case of emergencies

on the fireground.
• Fireground SOPs 13 to 24 cover specific procedures for specific

activities. These include things like backburning, use of chain saws,
use of aircraft, and so on.
• Fireground SOPs 25 to 39 cover incident management matters.

These include the ICS, how to issue orders, out of area assistance,
media liaison, and so on.
• Fireground SOPs 40 and upwards are to do with safety.

These include the use of PPE, safety refuges, and so on.
Using SOPs reduces the decision-making workload at incidents for

officers, provides a ready “how to” reference for the less common types of
incidents, and allows firefighters to all work to the same basic game plan.
This has the effect of making firefighting safer, easier and more effective.
Figure 143: Fireground SOPs and pocket versions.

SUMMARY
• Firefighting is a team activity. Crew Resource Management

(CRM), the Incident Control System (ICS) and Standard
Operating Procedures (SOPs) can facilitate the sort of team
work needed at high tempo and potentially high risk activities
like firefighting.
• The overriding priority at incidents is firefighter safety. After that,

the priorities are first to save life, second to save property and
third to help restore normality.
• Most call outs to incidents come in via the ‘000’ system and are
directed by the NSW Fire Brigades to your brigade via your local
Fire Control Officer or duty officer. You should check you are fit
to attend before responding to a call.
• Practice can make departing your station quicker and smoother.

Most PPE should be donned before leaving the station.
The initial radio call advises that your unit is responding and
enables details of the call to be gathered. The crew leader will
normally be in the front of the tanker. The driver should not
proceed until all are on board and wearing seat belts.
• While en-route to an incident, your crew leader should brief you.

Your vehicle will usually have pre-incident planning data on
board. Your crew leader might fill in a T-card en-route.
• The crew leader will start sizing up the incident as you approach
it. He/she may get input from crew members. Look out for,
report and avoid hazards. Look for clues as to the fire’s origin
and cause. If other units are already at the scene, your unit may
call the officer in overall charge of the incident for instructions as
you approach.
• Your crew leader will normally give you initial instructions as

you arrive. Confirm back those instructions to verify you have
understood them correctly. Your basic firefighter skills need to
be second nature to you so that you can focus your attention on
what is happening.
• Carry out the instructions of your crew leader. Keep alert for
hazards and how to deal with them. Always have an “out”
available. Keep questioning whether you are doing things
correctly. Report any significant changes in conditions. Get a
briefing before undertaking any new assignment.
SUMMARY
• After a fire has been knocked down, focus on thoroughly

mopping up and patrolling. Watch out for, and deal with,
hazards during this stage.
• A team is two or more people working towards a shared

purpose. Team work needs to be learned and maintained
through active participation, sharing information, and giving and
accepting support to/from team members.
• Active participation means fully taking part in activities so that

the team achieves its purpose. To do this you need a clear idea
of roles and responsibilities within the team. These are defined
in the RFS rank system and Incident Control System (ICS).
• Participating in meetings, briefing and debriefings, following

procedures and using Crew Resource Management (CRM)
techniques can facilitate team work. You will need guidance and
support at first; accept and acknowledge it. As you become
more proficient you can help guide and support others.
• Roles and responsibilities in the brigade may vary over time and
in different situations. While you might prefer certain roles,
you need to be flexible in what you can do.
• Sharing information enhances team work. It depends on good

communications skills such as knowing how to ask the right
questions, speaking up if you are concerned, listening to
the concerns of others, resolving conflicts and objectively
evaluating how to improve.
• Giving and getting feedback is an integral part of being a

brigade member. Feedback should be constructive, and focus
on the person’s behaviour, not the person themselves.
Refusal to take note of well founded feedback may result in
disciplinary action. Recognition and praise should be given
when deserved.
• Strong bonds often build up between people in brigades.

Sometimes these can lead to tensions. Formal grievance
handling procedures are available if these cannot be resolved.
SUMMARY
• Crew leaders need the support of team members. You can

support their decision-making by accepting they can make
errors, feeding them good quality information, operating to the
needed standard, and respectfully questioning their judgement
if you have objective concerns.
• Crew Resource Management (CRM) is a set of techniques to

enhance team effectiveness and manage error. Human error
is normal, but it can be managed. Most errors are due to
informational problems. Improving the quality and flow of
information can help manage error.
• Violations are deliberate departures from good practice or

procedures. They are due to attitudinal problems. They are
often well intentioned and committed in order to “get the
job done”.
• Under pressure, experienced people use intuitive rather than

logical decision making. Intuitive decision making does
not involve the detailed analysis of options, but consists of
immediately selecting a course of action that has worked in a
similar situation in the past. Good situational awareness is
essential for good decision making.
• Techniques to avoid error include having appropriate personal

fitness, preparation, planning and briefing, and the use of the
Incident Control System (ICS).
• Techniques to detect and trap error include the use of active

vigilance, mutual scrutiny, respectful interaction and safety
officers.
• Techniques to reduce the impact of error include always having

an “out”, setting personal/team limits, being well drilled in
emergency procedures and always using PPE.
• The ICS is a system of organising activities and delegating

tasks at an incident. At small incidents it may be informal and
unwritten. At large incidents it may be formal, with written plans.
The officer in overall charge at an incident is called the
Incident Controller.
SUMMARY
• The incident area may be divided into sectors, each under a

Sector Officer or Sector Commander. At a large incident,
sectors may be grouped into Divisions, each under a Division
Officer or Division Commander. Sectors and Divisions may be
identified by either geographic names or phonetic letters.
• If an incident expands rapidly, the Incident Controller may

appoint an Operations Officer to run the current operation,
allowing the Incident Controller to focus on expanding it
smoothly. The Incident Controller may later be relieved in that
role by a more senior officer.
• Strike teams and task forces consist of a group of units under

a common Commander and with a common communications
system. Staging and assembly areas may be established to
help organise the deployment of units. An incident management
team (IMT) may be appointed if the incident becomes too large
for one person to manage it by themselves.
• Fireground SOPs describe minimum operating standards and

may authorise officers to carry out certain activities. Copies are
usually kept on firefighting vehicles. Using SOPs reduces the
decision making workload, reduces errors of memory, gets
firefighters working to a common game plan, and makes fire
fighting safer, easier and more effective.
1. The briefing on the way to an incident helps to build

up a shared mental picture of what is happening.
2. It is up to your crew leader alone to make decisions

and you should not offer any input into that process.
3. You need to practise your physical firefighting skills

until they become second nature, so that you will be
able to deal effectively with everything else that is
happening at an incident.
4. Some types of hazards may actually be more likely

after the fire has been knocked down.
5. A debriefing is conducted to work out if any disciplinary

action needs to be taken against firefighters because
of poor performance or conduct at an incident.
6. If you think a task is unsafe, or you are not confident

about your ability to do something confidently, you should
tell your crew leader about your concerns.
7. Most errors and violations of procedures during fire

fighting happen because people are careless, and they
should be disciplined for it.
8. Good situational awareness is essential for good

decision-making.
9. Among other things, using the ICS is a way of sharing

the workload at an incident and reducing the risk of error.
10.During firefighting, you should always start from a safe

anchor point, always have an “out” available and have a
clear idea of when to activate your “out” plan.
ACTIVITIES
1. Participate in a simulated briefing, such as might be given while

en-route to a fire.
2. Discuss with some crew leaders in your brigade how they decide
what to do at an incident.
3. Familiarise yourself with the pre-incident planning data (PPD)

and Fireground SOPs carried in your brigade’s vehicles.
4. Ask some of the trainers or crew leaders in your brigade to tell

you about some of the fires they have been to, and how things
like CRM, the ICS and SOPs were applied.
5. Participate in an operational debriefing after a simulated or

actual incident.
287
CHAPTER 8
Radio Communications
1 Introduction
Effective communication is the very heart of safe and effective firefighting.
Radio communication, in particular, is vital. All bush firefighters need to be
able to use a two-way radio in a clear, concise manner. This chapter is an
introduction to the use of radio communications. In particular, it covers:
Communications Systems - or “how radio systems work”.
Communications Phraseology - or “what to say on the radio”.
Communications Procedures - or “what calls to make,

and when to make them”
2 Communications Systems
The first step in using radio communications is to understand something
about how radio communication works. In this part of the chapter you will
be introduced to the principles of radio communication, the radio
spectrum, typical radio systems, typical radio equipment, and the RFS
radio communications network. This chapter will also touch on the use of
mobile phones, satellite telephones, pagers and fax machines, and the
testing of communications equipment.
288 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
(a) Principles of Radio Communications

Radio communication is the transmission of messages by electronic
means, without the use of wires. It occurs when a message is transmitted
via a radio operated by one person, and received by a radio operated by
another person in a different location.
One way to understand radio is to compare it with normal face-to-face

communications using your voice. You produce speech by vibrating the
vocal chords in your throat to form waves of sound. These sound waves
travel through the air to the ears of the person with whom you are talking.
Their ears detect and amplify those waves, and convert them into nerve
impulses (signals sent to their brain) that are understood as your speech.
Figure 144: Voice communications.
In radio communications you speak into a microphone. It converts

the sound waves of your speech into an electrical signal. This signal is
transmitted via an aerial to create radio waves. Radio waves can be
detected through a receiving aerial on another radio, amplified within that
radio and converted back into sound waves through a speaker so you
can hear them.
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 289
Figure 145: Radio communications.
There are, however, some important differences between the two.

Sound waves travel through air at the speed of sound, which is not much
faster than the average jet airliner. Radio waves are electromagnetic
radiation. (Visible light is another form of electromagnetic radiation.)
Both light and radio waves travel at the speed of light; which is very much
faster than sound, and they can travel through a vacuum just as well as
through air.
The frequency of vibration of sound waves is also fairly slow. Very low
pitched sounds are around 20 vibrations per second, while very high
pitched sounds might be as high as 20,000. One complete vibration per
second is called a “Hertz”, or “Hz” for short. Your local commercial AM
radio station broadcasts radio waves at a frequency usually somewhere
between 500 thousand to 1800 thousand hertz (or 500 to 1800 kilohertz or
kHz). Radio frequencies typically used by emergency services are up in
the 150 to 500 million Hertz (or 150 to 500 megahertz or MHz) range.
When a radio message is sent, your voice is converted into an electronic

signal that is superimposed over the frequency of the radio waves being
transmitted. The radio frequency carrying the signal is called the “carrier
wave”, and the process of superimposing the signal on to the carrier wave
is called “modulation”. A radio receiver tuned to the same frequency can
extract the signal out of the radio waves being received and convert it back
to voice. This process is called “demodulation”.
1 Carrier Wave
2 Signal
3 A Signal
modulated
onto a carrier
wave
Figure 146: Modulation of a carrier wave.
(b) The Radio Spectrum

The wide range of radio frequencies allows a vast number of radio
messages to be transmitted at the same time, using a different frequency
for each. The full range of frequencies is called the “radio spectrum”.
Not all frequencies within the radio spectrum behave in the same way.
These differences in behaviour mean that radios operating on different
frequencies can have quite different types of performance.
Some examples are given below:
HIGH FREQUENCY (HF) – 3 to 30 MHz
HF radios can have a long range (a few thousand kilometres in good

conditions) as their radio waves can reflect off the upper layers of the
atmosphere under some circumstances, enabling them to travel over the
horizon. These layers of the upper atmosphere change throughout the
day, and from time to time, so the performance of HF can vary quite a lot.
For instance, in general, the lower HF frequencies work better at night,
and the higher frequencies work better during the day.
Fire units in remote areas sometimes use HF radios. As HF radios need

quite large aerials to work effectively, such units will have large aerials
fitted to them. HF radio messages are not always clear, and are prone to
interference from storms and other electrical activity, and from “fading”
when the waves travelling across the ground and those reflected from the
upper atmosphere cancel each other out.
HF Aerial
N.S.W RURAL FIRE SERVICE U

RA
L FI R E
SE
N . S. W R
R VI C E
Figure 147: HF radio aerial.
VERY HIGH FREQUENCY (VHF) – 30 to 300 MHz
VHF radio waves do not reflect off the upper atmosphere. They have a
relatively short range (dozens of kilometres) and travel in straight lines
(“line of sight”). They will not penetrate solid materials, but can reflect
off some objects. They do not need large aerials and are free from most
interference. Many Fire Services use VHF radios. They are also used for
communications in civil aviation and by some commercial broadcast
stations.
ULTRA HIGH FREQUENCY (UHF) – 300 to 3000 MHz
UHF radio waves behave similar to VHF. Most of the radios used by the
NSW Rural Fire Service operate in the UHF band. As the signals travel
only in line of sight, it might be necessary to move a mobile radio to
higher ground in order to communicate effectively in mountainous terrain.
Offsetting this is the advantage that UHF allows a very good clear quality
of communication.
UHF Aerial
N.S.W RURAL FIRE SERVICE U

RA
L FI R E
SE
N .S. W R
R VI C E
Figure 148: UHF radio aerial.
UHF-CB (Citizen’s Band) is used in some rural areas. This equipment is

inexpensive, reliable, and free from atmospheric interference. However, as
the “Citizens Band’ name implies, it is open to use by anyone. This makes
it almost useless for firefighting operations near well-populated areas.
However, in areas where it is monitored and used on a day to day basis
by rural people, it is not only effective during firefighting, but can be used
for reporting fires and alerting Brigade members.
The next diagram illustrates some of the limitations of VHF and UHF radio
systems. Both the distance between the transmitter and receiver and the
relative location of each unit, will determine the signal strength. If you are
stationary, and the signal is weak, either move the mobile closer to the
base or seek a more elevated location. If you are moving, the signal
may ‘break-up’; that is, you will only receive parts of the transmission.
Stop, preferably on the highest available location and try again. If needed,
try several locations until you receive a clear, unbroken signal.
RECEPTION
AREA
BASE
STATION SHADOW
N.S.W RURAL FIRE SERVICE UR
A L FI R E
AREA
N .S . W R
SE
R VIC E
ECIVRES ERIF LARUR W.S.N

IF L A R U
ER
R
E C IV R E S
W .S . N
RECEPTION
AREA
RECEPTION
AREA
Figure 149: Limitations of VHF and UHF systems.
MF, LF and VLF
There are also Medium, Low and Very Low frequencies (MF, LF and VLF)
in use in some radio systems. However, you won’t generally see them in
use in Fire Services. MF is the band used by many commercial radio
stations, Both MF and LF signals are absorbed by the upper atmosphere
during the day, but may reflect off it at night. VLF (which can penetrate
underwater) is used to communicate with submarines. Generally speak-
ing, the lower the frequency, the larger the aerial that is needed for the
radio to work effectively.
REGULATION
International agreements limit the use of various bands of frequencies

to various types of uses. For example, the VHF frequencies between 108
MHz and 136 MHz are used across the world for aviation radio
communications.
In Australia, the Australian Communications Authority regulates the radio

spectrum under the (federal) Radio Communications Act 1992 and
issues the required radio communications licences to users. A Fire Service
(like anyone else) must apply for a licence before setting up a radio
network. The licence provides protection from interference from other
radio users, and allows the use of particular frequencies in certain areas.
(c) Typical Radio Systems

There are several types of radio systems used in Fire Services.
These include simplex, duplex, repeater and trunked systems.
SIMPLEX SYSTEMS
This is the simplest type of radio system. It uses only one frequency and
all stations operating on that channel transmit (Tx) and receive (Rx) on the
same frequency. In a simplex system what you hear when you receive
is the signal actually transmitted by the sender, as shown in the
diagram below:
BASE
STATION
MOBILE MOBILE ER
IF L A R U

R
E C IV R E S
W . S. N
ONE TWO
N.S.W RURAL
FIRE SERVICE RU
R A L FI R
E
N .S . W
SE
R VI C E
ER
IF L A R U
MOBILE
R
E C IV R E S
W .S. N
THREE
Figure 150: Simplex system.

DUPLEX SYSTEMS
This is a another way of operating a radio system. Two frequencies are

used: Your radio signals are transmitted on one, and received on the
other. In a full duplex system this enables a two-way conversation to be
conducted simultaneously, similar to that which is possible on a telephone.
Many duplex radio systems, however, still only enable communication in
one direction at a time. When you transmit, it cuts out the receiver side of
the radio. The latter are sometimes called “half-duplex” systems.
REPEATER (“TALK-THROUGH”) SYSTEMS
A repeater is a device that receives radio messages on one frequency

and simultaneously retransmits them on another frequency. When using a
repeater, mobile radio units transmit on one frequency, but receive on the
other frequency. It is the retransmission by the repeater that is received by
the mobile units, not the original transmission from the mobile. When you
select a repeater channel on a radio, you are actually selecting a pair of
frequencies (one to transmit and the other to receive). Using a repeater
can overcome one of the main disadvantages of VHF/UHF radios: that is,
being limited to “line of sight” operation.
REPEATER
HILL
BASE
MOBILE STATION
MOBILE TWO
N.S.W RURAL
FIRE SERVICE UR
A L FI R
E
ONE
R
SE
N .S . W
R VI C E

IF L A R U
ER
R
E CIV R E S
W . S. N
Figure 151: Repeater system.

In a repeater system, what you hear is the repeater re-transmitting your

original signal; or, as some describe it, you are “talking-through” the
repeater. This has two advantages. First, the strength of the radio signals
is better, as you are always hearing the powerful re-transmissions from the
repeater station. Second, if well positioned at a high location, the repeater
allows high quality communications between units even when they are not
in “line of sight”.
Two stations, for example, on opposites sides of a hill would be able

to communicate to each other through the repeater on top of the hill,
whereas they would not be able to communicate at all if they were using
a simplex system. This is shown in the diagram below:
Tx
Rx
Tx
Rx
Figure 152: Advantage of using a repeater in hilly terrain.

A disadvantage of repeater systems is that, if a repeater fails, none of the

mobiles working through that repeater can then talk to each other. (In most
systems there is, however, a ‘talk-around’ option, which really just enables
the mobiles to change over to simplex operation on one of the frequencies
they normally use). Also, if one or both of two units are not in line of sight
to the repeater, they will not be able to communicate, even though they
may be in line of sight (or even next to) each other.
Repeater
cannot receive
signal
Hill blocks
transmission
No signal
received
UZUSI
ISUZU 700
007
T540
045T
Figure 153: Disadvantage of a repeater system. - (Second truck cannot

communicate with first truck through a blocked or failed repeater even
though they are in sight of each other.)
TRUNKED SYSTEMS
A trunked radio system is one in which many users share the use of
a common pool of radio frequencies. As you move from place to place,
the frequency you are using and the repeater through which you are
communicating may change, although this will not be apparent to you.
A computer controlling the system automatically allocates the appropriate
frequency and repeater to your call.
While the controls on the radio will have something looking the same as a
channel selector, it is in fact selecting a particular “talk-group”, which may
include different frequencies working off different repeaters throughout the
system’s network. The computer, however, normally only allows your
particular “talk-group” to hear the calls you are making. Likewise, you will
normally not be able to hear the other “talk-groups” using the same pool
of frequencies.
When you press your microphone button, your radio sends a signal to
the controlling computer telling it your identification and talk group, and
requesting an idle frequency be assigned to it for the call. If a frequency is
available, it sends a signal back telling your radio (and all other radios on
that talk group) to switch automatically to that frequency. It also patches
the call to a frequency on any other repeater where there is a radio in your
talk group. This process takes less than a second. If a frequency is not
available, a signal (commonly called a “lock-out” tone) will indicate that to
you, and later tell you when one does become available.
The big advantage of a trunked system is that it can make much more
efficient use of a limited number of frequencies. For the user, the
advantage of a trunked radio system is that you can communicate with
units in your talk-group over any distance within the network. The fact that
the unit you’re talking to is several hundred kilometres away, and working
off a completely different repeater, makes no difference.
Long distance
(outside normal radio range )
Repeaters Linked
500m
Figure 154: Advantage of a trunked system.
The disadvantages of a trunked system are that they generally only have
coverage in more populated areas, and there is a limit to the total number
of calls each repeater can handle. For instance, if a major fire occurs,
many more units than usual may “load up” the local repeater and it may
be unable to cope. This may occur even if your radio does not sound all
that busy. Remember that, in a trunked system, the frequencies are being
shared by a large number of users, and you won’t be able to hear all the
calls being made by users on other “talk groups”, even though they are
sharing the same repeater system as you.
Repeater unit has

a limited capacity
for simultaneous
calls
1 2
4 3
Figure 155: Disadvantages of a trunked system.
(d) The RFS Radio Communications Network

The RFS radio communications network uses a combination of simplex,
repeater and trunked systems, using a range of channels (a radio
frequency or group of frequencies) in the 400 to 470 MHz segment of the
UHF band. These are further described below:
GOVERNMENT RADIO NETWORK (GRN) CHANNELS
These form a trunked network with coverage within and near cities and
many major towns. You can call any station listening within the range of
any repeater in the network. (Note that they do not have to be within range
of the same repeater you are working through.) GRN is generally used for
upper level command and control purposes.
Some Districts near more populated areas have specific GRN channel/s
allocated to them and may use them as their primary District radio system.
Other GRN channels are reserved for use in major emergencies. Because
the GRN “channels” actually use a wide range of shared frequencies, the
channels are more correctly called “talk groups”.
PRIVATE MOBILE RADIO (PMR) CHANNELS
These are local, repeater networks each enabling communications within

a specific area. You need to be working off the same repeater system to
contact another station on the channel. They are used in most Rural Fire
Districts as the main local RFS radio system.
The RFS strategic network (for communications between senior

commanders) also has some PMR channels linked back to an applicable
RFS Regional Office and State Operations.
SIMPLEX (“CAR TO CAR”) CHANNELS
These are a set of simplex working networks (i.e. single frequencies

giving direct, station to station communication) enabling short range,
“line of sight” communications to other units. Some channels are unique
to the NSW RFS, others are shared with other Services to enable
communications at combined operations.
Simplex channels can be used to provide a separate sub-network for

units at a larger incident, or even divisions or sectors within an incident.
By having units at an incident use a simplex channel, it enables the local
PMR channel to be freed from the bulk of the calls associated with that
incident. In such situations, only the Incident Controller communicates
back to base on the local PMR channel, while directing units at the
incident using a second radio on the relevant simplex channel.
ALLOCATED CHANNELS
The table below shows how the groups of channels (and talk groups) in
the NSW RFS network are allocated to various purposes, at the time of
writing. For the channels allocated to specific areas, check the current
“State Wide Frequency Lists”, produced by NSW RFS State Operations.
Channels Description
1 to 8 PMR (mobile repeater) channels for emergency use

9 to 12 Simplex channels for internal use within the NSW RFS
13 to 17 Simplex channels for shared use with other Services
18 to 116 PMR District network channels allocated to specific areas
117 to 146 Strategic network channels allocated to specific areas
147 to 156 GRN channels for emergency service liaison
(permission required from NOCC via State Operations
prior to any use)
157 Not currently in use
158 to 165 GRN State Operations channels (available for
large operations and other major events –
contact State Operations for permission to use)
166 State Operations administration channel
167 to 174 GRN channels allocated to each NSW RFS region
175 to 214 GRN channels allocated to applicable Districts
250 Dynamic regrouping – used only by NOCC
GRN = Government Radio Network, NOCC = Network Operations

Control Centre, PMR = Private Mobile Radio.
“Note: The above is subject to change - check the latest State Wide
Frequency List for current information about radio channels.”
Note: Other Services (NSW Fire Brigades, SES, Ambulance and Dept
of Health) do not use the same channel numbers as RFS radios
for the common simplex channels. The following page has equiva-
lent channel numbers for other agencies horizontally across the
table. Permission is not required for the use of the simplex channels
at the top of the page only the GRN channels in the bottom half.
EMERGENCY SERVICES SHARED LIAISON CHANNELS/MODES

SIMPLEX LIAISON MODES
NSW RFS NSW SES NSW Ambulance Dept of Health NSW FB

SIMPLEX SIMPLEX SIMPLEX SIMPLEX SIMPLEX
(Z1) 13 SIMP (Z1) 1-89-SIMP- (Z6) 11 GRN S1 (Z6) 11 GRN S-1 (Z13) GRN
SHR1 SHR-1 SMPX 1
SHR 2 SHR-2 SMPX 2
SHR 3 SHR-3 SMPX 3
(Z1) 16 SIMP (Z1) 1-89-SIMP- (Z6 14 GRN S4 (Z6) 14 GRN S-4 (Z13) GRN
SHR 4 SHR-4 SMPX 4
SHR5 SHR-5 SMPX 5
(Z = ZONE) Simplex liaison channels are available as needed. Adjacent districts should
pre-plan the use of shared liaison channels to avoid conflicts. Remember that other
agencies may be using these channels for other purposes. Range can be up to 20km.
GRN EMERGENCY SERVICE LIAISON MODES

TRUNKED (GRN) MODES Permission required before use
NSW RFS NSW SES NSW Ambulance Dept of Health NSW FB

147 ESLO 1 (Z1)-94- Z6 1 ESLO 1 Z6 ESO 1 (Z12)
LO-ES-1 ESO-1
LO-ES-2 ESO - 2
LO-ES-3 ESO - 3
LO-ES-4 ESO - 4
LO-ES-5 ESO - 5
LO-ES-6 ESO - 6
LO-ES-7 ESO - 7
LO-ES-8 ESO - 8
LO-ES-9 ESO - 9
LO-ES-10 ESO - 10
NOTE: NSW RFS & NSW SES liaison modes are in ZONE 1 ( first three numbers
indicate channel position)
Ambulance and Dept of Health modes are in Zone 6.
NSW Rural Fire Service use of the ten trunked (GRN) liaison channels must be
arranged through State Operations. Phone (02) 8845 3501 (24 hours) The State
Operations Duty Officer will make all arrangements with the Network
Operations Control Centre (NOCC)
PROGRAMMING OF RFS RADIOS (INCLUDING ZONES)
Modern radios can be programmed in a wide variety of ways. The system

described below is how RFS radios are programmed (at the time of
writing).
Each unit (RFS vehicle) normally has one mobile radio programmed
with all the needed channels. When you select a particular channel, the
operating mode (simplex, repeater or trunked) is also automatically
selected. When you select “Zone 1” on your radio’s menu, you have
access to all programmed channels. When you select “Zone 2”
(or “Home”), you have access to your local channel/s only. When you turn
a radio on, normally it is programmed to default to “Zone 2” automatically.
You should ask your trainer or Captain what channel normally is used by
your brigade.
When working on a PMR system you might need to select the specific
local channel that gives the best communications for your specific brigade
location. In some areas, however, this selection might be programmed to
be done automatically by the radio (called “voting”).
BACK-UP IN CASE OF SYSTEM FAILURE
In case of a repeater failure, PMR repeater channels can be converted

to simplex working (on the receive frequency of the mobile radios) by
selecting the appropriate menu items on the radio (Check your radio
operating instructions for more details).
This means that, even if the other unit has not changed from repeater to
simplex, they will be able to hear you when you transmit using simplex
working, provided they are in line of sight. However, if they are still trying
to work through the repeater they won’t be able to talk back to you.
You must also get them to change to simplex working to enable full
two-way communication.
Occasionally the interconnection between repeaters in the GRN network

may fail. If so, your radio will show a “Site Trunking” indication on its
display screen. You will still be able to communicate with other units
working from the same repeater as you, but not with units sharing your
same channel off distant repeaters.
UHF-CB RADIOS
Some country areas have networks based on UHF-CB radio. It is

important to note that UHF-CB has some limitations in that its use is
controlled by convention rather than by legislation, and the RFS is just one
of a number of users. Check your local procedures for operating
instructions and the correct brigade operating channel/s if you use UHF
CB radio in your area.
PORTABLE RADIOS
Most RFS units carry handheld portable radios. These are of two types:
Some are called “Fireground Portables” and use simplex working

channels in the VHF band. They are used for short range, fireground
communications, particularly for crews working on foot away from
the vehicle. Some fireground VHF channels are allocated to specific
Districts, while others are allocated for general use within the RFS.
NOTE: You cannot access the RFS radio network (GRN, PMR and
simplex channels) using a fireground portable radio - fireground
portables use an entirely different set of frequencies.
Figure 156: Typical use of fireground portables.

Some portable radios are called “RFS Portables” and are programmed
with simplex, PMR and GRN channels of the RFS radio network. They are
generally used by officers so as to give them instant access to an RFS
radio when they are away from a vehicle.
HF RADIOS
In some remote rural areas, HF radios are used for long distance radio
communications.
(e) Typical Radio Equipment

While manufacturers have different designs for their equipment, all
transceivers used in the New South Wales Rural Fire Service have similar
controls.
Figure 157: Typical mobile radio.
ON/OFF SWITCH
The use of this switch is self-explanatory; it simply controls the electrical

power to the receiver. Do not leave transceivers switched on when not in
use as they consume power and will eventually drain the battery.
VOLUME CONTROL
This controls the output volume of the receiver, ie: the loudness of the
sound that you hear. Transmitter output is fixed and is not adjustable by
the operator. On some units, volume control and the on/off switch are
incorporated in the one control.
MUTE, SQUELCH, or NOISE
These are different names for the same control which limits the sensitivity
of the receiver to the input signal. This control must be correctly adjusted.
To adjust: Rotate the mute control towards full ‘OFF’ position until back-
ground noise is heard, then reverse fractionally until the noise ceases.
It may be necessary to re-adjust the mute control from time to time.
In some instances it is possible to increase reception of a weak signal by

turning the mute down, or off; this action increases the sensitivity of the
receiver and may increase signal readability. (Note: Most radios now used
in the RFS have automatic mute/squelch.).
CHANNEL SELECTOR
If you are operating a multi-channel radio, it is important that you ensure

that the correct channel is selected. Your radio will normally default
automatically to your normal local channel when you turn it on. Normally
you will be instructed what channel to change to, if use of a different
channel is required. If at any other time you wish to change to a different
channel, you must first seek and receive approval from the controlling
station.
Figure 158: Typical portable radio

(f) Operating Mobile and Portable radios

The procedures for operating a mobile or portable radio vary according to
the type of radio you are using. To operate the radio, you should:
• Switch the radio on by either pressing the combined on/off volume

control once, or by rotating the on/off volume control clockwise until
you have the appropriate volume. The default channel (usually your
local channel) will be displayed.
• Select the channel by rotating the channel selector to display the

channel you want. The channel shown on the display will be either
numerical or alpha-numerical. To select channels used outside your
local area on an RFS radio, you will need to select Zone 1.
• To set the volume control, turn the volume control to the required
level.
• Consult the Operating Instructions Booklet for the particular radio

(and its associated programming) for more details.
(g) Other Communications Systems

Apart from radio, other electronic means of communications are also used
in the RFS. These include mobile telephones, satellite telephones, pagers
and facsimile (fax) machines.
MOBILE TELEPHONES
Within their area of coverage, mobile (cellular) telephones can be used for
routine communications. They can also be used to supplement incident
communications, provided sufficient cells (frequencies) are available.
They offer the user more privacy with less radio interference. They are
also ideal for long duration conversations that might normally tie up
the radio network. Mobile phones also allow direct communication
with other agencies and authorities and are very useful for command
communications, when long, detailed discussions on the objective,
strategies and tactics at an incident are required.
SATELLITE TELEPHONES
Satellite telephones are not limited by the area of coverage of the mobile
telephone system, as they communicate directly through an orbiting
communications satellite. For this reason, they are currently being
introduced in some remote areas of Australia. They are more expensive to
purchase and operate than mobile phones, but can often provide a more
reliable and higher quality form of communications in remote areas than,
say, HF radio.
Figure 159: Satellite telephone.

PAGERS
A pager is a compact pocket or belt-carried radio receiver for providing

one-way communications. Pagers may either operate via the RFS radio
system in a local District, or be activated by a commercial provider.
There are three general forms, the tone pager, tone page with voice-over
and the alpha-numeric.
Figure 160: Typical pager.
• The tone pager is the most simple in operation. To operate it, a base
radio automatically or manually sends a combination of tones over
the frequency which activates all pagers fitted with that particular
range of tones. Normally the activation of such a pager means a fire
call has been received and firefighters should report to their fire
station and/or call for further details.
• Some tone pagers are also capable of receiving a verbal radio

transmission. If there is an operator at the base radio, the tone may
be followed by a message giving details of the incident and its
location. A disadvantage of both tone and voice-over pagers is that
they may need to transmit activating tones over an operational
frequency, possibly when incident radio traffic is taking place.
• As its name indicates, an alpha-numeric pager displays a visual

message when activated. The person who wants to transmit
information rings the pager service and leaves a message.
The pager is able to receive up to 230 characters of alpha-numeric
information. This information is typed in by the operator and the
message is then relayed to the receiver. Pagers are an effective form
of communication, but in some systems delays can be experienced
because messages sent by emergency personnel may not always
have priority over others.
You should familiarise yourself with the various functions on the pagers
used in your area (if applicable) as these may vary. If your pager has a
chain, you should always use it. This will ensure that you do not damage
or lose it.
FAX MACHINES
Facsimile (fax) machines scan written or pictorial documents, convert the

images into coded electronic signals and then transmit them across
the telephone network to another fax machine. The information is then
de-coded and reproduced on paper to look the same as the original. At an
incident, the facsimile machine can provide a two-way flow of written or
pictorial information.
Fax machines are particularly useful for transmitting graphical information

such as sketches, plans or maps. Generally they are used for passing
such information from one communications centre to another, but some
mobile units may be fitted with fax machines.
CONFERENCE CALL TELEPHONE SYSTEMS
A system that enables several telephones to be called at the same time by

Firecom is sometimes used to alert firefighters of a fire or incident. If such
a system is in use in your area, you will be briefed about its specific
features as part of your training.
(h) Care and Maintenance of Communications Equipment

Two-way radios are expensive items of equipment. They can be damaged
if they are handled carelessly. Don’t leave the microphone on the seat of
the vehicle; put it back in its cradle. Keep radios out of direct sunlight and
protect them from water, dust and chemicals. If your portable radios use
non-rechargeable batteries, ensure that when you replace them you use
leakproof alkaline ones.
Regular testing of radios and other communications equipment is very

important. Equipment left unused for long periods may deteriorate due
to changes in the weather, humidity and dust. Deterioration can be
prevented by regular use of the set. The only way to ensure that all radios
on a network are working is to test them regularly and follow the correct
care and maintenance procedures.
The importance of regular testing, including the changing and/or recharg-

ing of batteries cannot be over emphasised. A piece of equipment unused
for several months may fail when it is needed most. The advantages of a
radio network are negated if the equipment does not work. You should
refer to your brigade equipment maintenance schedule for details of when
radios and other communications equipment are to be checked, inspected
and tested.
3 Communications Phraseology
The next step in using radio communications to best effect is to learn the
phraseology that is used. In this part of the chapter you will be introduced
to the principles behind radio phraseology, radio call-signs, pro-words, the
phonetic alphabet and numbers, priority colour codes, discreet message
codes and the recording of messages.
(a) Principles of Phraseology

Radio communications can be become ineffective if it becomes over-used
or loaded up with a lot of unnecessary information. Good radio phraseolo-
gy is designed to get messages across quickly and in a way that will be
easily and correctly understood, even when conditions are not the best.
Some basic principles are:
• Keep all calls short, sharp and to the point, and use standard
phrases for commonly made calls.
• When contacting another unit, give their callsign first, then give your
callsign. For example, if you are in Mullaby Two, and want to
call Sunnyville Firecom, you would say, “Sunnyville Firecom,
Mullaby Two”.
• Once communication is established, callsigns do not have to be

included in each and every call, provided it is clear who is talking
to whom.
• Letters and numbers should be transmitted using the standard

phonetic words given later in this chapter.
READ BACK PROCEDURE
A good habit to get into is to read back the key points of any operational
instructions (orders directly concerning a fire or incident) you are given.
(There is no need to read back operational information, general
information or other messages, unless requested).
Why read back instructions? Simply, it is the quickest and best way of
ensuring that an instruction has not been misheard or misunderstood.
International practice is to put your own callsign at the end of a read-back,

instead of the beginning, so that read backs are easy to distinguish from
original messages. Again, this is a good practice, but is not mandatory.
For example if you are “Mullaby Two”, and “Johnson’s Control” gives you
the following message,
“Mullaby Two, Johnson’s Control. Make a direct attack on the

left flank of the fire.
Rankaroo Brigade will be arriving to assist you in about
10 minutes.”
Your reply should be:
“Direct attack, left flank, Mullaby Two” (or similar).
NOTE: that only the key points of the instruction (order) were read
back. The additional information (“Rankaroo Brigade will be
arriving to assist you in about 10 minutes”) need not normally be
read back. While reading back operational instructions is a very
sound safety habit, it is only mandatory in the NSW RFS if you are
specifically asked to do so by the sender of a message.
(b) Radio Callsigns

A callsign is the “name” a station uses to identify itself during radio
communications. Three types of callsigns are used in the RFS. These are:
• Callsigns used by fixed radio stations.
• Callsigns used by mobile stations.
• Callsigns used temporarily during an incident to indicate a key

ICS role.
FIXED STATION CALLSIGNS
Fixed stations are those that are permanently established in a particular

location. There are two types in the RFS: The official RFS Commun-
ications Centres in a District or Zone, and any unofficial communications
centres.
• The callsign for an “official” Fire Communications Centre in a District

or Zone consists of the name of the District or Zone followed by the
word “Firecom”. For example, the Communications Centre for the
(mythical) Sunnyville Rural Fire District would be “Sunnyville
Firecom”.
• The callsign of any fixed radio station used for RFS operations in a
District or Zone, except the RFS District Firecom, consists of the
name of the station followed by the word “Base”. For example, if the
Johnson’s property homestead was commonly used as an unofficial
radio communications centre for rural firefighting in an area, its call
sign could be “Johnson’s Base”.
Another fixed station callsign is “State Operations”. This is used by the

State Operations Centre at the headquarters of the NSW Rural Fire
Service
MOBILE STATION CALLSIGNS
Mobile stations are units like tankers and other vehicles in the RFS.
The callsign for a mobile station consists of three parts;
• The name of the brigade (or the group name for brigade group
officer vehicles),
• The category number of the tanker (see the list below), or a suitable
one word description (for vehicles other than tankers), and
• A distinguishing letter (e.g. Alpha, Bravo, etc.), if needed.
Callsigns for tankers always include the appropriate category number

from those listed below.
1. 4x4, 3001 to 4000 litre 6. 4x2, 4001 litre (or larger)

fire tanker. fire tanker.
2. 4x4, 1601 to 3000 litre 7. 4x4, 801 to 1600 litre fire

fire tanker. tanker.


5. 4x4, 4001 litre (or larger)

fire tanker.
So, for example, if there are two Category 1 and one Category 7 tankers
in the Westville Brigade, their callsigns would be:
• Westville One Alpha,
• Westville One Bravo,
• Westville Seven.
For vehicles other than tankers, category numbers are not used, and
instead a short descriptor is used, such as:
• “Pumper”, “Carrier”, “Bulk Water”, “Slip-on”, “Trailer”, “Boat”, “Group

(one, two, east, west, etc.)”, “FCO (one, two, etc.)”, “Support”,
“Catering”, “Comms”, or just “RFS (plus a number)” for some Head
Office vehicles.
So, for example, if there is a (Category 10) pumper and a personnel

carrier in the Westville Brigade, their callsigns would be:
• Westville Pumper,
• Westville Carrier.
ICS CALLSIGNS
During an incident it is important to be able to contact units that

are playing a key role in the control of the incident. ICS callsigns are
temporary callsigns, assigned to a mobile unit to indicate their role at an
incident. The actual unit with a particular role (e.g. the Incident Controller)
may change, (perhaps many times), during an incident. The advantage of
using an ICS callsign is that you don’t have to keep track of such changes.
The callsign of the Incident Controller (the person in charge) of an incident

consists of the name given to the incident followed by the word “Control”.
For example, the officer in charge of fighting a grass fire off Whiteford
Road might be “Whiteford Control”. An incident may be named after a
property name, the name of a road, the name of a distinct geographical
feature, or any other appropriate name.
When a unit first arrives at a fire, the senior officer on that unit takes
charge as the initial Incident Controller. They advise Firecom or Base that
they are assuming control and give their new ICS callsign. A typical call
might be something like, “Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby Two is assuming
Whiteford Control”.
FIRECOM
Whiteford Other Other units not

control Incident assigned to
( Mullaby 2 ) Controllers (ICs) incidents
Other units
at the Whiteford Incident
Figure 161: Radio network indicated.
Later on, if the fire is large, a more senior officer might arrive and take over
the role of Incident Controller and the “Control” callsign. If that was to
happen in the example given above, the senior officer would now have the
callsign “Whiteford Control”, while Mullaby Two would revert back to its
normal callsign. If anyone calls “Whiteford Control”, they would get the
Incident Controller (or their radio operator, if applicable), regardless of how
many times that role was handed over to someone else.
Whiteford
Staging
Brigade
Rural Fire
lX
nne
Cha
ISUZU
700
Channel Y T540
lX Other units not assigned to Incidents

nne
Cha
FIRECOM
N.S.W RURAL FIRE SERVICE UR

A L FI RE
Channel X
N .S . W R
SE
R VI C E
FIRECOM
Whiteford Other Stations
Whiteford IC or ICs
Control
Channel Y
Channel Y
Channel Y
Channel Y Whiteford Staging
Other units
at the Whiteford Incident
Other units at the Whiteford Incident
Figure 162: Radio network indicated.

Units with other specific Incident Control System (ICS) functions at an

incident may also be given ICS callsigns for the duration of the incident.
These may include callsigns containing such ICS terms as “Operations”,
“Division”, “Sector”, “Staging Area”, “Strike Team”, “Task Force”, etc.
For example, the officer in charge of Sector Alpha would have “Sector
Alpha” as a callsign; and the officer in charge of the staging area for the
Whiteford Road fire might have “Whiteford Staging” as a call sign.
(c) Phonetic Alphabet and Numbers

PHONETIC ALPHABET
When saying letters on the radio, use the following (pronunciation is

exaggerated slightly):
Letter Word Pronunciation Letter Word Pronunciation
A Alpha AL-fah N November No-VEM-ber

B Bravo BRAH-vo O Oscar OSS-kah
C Charlie CHAR-lee P Papa Pah-PAH
D Delta DELL-tah Q Quebec KEY-beck
E Echo ECK-oh R Romeo ROH-me-oh
F Foxtrot Foks-trot S Sierra See-AIR-ah
G Golf Golf T Tango TANG-go
H Hotel HOH-tel U Uniform You-nee-form
I India In-dee-ah V Victor VIK-tah
J Juliett Jew-LEE-ett W Whiskey WISS-kee
K Kilo KEY-loh X X-ray Ecks-ray
L Lima LEE-mah Y Yankee YANG-key
M Mike Mike Z Zulu ZOO-loo
PHONETIC NUMBERS
When saying numbers on the radio, use the following (pronunciation is

exaggerated slightly):
Number Word Pronunciation
0 Zero Zero
1 One Wun
2 Two Too
3 Three Tree
4 Four FOWer
5 Five Fife
6 Six Siks
7 Seven Sev-en
8 Eight Ate
9 Nine Niner
100 Hundred Hun-dred
1000 Thousand Tousand
Examples:
10 - wun zero 108 - wun zero ate 1,000 - wun tousand
25 - too fife 500 - fife hundred 1,100 - wun tousand wun hundred
76 - seven six 510 - fife wun zero 1,127 - wun wun too seven
Time should be given as four figures, using the 24 hour clock, preceded
by the word “time”. For example: 10:37 PM would be said as “Time; Two
Two Three Seven”. “(Note: In some organisations the word “time” is not
used. Instead the four figure group is followed by the word “hours”)”.
Wind should be given as a compass direction, followed by the wind

strength (kph) and the speed to which it is gusting. For example, a wind
coming from the south west at 25 kph, gusting to 35 kph would be said as:
“Wind; South West; two five, gusting to three five”
(d) Radio Pro-words

The standard words (given below) should be used when appropriate:
Pro-Word Meaning
“Affirmative” Yes, or that is correct.

“All stations” General call to all stations on a network.
“Cancel” Ignore my previous instruction or request.
“Clear” This is the end of my transmission
No reply is expected.
“Clear to you” This is the end of my transmission to you
(about to transmit to another).
“Confirm” Verify this statement.
“Correction” That is incorrect, the correct message is.
“Disregard” Ignore my previous statement or information.
“E-T-A” Estimated time of arrival.
“E-T-D” Estimated time of departure.
“Incident call” I have a new fire or other incident to
report to you; or to send your unit to.
“Figures” The figures that follow are numbers
(other than a grid, time, wind, etc).
“Go ahead” Invitation to transmit or reply.
“Grid” The figures that follow are a map grid reference.
“I say again” I am repeating my last transmission.
“Negative” No, or that is not correct, or permission not granted.
“Nothing heard” I have heard no reply to my transmission.
“Over” My transmission is over.
You may transmit a reply now.
“Read back” Please repeat back to me the message I just gave you.
“Roger” I have received and understood
your last transmission.
“Say again” Please repeat your last transmission.
“Sitrep” I’m about to transmit a situation report.
(Get ready to copy it down.)
“Stand by” I must pause. I will call you back when I am ready.
“Wilco” Message received, understood and I will comply.
(e) Priority Colour Codes

Colour codes are one of the few codes specified in the NSW RFS
procedures. They are useful when a lot of calls are being made and, say,
a Firecom or Base operator needs to work out which call has the greater
priority. The colour code is added to the end of your initial call to indicate
its level of importance:
PRIORITY/COLOUR CODE
Priority/Colour Code Meaning
“Emergency” Used only when a unit is in grave danger

or life is threatened.
“Red” Used to indicate urgent assistance is needed.
(but the unit itself is not in grave danger).
“Blue” Used to indicate an operational
(incident related) call.
“Yellow” Used to indicate a general
(non incident related) call.
As an example, if Sunnyvale Firecom was to receive the following two

radio calls, one straight after the other, it would ask Rankaroo One Bravo
to send their message first:
Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby Eight Alpha, Blue.
Sunnyville Firecom, Rankaroo One Bravo, Red.
Apart from “emergency”, colour codes are not mandatory for use in the
NSW RFS, but you should be aware of their meaning, and use them if
needed. The colour codes are based on NSW Fire Brigades practice, who
also use “white” (when reporting a fire/incident by radio, it has the next
priority after “red”) and “green” (a “stop” message – i.e. fire/incident is
under control) colour codes.
Colour codes are not generally used by other Australian Fire Services,
the more common interstate practice being to use key words such as
“emergency”, “priority”, “sitrep” or “message” to indicate the priority of the
call. Note that some interstate Fire Services may use “Mayday” instead
of “Emergency”.
(f) Discreet Message Codes

These codes should only be used to discreetly report the condition of
casualties. They are used when a casualty or other survivor might become
more distressed if they heard something like, “There’s two dead and one
really badly injured” blaring out over the speaker of another fire vehicle
nearby when the message is sent.
Code D (delta) code for a deceased person

Code I (india) code for an injured person
Code M (mike) code for a missing person
Code T (tango) code for a trapped person
For example: Two injured casualties can be discretely reported as “Two

Code India”, or two persons deceased can be reported as, “Two Code
Delta”, etc.
(g) Readability Scale
1 Unreadable
2 Readable now and then
3 Readable but with difficulty
4 Readable (but not perfect)
5 Perfectly readable
(h) Recording Messages

RECORDING INFORMATION
Working with two-way radios often involves writing down the messages
you receive. When recording messages, operators must be aware that
accuracy and speed are very important.
ABBREVIATIONS
The use of abbreviations, provided that they are clear and legible, can help
speed up the process of recording messages. With practice, you should
become familiar with the following common abbreviations used at a
fireground level. Please note that some variations may occur from District
to District in the use of abbreviations, and a more extensive list of
abbreviations may be used by Firecom Operators.
Term Abbreviation
Ambulance AMB
Approaching APP
Approximate APPROX
Attack ATK
Brigade BDE
Callsign CS
Captain CPT
Casualty CAS
Channel CH
Control CTRL
Control Point CP
Coordinates COORD
Deputy Captain D/C
Deputy Group Captain DGC
Equipment EQPT
Evacuate EVAC
Firefighter FF
Fire Control Officer FCO
Term Abbreviation
Forecast FC
Forest Fire Danger Index FFDI
Forward Control Point FCP
Forward Control Unit FCU
Grassland Fire Danger Index GFDI
Grid reference GRID
Group Captain G/C
Haines Index HI
Headquarters HQ
Incident Controller IC
Logistic LOG
Message MSG
Number No
Officer OFFR
Officer in Charge OIC
Operations OPS
Personnel PERS
Police POL
Priority PRI
Proceeding PROC
Reconnaissance RECON
Relative Humidity RH
Responding RESP
Senior Deputy Captain SDC
Situation Report SITREP
Support SPT
Temperature TEMP
To Be Advised TBA
Unknown UNK
Water Point WP
Some points to remember when using abbreviations:
• Full stops are not used.
• Unless otherwise advised, the singular always includes the plural, for
example ambulance and ambulances = AMB.
• Any word may be abbreviated, provided that the abbreviation used is

clear and legible to the writer and to others who may have to read it.
• Avoid obscure abbreviations. They can waste time if others have to

decipher them.
(i) Microphone Technique

The microphone is a sensitive piece of equipment that converts sound
waves into an electric signal. It is important to observe a few simple rules
when using a microphone:
Always listen out before you make a transmission, so that you do not
interrupt someone else’s radio message.
Speak across the face of the microphone and not directly into it. Speaking
directly into the microphone may cause distortion. (Exception: if your
microphone is a ‘noise-cancelling’ type, you will need to speak directly into
it from a close distance). Keep the microphone at a constant distance from
your lips to ensure that you give a consistent signal.
CAUTION: Remember that your transmitter is activated whenever

you press the microphone switch. To save power, only press the
microphone switch when you are actually transmitting. Keep trans-
mission time to the minimum; when you press the microphone
switch you ‘jam’ the network so that nobody else can transmit.
Always replace the microphone on its hook to ensure that you do
not accidentally jam the network.
During radio communications you can ensure that messages are clear
by speaking correctly. The following factors (RSVP) are very important:
• R - Rhythm
– Speak naturally and with a normal rhythm.
– Speak in complete phrases that make sense.
– Do not use speech fillers such as er, um and ah,

as these interrupt the rhythm.
• S - Speed
– Speak steadily at medium speed.
– If your message is to be written down, pause between phrases.
– During long messages, occasionally release the transmission

button to allow an emergency call from another station to be
made if needed.
• V - Volume
– Talk slightly louder than in a normal conversation,

but do not shout.
– Do not allow your voice to fade away at the end of a message.
– Keep your mouth close to the microphone and at

a constant distance.
– Speak across the microphone.
• P - Pitch
– Your voice may be pitched higher than normal.
– Avoid dropping your voice on the last syllable of each word and
on the last word in each phrase, as voices normally do in natural
conversation.
– Avoid dropping your voice at the end of a sentence.

4 Communications Procedures
Communications procedures are designed to get key pieces of information
passed as quickly and effectively as possible between those who need to
know them. The procedures are published in a document called “RFS
Radio Communications Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). This
training material is based on those SOPs.
This part of the chapter includes some general principles, establishing

contact, non-emergency calls, reporting or being advised of an incident
call, calls made when responding to an incident, calls made when
proceeding to provide back-up at an incident, calls made while at an
incident, calls when operating out of your local area, and calls used by
other organisations.
NOTE: At the time of writing, some Districts had not yet fully
introduced the procedures upon which this section is based; so you
might hear some variations on what is described.
At BF level, you will not be expected to know how and when to

give all these calls in detail. But at this level you will be expected
to understand what they mean when you hear them, and to be
able to transmit a message you have been asked to send.
A booklet and CD-ROM on the Communications SOPs is available.

The CD-ROM gives numerous (audio) examples of calls. While this
Manual focuses on the calls made by units in the field; the SOPs,
booklet and CD-ROM cover the full range of calls.
(a) General Principles

• “Plain language” is used as much as possible (codes have only a
very limited use).
• Each unit communicates with the local Firecom or Base for non-
incident related calls.
• Each unit calls their local Firecom or Base when they depart to go to
a fire or incident.
• The first units responding to an incident report their arrival at the

scene to Firecom or Base.
• A senior officer of the first responding units takes charge (“Control”)

of the incident on arrival. That is, he or she takes overall control
the activities of all of the units at that incident.
• If more units are called, Firecom or Base tell them where to go and
who to call, and “hand over” those units to the Incident Controller (or
other designated officer) as they approach the scene.
• Each unit calls the local Firecom or Base when they are released
from operations at the incident, when they return to their
station/shed, and when closing down radio.
(b) Establishing Contact

If the other station you are calling is not expecting a call from you, or you
have not called them for some time, it is wise to first make a call to
establish communication, rather than giving your actual message straight
away.
Figure 163: Radio call being made.

When establishing contact with another station, give their call sign first,
then give your callsign. For example, if you are in Mullaby Two, and want
to call Sunnyville Firecom, you would say,
“Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby Two.”
If you prefer, you can add a “this is” before “Mullaby Two”, but it is not a
requirement. If several other calls are being made by other units, you can
add the priority colour code “yellow”, so that Firecom knows it is only a
general call. If you like you can also add, “over” at the end of the message;
although this is not required unless the end of the message is not obvious.
Putting all of these together, a longer but equally acceptable version of the
call would be:
“Sunnyville Firecom, this is Mullaby Two, yellow, over.”
Once communication is established, call signs do not have to be included

in each and every call, provided it is clear who is talking to whom.
KEY POINT: To establish contact, transmit their callsign and then your
callsign.
(c) Calls – Non-Incident

Radio calls not related to an incident are usually given to keep
Firecom/Base advised of your unit’s status, or to get general information.
Figure 164: Typical Firecom operator.

Firecom/Base needs to know if the method applicable to contact your unit

for a fire call has changed. For example, if normally they would advise
members via pagers or telephones, they need to know when a crew is out
in a unit and is now contactable by radio. After establishing contact with
Firecom/Base, a typical call in these circumstances might be:
“Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby 2 is on radio, with a crew of five,

in Mullabyville, on a training exercise.”
This call lets Firecom know that, if a fire call is received, there is a tanker
with a crew available in the area via radio contact. A typical call seeking
general information might be:
“Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby 2. Can you confirm if tonight’s

Captain’s meeting is still on?”
Most non-incident calls are not calls using standard phrases. You should
think out exactly what you are going to say, before you make the call.
As in the examples above, use short, concise language that gets your
message across in a clear way.
When Firecom/Base replies, they will either acknowledge your call by

giving your callsign, ask you to “stand-by”, or reply with the information you
have requested. If things are busy, their reply could be as short as,
“Mullaby Two, Firecom.”
Often, however, they will give a longer reply and add the word “clear” to
indicate they have completed their message to you and the channel is now
clear for other units to call them. Although read-back is not required in this
case, the Firecom might still use it to confirm they have received your
message correctly. (Note how they put their callsign at the end of the
transmission, not the beginning during a read-back). For example, they
might say,
“Copied Mullaby Two on radio with a crew of five;

Sunnyville Firecom, clear.”
A typical reply to a request for information might be something like,
“Mullaby Two, Sunnyville Firecom, Captain’s meeting

is confirmed for 0730 tonight; clear.”
KEY POINT: Establish contact. Use short plain language to get your
message across.
(d) Calls – Receiving/Transmitting a Call to an Incident

If your unit happens to be out in your Brigade area on radio at the time a
call to an incident is received by Firecom/Base, you may be advised by
radio. A typical message of this type may go something like:
“Mullaby Two, Sunnyville Firecom; Incident Call.”
The words “incident call” in the initial message indicate that Firecom has
a call to an incident to pass on to you. Obviously you would need to be
ready to copy down details when you reply to it, or advise them if you
cannot accept a call to an incident for any reason at that time (e.g. if your
vehicle was disabled). Assuming you are able to accept the call, a typical
reply from you would be:
“Mullaby Two, Go ahead.”
Notice that, in some of these calls, both call-signs are not always given
because it is clear from the context of the preceding call/s who is talking.
Once you’ve said “go ahead”, Firecom will pass known details of the call
to you, and instruct you to go to the incident, with words like,
“Mullaby Two, respond to a bush fire at 381 Northern Road,

Mullabyville, nearest cross street Fuller Road.”
Your reply should read back the key details to confirm you have copied
them correctly, and advise your crew strength and the name of the officer
in charge (OIC) of your unit. A typical reply would be”
“Crew of five responding to bush fire,

381 Northern Road, near Fuller Road,
Mullabyville, OIC Captain Palmer,
Mullaby Two”
Firecom normally will also provide you with other information about the
call, to help you build up a mental picture of the situation. For a bush or
grass fire this would typically include the current Forest or Grass Fire
Danger Index and Haines Index (which helps your OIC determine the best
type of attack) and what other units are attending. An example of such a
call from Firecom is:
“Mullaby Two. For information, the FFDI is 27, HI is 6.

Wind is from the west at 20, gusting to 25,
with a southerly change expected at 1600.
Rankaroo Two is also responding.”
Sometimes Firecom might wait a short time and give this message when
all of the first responding units are ‘on the air”, to save repeating it.
Because this is information, not an instruction to do something, there is no
need to read it back, so your reply might simply be:
“Mullaby Two, copied.”
NOTE: If it is you that is reporting the incident (e.g. you see a fire
while out driving in the unit), the initial calls are reversed. (That is,
it is your unit that says “…. Incident Call”.) You will need to advise
Firecom/Base of the type of incident and its location.
KEY POINTS: If you get an Incident Call from Firecom/Base, be ready to

note down the details before you say “Go ahead”. If you transmit
an incident call to Firecom/Base, include the type of incident and its
location.
(e) Calls – First Units Responding to an Incident

While you might occasionally get a call to an incident while your unit is on
radio, it is more common for a call to be received while firefighters are at
home.
If notification in your area is by a tone pager alone (i.e. no message) you

will not know the details of the call until advised by radio in your unit at the
fire station/shed. If notification is via a message pager or by telephone,
you may already know those details when you get to your station/shed.
If details of the call are not yet known
If you do not yet know details of the call, the first radio call you make
to Firecom/Base is simply to let them know that a crew (including an
officer to be the OIC) is available and ready to respond. Your call should
be something like:
“Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby Two,

available with a crew of five, OIC is Deputy Captain Briggs, over.”
As it was Firecom/Base that called you out, they will know to then give you
details of the call to the incident. Their reply might be a message like:
“Mullaby Two, respond to bush alight,

corner of Fuller Road and Hill Road.”
Your reply should read back the details of the call.
“Responding to bush alight, corner of Fuller and Hill, Mullaby Two.”
Again as in (d), Firecom might provide more information about the

incident, such as:
“Mullaby Two, Sunnyville Firecom, for information, Rankaroo Two

is also responding. The FFDI is 37, and the HI is 5, over.”
1
Advise Firecom you are available
• give call sign
• give crew strength
• give name of OIC
ISUZU
700
T540
2
Copy details of the incident
from Firecom
3
Advise Firecom you are responding
• Read back incident type ISUZU
700
• Read back incident location T540
• Give call sign
4
Copy any additional information
from Firecom
Figure 165: Content of a typical “responding” radio message (details of call not
known on arrival at station).
If details of the call are known
If you already know details of the call, the first radio call you make to
Firecom/Base will be to advise them that you are responding. You need to
advise the crew strength, type and location of incident, and the rank and
name of the officer in charge. Your initial call should be something like:
“Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby Two, crew of five,

responding to bush alight, corner of Fuller and Hill Roads,
OIC Deputy Captain Briggs.”
Firecom/Base might then reply with details of other units responding, and
any other relevant information (e.g. the Fire Danger Index and Haines
Index). As example of a reply from Firecom is:
“Mullaby Two, Sunnyville Firecom, roger; Rankaroo Two

is also responding. FFDI is 37, HI is 5, over.”
KEY POINTS: When departing your station/shed to go to an incident,

give your call-sign, confirm the type and location of the incident, your
crew strength and the name of the OIC of your unit.
NOTE: The Haines Index is not always available. If it is not

available, it will be omitted by Firecom.
(f) Calls – First Units Arriving at an Incident

As units of the first response arrive at the scene of the incident, they need
to call the local Firecom/Base and advise that they are “at scene”.
One of the units, usually the one carrying the senior-most officer present
from the local Brigade, will assume control of all units at the scene.
That is, that senior officer will become the Incident Controller. This is done
by giving a radio call that gives the incident a name, and assumes the ICS
“(Name of Incident) Control” call-sign.
UZUSI
007
045T
FULLER ROAD
1 2
Advise Firecom you are "at scene" Give an initial Sitrep
• OIC names fire and assumes Control callsign • advise the details of the situation
• request further assistance, if needed
Figure 166: Content of “at scene” radio message (first arriving unit).
Often this call is combined with the initial situation report (sitrep). At other
times, the officer taking Control does not have enough information to give
that sitrep, and asks Firecom to “standby for sitrep” when he/she assumes
Control. Below is an example of a combined call that does all of the above:
“Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby Two, at scene, assuming Fuller Road

Control, medium bush fire threatening houses backing on to
north side of Fuller Road, just east of Hill Road,
make tankers six.”
In the above call, the officer in charge of Mullaby Two has assumed the
role of Incident Controller, named the incident the “Fuller Road” fire, told
Firecom what is happening, and asked them to call more tankers so that
the total number at the incident will become six. If the Rankaroo unit
arrived shortly afterwards, its arrival call would simply be:
“Sunnyville Firecom, Rankaroo Two, at scene.”
Normally the officer in charge of Rankaroo Two would speak face to face
with the Incident Controller, but if the units were far apart, he/she has
the option of calling the Incident Controller (“Fuller Road Control”) for
instructions.
Often units of the first response arrive within a short time of each other.
However, if Rankaroo Two was not likely to arrive until well after “Fuller
Road Control” has been established, Firecom might instruct Rankaroo
Two to call “Fuller Road Control” as they approach the scene.
Once Control (in this case, Fuller Road Control) has been established, all
units at the scene will pass messages to it, not to Firecom/Base. This is
because the Incident Controller is in charge of the incident, not
Firecom/Base. If all messages at the incident had to be passed through
Firecom there would be a lot of “double-handling” of communications.
Although changing the call-sign of the unit assuming Control might seem
a bit of overkill at a small incident, it is absolutely vital for good
co-ordination at large incidents. If you were to use it only at large incidents
you would have very little practice at it and, under the stress of a large
incident, you might forget to use it, or do it poorly. Using it at all incidents
means there is only one system to remember and use.
KEY POINTS: If you are a unit of the first response, report to Firecom
when “at scene”. The senior officer names the incident, assumes
“(Name of Incident) Control” call-sign, gives an initial situation report
and requests additional assistance if needed.
(g) Calls – Back-up Units Proceeding to an Incident

The majority of incidents are handled by units of the first response.
Sometimes, however, the Incident Controller may judge that the incident is
larger than the units of the first response can handle comfortably. In this
case the Incident Controller will call for additional units as back-up.
If all of the back-up units converge on the scene of the incident it can
become quite congested. In some cases the Incident Controller might
want them to go to a different location; for example, to the far side of the
incident. Congestion can be prevented and units can be sent directly to
where they are needed if they call the Incident Controller as they approach
the incident for further instructions.
One problem, however, is that the back-up units might not yet know the
call-sign of the Incident Controller, or in some cases they might not
know that units at the Incident are actually operating on a different radio
channel. Some incidents may be so large that the Incident Controller might
want back-up units to go to a particular sector or staging area.
1
• give call sign
2 Copy details of incident from Firecom

• note name of "Control" call sign
• note when to call "Control" on what channel
(if different from normal channel)
3
Advise Firecom you are proceeding to incident
• give call sign
• give incident type
• give incident location
• "Read Back" who you are to call and channel
(if different from normal)
ISUZU
007
045T
ISUZU
007
045T
Figure 167: Content of “back-up proceeding” radio message.

In practice, these problems are easily overcome. If back-up is requested,

those units call Firecom/Base when they depart their station, as in (e).
This time, however, Firecom/Base tells them where to go and who to call.
Here’s an example of a back-up unit coming on air and being given
instructions to call the Incident Controller when approaching the scene.
(Rankaroo Seven)
“Sunnyville Firecom, Rankaroo Seven, available with a

crew of three, OIC is Captain Jones.”
(Sunnyville Firecom)
“Rankaroo Seven, proceed to bush alight at corner of Fuller and

Hill Roads, Mullaby. Call Fuller Road Control when approaching.”
Rankaroo Seven would read back the key details and Firecom may again
give a general call advising weather details when all back-up units were
on the air. Notice that Rankaroo Seven has been asked to “proceed”
(drive normally), not to “respond’ (use lights and sirens).
Unless the incident Controller indicates urgent assistance is needed,

back-up will normally only proceed to the scene. This is because the risks
to the public of high-speed responses are as great (often even greater)
than the risk from the fire itself.
ISUZU
007
UZUSI
007
045T
045T
1 When a minute or two away, give an "approaching" call.

• call the Incident Controller (use the "Control" call sign)
• give your call sign
• give the direction from which you are approaching.
Figure 168: Content of an “approaching” radio message.

The Incident Controller can ask Firecom to get units to report directly to
him/her at the scene, report to a staging area, or be directed straight to a
sector of the incident. If no particular request is made, however,
Firecom/Base will simply ask units to call the Incident Controller as they
are approaching the scene.
The “Approaching” call is just a short way of saying, “We’re nearly there,
where do you want us to go and what do you want us to do.” You should
make the approaching call just far enough away from the incident so that
the Incident Controller has time to direct you to the place where you are
needed. If you think it will help, add the direction from which you are
approaching. Here’s an example of an “approaching” call.
(Rankaroo Seven)
“Fuller Road Control, Rankaroo Seven, approaching from the north.”
(Fuller Road Control)
“Rankaroo Seven, assist Rankaroo Two

make a direct attack on the left flank of the fire.”
(Rankaroo Seven – read-back)
“Assist Rankaroo Two, direct attack, left flank; Rankaroo Seven.”
While it is good to have an understanding of how all of the above

procedures work, in practice you don’t really have to know it in detail.
All you need to know is that you call Firecom/Base as you depart to go
to a call. After that they tell you where to go, who to call and which
channel to use.
KEY POINTS: If you are a unit called out later as back-up; as usual you
call Firecom/Base when you depart your station/shed. They will tell you
who to call, where to call them and what channel to use (if different
from your normal channel). Normally you would be told to call
“(Name of Incident) Control” when approaching the scene.
(h) Calls – Operating at an Incident

Units operating at an incident communicate with the Incident Controller,
(i.e. the station with the callsign: “(name of incident) Control”), or other
supervising station to whom they are reporting (e.g. a Sector
Commander). Only the Incident Controller communicates with
Firecom/Base.
While operating at an incident, additional radio calls may be made to give

a situation report (sitrep), report completion of tasks or achievement of key
objectives, ask for more or specialised assistance, and as a check that
people are still safe and operating normally. Usually such calls are given
at least every 30 minutes.
(i) Calls – Operating Out of Area

Sometimes you may be asked to go to another District to assist at an
incident. As usual, you should make the standard initial call to your
Firecom/Base when you depart your station/shed. They will give you
instructions about where to go, who to call and what channel to use.
Depending on the situation, you may be asked to go direct to the incident,

to a division or sector of that incident, or to a staging area. Sometimes you
might be instructed to call one of them directly. At other times you might be
asked to call the Firecom/Base of the District you are going to travel
through on the way. Just follow the instructions from Firecom/Base. Here‘s
a typical example:
(Mullaby One)
“Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby One,

available with a crew of five, OIC is Captain Green, over.”
(Sunnyville Firecom, replying to your initial call):
“Mullaby One, Sunnyville Firecom, proceed to assist at a large

bush fire, in the Mortland District, FFDI is 48, HI is 6.
Are you ready to copy further details?”
Assuming you acknowledge that call, they would then pass on further
details, such as:
“Mullaby One, proceed to staging area at Mortland Oval,

Terry Street Mortland. Call Mortland Firecom on channel 51
at Williams River. Call me again before changing channels.”
You would normally read back the key details,
“Proceeding to Mortland Oval, will call again before calling

Mortland Firecom on 51 at Williams River”.
The instruction to “call again” is so that Sunnyville Firecom knows when

Mullaby One leaves the District (at Williams River) and changes over to
being in contact with Mortland Firecom. That way, if they need to call them,
they know which channel they are listening to at the time. Once Mullaby
One calls Mortland Firecom, they will then direct them where to go and
who to call in their area.
(Another option for Mortland Firecom in this case would have been for
them to get Sunnyville Firecom to instruct Mullaby One to go to the
Mortland Oval Staging Area for a face to face briefing. Maybe they haven’t
done this on this occasion because the fire situation is changing rapidly
and they expect they will need to re-direct Mullaby One to go straight to a
location at the incident as soon as they call at Williams River.)
1
• give call sign
2
Copy details of incident from "home" Firecom
• note who to call
• note when/where to call them
ISUZU
• note channel to use
007
045T
4
When leaving your "home" area,
3
call the Firecom for the new area
Advise Firecom of leaving • give call sign
"home" district and changing channels • give crew strength
• advise intentions or request instructions
ISUZU
007
ISUZU
007
045T
045T
District Boundary
Figure 169: Content of “out of area incident” radio messages.
The general rules are that when you are going to, or returning from an
incident, your communications should be with the local Firecom/Base for
that area. While you are operating at an incident, your communications
should be to “(name of incident) Control” or other unit with whom you
have been assigned to report. Your brigade vehicles normally should be

carrying a list or a map showing the channels that are in use in your local
and neighbouring areas.
KEY POINTS: Make your initial call to your local Firecom/Base as usual.
Then just follow the instructions you are given.
(j) Calls – Working with Other Organisations

At large incidents you might be working with other organisations and com-
municating directly with them by radio. While the principles are similar,
there are some differences in radio procedures. Here are some examples:
NSW FIRE BRIGADES
The NSW Fire Brigades use their station number and type of appliance
as their callsign. They use numerical codes for some messages:
For example, “Code 8” means “arrived at scene”. The RFS colour codes
originally came from the NSWFB, but they use two additional colours.
“White” is used to indicate they are reporting a fire by radio (next highest
priority after “red”). “Green” is used to indicate a STOP message. That is,
the fire is under control and no further assistance is needed.
INTERSTATE FIRE SERVICES
Most of the Fire Services in states and territories bordering NSW share
similar standard communications procedures with each other and the
RFS, designed to align with the incident control system (ICS). Two notable
differences in some services is the use of “Wordback” to describe the
initial sitrep, and the word “Mayday” instead of “Emergency”.
Colour codes appear to be used only in NSW and the ACT. In other states
priority is indicated by key words in the initial call, such as, ‘Emergency;
(same as NSW), ‘Priority’ (‘Red’ in NSW), ‘At the scene’ or ‘Wordback’
(‘Blue in NSW), ‘Sitrep’ (‘Blue” in NSW), ‘Message’ (‘Yellow’ in NSW) and
‘Fire Call’ (‘White’ in NSWFB).
AVIATION
Specialist training is provided to firefighters who communicate with

aircraft. Aviation radio procedures use precise phraseology and may
sound quite fast until you become used to them. Many of the principles are
similar to that used in the RFS. Read-back of messages is common.
Aircraft call-signs normally consist of three letters, using the phonetic

alphabet, and corresponding to the aircraft’s registration (three letters
preceded by “VH-“). Aircraft assigned to firefighting activities will often use
special call-signs (e.g. Firebird One). You need to have an Aviation Radio
Operator’s licence to use aviation radios.
Aviation radio communications may use controlled networks, with the

controlling station being a control tower, radar controller or similar, who
directs air traffic and/or supplies an advisory service to aircraft. Most air-
ports in rural areas, however, are uncontrolled and aircraft in the vicinity
share a common traffic advisory frequency (CTAF) on which they make
standard “all stations” calls. If several aircraft are operating at a fire, a sim-
ilar (FTAF) concept may be in use.
In aviation communications in Australia, distance is always given in

nautical miles, altitude in feet, and direction in degrees (e.g. East would be
090, and said as “zero – nine – zero”). Wind is given as its direction and
strength in knots (e.g. 090/25 means from the East at twenty five knots
and is said as “zero nine zero at two five”).
A decimal point is said as “decimal”. So, if an aircraft were to ask you to

call them on frequency 119.1, they would say that frequency as, “one, one,
nine, decimal one”.
Time is given in minutes past the hour, or sometimes as hours and

minutes in UTC (10 hours behind Australian Eastern Standard Time, or 11
hours behind Eastern Standard Daylight Saving Time), so 1435 Eastern
Standard Daylight Saving Time (0335 UTC) would be said as “time three
five” or “time zero three three five”. The word “zulu” may be added to
indicate the time is in UTC.
NOTE: Be careful in western areas of NSW where Central Standard

Time is in use (UTC plus nine and a half hours). There a time of
given by an aircraft (in UTC) of “07” would actually be 37 minutes
past the hour in local time (CST).
(k) Calls – Supplementary Information

CORRECTING MISTAKES
When sending a message, you may realise you have made a mistake.
To fix a mistake the word “CORRECTION” is used. For example
“Sunnyville Firecom, Mullaby Two has a crew of six.

CORRECTION, a crew of five, over.”
REPETITIONS
To provide emphasis, or to ensure the receiver understands, you may

repeat a word, phrase, or a complete message using the pro-words “I SAY
AGAIN”. For example:
“Mullaby Two, urgent assistance is needed in Fogarty Street;

I SAY AGAIN, urgent assistance needed in Fogarty Street.”
If a message was unclear, sometimes the receiver may ask that a

message, or part of it, be repeated. A receiver asks for repetition or
clarification by using one of the following phrases:
SAY AGAIN SAY AGAIN word before
SAY AGAIN word after SAY AGAIN all before
SAY AGAIN all between SAY AGAIN all after
For example:
“Mullaby Two, your last message was interrupted.

SAY AGAIN all after “the fire has crossed..”, OVER.”
RELAYING MESSAGES
If two stations are having difficulty communicating, radio traffic can

sometimes be improved by a third station acting as a relay. For example,
an operator listening on a mobile may notice that another mobile is having
trouble receiving transmissions from the communications centre. In this
case, the operator can offer to relay messages between the stations
having difficulty, provided that the person can hear both stations clearly.
Stations acting as relays assume full responsibility for passing on the

correct message once they have received it.
LONG MESSAGES
A message over one minute is considered long. You should also advise
anyone you are about to send a long message, with the phrase, “…ready
to copy details?”
Long messages should be sent in sections each lasting no more than 30

seconds. These 30 second sections should end with the key phrase,
“more to follow, standby”. The receiving station should acknowledge each
section with the phrase “copied so far”.
A bad habit is to break relatively short messages (10 to 20 seconds) into

several parts and constantly ask “Copy so far?” at the end of each.
This uses up a lot of “air time”, is unnecessary and is not as effective as
asking for read back, if needed.
SUMMARY
• Radio communications involves the transmission of messages by

electronic means without the use of wires.
• The radio spectrum refers to the range of frequencies used for
radio communications. Fire Services generally use frequencies in
the VHF and UHF bands, and may make some use of HF in
remote areas.
• Radio communications may use simplex systems (using a
single frequency), duplex systems (using a pair of frequencies),
repeater systems (using a pair of frequencies through a repeater)
or trunked systems (sharing a pool of frequencies).
• The RFS radio communications network uses an integrated mix
of the Government Radio Network (GRN) trunked system,
Private Mobile Radio (PMR) repeater systems, and simplex
frequencies, some of which are shared with other agencies.
• Typical controls on mobile and portable radios include an “on/off”
switch, a volume control, a mute control (automatic on some sets)
and a channel selector. Consult the Operating Instructions
Booklet for each type of radio for further details.
• Other communications systems include mobile telephones,
satellite telephones, pagers, fax machines and conference call
telephone systems.
SUMMARY
• Care and maintenance of communications equipment includes

regular checks and tests, keeping radios away from conditions
in which they might deteriorate, and ensuring batteries are
regularly changed or recharged.
• Radio phraseology should be kept short, sharp and to the point,
and use standard phrases where possible. Read back
procedures are recommended to ensure messages have been
received correctly.
• Radio callsigns may be used for fixed stations (e.g. Firecom or
Base), mobile stations (e.g. tankers and other vehicles) and
stations with a key ICS role at an incident (e.g. “.. Control”).
• Letters and numbers should be said phonetically on the radio.
Standard radio pro-words should be used where possible. Priority
colour codes and discreet message codes may be used where
appropriate. Radio messages may be recorded using standard
abbreviations.
• When using a microphone, speak clearly across its face, keeping
it at a constant, close distance from your lips. Maintain an
effective rhythm, speed, volume and pitch in your voice.
• The principles behind RFS radio communications procedures are
quite simple. When a unit departs its station/shed, it calls its local
Firecom or Base. From there, the Firecom/Base should tell it who
to call next and when. When a unit arrives first at the scene of an
incident, the senior officer takes charge and assumes the
“(name of incident) Control” callsign. Thereafter, all units at the
incident talk to “Control” (not Firecom/Base) and Firecom/Base
usually directs any later arriving units to call “Control” as they
approach the scene.
• An initial radio call is usually designed to establish contact. To call
another station, you say their callsign, followed by your callsign.
• Calls not related to an incident may not be able to use standard
phraseology, but should get the message across clearly and
simply using “plain language”.
• Calls alerting you of an incident, or calls given to report an
incident should include the words “incident call”. This indicates to
the receiver to be ready to copy details.
SUMMARY
• First responding units to an incident report to Firecom/Base on

departure from their station/shed (giving callsign, crew strength
and name of the OIC) and when “at scene”. The senior officer
names the incident, assumes the “(Name of Incident) Control”
call-sign, gives an initial situation report and requests additional
assistance if needed.
• Units called out later as back-up call Firecom/Base when they
depart their station/shed. Firecom/Base advises them who to call,
where to call them and what channel to use (if different from the
normal channel). Normally back-up units would be told to call
“(Name of Incident) Control” when approaching the scene.
• Units operating at an incident communicate with the Incident
Controller or other supervising station to whom they are reporting
(e.g. a Sector Commander). Only the Incident Controller
communicates with Firecom/Base. Units keep in regular contact
with the station to whom they are reporting, (at least once every
30 minutes).
• Units going “out of area” (proceeding to outside their own District)

call their local Firecom/Base when departing their station/shed.
Firecom/Base will advise them who to call and what channel
to use. As before, at an incident they communicate with the
Incident Controller or other supervising station to which they have
been assigned. When operating in another District, but not at an
incident, the local Firecom/Base channel should be monitored
and used.
• Differences may occur with procedures used in other Fire

Services and aviation. People who communicate directly with
them by radio will need to know about these differences.
• Use standard calls to correct mistakes or request repetitions of

messages when needed. Assist communications by relaying
messages when needed. When transmitting long messages,
ensure the other station is ready to copy down the details, and
break the message into sections, if needed.
1. VLF radios are commonly used in the RFS.
2. In a duplex system, two frequencies are used.
3. In a repeater system, communications is possible

between two stations who are not in line of sight of
each other, but are both in line of sight of the repeater.
4. The GRN is a trunked radio system.
5. Fireground portable radios operate

on the PMR system.
6. Normally you should read back instructions,

but not information, in a radio message.
7. The radio callsign “Peatsville Seven” would mean that

there are at least seven tankers in the Peatsville Brigade.
8. The radio callsign “Springvale Control” is the callsign

for the incident controller at the Springvale fire or incident.
9. If you are a back-up tanker proceeding to assist other

units already at a fire, you should always call the local
Firecom/Base as you approach or arrive at the scene of
the incident.
10. If you have been fighting a fire outside your local District
and are now leaving to return home, you should
immediately call your own Firecom/Base to advise them.
ACTIVITIES
1. Under supervision, examine the radios used by your brigade.

Find out what type they are, how to turn them on, adjust them and
turn them off.
2. Find out what channels are used in your local area and nearby.
Find out what areas these cover and whether they are GRN,
PMR or UHF-CB.
3. Visit your local Firecom or Base. Find out where any repeaters in
your area are located, what channel they operate on and what
areas they cover. Listen to radio communications at the Firecom
or Base.
4. “Walk through” a typical incident. Make up appropriate radio calls

that would need to be made during the incident. If possible record
these calls on a cassette, listen to them being played back and
discuss how your calls could be improved.
5. Under supervision, make radio calls in association with incidents,

training exercises and other activities.
349
CHAPTER 9
Rural Fire Brigades
1 Introduction
While a lot of this Manual and your training will be about your firefighting
role, there is much more to being a member of a rural fire brigade.
Indeed, chances are you will probably spend the majority of your time with
the brigade in non-firefighting activities. In this chapter, you will be
introduced to:
• How Rural Fire Brigades interact with the community they protect.
• How rural firefighting is organised and structured in NSW.
• How the people in the brigade interact with it.
• How brigades acquire and look after equipment.
• How brigades members become trained.
• Non-fire/incident activities in the brigade.
• Legal issues concerning brigades.
You don’t have to know everything in this chapter off by heart. However,
many problems and issues arise in brigades because members simply do
not know how things are organised or supposed to work. This chapter will
give you most of the information you are likely to need to be an informed
member, and point you in the right direction to get further information,
if you need it.
350 RURAL FIRE BRIGADES
2 The Brigade and the Community

The role of rural fire brigades (formerly known as “bush fire brigades” – a
title which some retain for heritage purposes) is to protect the community
from fires and similar incidents. Ultimately, brigades only exist because
of this need to protect the community. How your brigade relates to your
community is therefore very important.
(a) Types of Brigades

Exactly how a brigade relates to a community will vary from place to place.
Few realise just how diverse rural fire brigades are: They can be anything
from a family on a rural property dealing with an occasional grass fire,
to an urban fringe brigade responding to over 400 grass, bush, structural
and vehicle fires/incidents each year. Brigades generally fall into one of
three broad types:
REMOTE RURAL BRIGADES
These are more common in country areas, both on the coast and inland.
They generally have a large membership; sometimes the entire adult
population of the area being listed as members. They are usually equipped
with mostly tank-trailers and slip-on units, positioned on member’s
properties. Sometimes they are equipped with tankers, but frequently don’t
have a station/shed.
(positional only)
Figure 170: Tanker-trailer on unit in grassland.

RURAL FIRE BRIGADES 351
Typically they attend one or two grass or bush fires each year. Members
are generally of long standing, often joining in their teens and remaining
members for life. The brigade is seen primarily as a mutual self-protection
organisation. They rarely respond to fires outside the local area.
Sometimes they do not think of themselves as “volunteer firefighters”.
(“Volunteers” are seen as people who want to fight fires, rather than being
in a brigade by necessity for their own protection.) About 40% of rural fire
brigades are probably of this type.
RURAL BRIGADES
These occur in areas which border national parks and forest areas.
Generally their membership includes only a part of the local population,
and they are equipped mostly with tankers designed primarily for large-
scale bush firefighting operations.
They nearly always operate from a centrally located fire station/shed.

They usually attend several fires a year and occasionally participate in
large “campaign” fires over several days or even weeks. They sometimes
respond long distances to help fight fires out of area.
(positional only)
Figure 171: Cat 1 tanker in bushland.
Members are generally well trained, with training focussed on bush/forest

firefighting. These brigades often have a core of long term members, plus
a group of newer members, several of whom may be an active member for
only a few years. About 10% of Brigades are probably in this category.
VILLAGE BRIGADES
These occur in numerous country villages and in town/city fringe areas.

Generally their membership represents only a small part of the local
population, and they are equipped mostly with multi-purpose tankers and
sometimes pumpers.
Figure 172: Village brigade at motor vehicle fire.
They nearly always operate from a centrally located fire station and attend
a large number and a wide variety of incidents throughout the year.
(eg. typically from 20 to over 400 calls a year). Members are usually more
comprehensively trained because of the wider variety of incidents to which
they may be called. Again there is often a core of longer-term members
leading a group of newer members. About 50% of brigades are probably
of this type.
NOTE: Sometimes brigades are in a state of change, evolving from

being one type of brigade into another. This situation can often be
a cause of tension as the need for new types of equipment, ways
of operating and training might not always be recognised by all.
(b) The Service Delivery Model (SDM)

The Service Delivery Model (or SDM) is a system used in the RFS to
ensure that all the different systems (e.g. operations, training, community
education and so on) work cohesively together and are matched to the
particular needs of the community they serve.
The SDM uses a risk management approach. That is, it works out what
hazards the community faces that the RFS can deal with, and then
estimates and provides resources to deal with those hazards in an
appropriate priority. Three types of risks are examined in the SDM:
Core Hazards – These are hazards which the Service has a direct
responsibility to manage; such as fires involving bush, structures,
transport and concentrations of population.
Supplementary Hazards – These are hazards which are the

responsibility of another organisation; however, the RFS may assist in
dealing with them. They include situations such as storm damage, floods
and land search.
Organisational (or Corporate) Hazards – These are hazards that are

internal to the RFS and result from its role and current development, such
as firefighter health and safety hazards.
In each case, the risks are identified, analysed and evaluated on their
likelihood of happening and potential consequences if they do occur.
On the basis of this information, the order of priority of risks is worked out
and treatments (ways of controlling each) are determined. The whole
process includes a lot of consultation with brigade members, and the
actions taken to treat the risks are regularly monitored and reviewed to
make sure they are still relevant.
Establish the context
Identify risks
Communicate and consult
Monitor and review

Analyse risks
Evaluate risks
Yes
Accept risks?
No
Treat risks
Figure 173: SDM risk assessment process.
In the case of the Core Hazards, the SDM process will determine the type
and number of firefighting vehicles and equipment needed in an area to
counteract the identified risks. So an area which has mainly only grass fire
risks will end up with quite different equipment than one, say, with a high
structural and vehicle fire risk.
Later in this chapter, you will be shown how a similar risk management
approach can be used to identify, analyse and evaluate firefighter safety
risks, so that appropriate treatments can be put into place to protect
firefighter safety.
(c) Quality of Service

Most brigades have a good reputation in their community. Volunteer fire-
fighters are usually seen as selfless, courageous, resourceful and helpful
people. But it isn’t necessarily so. The level of support you get from your
community ultimately depends on the level of service you give to them.
You must never forget that people will make a judgement about you and
your brigade by how you act. While they might not know about fire
fighting, they do know a lot about common sense and courtesy, and it’s on
those things that they will often judge you. Here’s an example of three
different approaches to quality of service in a brigade. The situation is a
grass fire in the late afternoon that threatens a house owned by a frail
elderly person living alone.
DEFICIENT SERVICE
The brigade is slow to respond, has poorly maintained equipment,

poor firefighting skills and the house ends up being damaged by the fire.
After the fire the Captain comments to the owner, “We’re only volunteers,
that’s the best we could do”.
EXPECTED SERVICE
The brigade responds quickly, contains the fire and prevents any damage
to the house. After the fire the Captain tells the owner the fire is out and
the Brigade returns home.
OUTSTANDING SERVICE
The brigade responds quickly, contains the fire and prevents any damage
to the house. After the fire the Captain notices the owner is very
apprehensive. The Captain talks to the owner and finds out that they are
frightened the fire might rekindle while they are asleep. The Captain
reassures the owner that is unlikely, but arranges for an able-bodied
relative to stay with them overnight and has firefighters come back
regularly to check the fire scene later on and reassure them.
Which of the above approaches do you think would earn the greater
respect and support of the community? Which is more in line with being an
organisation that really cares for its community? Which would make you
feel more rewarded as a volunteer?
Figure 174: Firefighters at work with members of the community.
Quality of service is not a complicated concept. It really comes down to

putting yourself in the position of the victim and of asking yourself, “If I was
the victim of this incident, how would I need and want to be treated?
And, what treatment would be beyond what I expect, but would be really
appreciated?”
Most people will not understand or appreciate the strategy and tactics you
use at an incident, no matter how clever. But, they will always remember
if you were sympathetic, supportive, courteous and thoughtful, and even
more if you were inconsiderate, abrupt, abusive, rude or foul-mouthed.
3 The Rural Firefighting Organisation

A frequent cause of conflict and confusion among members is a lack of
understanding of how the rural firefighting movement is organised and run.
For example, some members are affronted when the local Fire Control
Officer (FCO) wants to inspect their equipment, not realising that the FCO
is required by law to have such inspections carried out.
The aim of this section is to familiarise you with the organisation at a

Brigade, Group, Local, Regional and State level. It will also mention some
of the consultative committees associated within the RFS, and where you
can go to get more information.
(a) Brigade Level

Brigades are usually formed by the local Council or a local group of
Councils. They also determine the territory in which the brigade is to
operate and appoint the officers to the brigade. Any “interested person”
may request a brigade be formed and the Commissioner may form a
brigade if the local authority refuses to do so. The Commissioner may also
form brigades in parts of the state where there is no local Council.
Figure 175: Typical brigade station.

CONSTITUTION
Each brigade must have a constitution conforming to certain rules and

covering things like the brigade name, types of membership, application
for membership, termination, suspension and resignation of membership,
audits, meetings, duties and so on. The RFS has a model constitution
which has been adopted in many brigades. The rules for constitutions are
tight enough to maintain essential uniformity between brigades, but
flexible enough to allow them to be adapted and tailored to local
circumstances.
FIELD OFFICERS
Field Officers include the brigade Captain, Senior Deputy Captain and
Deputy Captains. They are the only people in the brigade with legal
authority to carry out firefighting and similar activities. A member alone
does not have that authority and can only operate under the direction of a
field officer. The authority of field officers normally only applies within the
brigade’s own area, but under certain conditions they can also operate
outside of their own territory (e.g. if they have been called out to assist
another brigade).
The field officers of the brigade are usually those persons who have been
elected to those positions by active firefighting members of the brigade,
within the applicable rules of eligibility. For example, in many, (but not all)
brigades, a person has to have Crew Leader certification to be eligible for
election as a Deputy Captain or higher.
Elections must take place at least once every three years, although it is the
common practice to hold them annually. Brigade field officers have very
wide powers at fires and other incidents. In electing them, you should
consider the competency and maturity of each candidate to use those
powers wisely. Field officers and members may be identified by their
helmet and rank markings as shown overleaf:
AL FIRE AL FIRE
UR UR S AL FIRE
S AL FIRE UR S
R
UR
ER
S
R
R
ER
N.S.W
ER
N.S.W
N.S.W
VICE
ER
VICE
N.S.W
VICE
Firefighter Deputy VICE Senior Captain
Captain Deputy Captain
Figure 176: Helmet and rank markings of field officers and members.
ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS
In addition to the field officers, there are other office positions in most
brigades. They do not need or have the same powers as field officers, but
they do have specific functions within the brigade. All members may vote
in the election of administrative officers. Administrative officers may
include:
• A Brigade President who presides over meetings.
• A Brigade Secretary responsible for correspondence, minutes

of meetings and for keeping a register of members.
• A Brigade Treasurer responsible for administering brigade funds.
• A Brigade Equipment Officer responsible for co-ordinating

the care and maintenance of brigade equipment.
• A Brigade Training Officer responsible for co-ordinating training

and assessment matters in the Brigade.
In addition, and depending on needs, a brigade may include a number of

specialist members, such as tanker drivers, first-aid officers, chain saw
operators, breathing apparatus operators, etc. Often the field officers may
also hold one or more of the offices or specialist functions mentioned
above. For example, in some brigades all field officers are tanker drivers
and hold a first-aid certificate. In some brigades the Captain and President
may be a combined role, etc.
(b) Group Level

Brigades are usually organised into groups, each under a Group Captain
and/or Deputy Group Captains. These group officers have similar powers
to a brigade Captain, but can exercise them in any of the brigade areas
within their group. The training for group officers goes well beyond that
provided for brigade field officers, enabling them to command a firefighting
operation involving several brigades, multiple crews and numerous
vehicles.
Photo by Sean Davey
Figure 177: Typical group officer’s vehicle.
At larger fires, involving several brigades, it is usual for a group officer to

take overall command of the incident. In this case, they will normally not
issue orders directly to firefighters, but indirectly through their crew
leaders (brigade level officers). Group officers do not take over because
they don’t trust the local Captain or deputies, it’s because group officers
generally are trained to command multi-brigade incidents, whereas
brigade field officers are not. At very large fires, Group Captains and
Deputy Group Captains are normally used as sector and/or division
commanders (their training includes such roles).
Group officers are elected by eligible brigade members and candidates

must have Group Leader certification. Outside of firefighting, the normal
role of group officers is generally to co-ordinate the activities of Brigades
within their group. In many areas, for example, they may have a training
or safety inspection role. Group officers typically operate out of light
vehicles and may be identified by their helmet and rank markings as
shown below:
AL FIRE S
UR
ERV
R
AL FIRE
N.S.W
UR S
ICE
R
ER
N.S.W
VICE
Deputy Group Captain Group Captain
Figure 178: Helmet and rank markings of group officers.
(c) District Level

Most Rural Fire Districts correspond to local Council areas (except for
urban areas covered by the NSW Fire Brigades). A Service Level
Agreement (SLA) is negotiated between the local Council and the RFS.
It is an agreement about “who looks after what” in providing rural fire
fighting services in the district. In some cases the RFS does everything;
in others the tasks are shared between the RFS and the Council.
A Fire Control Officer (FCO) is an employee of the RFS with the rank of
“Superintendent”, appointed to be in charge of fire protection in a Rural
Fire District. In many areas there are one or more Deputy Fire Control
Officers (DFCO) with the rank of “Inspector”, to assist the FCO. Some
Districts also employ fire hazard reduction and/or clerical support staff.
Unlike a volunteer brigade member or officer, an FCO is under a statuto-

ry obligation to protect the area from fires. In many areas, several Rural
Fire Districts have been integrated together to form a Zone, under an
overall Zone Manager. They are required by law to take actions to provide
that service, including:
• Supervising and directing all functions of the local Brigades.
• Taking all necessary measures to provide protection from fires.
• Inspecting, or causing to be inspected, all firefighting

equipment at least once each year.
The FCO and DFCO have all the powers of a brigade Captain, but can
exercise them throughout the entire Rural Fire District and in certain other
areas. The FCO is the person accountable to ensure the local rural fire
organisation is properly equipped, organised, maintained and trained.
FCOs and many DFCOs are trained to take command of large, complex
fires/incidents. They may be identified by their helmet and rank markings
as shown below:
FCO UR
AL FIRE S
DFCO UR
AL FIRE S
ERV
R
ERV
R
N.S.W
N.S.W
ICE
ICE
Figure 179: Helmet and rank markings of FCOs and DFCOs.
(d) Regional Level

NSW is divided into four RFS regions, each under a Regional Manager
with the rank of Chief Superintendent. Their job is to co-ordinate, assist
and audit the Districts. Each Regional Office looks after about 30 Rural
Fire Districts. The regional staff includes officers who look after the
Operations, Learning and Development, Bush Fire Planning and
Business functions.
(e) State Level

At State level, the Rural Fire Service (RFS) sets the standards and
devises the systems under which the Service operates. It arranges for the
design, selection and bulk purchase of equipment, the development of
training and community education materials, and overall co-ordination of
bush firefighting across the state. Equipment purchases are made on a
state-wide basis, often in common with other services (e.g. the NSW Fire
Brigades), to get the best value prices.
Figure 180: New tanker being officially handed over.
The Commissioner of the RFS is in overall charge of the Service, and

reports to the NSW Minister for Emergency Services. In addition, the
Commissioner also has the important role of co-ordinating all bush
firefighting in the state, regardless of which service or agency is involved.
Sections 44 and 45 of the Rural Fires Act provide for the Commissioner to
take charge, or appoint a person to take charge, of a large fire/s which is
beyond, or likely to become beyond, local control. You might sometimes
hear of major fires being referred to as a “Section 44” emergency.
Funding for the RFS is raised from levying insurance companies

(73.7%), State government (13.0%) and local Councils (13.3%).
Funding is allocated on the basis of relative needs in different areas.
Essentially, Fire Control Officers put in estimates of yearly costs, which are
processed through the relevant Regional Office.
Figure 181: Inter-state liaison at incidents.
The Rural Fire Service also liaises with the Australasian Fire Authorities
Council (AFAC), which is an association of all Australian and New Zealand
Fire Services. Most training material, for instance, is now developed
co-operatively at a national level, making it more standardised and
cheaper than if developed separately by each agency.
(f) Advisory and Consultative Bodies

The Rural Fire Service Advisory Council (RFSAC) is an advisory body
to the Commissioner. Its members are drawn from organisations who have
a stake in the operation of the RFS. The Co-ordinating Committee
is an inter-agency body with specific functions, particularly in the area
of preventing and planning for large scale bush fire emergencies.
Its members are drawn from firefighting agencies and organisations with a
stake in co-ordinating rural fire protection.
Membership of the RFS usually also gives you membership of the

Rural Fire Service Association (RFSA). As the name implies, this is an
association for members of the RFS. The RFSA has committees at District
and regional level and provides representatives on Operations, Technical
and Training Committees that report to the RFSAC. The RFSA run
conferences, maintain their own web-site and on-line store, and are an
important avenue for consultation within the Service.
(g) Sources of Information

Your brigade should have a “mini-library” of publications on various
aspects of the RFS. These include Standard Operating Procedures
(SOPs) for Fireground (Operations), Communications, Training,
Prescribed Burning, Aviation, Equipment Maintenance and Accident
Prevention. Information booklets and pamphlets should be available about
community education, equipment, training, workers compensation,
insurance, rehabilitation and critical incident support services.
Figure 182: Typical set of SOPs and other publications.
Copies of the Bush Fire Bulletin and the Firefighter Safety Digest should
be available, and safety posters should be displayed in the station/shed.
Each brigade should also have a map showing the brigade area and
features, and a set of pre-incident planning data sheets for the area.
Ask your brigade secretary or Captain for more information if you are
unable to find some of the above.
At a District, Zone and Regional level there should be copies of all Service
Standards and SOPs, stocks of sample training materials, and usually a
range of training and community education videos and similar resources.
Many Districts and some brigades have a newsletter, magazine and/or
web-site for members.
At a state level, the RFS maintains a library with a wide range of fire
related videos, books, periodicals and other publications. The Service also
has a comprehensive web-site (at www.rfs.nsw.gov.au) including all
Service Standards and SOPs, bush fire safety information, employment

opportunities, media releases, publications, equipment, fire restrictions
and total fire bans, and numerous other subjects and links.
Figure 183: The RFS web-site home page.
If you want to know about something, the first place to ask is within your
own brigade. If your question is about some specific issue, make sure you
ask the right person. For example, if it’s about training, ask your Training
Officer; if it’s about equipment, ask your Equipment Officer, and so on.
If they are not sure, your District office should be able to clarify things for
you or refer it someone who can. You can also seek out information
yourself on the web-site and/or inquire with your RFSA representative.
4 The People in the Brigade

While the Rural Fire Service exists to protect the community from fires,
it could not exist without the people who make up its membership.
This section will cover what membership means and the need for
firefighter health, safety and welfare. In addition, it will describe the
provisions available for taking disciplinary action against members, in the
unlikely event of that being needed, and how to resolve grievances that
might sometimes arise between members.
(a) Membership
Brigades are required to keep an up to date register of members.
Membership is defined as being listed on such a register. New members
will normally be classified as “probationary” for the first six months.
Many, but not all, brigades require members to have Bush Firefighter
(and in some cases also Village Firefighter) certification prior to being
eligible to attend calls to incidents. Some brigades may have probationary,
ordinary, life, honorary and junior members. These will normally be
explained in the brigade constitution.
People can be removed from a register of members if they have died,

applied in writing to have their name removed, have breached some
disciplinary matter, have become mentally incapacitated, have been
convicted of a serious offence, or are no longer a “fit and proper person”
(in the opinion of the authority responsible for the brigade) to be a
member. Provisions exist to appeal against such a decision, or the refusal
to list a person as a member.
(b) Firefighter Health, Safety and Welfare

Every volunteer has the right to expect that the system of firefighting and
related activities ensures their health, safety and welfare. Sadly, on
average, one or two rural firefighters die during some activities each year,
and a few hundred receive significant injuries. One of the main
responsibilities of all members of the RFS at all levels is to help prevent
this toll.
HEALTH AND SAFETY RISK MANAGEMENT
One of the main ways of doing this is to apply the principles of risk
management to firefighter health, safety and welfare. This involves
identifying the hazards, assessing the risks, deciding how to control
them, putting those controls into effect, and reviewing them regularly
to make sure they are still effective. The “controls” that can be used to
minimise health and safety risks include:
• Substituting the hazard with another that involves a lesser risk.
• Isolating the hazard from the people put at risk.
• Minimising the risk by engineering means.
• Minimising the risk by administrative means.
• Using personal protective equipment.
The above list is sometimes called the “hierarchy of controls”. Controls

towards the top of the list are generally regarded as more effective and
reliable than controls towards the bottom of the list. In firefighting,
however, you often do not have much control over the “place” in which you
have to fight the fire. Compared with most situations, the controls needed
for safe firefighting depend less on providing a “safe place” and more on
ensuring every firefighter is a “safe person”.
This risk management approach can be used at all levels. For example,
the information in Chapter Two of this manual on firefighting hazards, and
the precautions that need to be taken, came from such an approach,
conducted at state level. At a District level there should be a group of
members that meet each year to carry out a safety risk assessment and
develop an action plan to implement appropriate controls within your
District. A safety audit system also exists to monitor that appropriate
controls are implemented at a District level.
DYNAMIC RISK MANAGEMENT

Every crew and each individual firefighter should apply the same basic
approach before every task in firefighting. At this level it is referred to as
Dynamic Risk Assessment (DRA). It is a system widely used in British and
Australian Fire Services and follows the flow chart shown below:
Evaluate the situation,

tasks & persons at risk
Select systems
of work
Assess the
Proceed Consider viable
chosen systems
with tasks alternatives
of work
YES Are the risks

proportional to
the benefits?
NO
Re-assess YES Can additional NO

control measures Do not proceed
systems of work with tasks
be introduced?
Figure 184: Dynamic Risk Assessment flowchart.
Basically, Dynamic Risk Assessment asks you to think through each

task before you do it, work out how you are going to do it, consider
what hazards are involved, assess the level of risk they involve, apply
additional controls if needed, or don’t carry out the task if it is too risky.
FIREFIGHTER WELFARE
The RFS has several systems to support the welfare of firefighters.

A Chaplain service is available to all members. Critical Incident Support
Services (CISS) are available when needed, and are often automatically
provided if firefighters have been exposed to a critical incident, such as
one involving a death or severe injury to a member of the public or a
fellow firefighter. A rehabilitation service is also provided to firefighters who
have been injured while serving with the RFS.
(c) Disciplinary Action

While it is not a common occurrence, occasionally a member may do
something that is illegal, dangerous or contrary to the rules. In such a
case, disciplinary action can be taken against them. A member is guilty of
a breach of discipline if they:
• Contravene the Rural Fires Act or Regulation.
• Fail to comply with Service Standards applicable to them.
• Are negligent, careless, inefficient or incompetent in their duties.
If the person involved is a member, then disciplinary action may be taken

by the officer in charge of their brigade or group of brigades. If the person
involved is an officer, then disciplinary action may be taken by their Fire
Control Officer. Alternatively, if the brigade constitution provides for it,
the disciplinary action may be taken by a panel of persons in accordance
with the constitution.
Examples of issues that might constitute grounds for disciplinary action

are bullying, harassment and unauthorised use of brigade equipment.
Note that in some cases, such actions may also be acts punishable by law.
Disciplinary action has to be taken in accordance with Service Standard

1.1.2. Basically this provides for the evidence of the alleged breach to be
properly collected and documented, and for a fair and reasonable
judgement to be made.
If the breach is proven beyond reasonable doubt, the person involved may
be reprimanded or suspended from service for a specified period.
Alternatively the responsible authority may be recommended to demote
the officer or member, disqualify them from holding rank, or have them
removed from the brigade register. Fourteen days notice has to be given
of any disciplinary action, during which time an appeal can be lodged.
Figure 185: Service Standards on Discipline and Grievances.
(d) Grievances
A grievance is different from a disciplinary matter. In a grievance, it is not
a case of somebody doing something “wrong”, but a case of two or more
people having a disagreement, or some other problem, between them.
Such problems can sometimes get out of hand if there is no clear way to
resolve them. That’s what grievance procedures are designed to do.
Essentially they consist of a system which lays out how a grievance should
be handled, who it should be reported to, who should investigate it, what
options are open for the parties concerned, how grievances can typically
be resolved, and avenues of appeal if people feel they’ve been unfairly
treated. The RFS procedures for resolving grievances are in Service
Standard 1.1.3.
5 Brigade Equipment
Effective firefighting is not possible without the right amount of the right
equipment, kept in good working condition. The equipment also needs to
be distributed such that all brigades get a fair share, matched to the needs
of their area. This section describes how equipment (e.g. tankers and
firefighting gear) and facilities (e.g. fire stations/sheds) are selected and
acquired, and how they should be maintained.
(a) Standards of Fire Cover

Brigade equipment and facilities should be matched to the fire protection
needs of the community. “Standards of Fire Cover” is a system designed
to do exactly that. It forms part of the Service Delivery Model (SDM)
already described earlier.
Basically it consists of a survey of the area, noting down all the potential
fire and similar hazards. Points are allocated depending on the severity
of each type of hazard (e.g. bush, buildings, roads etc.) and the likely
risk of an incident occurring. These points are then used to determine
the equipment and other needs of the brigades in the area. By using a
standard system it enables a fair and equitable allocation of the funds
available for firefighting resources.
(b) Supply of Equipment

Equipment acquired by brigades (not to be confused with personal
equipment owned wholly by individuals and used only for their own
property fire protection) may be either privately purchased or obtained
through the NSW Rural Firefighting Fund. Privately purchased equipment
may be bought and sold by any means that are reasonable and legal,
as long as the equipment meets acceptable safety standards and any
local requirements.
Figure 186: Examples of equipment.
Equipment available through the Rural Firefighting Fund is listed in an

Equipment Catalogue which is updated each year. Equipment includes not
only things such as tankers, tanks, pumps, nozzles and hose, but
fire station buildings, firefighter protective clothing, communications
equipment, computers and training equipment.
Each year the Fire Control Officer (FCO) in your area submits an estimate
of expenses for the forthcoming year, based on the listed cost of items in
the Equipment Catalogue. The system is deregulated; that is, FCOs are
free to choose what they want to get. However, if their estimates exceed
the available funds, the Rural Fire Service gives priority to ensuring
all safety-oriented items are provided first and cuts items that are of less
significance.
The Rural Fire Service Head Office purchases the ordered items in bulk to
ensure the best price is obtained. The ordering system is also integrated
with that of similar agencies, such as the NSW Fire Brigades. Purchasing
of equipment through the Fund commences before the exact State
budget is known. To reduce delays, the Rural Fire Service orders all
safety equipment immediately, but waits until the budget is announced
before ordering the balance of items.
Figure 187: Material provided under program charges.
In addition to items ordered by your FCO, your area is also charged

“program costs” for the supply of other Rural Fire Service services. Things
such as training manuals and public education materials are paid for out
of program costs, which are spread evenly across the State’s entire rural
firefighting organisation.
(c) Maintenance of Equipment

Equipment needs to be well maintained so that it is in good working order
when needed at a fire or incident. This is done through a maintenance
program, usually co-ordinated in each brigade by an Equipment Officer.
Normally each local Council is required to take care of, and maintain in the
condition required by Service Standards, any firefighting equipment
vested in it. In addition, the Fire Control Officer (FCO) is required to
inspect, or cause to be inspected, all firefighting equipment at least
once each year. This is usually not done personally by the FCO. Rather, a
maintenance system is set up and the FCO audits that system.
In busy village brigades there may be weekly inspections, while in quiet

remote rural brigades such an inspection may only be needed a few times
a year. Maintenance should be recorded; indicating the date, type of
equipment, type of maintenance and who carried it out. These records
enable the FCO to verify maintenance has been carried out, correct faults
before they become hazards, and ensure no maintenance is missed or
duplicated.
The equipment/facility maintenance programme includes both breakdown

and preventative maintenance. In some areas there is a system for
classifying breakdowns so that those that affect critical pieces of
equipment can be corrected with priority. Preventative maintenance falls
into a number of levels. These include:
CHECKS
These are simple checks to ensure equipment is ready for use.

For example, after a fire, checks should be carried out to ensure equipment
has been replaced, refuelled, restored, replenished, secured, etc.
INSPECTIONS
Inspections are regular, usually simple visual, examinations of equipment

to ensure it is OK. Examples include regular inspection of hoses to ensure
there are enough on the vehicle, that they appear to be undamaged, are
rolled properly and are correctly stowed.
TESTS
Tests are less frequent operations of equipment to ensure it is working

properly. Examples include the testing of hose by pressurising it to 1000
kPa and checking for leaks or deterioration.
SERVICING
Servicing consists of heavy technical maintenance of equipment and is

usually done by technicians or specially trained persons rather than gen-
eral firefighters. An example is the overhaul of a vehicle by a mechanic.
6 Training and Certification

Equipment alone is not enough for safe and effective firefighting. It needs
to be used by people who are competent in what they do. Certification is
formal recognition of that competency. Training is the most common way
(but not the only way) of developing competency. Training is a way of
tapping into, and sharing in, the vast knowledge, skills and experience of
firefighters from across Australia and beyond.
Most training is provided at a local level by qualified volunteers.

They generally use training packs developed at a state level and based on
national standards for firefighters. Trainers, assessors and training
co-ordinators in the RFS are required to be qualified to the relevant
national standards.
More information about training can be found in the annual Training

Information Booklet (two copies provided for all brigades).
It includes the Service’s Code of Practice for training which summarises
your “rights” as a trainee.
(a) Competency Based Training

The system of training used in the RFS is “competency based”.
This means it involves ensuring people are at a standard matched to their
actual needs. It does not necessarily depend on attending courses or
serving time to gain skills. Existing competency from experience or other
learning is recognised, and people should only be trained in the things
they do not yet know or are not yet able to do.
When you apply for training, you should be given a booklet called “How to
Become Qualified in (the subject’s name)”. It will take you through a
process to work out whether or not you already have the needed
competency, or whether you need to do training. If you are probably
already competent, it will tell you how to have that competency assessed
so that certification can take place. If not, it will explain the training options
open to you.
(positional only)
Figure 188: Practical training in progress.
(b) Training Courses

Most people who join the RFS do not have previous experience in
firefighting, and so go through the standard training courses. Training
Courses in the RFS are in three categories:
MAINSTREAM VOLUNTEER TRAINING COURSES
These are designed to develop members towards initial qualification as

a member or officer at various levels. They include:
• Bush Firefighter (BF) - for firefighters handling bush and grass

fires under supervision.
• Village Firefighter (VF) - for firefighters handling village
(e.g. structural & vehicle) fires.
• Advanced Firefighter (AF) - for more experienced firefighters –
prerequisite is BF.
• Crew Leader (CL) - for brigade officers (Captains and
Deputies) – prerequisite is AF.
• Group Leader (GL) - for group officers (Group Captains
and Deputies) – prerequisite is CL.
NOTE: Shorter versions of BF and CL have been specially tailored

for members of remote rural brigades. They are called Bush
Firefighter Grassland (BFG) and Crew Leader Grassland (CLG).
SPECIALIST VOLUNTEER TRAINING COURSES
These are designed to develop members in specific specialist skills.

They usually have one of the mainstream courses as a prerequisite and
include Senior First Aid (SFA), Breathing Apparatus Operator (BAO),
Chain Saw Operator (CSO), Rural Fire Driver (RFD) and many more.
Figure 189: Chain saw training in progress.
STAFF COURSES
These are for employees of the RFS and lead to nationally recognised
Certificates and Diplomas. Many of the subjects in volunteer courses also
link to national qualifications and can be “converted” into their nationally
recognised equivalents on request.
(c) Assessment
Assessors are required to carry out assessments to strict, “applicant-
friendly” procedures. For example, they are required to brief you about
what an assessment involves, and the procedures for appeal if you are not
satisfied with the way the assessment was conducted. Most assessments
are done in a practical way, in simulated conditions. Questions may be
asked about the subject and the opinion of trainers and brigade members
may be sought in assessing competency.
(d) Competency Maintenance

Once qualified, you need to maintain your competencies. If you are using
them regularly this may be fairly simple to do. However, some important
competencies may be used only infrequently and you may need to
participate in drills or exercises to maintain them. Some subjects have a
“shelf life” and must be re-assessed formally at regular intervals.
Some may have a “recent experience requirement”. This means you need
to practice them at regular intervals, but do not have to be assessed
each time.
Figure 190: Drill in progress.
(e) Certification Requirements

A frequently asked question is, “Am I required to have certification”.
The answer is usually, “yes”. The RFS recommends that firefighters be
qualified to the appropriate level before undertaking certain functions.
These recommendations are detailed in the following table.
Exactly when these recommendations become a requirement is left up to

the local District or Zone. They should be complied with as soon as
possible, because they are not about what some “faceless bureaucrat”
says people must have, but what virtually all firefighting organisations in
Australia agree people really need to have in order to fight fires safely
and effectively.
You will notice that the table specifies different standards for different sorts
of brigades, and even for members with a different role within brigades.
This enables the standards to be tailored to local needs, while maintaining
a state-wide consistency.
Minimum Recommended Firefighting Role of member in their Brigade

RFS Qualifications (Equivalent Standards of Fire Cover Brigade Classification)
Property Wildland Village Vil. + BA

(Rural Remote) (Rural) (Village 1) (village 2)
Minimum standard BFG BF VF VF

recommended for or BAO
responding to incidents BF SFA
Minimum standard not AF VF VF
recommended for working at specified AF AF
incidents without continuous BAO
direct supervision SFA
Minimum standard CLG* CLW* CLV* CLV*
recommended for leading or CLS* CLS* CLS*
a crew of firefighters CLW* BAO
* (Note: Old format CL certification SFA
is also acceptable for items marked *)
Minimum standard GL GL GL GL
recommended for leading
a group of crews
Plus specialist qualifications (e.g. Chain Saw Operator - Fireline Tree Falling)
where applicable, according to the local District’s risk management plan.
EXPLANATIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS:
Property = Members who protect only their

own/neighbour’s rural property.
Wildland = Members who protect public forests and/or parks.
Village = Members who protect villages
(e.g. structural and vehicle fires).
Vil. + BA = Members who protect villages
and use breathing apparatus.
NOTE: that some members might have more than one firefighting
role (e.g. “Wildland” and “Village”). In such cases the combined
qualifications listed are recommended.
BF = Bush Firefighter certification.

BFG = Bush Firefighter (Grassland) certification.
VF = Village Firefighter certification.
AF = Advanced Firefighter certification.
CL = (Old format) Crew Leader certification.
BAO = Breathing Apparatus Operator.
SFA = Senior First Aid certificate.
CLW = Crew Leader - Wildfire segment
(Bush, grass and crop fires, etc.).
CLV = Crew Leader - Village segment
(Structure fires, vehicle incidents, etc.).
CLS = Crew Leader - Safety/ICS segment
(Incident Control System etc.).
CLG = Crew Leader – Grassland
(short version of CL for rural grassland areas).
GL = (Old format) Group Leader.
GLA = Group Leader (Analysis).
GLC = Group Leader (Command).
In many Districts, having the appropriate certification has been a

requirement for many years. But in some areas there are simply not
enough, say, qualified Crew Leaders, to enable Crew Leader certification
to be made a requirement for election as a brigade officer. In such cases,
the District has to include in their training plan how they will achieve that
requirement in the future.
NOTE: The requirement for certification does not necessarily mean

people will need to undergo training. If they can show they are
already competent to the required standard (e.g. as a result
of experience) they can be assessed and certified without
attending a course.
(f) Certification Badges

Members who have achieved a mainstream certification level will usually
wear a badge to indicate the highest level achieved. The badges are
shown below. Apart from a badge which may be worn to indicate a
person has a senior first aid certificate, badges are not worn to indicate
specialist qualifications.
CL
GL
+
AF
BF VF
Figure 191: BF, VF, AF, CL GL and SFA certification badges.
7 Non-Fire/Incident Activities
Brigades are often involved in activities apart from firefighting. In this
section typical brigade administration and brigade involvement in public
education, hazard reduction, bush fire precautions, pre-incident planning,
community activities, fund raising and social events will be described.
The level of involvement in each of these areas varies between brigades,
depending on the level of need, and the time and resources available
to do it.
(a) Administration
Administration covers such things as conducting brigade meetings,
maintaining minutes of those meetings, keeping members informed of
upcoming events and developments, brigade correspondence, brigade
finances, liaison and meetings with other Brigades and organisations
in the area, keeping records, submitting reports and general correspon-
dence. These functions are often carried out by specific officers such as
the President, Secretary and Treasurer.
In many brigades, particularly in rural areas, the Secretary has a key role
in the Brigade, with duties often including calling out the brigade for fires.
In village type brigade there may not be a separate President, Secretary
or Treasurer; these functions being included as part of the duties of the
Captain and other field officers. Check your brigade constitution and local
SOPs for more information about the arrangements that apply in your
area, if needed.
(b) Public Education

In many ways, fire prevention and public education are probably the most
important aspects of brigade activities. The best way to protect the
community against fire is to not have fires at all. Some authorities go as
far to suggest that firefighters should develop an attitude that going to fires
is not something to boast about, but something of which to be almost
ashamed. Every fire, in their view, represents a failure of the organisation
to protect the community through fire prevention. Fire prevention covers a
very broad area and is explained in greater detail in a more advanced
training program. Enquire with your Captain or Fire Control Officer for
further information about the fire prevention programs and community
education materials available in your area.
Figure 192: Samples of community education materials.
A key fire prevention initiative in the Rural Fire Service is “Firewise”.

Instead of just relying on giving people basic fire prevention information,
Firewise organises people into community groups to develop strategies
to cope with their local fire threat. Firewise emphasises the whole
community taking responsibility for its fire protection, not just leaving it to
the “people in the red trucks”.
(c) Hazard Reduction

Hazard reduction is the removal or treatment of bush fire fuel so as to
reduce the fire hazard it poses. This can be done by mowing, slashing,
bulldozing, grading, physical removal of the fuel or by prescribed burning.
Prescribed burning can also be used for other purposes (e.g. for creating
a specific environmental effect in an area).
Rural fire brigades often participate in prescribed burning activities.

These are highly controlled activities planned and implemented to achieve
a specific effect (i.e. the fuel is burnt to a “prescription”). It does not
consist simply of setting alight to the bush at any time or in any way.
See the chapter on Hazard Reduction for more details.
(d) Bush Fire Precautions

Bush fire precautions in NSW include the declared Bush Fire Danger
Period, Total Fire Bans, Permits to Burn and No-Burn Days.
The declared Bush Fire Danger Period normally runs from the beginning
of October to the end of March each year, although it may be varied in
some years and/or in some areas. Permits to light fires for agricultural
purposes or to reduce fire hazards are needed during this period.
Only authorised persons can issue these permits, such as the Fire Control
Officer and specifically authorised officers of Rural Fire Brigades.
Figure 193: Fire danger sign.
A total fire ban may be declared on days when weather conditions are
forecast that would make the control of fires very difficult. On these days
no fires in the open are permitted, with few exceptions. Total fire bans are
usually well publicised. In some brigade areas there may be roadside
signs indicating the current bush fire danger and whether a total fire ban
is in force. “No Burn” days are different from total fire bans: They are
declared by the Environment Protection Authority (EPA) to reduce air
pollution when needed.
(e) Pre-Incident Planning

Pre-incident planning activities consist of gathering information that can
assist with controlling an incident, before an incident occurs. For example,
brigade members may visit a high fire risk location, talk with occupiers,
and make a map or sketch of the area. They may also find out and note
down how to get access to the area, how many people may be in the area,
the hazards that are present, and any fire protection features (e.g. sources
of water supply). The collected information is often kept in a standard
format in a folder in the brigade’s main vehicle.
Pre-incident planning has several benefits. First, it is a form of training

and familiarisation for the members that carry it out. Second, the
collected information can be used by brigade members at actual incidents.
Third, the information can be used as the basis for “table-top” exercises
and discussions about how to handle incidents in the brigade area.
Finally, the contact with occupiers of properties in the brigade area can
give a positive brigade image and an opportunity to spread the fire
safety message.
PRE-FIRE DATA Anytown @ 31.7.03
Oval
BOARDING Northern Rd
SCHOOL
300 Students and staff Man-made

Dam
Water Treatment
Chemicals
FOREST
Large Crowd in
Evenings
Railway
Bulk
Grain
Bush Fire CLUB Grain Store
East Road
Prone Area
Railway Electrical
Station Substation
High
Voltage
R.F.S..
Station
Pesticides and Agric.

MOTEL Chemicals
West Road
Accommodation
(up to 50 beds) Power
Lines
3
Flammable Liquids
and Gases
WHEAT
FIELDS Coast
Road
Figure 194: Typical pre-incident planning data.

(f) Community Events

Brigades quite frequently may be involved in community events such as
local parades, fetes, providing transport for Santa Claus etc. These can be
a valuable way of relating with the local community, and within the bounds
of safety, common sense, and being able to maintain a fire protection
service while the event is in progress, are encouraged.
What is important is to ensure the Brigade’s involvement is an “approved

brigade activity” with your Fire Control Officer (FCO). As long as that is the
case there is no problem or doubt about the usual insurance and Worker’s
Compensation arrangements extending to the event. If the activity has not
been advised to and approved by the FCO, there may be doubt as to
whether it is a brigade activity or simply some members doing something
privately and apart from the brigade.
Figure 195: Brigade involvement in a community event.
(g) Fund Raising

Rural Fire Brigades do not need to have an authority to fundraise under
the Charitable Fundraising Act. However, they are required to observe
other provisions of that Act relating to the manner in which fundraising is
conducted, the keeping and auditing of accounts, maintenance of records
and release of information to the public on request. Further information is
available from your Fire Control Officer.
(h) Social Activities

Social events may include general get-togethers, barbecues, parties, etc.
These may often be conducted at the conclusion of training days or at
particular times during the year. If a brigade has no “social life” it’s
going to be pretty dull. On the other hand if it becomes nothing more
than a “social club” it’s not going to be a great asset for protecting the
community. A common sense approach is needed to achieve the
right balance.
8 Legal Issues
Many of the hassles that occur in brigades are a result of people being
misinformed or misunderstanding legal issues. A typical problem occurs,
for example, when people are falsely told that unless they follow safety
rules they are not covered by compensation if they have an accident.
To understand a little about legal matters you first need to understand that
there is more than one type of law. The two basic types of law are
common law and statute law.
(a) Common Law

Common Law is not written by politicians and is not written down in Acts
of Parliament. Common law has developed over several hundred years
and consists of principles and precedents applied by judges in making
decisions in various cases
In common law it is usually one citizen or corporation versus another.

One type of common law case is that of negligence. In this situation
somebody believes they have been injured or have suffered a loss as a
result of the negligence of another party. They believe that party owed
them a duty of care in some way and have failed in that duty. The court
may award damages to the injured party in negligence cases if their case
is proven.
(b) Statute Law

Statute law is written law. It is developed by politicians and enacted by the
Governor (State Law) or the Governor-General (Federal Law). Examples
include the Rural Fires Act, the Occupational Health and Safety Act, the
Workers Compensation Act and the Crimes Act.
When laws are passed by Parliament they often contain penalties for
non-compliance and specify who is responsible for policing them.
For example the Rural Fires Act is policed by the Rural Fire Service and
local Councils; and the Occupational Health and Safety Act is policed by
the WorkCover Authority.
Figure 196: Rural Fires Act and Regulation.
If you break a statute law you may be penalised under the provisions given
in that law. For example if you exceed the speed limit in your car you may
be fined under the Traffic Act and Motor Traffic Regulations. In such cases
the law provides that you have to prove you are innocent to avoid the
penalty. However, in criminal law, innocence is assumed and guilt has to
be proven beyond reasonable doubt.
(c) The Rural Fires Act

The Rural Fires Act is statute law designed to empower you and others to
protect people against fires in rural areas. Captains and Deputies of
Brigades and Group Officers have very wide powers under the Act,
enabling them to do some things that might normally not be legal for an
individual citizen.
Section 44 of the Act also empowers the Commissioner, or a person

appointed by the Commissioner, to co-ordinate all agencies involved in the
control of large and/or complex rural fires that are, or may become,
outside local control. You might sometimes hear of a major fire being
referred to as a “Section 44 Emergency”.
The Rural Fires Act also allows Rural Fire Brigades to be formed, defines
the functions and powers of Fire Control Officers, and grants powers to
prevent bush fires. It also has a section that protects officers of Brigades
from prosecution or from being sued for anything done in good faith under
the Act. Basically this means you are protected as long as you are acting
in a “fair dinkum” way. For example, you would be protected against being
sued for removing someone’s property from a house to protect it from
being burnt, but you would not be protected if you removed it at a fire in
order to steal it. Stealing would not be regarded as being in “good faith”.
Just in case there is a “loophole” in the legal protection provided to

members there is also an insurance scheme to protect you against any
legal liability that may arise under common law during rural firefighting and
associated activities. Your FCO has further information, if needed.
The NSW Fire Brigades work under a similar Act of Parliament.

Essentially it gives them control of all fires within declared Fire Districts
(i.e. cities and large towns), combat of hazardous materials emergencies
throughout the state, and various fire prevention functions.
(d) Compensation for Injury

Employees at a normal workplace are covered against financial loss
arising from work related illness or injury through the Workers
Compensation Act (i.e. statute law). A special Workers Compensation Act
also exists for emergency service volunteers, including rural firefighters.
As in the normal Workers Compensation system, it has a “no-fault” basis.

It does not matter if you were “in the wrong” when you suffered an injury.
To receive Workers Compensation all you have to do is show that the
injury or loss was related to your voluntary work as a rural firefighter.
Any suggestion that “you aren’t eligible for Workers Compensation
if you aren’t following safety rules” is just plain wrong. Anyone saying
this is either misleading you, is misinformed or has confused Workers
Compensation with the “contributory negligence” principle that can apply
in common law cases. About the only situation in which Workers
Compensation can be refused is in the case of a deliberate fraud being
discovered.
Figure 197: Injured firefighter being treated.
The scheme includes a rehabilitation program to help injured volunteers

back to their normal work and other activities. A difference from normal
Workers Compensation is that the scheme is administered through
the WorkCover Authority instead of through an insurance company.
All claims and enquiries should be made via your local FCO.
The scheme covers not only actual firefighting but other Brigade activities
such as training, maintenance work, fire prevention and associated
activities. It also covers you against damage or loss of personal items,
(such as your motor vehicle, spectacles, etc.) arising from your activities
as a volunteer. More information is available from your FCO.
(e) Health and Safety

The Occupational Health and Safety Act (OH&S) Act and OH&S
Regulation contain the laws that relate to OH&S in most workplaces in
NSW. The scene of a fire or incident certainly falls within the definition of
a “workplace” in the Act, although it was not written with volunteer workers
in mind. However, the parts of the OH&S Act and Regulation that detail the
responsibilities of employers (such as the RFS) make it quite clear that
those responsibilities extend not only to employees, but to anyone who is
legally in their workplace. This obviously includes volunteers.
Volunteers do not fall under the definition of “employees” in the OH&S Act,
and therefore are not technically subject to its obligation for employees to
take reasonable care for the health and safety of people who may be
affected by their acts or omissions at work. However, it would probably
be hard to justify (at least morally, if not legally) the view that because
someone is a volunteer, they have no responsibility for how their actions
might endanger others. After all, the main point of being a firefighter is to
protect people, not to place them in greater danger.
“Persons” (obviously this includes volunteers), however, under the OH&S

Act are legally obligated to not recklessly interfere with anything provided
for health, safety or welfare; not to create a risk (or the appearance of a
risk) in order create a disruption; and not to aid or abet a contravention of
the OH&S Act.
(f) Other Legal Issues

CRIMINAL ACTIVITY
One thing that volunteers are not protected against during their brigade
activities is prosecution for criminal activity. If you use your membership as
an opportunity to assault, steal or commit any other crime, or if you
are criminally negligent in what you do (i.e. negligence that involves
recklessness to a criminal degree) you receive no special protection just
because you are a volunteer rural firefighter.
TRAFFIC OFFENCES
When travelling from your home in a normal vehicle to a fire or your fire
station/shed, you are subject to all the normal rules of the road. If you are
the driver of an emergency vehicle, responding to a fire/incident under
lights and siren, some exemptions to the Australian Road Rules apply.
These are covered in detail in the Rural Fire Driving course and
associated training material. Under emergency conditions you are still
required to drive safely: If you are involved in a motor vehicle accident you
can be charged with an offence.
SUMMARY
• Types of brigades include remote rural brigades, rural brigades

and village brigades.
• The Service Delivery Model (SDM) is used to ensure cohesive

working of all the systems in the RFS and that they are matched
to the needs of the community.
• Quality of service is based on putting yourself in the position of

the victim and, if possible, providing a higher standard of service
than they expect.
• Brigades are usually formed by local Councils, have a

constitution, field officers (Captain, Senior Deputy Captain and
Deputy Captains), administrative officers (President, Secretary,
Treasurer, Training Officer and Equipment Officer) and specialists
(such as drivers, first aid officers, chain saw operators and so on).
• Brigades are usually organised into groups, under Group

Captains and Deputy Group Captains. They are trained to take
charge of larger incidents, or act as sector or division officers at
very large incidents.
• Rural Fire Districts usually correspond to a local government

area. The Fire Control Officer (FCO) is in overall charge of the
District and may be assisted by Deputy Fire Control Officer/s
and other staff. In many areas, several Districts have been
integrated together to form a Zone, under a Zone Manager.
• There are four RFS regions, with a Regional Manager in each,

assisted by Operations, Learning and Development, Bush Fire
Planning and Business officers.
• At a state level the RFS sets standards, devises the systems

under which the Service operates and purchases equipment
in bulk. The Commissioner of the RFS is in overall charge.
Funding for the RFS comes from insurance companies, the state
government and local councils.
• The Rural Fire Service Advisory Council (RFSAC) is an advisory

body to the Commissioner. The Co-ordinating Committee is a
multi-agency body representing fire and land management
agencies in NSW. The Rural Fire Service Association (RFSA)
is an association representing members of the Service.
SUMMARY
• Each brigade is required to keep a register of members.

Membership is defined as being listed on that register. People
can be removed from the register under certain circumstances,
and provisions exist to appeal against any such decision.
• A risk management approach is used to ensure firefighter health
and safety. At a District level a group should meet each year to
carry out a risk assessment and implement an action plan to
control identified hazards. Dynamic risk assessment can be used
at a firefighter and crew level to ensure safety. Chaplain and
critical incident support services are available within the RFS.
• Disciplinary action against a member can be taken, in
accordance with Service Standards, if they contravene the Rural
Fires Act or Regulation, fail to comply with applicable Service
Standards or are negligent, careless, inefficient or incompetent in
their duties.
• Grievance procedures are detailed in Service Standards for
resolving problems between members of brigades.
• Equipment needed for brigades is determined through the
Standards of Fire Cover process and can be supplied through the
Rural Firefighting Fund. Fire Control Officers select appropriate
equipment from the RFS Equipment Catalogue. Districts are
charged “program costs” to cover the provision of Service
administration, training manuals, public education materials
and the like.
• Equipment is largely maintained through checks, inspections and
tests conducted after use and at regular intervals by members.
Servicing of equipment, however, is usually done by trained
technicians.
• Most training is provided at a local level. The RFS uses a
competency based training system that recognises existing
competencies held by members. The training system includes
mainstream, specialist and staff courses.
• Assessment is carried out using applicant-friendly processes.
Competencies need to be maintained through drills and
exercises. Certification of competency is a requirement in
many brigades. Badges may be worn to indicate the level of
certification achieved.
SUMMARY
• The brigade secretary and treasurer often have a key role in

brigade administration, including handling correspondence,
minutes, reports, finances and liaison.
• Many brigades participate in public education activities to help
prevent fires in their community. The Firewise program is one
such activity.
• Many brigades participate in prescribed burning activities to
reduce fire hazards.
• Bush fire precautions include the declared Bush Fire Danger
period, Total Fire Bans and Permits to Burn.
• Many brigades are involved in community events, fund raising
and social activities. These should be approved by the FCO to
ensure appropriate insurance and workers compensation cover.
• Common law is unwritten and has developed through principles
and precedents set by judges. A common type of common law
case is that of negligence. A court may award damages if a case
of negligence is proven.
• Statute law is written law. Examples are the Rural Fires Act and
the Occupational Health and Safety Act. Statute law normally
includes penalties for proven breaches.
• The Rural Fires Act enables the protection of people against fires
in rural areas. It allows brigades to be formed, gives powers to
certain officers and provides legal protection for members when
acting in good faith.
• A special Workers Compensation Act exists for emergency
service volunteers, including rural firefighters. It is a “no-fault”
system.
• The Occupational Health and Safety (OH&S) Act and Regulation
contain the laws that relate to OH&S in most workplaces.
They specify key elements of safety management and encourage
participative management of safety issues.
• Volunteers are not protected against prosecution in criminal
matters. They must obey normal road rules when driving their
own normal vehicle to a fire or their station/shed. Emergency
vehicles being driven under lights and sirens must be driven
safely.
1. All rural fire brigades are virtually identical in the way

they are equipped, trained and operate.
2. The Service Delivery Model is the system used to

deliver models of equipment to brigades.
3. Quality of service is not expected from volunteer

rural fire brigades.
4. It is mandatory to have a constitution in a rural

fire brigade.
5. Only active firefighting members may vote for field

officers in brigade elections.
6. All members may vote for administrative officers

in brigade elections.
7. Captains wear orange coloured helmets.
8. If you are not listed on a brigade membership register,

officially you are not a member of a brigade.
9. Checks, inspections and tests of brigade equipment

are usually conducted by members of the brigade.
10. A person cannot be certified as competent unless

they complete a training course.
ACTIVITIES
1. Draw and label a diagram showing the hierarchy of your brigade,

including the Captain, Senior Deputy Captain, Deputy Captains,
President, Secretary, Treasurer, Training Officer, Equipment
Officer, First Aid Officer and any other office bearers.
2. Visit your District Fire Control Centre. Tour the facility and meet
the Fire Control Officer and their staff.
3. Have a look at your District’s firefighter safety risk assessment

action plan for the current year. What hazards have been
identified? What actions are being taken to control them?
4. Have a look at the library of Bushfire Bulletins, Firefighter Safety

Digests, training manuals, Training Services Information Booklet,
SOPs, public education materials, and reference publications
and pamphlets at your brigade station and/or District.
5. Find out what training opportunities exist for you once you have
qualified as a Bush Firefighter (BF)
399
CHAPTER 10
Local Familiarisation
1 Introduction
Becoming a firefighter involves more than simply attending a training
course. You also need to adapt what you have learned to your
specific brigade. In this chapter, the sorts of things you need to do to
become familiar with your own brigade will be covered.
While there are a lot of similarities between brigades, they are also some
important differences. For example, there are differences in the hazards
and risks in each brigade area, in the type of equipment used, and in
the membership of the brigade. All brigades may be a part of the ‘RFS
family’, but each also has its own individual ‘personality’.
In many brigades you may become a probationary member, participate in

a Bush Firefighter (BF) course shortly afterwards, and then complete
familiarisation activities in your own brigade. But that might not always be
the case. Sometimes, it may be a while before the next BF course is
scheduled to run. In the meantime you can complete some familiarisation
activities with your Brigade, (although many might make more sense once
you have done the course). In other areas the brigade itself may run the
BF course and integrate these familiarisation activities into it.
400 LOCAL FAMILIARISATION
2 Brigade Safety Induction

When you first start with a brigade there will be a lot of things that are not
familiar to you. Some of these may be hazards to your safety. It is vital that
almost the first thing that happens in the brigade is for you to receive a
safety induction. A typical safety induction should include:
• The Rural Fire Service safety policy.
• Who co-ordinates safety matters in the brigade.
• Hazards around the station/shed and vehicles,

and how to avoid or control them.
• Arrangements for supervision of your brigade activities.
• What activities you may (and may not) undertake while

you are a trainee.
• How to report hazards, accidents and near-misses.
• What to do if an emergency happens at the station.
• How to get first aid if you are injured.
• Information about hazardous substances used by the brigade.
• Use of personal protective equipment for station activities.
• Information about workers compensation, rehabilitation

and critical incident support services.
Figure 198: Copy of the RFS Safety Policy.

LOCAL FAMILIARISATION 401
As a general rule, you won’t be attending any fires or incidents until you
are qualified. Most of your activities as a trainee will consist of supervised
training and maintenance activities. While you will, therefore, have some
time to learn about hazards and safety during firefighting, you have to deal
with hazards around the fire station and vehicles straight away. This is why
a safety induction is a first priority when you join the brigade.
3 Brigade Constitution and Members

All brigades are required to have a constitution. It is not a requirement that
you study the constitution, but it will help you understand how things are
organised and run in your brigade. For example, you can find out what
officer positions exist, how often elections are conducted and who is eligi-
ble to vote. You can also find out about the probationary period that applies
to new members. You can either read the constitution, or have another
member explain its highlights to you.
Most brigades keep minutes of their meetings, and often post them on a
noticeboard at their station/shed. By reading the minutes you can often get
a good idea of what issues are being dealt with by the brigade at the time.
The noticeboard may also have a list of the various officer positions in the
brigade and the name of each office holder.
Figure 199: A brigade noticeboard.

An officer of the brigade always needs to be present during brigade

activities, especially those involving new trainees. Over time you will
probably meet most, if not all, officers of the brigade. Some brigades may
hold special events, perhaps a barbecue or other get-together when there
are new trainees, so that new members can have the opportunity to meet
as many of the officers and members as possible.
Not all of the brigade members are necessarily active firefighters.

Many brigades include auxiliary members who help in a supporting role.
For example, they may assist with calling out brigade members to a fire,
communications, critical incident support, and correspondence, running
meetings, and caring for brigade equipment and facilities. In some cases
the whole brigade may have a supporting role. For example, in catering,
communications or logistics brigades.
4 Brigade Facilities
‘Facilities’ refers to the fire station/shed and any associated amenities.
You should be shown around them, and told about when meetings are
held, if you need to sign on/off in an attendance book and security
arrangements, (such as who has keys and can set and unset any alarm
system that might be fitted). You should also be shown how to open and
close station doors and where to get water to refill tankers.
Many rural fire stations have amenities for making tea and coffee, and
storing food and drinks. Some might have a kitchen and/or an area for
sitting, meeting or training. Any rules relating to use of the amenities,
payment for food or drinks available on site, and consumption or storage
of alcohol should be explained to you.
Figure 200: Some brigades may have an amenities area.

Some stations may have a workbench and/or tools to help maintain

brigade equipment. If so, any safety requirements and any rules relating
to taking tools off-site should be explained to you. Most brigades look after
their own facilities. Often there may be a schedule or roster for keeping the
facilities clean and tidy.
5 Brigade Equipment and Maintenance

Brigade equipment consists of the firefighting vehicles and all the pumps,
hoses and other equipment carried on them, or stored as spares at the
station/shed. In most brigades there is an Equipment Officer who is
responsible to ensure the equipment is maintained.
You should know the type and callsigns of each of the vehicles in your
brigade. In addition, you should know how much water each carries, the
type and capacity of the pump, how many firefighters it can safely carry
and key pieces of equipment that are only carried on one of the brigade’s
vehicles. If you are in a brigade with many vehicles, your knowledge may
be limited to those vehicles on which you are likely to operate at a fire.
The Equipment Officer (or your Captain, if no Equipment Officer is

assigned in your brigade) should explain the maintenance system to you.
It consists of ‘breakdown’ maintenance (fixing things when they break) and
‘preventative’ maintenance (maintaining them so they are less likely
to break at a critical moment). There are four levels of preventative
maintenance; checks, inspections, tests and servicing, (explained more
fully in Chapter 9). The preventative maintenance system should include:
• A register of equipment carried/stored.
• A schedule to tell you which maintenance is due.
• Standards detailing the maintenance needed for each piece

of equipment.
• A record of the maintenance completed.
The first step in learning about brigade equipment is to get to know the
names, purpose, location, use and care of each item. One way to do this
is by ‘locker drill’. This consists of an officer naming a piece of equipment.
You then locate where it is kept on the vehicle, fetch it and explain what
it is used for and how it should be checked, inspected and tested.
Many brigades have a checklist of the equipment carried on each vehicle
and where it is located. Once you have become familiar with brigade
equipment, carrying out checks, inspections and tests is one of the best
ways of staying familiar with it.
Figure 201: Firefighters doing locker drill.

6 Brigade Area Familiarisation

Firefighting demands a prompt but safe response. If you receive a fire call
you need to be able to know where it is, what it’s likely to involve, what
hazards you are likely to encounter and what precautions you need to
take. To do this, you need to be familiar with your brigade area. If you’ve
lived in the area for a long time you will already be familiar with much of it,
but even then you may see your local area differently once you have the
‘eyes’ of a firefighter. You can build up familiarity with the area by going on
a tour of it, looking in particular at:
• The boundaries of your brigade area.
• The major roads and geographic features.
• Areas of high bush fire risk.
• How to get access to off-road areas.
• Sources of firefighting water supply.
• Effectiveness of radio communications at various locations.
Figure 202: Reproduction of a typical brigade area map.
As you become more experienced, your knowledge of the area should

grow. One way of doing this is through participating in pre-incident
planning activities. These are described in more detail in Chapter 9.
7 Brigade Information
In Chapter 9 you will find details of what sources of information should be
available to you at brigade level. In each brigade, the secretary normally
has the main responsibility for making sure members are kept informed
about general issues, and the Captain is responsible for making sure
members are kept informed about operational matters. However, this
responsibility is often delegated to others. For example, it may be the
Equipment Officer who informs people about a new piece of equipment.
8 Brigade Training
In Chapter 9 you will find an outline of the training system used in the RFS.
Most brigades usually have a Training Officer and usually they are a
qualified trainer. If there is no appointed training officer, this function is
carried by the Captain.
The Training Officer is responsible to make sure the members are kept
informed about training and assessment matters. Many brigades have
regular training sessions. These are usually scheduled well in advance
and run at times convenient to most members. Many brigades also offer
one-on-one instruction to members (especially newer members), at any
mutually convenient time.
Figure 203: Brigade level drill.

In most areas, most of the training courses are run at a local district level.
There are usually better training facilities at a district level and you also
have the opportunity of mixing and training with members of other
brigades. There should usually be a notice in your fire station/shed about
training being run at a district level.
More advanced types of training are run at a Regional and State level.
The latter are listed in the RFS Training Services Information Booklet.
This is published each year and distributed around March (the beginning
of the “training season” in most areas). There should be a copy in your
station/shed. If not, ask to obtain a copy as it also contains a lot of
information about how training and assessment should be conducted, and
outlines the content of the various courses.
9 Brigade Procedures
The RFS has standard operating procedures (SOP’s) for a wide range of
activities. Most brigades have a lot in common, so most SOP’s are
produced at a state-wide level. However, SOP’s may also exist at a district
or brigade level. These may cover issues not dealt with in the state
level SOP’s or explain how to apply the state level SOP’s to a specific
local situation.
For example, there is a (state-wide) Fireground SOP giving general

procedures for calling out brigades to fires and other incidents. At a district
level there may be an SOP that clarifies how it is applied to that particular
district. At a brigade level there may be an SOP for how that particular
brigade responds to a fire call.
Fireground
S.O.P.s
(1999 Edition)
THE NEW SOUTH WALES GOVERNMENT
Figure 204: Cover of Fireground SOPs.

There isn’t a requirement to have written SOP’s at a brigade level.

However, many have them so that there is a consistent understanding
between the members about how certain tasks should be done. Part of
your brigade training should include any relevant local procedures that
may exist.
10 The Local RFS District

So far you will have looked at your brigade by itself. However, your
brigade is part of a larger district organisation. If possible, your brigade
familiarisation should also include a visit to the local district office. In many
cases your BF training may be run at a district level and will include such
a visit.
Most districts are based on a local government area. Many districts are
combined to form an RFS zone. Within each district, brigades may also
be organised into groups. A good way to get an overview of the district
is to look at a map showing the brigade and group areas, the location
of fire stations/sheds, the general area, and areas located within
neighbouring NSW Fire Brigade and RFS districts. Most district offices
have such a map.
Figure 205: A typical Firecom.

The district office will usually include a Fire Communications Centre

(Firecom) and often has an equipment store, a training facility and/or a
facility for managing large fires attached to it. Take the opportunity to have
a look at these facilities. In most cases a visit to the district office will
also allow you to meet the local Fire Control Officer and their staff, and
possibly some of the Group Captains and Deputy Group Captains from
the area.
11 Other Bush Firefighting Organisations

Other organisations involved in bush firefighting include the NSW Fire
Brigades (NSWFB), NSW State Forests (SF) and the NSW National Parks
and Wildlife Service (NPWS).
The NSW Fire Brigades provide fire protection in cities and major towns.
They are in charge at virtually all fires and similar incidents inside their fire
districts. They are in charge at all hazardous materials incidents at
virtually any location in the State. While the RFS is in charge at structure
fires inside rural fire districts, the NSWFB will often respond and provide
the Operations Officer at such incidents.
While they do have some bushfire tankers, NSW Fire Brigade equipment
is mainly designed for structural firefighting. Their pumpers are usually not
suitable for rough off-road work and do not carry as much water as many
RFS tankers. At bush fires they often focus on protecting houses and
other property from the impact of fires. In larger towns and cities, NSWFB
crews consist of full-time, career firefighters. In smaller towns they are
retained (part time, paid) firefighters. In some areas, some crews may be
a mix of both.
Figure 206: A NSW Fire Brigade pumper.

NPWS and SF operate firefighting vehicles similar to RFS tankers and

have similar equipment. Their field staff have training based on that
provided by the RFS. They are responsible for fires inside or threatening
national parks and forests respectively, but will usually need the support of
the RFS for large fires.
Photo supplied by State Forests NSW
Figure 207: A State Forests firefighting unit.
The Commissioner of the RFS is also responsible for co-ordinating the

various organisations involved in bush firefighting in NSW. At a large bush
fire emergency, the Commissioner may appoint a suitable officer from any
of these organisations to be in overall charge of an incident. Because this
is done under Section 44 of the Rural Fires Act, such incidents are
sometimes referred to as a “Section 44” and the officer in charge as a
“Section 44 Controller”.
As part of your training, you should be familiar with other organisations

with whom you might operate. Sometimes an officer from one or more of
those organisations might present a session during your training or you
might visit one of their facilities. All of the above organisations share in
a common (national) incident control system (ICS) and national training
system, which makes smooth, co-ordinated, multi-agency firefighting
possible.
SUMMARY
• Becoming a firefighter may not only involve a training course, but

adapting what you have learned within your own brigade
environment.
• A safety induction should be one of the first things you receive
when you join a brigade.
• Each brigade is required to have a constitution outlining how the
brigade is organised and run.
• You should familiarise yourself with who holds the officer
positions in your brigade and take the opportunity to meet them
when it arises.
• You should be shown around your brigade station/shed and its
facilities, and have any rules relating to their security and use
explained to you.
• Carrying out locker drill is an effective way of learning about the
equipment carried by your brigade, what it is used for and how to
care for it.
• You should know the type, callsign and characteristics of vehicles
used in the brigade. The Equipment Officer should explain the
equipment maintenance system to you. The four levels of
maintenance are checks, inspections, tests and servicing.
• You need to be familiar with your brigade area. You can develop
this familiarity by touring the area. You can maintain and deepen
it through pre-incident planning activities.
• The brigade secretary normally has the main responsibility for
keeping members informed.
• Most brigades have a training officer, who is responsible to
ensure members are kept informed about training and
assessment matters. They are usually a qualified trainer and may
provide brigade training sessions.
• Most training is conducted at a district level, with more advanced
courses at regional and state level. More information about
training is published in the annual Training Services Information
Booklet, supplied to all brigades.
• Some brigades may have local procedures to supplement state
and district SOPs.
SUMMARY
• Most RFS Districts are based on local Council areas. Several

districts may be consolidated into zones. Brigades within districts
may be organised into groups.
• The NSW Fire Brigades (NSWFB), State Forests (SF) and
National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) are also involved in
bush firefighting. The Commissioner of the RFS is responsible
for co-ordinating bush firefighting by all services.
1. A safety induction is normally not given until you

are a qualified firefighter.
2. Information about how brigade officer elections are

to be conducted can be found in your brigade’s
constitution.
3. You should know the water carrying capacity of the

firefighting vehicles you will work with in your brigade.
4. Brigade training officers are always qualified trainers.
5. The Commissioner of the RFS is also responsible for

co-ordinating the bush firefighting activities of the
NSWFB, SF and NPWS.
ACTIVITIES
These activities form the post-course practice for the BF course
and each is explained in greater detail in the BF Workbook. If you
are already familiar with any of these activities, you might be
exempted from some or all of them. They are not included in the
Bush Firefighter Grassland (BFG) or Bush Fire Support (BFS)
courses.
1. Brigade familiarisation – Complete a brigade safety induction
(if one has not already been conducted) and be familiarised with
your fire station/shed and its associated facilities and brigade
procedures.
2. Locker drill – Participate in an activity to become familiar with the
names of all pieces of brigade equipment, where they are located
on the vehicle/s, what each is used for and how to care for each.
3. Maintenance – Participate in checks, inspections and tests
according to the brigade equipment maintenance system.
4. Hose drills – Participate in drills to develop safe intuitive hose
work skills, starting from simple hose drill, working through
adding and replacing hose lengths, to setting up hoses for typical
attacks on fires in a range of conditions.
5. Pump drills – Participate in drills to develop safe intuitive skills in
starting and operating vehicle mounted and portable pumps;
including working from tank, pressurised and open water supply
sources.
6. Ancillary equipment drills – Participate in drills to develop safe
intuitive skills in the use of ladders, ropes and knots, hand tools
and other ancillary equipment. When ready, do drills combining
the use of hoses and ancillary equipment in simulated fire
fighting scenarios.
7. Area familiarisation – Participate in a tour of the brigade area,
noting high-risk areas, hazards and fire protection resources.
Include a visit to the District Firecom and fire control centre.
Participate a typical pre-incident planning activity.
8. Exercises – Participate in exercises simulating actual bush fires,
starting from the fire station/shed and including departure
procedures, communications, en-route briefing, actions on
approach and arrival, safeguarding people, use of equipment,
working in co-ordination with other units, mopping up, returning to
station, debriefing and equipment maintenance. The exercises
should cover a range of scenarios from small, low intensity fires
to large, serious fire situations.
Answers to Self-Check Questions
Chapter Question Number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 T T F F T T T T T T
2 T F T T T F F T T F
3 F T T T T F F T F T
4 F F T T F T F T T T
5 F F T T F T T T T T
6 T T T F T F T T T T
7 T F T T F T F T T T
8 F T T T F T F T F F
9 F F F T T T F T T F
10 F T T F T - - - - -
415
Extinguisher Colour and Pictogram chart.
CLASS OF A B C (E) F
FIRE
Ordinary Flammable Flammable Fire Fire
combustibles and gases involving involving
TYPE OF FIRE (wood, paper, combustible energized cooking oils
plastics etc.) liquids electrical and fats
equipment
INDICATING TYPE OF
COLOUR EXTINGUISHER EXTINGUISHER SUITABILITY
WATER YES NO NO NO NO
Most suitable
WET YES NO NO NO YES

CHEMICAL Most suitable
ALCOHOL YES
Most suitable NO
RESISTANT YES for
NO NO
FOAM alcohol fires
AFFF TYPE YES YES NO NO NO

Most suitable
FOAM except for
alcohol fires
AB(E)
DRY CHEMICAL YES YES YES YES NO
POWDER
B(E)
DRY CHEMICAL NO YES YES YES YES
POWDER
CARBON
DIOXIDE YES YES NO YES YES
(CO2)
HALON
(1211)BCF
Vapourizing
liquid (fumes YES YES YES YES NO
may be
dangerous in
confined spaces)
Halon substitute extinguishers may be coloured red with a yellow band.

416
Summary of changes to BF - (2003)

Bush Firefighter Manual Version 1.1
Insert inner title page between inside front cover and table of contents.
Page 39 - Insert new paragraph to section (b) Types of Fire,

Buildings and Bush Fires (replaces old paragraph on fires
re-burning through burnt vegetation).
Page 149 - Insert new paragraph to section (e), Defensive Strategy -

People/Property Protection, about defending buildings
during bush fire impact.
Page 302 - Insert conversion chart of common simplex channel

names/numbers between different agencies.
Page 321 - Insert new section (g) Readability Scale.
Page 415 - Insert Extinguisher Colour Chart.
Various minor corrections to graphics and text.

417
Acknowledgements
Source Texts
Australasian Fire Authorities Council (AFAC)

Queensland Fire & Rescue Service / Rural Fire Service
Original Text and Editing

Phil Robeson
Graphics
Amanda Layton (Savvy Design), Peter Carter
Additional Photos
Amanda Layton, Cameron Wade, John Winter,
Peter Carter, and as noted on individual photos
Publishing and Layout

Amanda Layton (Savvy Design)
Assistance from
NSW Fire Brigades, State Forests NSW

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BF - (2003)

THE NEW SOUTH WALES GOVERNMENT

BF (2003) - Bush Firefighter Manual 1st October

Answers to Self-Check Questions 414

Extinguisher Colour and Pictogram chart 415

Summary of Changes in Version 1.1 416

Welcome to the RFS

You will be using a ‘Workbook’ during your initial training.

2 Basic Principles of Firefighter Safety

• “Responsibility” means that you take appropriate care for the

• “Reporting” means that you freely and openly exchange

• “Risk assessment” means that you think through the

Safety during firefighting has some important differences to safety in

• Procedures – The fireground is no place for people to do their own

• Training – Firefighting is challenging. Under the stress of a fire,

• Personal Protective Clothing and Equipment – Firefighting is a

2. That you use appropriate procedures to control those hazards.

3. That you review the effectiveness of those control procedures.

4. That you participate in applying good health and safety practices

3 Basic Principles of Fire

(b) What is Fire ?

The components necessary for a fire to burn, or continue to burn, are

Figure 1: Fire triangle.

(c) What is Combustion ?

(d) The Fire Triangle

• Contribute to the heating of air.

• Be radiated from flames or burning fuel.

• Be conducted as heat to other fuel particles.

This is found in the air we breathe. It is a colourless, odourless gas,

Each of these methods of heat transfer will be discussed later in this

A fuel is anything that will burn under suitable conditions. Fuels in

• Type – Some fuels are more flammable than others due to

• Size – Large fuel particles take longer to burn than small

• Quantity – More fuel may mean more heat being generated

• Arrangement – If fuel pieces are densely packed, they may

• Moisture content – If there is too much moisture, then the

(e) The Fire Tetrahedron

• Chemical chain reaction.

The relationship between these four components is illustrated through

Figure 2: Fire Tetrahedron.

Some types of firefighting agents are capable of directly interrupting

(f) Heat Transfer

Convection is the movement of heat through the circulation of hot fluids

• A fire may supply its own oxygen by continually drawing in a supply

Conduction refers to the transfer of heat through a solid object from a

(g) Methods of Attacking the Fire

• Cut off the oxygen supply and smother the fire.

• Reduce the temperature and cool the fire.

CUTTING OFF THE OXYGEN SUPPLY

• Laying foam on burning fuels.

• Using a fire extinguisher that applies a smothering substance to

• Using a fire blanket to extinguish a small cooking fire or a fire

Figure 6: Cutting off the oxygen supply.

REDUCING THE TEMPERATURE

• It absorbs a lot of the heat energy, and removes it as the water

• It cools the fuel below its ignition temperature.

Figure 7: Reducing the temperature.

REMOVING THE FUEL

Removing the fuel may be an effective way of stopping a fire.

The following techniques are examples of dry firefighting of bush and

• The use of machinery such as bulldozers to make a wide break or

Figure 8: Removing the fuel.

Although the methods of extinguishing a fire have been dealt with

Wetting agents are sometimes added to water to improve its ability to