Journal of Food Engineering 83 (2007) 186–192

www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Application of safes (systematic approach to food engineering

systems) methodology to dehydration of apple by combined methods
N. Betoret *, A. Andrés, L. Segui, P. Fito
Institute of Food Engineering for Development, Food Technology Department, Polytechnic University of Valencia, Camino de Vera, s/n, Cp 46022, Spain

Available online 21 February 2007

Abstract

SAFES methodology has been specifically designed to describe and analyze foods, operations and processes systematically. It is based
on the multicomponent and polyphasic character of foods, requires establishing simplificative hypothesis and it allows us to quantify the
changes that the operations and processes cause in food as well as the mechanisms responsible for them, making possible a quality con-
trol in the final product. The application of SAFES methodology to dehydration of apple by combined methods requires considering it as
a biologic system constituted by cells which assemble in a tissue including intercellular connexions, intercellular spaces and pores. In this
system, the phases and components considered should not limit the mechanisms involved in removing water. Five components distrib-
uted in five different phases have been considered in the definition of composition matrix of raw material and products after each oper-
ation. Experimental data for mass (total, water and solutes) and volume changes after each step and simplified hypothesis concerning
water distribution among phases and location of liquid phase have been necessary to apply the SAFES methodology, determining
the evolution of composition and volume in each phase (composition matrix and volume vector) and analyzing driving forces and mech-
anisms involved in the main changes of the product. The application of SAFES methodology to dehydration of apple by combined meth-
ods reveals that traditional methods based on the analysis of foods as a continuous and homogeneous system are inadequate to control
the changes in the quality properties of the product. Consequently, it is necessary a rigorous analysis directed to establish relations
between food properties and physico-chemical changes in the product along the process.
Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Combined drying; Apple; Quality; Safes

1. Introduction conditions, mainly air temperature and velocity. Nowa-

Different dehydration techniques are widely used to sta-
bilize fruits. A lot of papers about dehydration methods
like air drying (AD) or osmotic dehydration (OD) are
being published around the world. Therefore, vacuum
impregnation (VI) pre-treatment may be used as a tool
both to improve mass transfer and to develop engineered
products (Fito et al., 2001).
In these papers, a solid food is considered as a mono-
phasic and homogenous system and product humidity is
considered as the main variable related with quality charac-
teristics of the final product being correlated with process
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 963877056; fax: +34 963877956.
E-mail address: noebeval@tal.upv.es (N. Betoret).
days, consumers are much more demanding and they call
for products with a good texture, colour, and nutritional
value. Quality is becoming a more complex concept which
affects functionality of the product (Fito & Chiralt, 2003).
In this situation, foods have to be defined considering
structural, sensorial, physical–chemical and nutritive
aspects. The changes in every considered characteristic
along drying processes need to be taken into account and
mechanistic correlations among these characteristics and
process variables must be established (Torreggiani &
Bertolo, 2001).
A new methodology that allows us to consider struc-
tural, physical–chemical and nutritive aspects when defin-
ing a fruit and also to analyze phase transitions,
structural changes and transport phenomena in a system-
atic way (SAFES) (Fito, LeMaguer, Betoret, & Fito, in

0260-8774/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2007.02.018
 N. Betoret et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 83 (2007) 186–192
Nomenclature
De effective moisture diffusivity
Ks, Ks0, Kw, Kw0 kinetic parameters
l characteristic dimension
m mass
[OS] osmotic solution concentration
P pressure
r radius
q density
qa apparent density
qr real density
T temperature
t time
V volume
v air velocity
press) has been applied to dehydration of apple by com-
bined methods.
2. Materials and methods
SAFES methodology is conceived to describe food con-
sidering its structural, thermodynamic and physico-chemi-
cal complexity in the simplest possible way as it is possible
to detect the excellent changes that it can suffer as a result
of a stage of changes. It is based on mathematic matrices
designed for mass balances which include food components
in different aggregation states in rows and food phases in
columns (Fito et al., in press). One descriptive matrix
(DM) defines a product, and the difference between two
DM origins the matrix of changes (MC) that reflects the
phase transitions, the compositional and structural changes
and the transport phenomena involved in a stage of
changes or in a unit operation. DM and MC are identified
with two subscripts, first indicates the position of the prod-
uct (DM) or the stage considered (MC) in the global pro-
cess (represented by a flow diagram) and the second is a
reference to specify the mass basis to which values are
referred to in the matrix. Apple (var. Granny Smith) has
been the fruit analyzed and a dehydration process that
includes VI, OD and AD as basic operations has been con-
sidered. Data from literature has been used and some
hypothesis related to composition and water distributions
have been established to define DM. Data, hypothesis
and the sequence of calculations to construct DM and
MC are included in Fig. 1.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. The concept of stage of changes. Application to the
process of dehydration of apple by combined methods
The concept of unit operation (UO), inherited from
chemical engineering, has been used in food engineering.
187
Xw moisture content (as mass fraction)
Xss soluble solids content (as mass fraction)
X1 volumetric fraction of liquid incorporated in the
first stage of VI step
X2 volumetric fraction of liquid incorporated in the
second stage of VI step
c1 volumetric deformation in the first stage of VI
step
c2 volumetric deformation in the second stage of
VI step
e effective porosity
DMw relative increment in water mass
DMss relative increment in soluble solids mass
The SAFES methodology has defined the concept ‘‘stage
of changes (SC)”. in order to identify specifically each
one of the changes that a product goes through during a
UO, as well as the mechanisms responsible for them, A
SC may be defined as the time span during which a food
system undergoes some relevant change (in state variables,
structure, composition, aggregation states. . .) (Fito et al.,
in press).
In the process of dehydration by combined methods
considered in this work, VI operation has been divided in
two SC, while OD and AD have been analysed as a unique
operations. Fig. 2 shows the flow chart including operation
conditions.
In operation VI the direction of the pressure gradients
that act as driving forces in stages at and atmospheric pres-
sure, determines the direction of the flows and deforma-
tions in the product making it necessary to analyze each
one independently.
It is well known that in AD operations different mecha-
nisms (osmotic, diffusion, hydrodynamic. . .) are responsi-
ble for the water removal depending on the presence of a
liquid phase. As a consequence the drying rate is affected.
An unique SC has been considered for AD operation.
– OD has been analyzed as a unique SC because the time
considered (3 h) is short enough to consider only
changes in composition of liquid phase (Barat, Albors,
Chiralt, & Fito, 1999).
3.2. Phases, components and aggregation states in fresh and
dried fruits. The descriptive matrix (DM)
Fruits and vegetables are biological systems constituted
by cells that are assembled to configure a parenquimatic
tissue which includes intercellular connexions, intercellular
spaces and pores taken up by gas or native liquid to quite
an extent (Trakoontivakorn, Patterson, & Swansoo, 1988).
188 N. Betoret et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 83 (2007) 186–192

Fig. 1. Data, hypothesis and the sequence of calculations to build up DM and MC for each stage of changes.

This structure conditions to a great extent fluxes and kinet-
ics in processing operations and the quality of final product
(rehydration and instant properties, flavour retention and
sensorial attributes such as colour and texture). In addi-
tion, some changes in an operation may only affect some
components included in a limited area or some specific
structures; therefore it has to be considered when describ-
ing a raw material, an intermediate product in a process
or a final product. Some phenomena affecting one specific
phase in VI, OD and AD operations are:
 N. Betoret et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 83 (2007) 186–192 189

includes cells which are thermodynamically possible (white

Fig. 2. Flow chart of the process of dehydration by combined methods
analysed in this work. Conditions of each SC have been specified and the
calculated matrices are referred in brackets.
cells) and cells which are not (pointed cells). Fig. 3 shows
this space suitably configured for apple in the process of
drying by combined methods.
Experimental data and the four hypotheses specified in
Fig. 1, mainly referred to water sharing among the different
phases and to the composition of intracellular and intercel-
lular liquid phases, for fresh apple have been used to define
DM of fresh apple (Fig. 4). Values of X1 and c1 of apple
(var. Granny Smith), experimentally calculated by Salva-
tori, Andrés, Chiralt, and Fito (1998). have been used with
hypothesis 3 to quantify liquid that takes up extracellular
spaces.

– VI operation produces the partial release of gas from

pores and its replacement by an external liquid which
affects physico-chemical and structural properties of
raw material and the subsequent behaviour of OD and
AD operations (Fito et al., 2001).
– In OD operation, when there is liquid in the pores, the
force balance on the double layer plasmalema–cell wall
leads to layer separation while plasmalema shrinks in
line with water loss with scarce deformation of cell wall.
However, when a gas phase occupies the intercellular
space, plasmalema shrinks together with cell wall that
deformes greatly as the process progresses (Barat
et al., 1999).
– In AD processes of fruit and vegetables, transport rate is
greatly affected by the tissue structure and composition,
both defining the effective values of its transport proper-
ties (thermal properties and water effective diffusion
coefficient) (Fito et al., 2001). Moreover large moisture
content gradients coexist during drying, meaning that
rubber and glassy states may be present simultaneously Fig. 3. The space of phases and components suitably configured for apple
in the process of drying by combined methods.
inside a finite food piece.

In order to be able to control changes that occur only in a

specific phase or component a matrix which includes
phases, components and aggregation states has been
designed to describe a food. This matrix may include mass
values, energy values or any other state variable or thermo-
dynamic variable which is interesting to evaluate changes
in a product or in a process. As it has been indicated in
materials and methods, the matrix including mass values
(as mass fractions), volume values and temperature and
pressure vectors has been named descriptive matrix (DM).
Five phases (solid matrix (SM), intracellular liquid (IL),
extracellular liquid (EL), soluble solids in solid state (SSs)
and gas (G)), five components (water, insoluble solids, sol-
uble solids (native), soluble solids (added) and gases) and
the five possible aggregation states (gas (G), liquid (L),
adsorbed (A), rubber (R), vitreous (V) and crystalline
(K)) have been considered in DM of fresh, impregnated,
osmotic dehydrated and air dried apple. The space of
phases and components defined in this way (as a matrix) Fig. 4. DM of fresh apple.
190 N. Betoret et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 83 (2007) 186–192

3.3. A procedure to quantify changes in a SC. The matrix

of changes (MC)

Using this methodology to describe fresh, intermediate

or final products in a process, it is easy to detect the mass
fluxes, phase transitions and biochemical reactions that one
SC produces in a product. These changes appear automat-
ically reflected in the MC which it is calculated by the dif-
ference between DM of the products involved in the SC.
The MC of each SC included in the flow chart represented
in Fig. 2 are represented in Figs. 5–8. Each one of the fluxes
and phases transitions which appear reflected in each one
of the matrices are described in the next paragraphs
according to the hypothesis pre- established and the mech-
anism involved.

Fig. 7. MC of OD stage.

Fig. 5. MC of VI1 stage.

Fig. 8. MC of AD stage.

3.4. The MC of VI1 stage (MC1.0)

Fig. 5 shows MC of VI1 stage. Values in this matrix

reflects that in the stage of VI operation that occurs at vac-
uum pressure (VI1 stage), there is a flux of liquid (water and
soluble solids) from extracellular liquid phase to external
one. As it was described by Fito, Andrés, Chiralt, and
Pardo (1996), this flux occurs as a consequence of pressure
gradients. The mechanism responsible of it was named
hydrodynamic mechanism (HDM) and it is coupled with
deformation- relaxation phenomena which affects the struc-
ture and modify the volume of the sample. The extent of
deformations, as well as the degree of impregnation reached
in this type of operation, depends essentially on the struc-
ture of the material and its mechanical properties and, of
course, on operating conditions. Tissue structure plays a
Fig. 6. MC of VI2 stage. very important role, not only due to the total porosity,
 N. Betoret et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 83 (2007) 186–192
but also to the size and shape distribution of pores and the
communications between themselves and with the external
liquid. (Fito et al., 1996). The last row of the MC of VI1
stage shows a positive value in the cell of whole food volume
that means the volume of the sample increases in this stage.
This increase in the volume is the consequence of gas expan-
sion inside extracellular spaces (Fito et al., 1996).
3.5. The MC of VI2 stage (MC2.1)
Fig. 6 shows MC of VI2 stage. Values in this matrix
reflect changes produced in the fruit after atmospheric
pressure is restored. As Fito et al. (1996) explained, when
the atmospheric pressure is restored in the system, forces
due to differences between external and internal pressures
may produce both solid matrix deformations, and the
fluxes induced by HDM. The net liquid penetration by
HDM and the solid matrix deformation (X and c) in apple
(var. Granny Smith) were experimentally evaluated by
Salvatori et al. (1998). As it is represented in Fig. 1 these
values have been used to build MC2.1 were no null values
reflect liquid (water and soluble solids) penetration from
external fluid to extracellular liquid phase. The last row
shows a negative value in the cell of whole food volume
which means the volume of the sample decreases in this
stage.
3.6. The MC of OD stage (MC3.2)
Experimental kinetic data for osmotic dehydration oper-
ation obtained according to Eqs. (1)–(3) (Fito & Chiralt,
1996) and hypothesis 7 (Fig. 1) have been used to obtain
DM for osmotic dehydrated apple.
DM w ¼ K w t0:5 þ K w0
0:5
DM ss ¼ K s t þ K s0
ðmt xit  m0 xi0 Þ
DM i ¼ 100
m0
Equations used were included in a model deduced by Fito
and Chiralt (1996) which takes into account:
– Thermodynamic aspects in terms of the chemical poten-
tial of components in the present phases at equilibrium.
– Kinetic analysis of mass transfer for each component,
taking into account pseudo-Fickian (osmotic and diffu-
sion), vaporization–condensation, HDM, as well as the
role of structure in their coupling.
– Prediction of the liquid retention capacity of the solid
matrix.
MC associated to OD stage reflects compositional changes
originated in the product as a consequence of this basic
operation (under conditions specified) (Fig. 7). The sign
of the values and its position in the configured matrix allow
us to know fluxes and mechanisms involved in the opera-
tion. Water flows from intracellular liquid to extracellular
191
liquid and from this one to the external phase, and soluble
solids flow from external phase to the extracellular liquid
phase. Considering that during an OD operation there
are normally no pressure gradients except for the contribu-
tion from the cell turgor, which is supposed to disappear in
the first stages of the process, mechanisms depending on
water activity gradients are responsible for these fluxes.
These mechanisms have been named ‘‘pseudodiffusionals”
mechanisms, which include Fickian and osmotic mecha-
nisms that involve individual cell interaction, cells in the
external surface of the solid external solution and cells in
the internal surface of the pores. As no pressure gradients
have been considered, volume changes are only due to vol-
ume changes in liquid phase. Nule values for every compo-
nent in external phase are the result of a mass relation of 20
between external phase and vacuum impregnated apple.
3.7. The MC of AD stage (MC4.3)
Drying of cellular tissues produces several chemical
(browning and other reactions) and physical (color, tex-
ture, shape, porosity, etc.) changes that are not indepen-
dent but related in some complex ways. The most
commonly examined properties of dried products are usu-
ally classified into two major categories, engineering and
quality properties. For the chemical engineer the critical
parameters derived from the drying process are the drying
rate and the effective moisture diffusivity of the product.
Although these parameters do not provide information
about final quality of the product, they are the most widely
reported. In order to show SAFES methodology is useful
to know the mechanisms involved in mass transfer phe-
nomena, apparent moisture diffusivity of apple (Bilbao,
2002) and Eq. (4) have been used to obtain DM of air dried
ð1Þ apple and the MC associated with this SC in the process
ð2Þ considered in this study.
  2 
X wt 32 p 5:783
ð3Þ ¼ 2 exp De  t ð4Þ
X w0 p 5:783 4l2 r2
MC associated to AD stage is shown in Fig. 8. It can be ob-
served all the water in liquid phase has been eliminated and
it has been necessary it flows from intracellular liquid to
extracellular liquid and from the last to the external phase
(like in OD stage). The mechanisms involved have been the
same that in OD stage. Positive and negative values in cells
for soluble solids reflect the water loss has induced phase
transitions in every soluble solids.
Changes in volume appear as a consequence of the water
loss and the viscoelastic matrix contraction into the space
previously occupied by the water removed from the cells
(Aguilera, 2003).
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the MEC (Ministerio de Edu-
cación y Ciencia), CAPA (Consellerı́a de Agricultura Pesca
y Alimentación), CEUyC (Consellerı́a de Empresa, Univers-
192 N. Betoret et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 83 (2007) 186–192
idad y Ciencia) and UPV (Universidad Politécnica de Valen-
cia) for the financial support given to this investigation.
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