Composites Science and Technology 60 (2000) 705±716

The analytical characterization of 2-D braided textile composites

Joon-Hyung Byun *
Composite Materials Lab, Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials, 66 Sangnam-Dong, Changwon, Kyungnam, South Korea

Abstract
An analytical model based on the unit cell was developed for the prediction of the geometric characteristics and three-dimen-
sional (3-D) engineering constants of 2-D braided textile composites. The crimp yarn angle and the ®ber-volume fraction were
obtained from the geometric model. The elastic model utilizes coordinate transformation and the averaging of sti€ness and
compliance constants on the basis of the volume fraction of each reinforcement and matrix material. Seven di€erent fabric
architectures have been fabricated and tested by tensile loading to verify the model. The classical thin laminate theory has also
been applied to the braided composites in order to compare the predictions with the averaging method. Although the two ana-
lytical approaches are well correlated with experimental results, the averaging method is more accurate when the braider-yarn
angle is small or when the bundle size of axial yarns is much larger than that of the braider yarns. Parametric studies have been
conducted to investigate the e€ects of the braider-yarn angle and the axial-yarn content to the elastic properties of the composites.
The results are demonstrated in the form of property maps for selected moduli and Poisson's ratios. # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd.
All rights reserved.
Keywords: Unit cell; Braided textile; Coordinate transformation; Averaging method; Fiber architecture

1. Introduction full layer of yarns in one pass along the mandrel,

The development of composite parts requires that
material selection and design process should be linked
with manufacturing costs. The labor-intensive aspects of
tape laying-up and the slow production rate of auto-
clave processes have limited the application of compo-
site materials mostly to the aerospace and military
industries, where the performance was the most impor-
tant factor. As the application areas of composite
materials are steadily expanding, it is essential to
develop the technology for designing and manufactur-
ing cost-e€ective structures. Even in the aerospace and
military sectors, the pressures on productivity and costs
have been a major force.
Recent advances in liquid molding processes, coupled
with the higher-rate of production of textile preforms,
have brought a renewed interest to textile structural
composites. Among many types of textiles, braided
preforms can provide a wide range of ®ber orientations
and preform cross-sections. Because yarns are deposited
on the mandrel, braiding is similar to ®lament winding.
Unlike ®lament winding, however, braiding produces a
* Tel.: +82-551-280-3312; fax: +82-551-280-3498.
E-mail address: bjh1673@kmail.kimm.re.kr (J.-H. Byun).
0266-3538/00/$ - see front matter # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0266-3538(99)00173-6
resulting in a higher ®ber-deposition rate. Like the
woven structure, the braided layer exhibits yarn interla-
cing, which contributes structural stability during the
braiding process and improves the damage tolerance of
the composite parts. Because of the damage resistance
of these materials and the manufacturing ¯exibility of
near-net-shape forming with high production rates,
braided composites have been considered as a candidate
material for aircraft structures [1].
In general, it is feasible to design textile composites
with considerable ¯exibility in performance with a wide
variety of ®ber architectures. Since there are many
parameters involved in the mechanical properties of tex-
tile composites, such as the fabric pattern, yarn bundle
size, yarn types, and the yarn orientation angle, etc., it is
necessary to develop a reliable model to characterize the
composites analytically. Signi®cant e€ort has been
made in predicting the elastic properties of textile com-
posites but, compared with the achievements in model-
ing work on 2-D woven composites [2±6] or even 3-D
textile composites [7±12], very little work has been car-
ried out on 2-D braided composites. Yang and Chou
[13] have analyzed triaxially-woven composites on the
basis of an extension of the crimp model [2]. Although
the geometry of this fabric is di€erent from that of
706 J.-H. Byun / Composites Science and Technology 60 (2000) 705±716
braid, the methodology can be readily applied to triaxi-
ally-braided composites.
Masters et al. [14] have investigated the mechanical
properties of braided composites experimentally and
analytically. Four di€erent models have been utilized to
predict elastic moduli: the laminate model, the laminate
model with a correction factor, the diagonal brick model,
and the ®nite-element (FE) model. The model predictions
were correlated well with experimental values and the FE
model showed the best agreement, although the improve-
ment was not drastic. The laminate model has the limita-
tion of predicting only the planar property of the
composites. This is critical when the elastic constants in the
thickness direction are required in the analysis of compo-
site structures. The diagonal-brick model based upon rod
skeletons over-simpli®es the geometry of the preform, and
does not represent the yarn curvature. Although the FE
model showed the best prediction, it involves complicated
geometric modeling and a long period of calculation time.
It is a tedious job because the FE geometry should be
reconstructed whenever the fabric geometry changes.
Smith and Swanson [15] utilized three kinds of models
to predict the sti€ness and applied the failure criterion
of maximum ®ber strain to predict a biaxial failure of
triaxially-braided textile composites. The three sti€ness
models are the laminated plate theory, the 3-D lami-
nated-plate theory, and the ®ber inclination model [7].
Although the latter two models are more re®ned that
the ®rst one, the ®ber undulation has been modeled as a
straight rod, not having a curvature. The in-plane engi-
neering constants have been obtained from these models.
When the crimp angle of braider yarns becomes large,
the through-the-thickness properties of the composites
should be taken into account.
A re®ned model of braid geometry has been proposed
by Naik et al. [16]. Based upon yarn discretization and
volume-averaging technique, they predicted the 3-D
e€ective sti€ness of triaxially-braided composites. The
correlation of elastic moduli with test results was generally
good, although comparison of geometric characteristics
such as the yarn crimp angle or the ®ber-volume fraction
has not been made explicitly. Yarn discretization
involves much computational work, and the input data
may be sensitive to the selected values obtained by the
iteration procedure.
In this paper, the elastic model based upon the unit-
cell geometry and the averaging technique [17] has been
established to predict the engineering constants of the
triaxially-braided composites. This methodology was
successfully applied in the 3-D textile composites [9,18].
From the realistic description of the braid structure, the
geometric parameters and the elastic constants are
derived in closed-form expressions. The calculation pro-
cedures are simpler and easier to use than those based
upon the lamination theory or the yarn-discretization
approach.
2. 2-D braid structure
A 2-D braided fabric consists of two sets of yarns
passing over and under each other. In addition to the
braiding yarns, axial yarns are often inserted for
dimensional stability and improved mechanical proper-
ties in the longitudinal direction. Since the ®ber direc-
tions are ‹ and 0 with respect to the longitudinal
direction, this type of preform is called a triaxial braid.
Fig. 1(a) shows the schematic pattern of a regular braid
to demonstrate the yarn interlacing. It can be seen that
yarns pass over two and under two yarns oriented at
opposite angles to each other. The axial yarns are nor-
mally introduced from stationary yarn carriers behind
the machine bed. Because the tubes for the axial yarns
locate between the paths of two sets of braider yarns
moving clockwise and counter-clockwise, axial yarns are
located between two braider yarns in the thickness
direction.
The pattern in Fig. 1(a) seldom occurs in the actual
braiding. Normally, the yarns are in contact with each
other to make a compact structure, as shown in Fig.
1(b). The geometry of triaxial braids is characterized by
the orientation of braider yarns, , and the pitch length,
h. Although the braider-yarn angle is the more important
for the mechanical property of composites, it is not directly
controlled during the fabrication. Instead, the pitch length
is adjusted to set the desired yarn angle according to a
reciprocal relation between these two parameters.
As a result of the repeating motion of the carriers,
braids have the smallest repeating structure, termed a
unit cell. The line in Fig. 1(b) indicates the unit cell,
where two braider yarns at   angles and two axial
yarns are contained. The unit cell can be represented in
the x±y±z coordinate system. The x-axis is along the
longitudinal direction or the length-wise axis of the
braid-forming direction. The braider-yarn direction is
denoted as x0 -axis. The y-axis and z-axis are the width
direction and thickness direction, respectively.
Fig. 1. 2-D braided textile preform: (a) schematic pattern; (b) compact
structure.
 J.-H. Byun / Composites Science and Technology 60 (2000) 705±716
3. Geometric relation
3.1. Yarn architecture
The properties of textile structural composites depend
on the geometric pattern of the textile preform, the
properties of the constituent materials, and the ®ber-
volume fraction. In order to link the microstructure of
the preform to the mechanical property of the composite,
a geometric model for the triaxial braid is developed.
The yarn geometry is identi®ed from the braid's
microstructure. Fig. 2(a)±(c) shows the yarn sections in
the y, x0 , and x directions, respectively. The letters `A'
and `B' indicate the axial yarns and the braider yarns,
respectively. The cross-section of axial yarns in Fig. 2(a)
reveals relatively consistent shapes as a result of the
straight placement of the yarns in the longitudinal
direction, as shown in Fig. 2(c). The braider yarn in Fig.
2(a) shows an irregular cross-sectional shape because of
Fig. 2. Photomicrographs of yarn sections: (a) in the width direction; (b) in the braider-yarn direction; (c) in the longitudinal direction, (A, axial-
yarn; B, braider-yarn).
707
the crimp at opposite angles. The undulation section of
braider yarns along the x0 direction, however, shows a
typical shape of yarn crimp. As a result of the appear-
ance of the yarn crimp and more regular shapes of yarn
sections, the geometric model is based upon the section
along the braider-yarn direction (x0 - direction). Fig. 3
shows the schematic of the yarn sections and the yarn
crimp. Within the undulation repeat, the braider yarn
interlaces one axial yarn and two braider yarns of oppo-
site directions. To describe the wavy geometry of the
crossing yarn, the axial yarn cross section is assumed to
be lenticular shape [19], which corresponds to the over-
lapped area of two circles. It is noted that the cross-
section of braider yarns changes to irregular shape
because they are located on the fabric surface, and tend
to ¯atten when in contact with mold surfaces or other
fabric layers.
The following parameters are de®ned to obtain the
geometric relations: ta,tb,tu=the thickness of axial
708 J.-H. Byun / Composites Science and Technology 60 (2000) 705±716

Fig. 3. Schematic yarn sections in the braider-yarn direction.

yarns, braider yarns, and the unit cell, respectively;
fa=the aspect ratio of the axial yarn cross-section along
the width directions (Fig. 4); Ls=the repeat length of the
braider-yarn undulation; ru=the radius of the braider-
yarn undulation; and =the yarn-crimp angle. Since the
shape parameters of the axial yarn, ta and fa, can be
measured from the sample photomicrograph [Fig. 2(a)],
the following parameters can be determined from the
known quantities:
h
Ls ˆ …
cos 
tu ÿ ta tu ÿ tb
tb ˆ ; th ˆ …
2 2
Since the shape of the axial-yarn section is lenticular,
the braider-yarn undulation on it can be assumed to be
an arc. It can be shown that the arc angle is the same as
the yarn-crimp angle. The radius of the braider-yarn
undulation and the crimp angle can be expressed as a
function of parameters, Ls and th:
…Ls =2†2 ‡ t2h
ru ˆ …3†
2th
 
Ls
 ˆ sinÿ1 …4†
2ru
Since the yarn-crimp angle has been determined,
another important parameter for the geometric char-
acteristics is the ®ber-volume fraction, which is treated
in the following section.
1†
3.2. Fiber-volume fraction
2† Since the basic relations for the yarn architecture have
been obtained, we are now ready to determine the ®ber-
volume fraction of the braided composites. First,
volumes of axial yarn and braider yarn in the unit cell
are calculated by multiplying the area with the length of
the yarn. Because the bundle sizes of axial and braider
yarns are given when the preform is made, we can con-
®ne the calculation of the yarn area to the axial yarns
only. The area of the braider yarn is expressed as a
fraction or a multiple of the axial yarn area.
Because of the regular shape of the axial-yarn cross-sec-
tion, the area is calculated in the width direction of the
sample [Fig. 2(a)]. Denoting  as the inner angle of the
lenticular shape (Fig. 4), the cross-sectional area of the yarn
can be expressed as:

Aa ˆ r2a …a ÿ sin a † …5†

where

 
ta 2fa
ra ˆ …1 ‡ f 2a †; a ˆ 2 sinÿ1 …6†
4 1 ‡ f 2a

Thus, volumes of axial yarns (Va) and braider yarns

(Vb) are determined from the yarn cross-sectional area,
the yarn length, and the number of axial and braider
Fig. 4. The cross-sectional shape of an axial-yarn. yarns within the unit cell:
 J.-H. Byun / Composites Science and Technology 60 (2000) 705±716
Va ˆ 2hAa ; Vb ˆ 4Aa lLc …7†
where l is the bundle size ratio of braider yarn to the
axial yarn, and the undulation length of the braider
yarn, Lc, is expressed as:
Lc ˆ 2ru  …8†
Denoting w as the width of the unit cell [Fig. 1(b)], the
yarn volume fraction is expressed as:
Va ‡ Vb
Vy ˆ …9†
hwtu
It should be noted that the yarn is assumed to be a
solid in the calculation of Eq. (9). If the yarn volume
fraction is multiplied by a ®ber packing fraction, ,
which is the local ®ber-volume fraction of a yarn bun-
dle, the ®ber volume (Vf) of the braided composites can
be obtained as:
Va ‡ Vb
Vf ˆ  …10†
hwtu
It is assumed that the ®ber packing fractions for the
axil and braider yarns are the same.
3.3. Axial yarn content
Since the axial-yarn content is directly connected with
the mechanical property of the composites in the long-
itudinal direction, determination of this is important in
designing the braided preform. The percentage of the
axial yarn content (va) with respect to the total volume
of the braid can be obtained from Eq. (7).
Va h unit cell.
va ˆ ˆ …11†
Va ‡ Vb h ‡ 2lLc
To calculate the volume fraction in Eq. (11) we need
to measure the geometric parameters as expressed in Eq.
(8). The measurement of these parameters from photo-
micrographs of the composite samples is a tedious job.
An approximation for the volume percentage of axial
yarns can be more useful, especially at the beginning of
preform fabrication. If we assume that the crimp part of
the braider yarn is straight, Lc can be replaced with Ls
in Eq. (11), and the percentage of axial-yarn content can
be expressed as:
0 Va cos 
va ˆ ˆ …12†
Va ‡ Vb cos  ‡ 2l
Eqn (12) is easy to apply in determining the approx-
imate fraction of the axial-yarn content. However,
because of the braider-yarn crimp, it is no longer valid,
709
especially when the crimp angle becomes large. It is
interesting to examine the range of validity of this
equation. Utilizing the sine series up to the second term,
the ratio of Ls to Lc is:
Ls sin  2
ˆ ˆ1ÿ …13†
Lc  6
Thus, the ratio of the axial yarn content can be
expressed as:
va cos  ‡ 2l
0 ˆ …14†
va cos  ‡ 2l…1 ÿ 2 =6†
Fig. 5 shows the variation of the axial-yarn content
ratio as functions of the braider angle and the crimp
angle divided by the bundle-size ratio. It can be seen
that, as the braider-yarn angle increases or the bundle-
size ratio decreases, the error percent decreases. For the
crimp angle below 30 , the error is less than 5%. Thus,
for this range, the axial yarn content in Eq. (12) is a
good approximation.
4. Elastic constants
The mechanical properties of braided-textile compo-
sites can be predicted based upon the ®ber and matrix
properties and the ®ber architectures resulted from the
geometric model. Since the principal material direction
of spatially-located yarns does not coincide with the
coordinate direction of interest, a method is needed of
transforming the stress/strain relations from one coor-
dinate system to another. Then, the e€ective elastic
constants of the composites can be obtained by assum-
ing uniform strain state or uniform stress state in the
Fig. 5. Variations of the axial-yarn content as functions of the brai-
der-yarn angle, the bundle-size ratio, and the crimp yarn.
710 J.-H. Byun / Composites Science and Technology 60 (2000) 705±716

4.1. Coordinate transformation

Fig. 6 shows the coordinate systems of a crimp yarn.

The local coordinate system is indicated as 1±2±3, where
axis 1 coincides with ®ber direction. In the global coor-
dinate system, x0 -axis is in the braider-yarn direction,
and z-axis is in the thickness direction of the compo-
sites. The basic assumption in the analysis is that the
yarns are considered unidirectional composite rods after
resin impregnation. The compliance matrix of the com-
posite rod in the 1±2±3 coordinate system is expressed
as follows as a result of the transverse isotropy:

2 3
1=E11 ÿv21 =E22 ÿv21 =E22 0 0 0
6ÿv12 =E11 1=E22 ÿv32 =E22
6 0 0 0 7 7
6ÿv12 =E11 ÿv23 =E22 1=E22 0 0 0 7 7
‰SŠ ˆ 6
6 0
6 0 0 1=G23 0 0 7 7
4 0 0 0 0 1=G12 0 5
0 0 0 0 0 1=G12 Fig. 6. Coordinate systems of a crimp yarn.

…15†
Sc11 ˆ U1 ‡ …U2 =2† sin 2 ‡ …U3 =4† sin 4 …19†
The Young's and shear moduli are obtained from the
®ber and matrix properties using micro-mechanics ana- Sc12 ˆ U6 ‡ …U7 =2† sin 2
lysis [20].
Since the braider yarns have a crimp in the thickness Sc13 ˆ U4 ÿ …U3 =4† sin 4
direction, its deformation properties in the 1±2±3 coordi-
nate system are transformed to the x0 ±y±z reference coor-
Sc15 ˆ ÿ…U2 sin2  ‡ U3 sin2 2†=
dinate system. From the direction cosines between the x±
y±z coordinate system and the 1±2±3 coordinate system,
Sc22 ˆ S22
the following transformation matrix can be established:
0 2 1
m 0 n2 0 ÿ2mn 0 Sc23 ˆ U6 ÿ …U7 =2† sin 2
B 0 1 0 0 0 0C
B 2 C
B n 0 m 2
0 2mn 0 C Sc25 ˆ ÿ…2U7 =† sin2 
c
‰T Š ˆ BB C …16†
0 0 0 m 0 n C
B C
@ mn 0 ÿmn 0 m ÿ n 2 2
0A Sc33 ˆ U1 ÿ …U2 =2† sin 2 ‡ …U3 =4† sin 4
0 0 0 ÿn 0 m
Sc35 ˆ ÿ…U2 sin2  ÿ U3 sin2 2†=
where m ˆ cos  and n ˆ sin . Thus, the compliance
matrix of the unidirectional composite rod, referring to Sc44 ˆ U8 ‡ …U9 =2† sin 2
the 1±2±3 coordinate system, is transformed to [S0 ],
referring to the x±y±z coordinate system:
Sc46 ˆ …U9 =2† sin2 
0
c t c
‰S Š ˆ ‰T Š ‰SŠ‰T Š …17†
Sc55 ˆ 4U5 ÿ …U3 =† sin 4
where [Tc]t is a transpose matrix of [Tc]. The e€ective
compliance matrix of a crimp yarn can be obtained by Sc66 ˆ U8 ÿ …U9 =2† sin 2
averaging the transformed compliance matrix of the
in®nitesimal yarn segment through the crimp angle, . Sb14 ˆ Sb16 ˆ Sb24 ˆ Sb26 ˆ Sb34 ˆ Sb36 ˆ Sb45 ˆ Sb56 ˆ 0
… 0
1 0
Scij ˆ Sij d0 …i; j ˆ 1ÿ6† …18†
 0 Here, constants U's are given as follows:

Carrying out the integration gives the following U1 ˆ …3S11 ‡ 3S33 ‡ 2S13 ‡ S55 †=8 …20†
results:
 J.-H. Byun / Composites Science and Technology 60 (2000) 705±716 711

U2 ˆ …S11 ÿ S33 †=2 Sb23 ˆ Sc23 ÿ R3 sin2 

U3 ˆ …S11 ‡ S33 ÿ 2S13 ÿ S55 †=8 Sb24 ˆ …Sc15 ‡ R5 cos2 † sin 

U4 ˆ …S11 ‡ S33 ‡ 6S13 ÿ S55 †=8 Sb25 ˆ …Sc25 ÿ R5 sin2 † cos 

U5 ˆ …S11 ‡ S33 ÿ 2S13 ‡ S55 †=8 Sb26 ˆ ÿ…R1 ÿ R2 ÿ 2R1 sin2 † sin  cos 

U6 ˆ …S12 ‡ S32 †=2

Sb33 ˆ Sc33
U7 ˆ …S12 ÿ S32 †=2
Sb34 ˆ Sc35 sin 
U8 ˆ …S44 ‡ S66 †=2
Sb35 ˆ Sc35 cos 
U9 ˆ …S44 ÿ S66 †=2
Sb36 ˆ ÿ2R3 sin  cos 
The components in Eq. (19) are the compliances of
braider yarn composites in the x0 ±y±z coordinate sys- Sb44 ˆ Sc44 ÿ R6 sin2 
tem. In order to transform these quantities into the x±y±
z coordinate system of interest, the same transformation Sb45 ˆ ÿR6 sin  cos 
rule in Eq. (17) is applied.
Sb46 ˆ …Sc46 ÿ 2R5 sin2 † cos 
‰Sb Š ˆ ‰Tb Št ‰Sc Š‰Tb Š …21†
Sb55 ˆ Sc55 ‡ R6 sin2 
where
Sb56 ˆ …Sc46 ÿ 2R5 cos2 † sin 
0 1
p2 q2 0 0 0 2pq
B q 2
p2 0 0 0 ÿ2pq C Sb66 ˆ Sc66 ‡ 4R1 sin2  cos2 
B C
B 0 0 1 0 0 0 C
‰Tb Š ˆ B
B
C …22†
B 0 0 0 p ÿq 0 C C
@ 0 0 0 q p 0 A Here, constants R's are given as follows:
ÿpq pq 0 0 0 p 2 ÿ q2
R1 ˆ Sc11 ‡ Sc22 ÿ 2Sc12 ÿ Sc66 …24†
and p ˆ cos  and q ˆ sin . The matrix multiplication
in Eq. (21) gives the following results: R2 ˆ Sc11 ÿ Sc22

R3 ˆ Sc23 ÿ Sc13
Sb11 ˆ Sc11 ÿ …R1 ‡ R2 † sin2  ‡ R1 sin4  …23†
R4 ˆ Sc46 ÿ Sc15 ÿ Sc25
2 4
Sb12 ˆ Sc12 ‡ R1 sin  ÿ R1 sin 
R5 ˆ Sc46 ÿ Sc15 ‡ Sc25
Sb13 ˆ Sc13 ‡ R3 sin2 
R6 ˆ Sc44 ÿ Sc55

Sb14 ˆ ÿ…Sc25 ‡ R4 ÿ R5 sin2 † sin 

4.2. Volume averaging

Sb15 ˆ …Sc15 ‡ R5 sin2 † cos 
Sb16 ˆ ÿ…R1 ÿ R2 ÿ 2R1 cos2 † sin  cos 
Sb22 ˆ Sc22 ÿ …R1 ÿ R2 † sin2  ‡ R1 sin4 
Although the braider yarn has orientations with
respect to the thickness and the longitudinal directions,
its deformation properties have been decomposed after
carrying out the coordinate transformations. Accord-
ingly, the speci®c geometry of the braider yarn is no
712 J.-H. Byun / Composites Science and Technology 60 (2000) 705±716

longer signi®cant, and it can be assumed to be a layer of
orthotropic materials. Since the triaxially-braided textile
composites consist of four elements Ð braider yarns of
 ; orientations, axial yarns, and matrix materials Ð it
can be considered as a four-layered structure of di€erent
materials. In the unit cell, these layers are arranged in
parallel in the longitudinal direction. When load is applied
in the x-direction of the composites, each layer can be
assumed to be in the state of constant strain. Thus, the
sti€ness of each layer is averaged based upon the volume
to get the e€ective sti€ness of the composites.
Since axial yarns are assumed to be straight, as shown
in Fig. 2(c), the e€ective compliance is the same as Eq.
(15). For the determination of the e€ective sti€ness of
the composites, the compliance of axial and braider
yarns is inverted to sti€ness, and then they are averaged
over the unit cell volume.
Va Vb Vb
Cij ˆ Caij ‡ Cbp
ij ‡ Cbm
ij ‡ Cm …1 ÿ Vy †
Vt 2Vt 2Vt
…
…i; j ˆ 1ÿ6†
where Vy is de®ned in Eq. (9). Caij ; Cbp bm
ij , and Cij are the
inverted sti€ness of axial and braider yarns of  ;
orientations, respectively. Cm is the [66] sti€ness
matrix of the matrix material. Then, the sti€ness in Eq.
(25) is inverted to the compliance, Sij, which ®nally
results in the following engineering constants of the
triaxially-braided textile composites:
Exx ˆ 1=Sc11 ; Eyy ˆ 1=Sc22 ; Ezz ˆ 1=Sc33 ; …
Gyz ˆ 1=Sc44 ; Gxz ˆ 1=Sc55 ; Gxy ˆ 1=Sc66 ;
vxy ˆ ÿSc12 =Sc11 ; vzx ˆ ÿSc13 =Sc33 ; vyz ˆ ÿSc23 =Sc22
5. Model veri®cation
5.1. Sample preparation
The triaxial braids were fabricated using T700S car-
bon ®bers. The selection for this type of ®ber was
because it is less brittle compared to T300 type: the
tensile strength and elongation at break of T700S ®ber
are 40% higher. The importance of the improved tensile
strength of ®bers is signi®cant in the textile preforming,
where ®bers are susceptible to damage through to the
contact with machine parts.
By varying the ®ber-bundle size and the braid angle,
seven di€erent architectures were fabricated. Because
only 12K bundle is available for T700S ®ber, the size
was varied as 12K, 24K, and 36K by putting two or
three bundles together. For a ®xed bundle size of 12K,
three braider-yarn angles was selected: 30 , 45 , and 60 .
Table 1 speci®es the identi®cation code of the selected
architectures in this study. The ®rst character designates
the bundle size of the axial yarn, and the second one the
braider yarns. The bundle sizes are designated as S
(small), M (medium), and L (large) for the 12K, 24K,
and 36K, respectively.
The braided preforms were consolidated with epoxy
resin by the resin-transfer molding process. The samples
25†
were cured at 120 C for 2 h. Because of the large unit
cell size, as indicated in Table 1, the width of all samples
was at least 25 mm. The widths of SS30 and SS45 braids
were less than 25 mm when they were fabricated in
tubular form. Thus, they were unfolded by cutting along
the longitudinal direction. Three layers of SS30, SS45,
and SS60 were required in making equivalent thickness
with other types of sample. Although the sample width
of 25 mm was required, a relatively large tolerance was
inevitable from one type of architecture to another. This
26† is because the unit cell should be contained in the sample
width without loss of the size.
5.2. Experiment and input data
The geometric model was veri®ed with respect to the
crimp angle and the ®ber-volume fraction. They were
measured from photomicrographs and by the acid-
digestion method, respectively. The yarn-packing frac-
tion is the critical parameter that can drastically change
the elastic properties of the composites. Although the
measurement can be easily carried out by the image
analysis, it is a tedious job to get as many sectional
photomicrographs as possible for achieving a reliable

Table 1
Yarn architectures of braids

Architecture Axial bundle Braider Braider No. of Axial yarn Unit cell
code size (K) bundle size (K) angle ( ) layers volume content size, h, w, t1 (mm)

SS30 12 12 30 3 0.3 4.67/5.73/0.85

SS45 12 12 45 3 0.26 3.81/7.30/0.84
SS60 12 12 60 3 0.2 3.0/10.5/0.82
SM45 12 24 45 2 0.15 4.82/8.71/1.13
SL45 12 36 45 2 0.1 5.39/10.43/1.3
MS45 24 12 45 2 0.4 4.24/8.50/1.14
LS45 36 12 45 2 0.5 4.51/8.54/1.29
 J.-H. Byun / Composites Science and Technology 60 (2000) 705±716 713

data. Thus, the yarn-packing fraction has been obtained Table 3

by iteration calculation until the ®ber-volume fractions Comparison of geometric parameters
of the prediction and the experiment coincide with each Architecture Crimp angle  ( ) Fiber volume Fiber packing
other. code content, Vf (%) fraction, 
In order to verify the elastic model, tensile tests have
Measured Predicted Measured Predicted
been conducted for the straight-sided coupons with
tabs. Specimens were instrumented with biaxial gages. SS30 16.5 14.2 53.9 53.6 0.77
The gage length was 10 mm, and the width was 3 mm. SS45 14.2 13.0 45.1 44.9 0.74
SS60 14.3 11.4 46.4 46.3 0.77
Although the gage did not cover the whole unit cell, it
SM45 16.2 13.6 61.7 61.8 0.75
was much longer than the length of the unit cell, as SL45 17.6 13.1 61.8 61.6 0.70
indicated in Table 1. This satis®es the gage selection MS45 16.2 17.2 40.3 40.5 0.72
criterion [21] for this material, which requires that the LS45 35.0 20.0 42.8 42.4 0.74
gage length should at least equal the length of the unit
cell in the loading direction. Ten samples for each type
of architecture were tested, and average was taken for The predicted angle of the yarn crimp was con-
eight samples after discarding the largest and the smallest sistently smaller than the measured data. This may be
values. because the geometric model assumes one layer of the
The geometric input data for the model predictions braid, and the yarn undulation of the multiple layer
were obtained from the photomicrographs of the sam- stacking is in-phase. In this case, the yarns tend to
ple section. The thickness and width of the axial yarn compress each other in the thickness direction, resulting
were measured in the section along the sample width in the lower angle of the braider yarn. Fig. 2(b) shows
[Fig. 2(a)]. For the mechanical data of T700S ®ber, the in-phase stacking of layers for the architecture type
those for the T300 ®ber were adopted because there are SS45, and the measured and the predicted data were
not enough data available and the tensile modulus of better correlated than the types SS30 and SS60.
the two materials are the same. These data were utilized The architecture of the triaxial braid is similar to the
in the calculation of the mechanical properties of the ‰0=  Š laminates as far as the in-plane direction of the
yarn composites from the micromechanics expressions. It reinforcement is concerned. As a simple approximation
is noted that the ®ber-volume fraction in the expressions method to predict the elastic properties, the classical
should be replaced with the yarn-packing fraction, . lamination theory has been applied to the braid com-
Table 2 summarizes the input data of the sample geo- posites. The lay-up of laminates is the same as ‰0=  Š
metry and the mechanical properties of the ®bers and with a di€erent lamina thickness. The thickness of 0 and
matrix.   laminae was calculated as the volume percentage of
axial and braider yarns, respectively (Table 1). The ®ber-
5.3. Correlation volume fraction of each type of laminate was set as the
overall ®ber-volume fraction of the braided composites.
Table 3 summarizes the comparison between the model The data summarized in Tables 1 and 2 and the ®ber-
predictions and test results for the geometric parameters. packing fraction in Table 3 have been utilized to predict
As mentioned in the previous section, the ®ber-packing the elastic constants of the braided composites. Figs. 7
fraction has been obtained by the iteration calculation. and 8 show the comparison between and experimental
For the validation of these data, an image analysis has results of tensile tests and the model predictions, based
been conducted for selected samples, which resulted in a upon the averaging method and the lamination theory.
range between 0.7 and 0.8. Relatively good agreement between the model predic-
tions and the test results can be observed. It is surprising
that the lamination theory is correlated well although it
Table 2 does not take into account the yarn undulation. This is
Input data for the model prediction because the yarn undulation in the thickness direction
Architecture Geometric data Mechanical data has little e€ect on the in-plane properties of the compo-
code sites when the braider-yarn angle is relatively small. It
ta (mm) fa l Carbon ®ber Epoxy can be seen that the lamination theory in the case of
SS30 0.49 3.14 1 E1f=230 (GPa) Em=4 (GPa)
LS45 architecture, where the braider angle is quite large,
SS45 0.39 4.72 1 E2f=40.0 (GPa) m ˆ 0:35 over-predicts the Young's modulus. The yarn undula-
SS60 0.38 5.28 1 G12f=24.0 (GPa) tion, however, increases the through-the-thickness
SM45 0.49 3.72 2 G23f=14.3 (GPa) property, which directly re¯ects the improvement of
SL45 0.46 4.48 3 12f ˆ 0:26 impact property of the braided composites. Although
MS45 0.67 3.69 0.5
LS45 0.95 2.60 0.33
the experimental data was not enough to support the
predictions as a result of the limited test results, the
714 J.-H. Byun / Composites Science and Technology 60 (2000) 705±716
methodology proposed in this paper can be e€ectively
utilized in obtaining the 3-D elastic constants of the
braided-textile composites.
5.4. Parametric study
Analyses have been performed in an attempt to
ascertain the e€ects of various geometric parameters on
the elastic properties of triaxially-braided textile com-
posites. Two parameters are considered: the braider-
yarn angle and the axial-yarn content. The format of the
parametric study is, to start with, a set of values for
these parameters and then to vary each parameter
independently while keeping the others at their original
values. Although this procedure does not uncouple the
parameters, the e€ects of the various parameters can be
examined individually.
In this study, the parameters for the ®ber-volume
fraction (Vf), the ®ber-packing fraction (), and the
cross-sectional shape of the axial yarns (ta, fa) have been
Fig. 7. Comparison of Young's moduli between the model predictions
and the test results.
Fig. 8. Comparison of Poisson's ratio between the model predictions
and the test results.
®xed. In order to reduce the number of operating para-
meters to a minimum, more sets of geometric relations
are required. Noting that the axial yarns are contained
within two sets of ‡  or ÿ  braider yarns in the
width direction [Fig. 1(b)], the following relations for
the unit cell size can be obtained:
2fa ta
w ˆ 4fa ta ; h ˆ …27†
tan 
It can be seen from Eq. (10) that the axial yarn con-
tent is a function of overall ®ber-volume fraction of the
composites, and Eq. (12) indicates the braider-yarn
angle, the axial yarn content, and the bundle-size ratio
are inter-related. Combining Eqs. (10) and (11), the
axial-yarn content can be obtained as:
Vf Vt h
Va ˆ …28†
…h ‡ 2lLc †
where Vt=hwtu. For the ®xed parameters of Vf, , ta
and fa, the operating parameters are varied to set Eq.
(28) equal to Eq. (7).
In the parametric study, ®xed parameters were selected
as Vf ˆ 0:5;  ˆ 0:75; ta ˆ 0:5 mm, and fa ˆ 2. The e€ect
of the braider-yarn angle on the elastic property has been
examined for the angle variation between 25 to 75 . The
bundle-size ratio has been changed accordingly to render
30% volume content of axial yarns. The e€ects of the
axial-yarn content and the bundle size have been exam-
ined for 45 of braider-yarn angle. In this case, the unit-
cell thickness, tu, was also varied.
Figs. 9±11 show, respectively, the Young's moduli,
the shear moduli, and the Poisson's ratios of the com-
posites. The crossing point of two curves corresponds to
the values: l = 0.8, y = 45 , va=0.3.
As the braider yarn angle decreases, Exx increases
with decreasing Eyy to an asymptotic value. The reverse
Fig. 9. The property map of the in-plane Young's moduli for 2-D
braided textile composites.
 J.-H. Byun / Composites Science and Technology 60 (2000) 705±716 715

The e€ects of the braider-yarn angle and the axial-

yarn content on the Poisson's ratio are described in Fig.
11. With braider yarns aligning more closely to the
longitudinal direction, xy increases as can be expected.
Increasing the axial-yarn content has little e€ect on the
xy variation. Decreasing zx with increasing axial-yarn
content can be similarly explained as for the case of Gzx.

6. Conclusion

1. The geometric characteristics and the engineering

Fig. 10. The property map of the shear moduli for 2-D braided-textile
composites.
Fig. 11. The property map of Poisson's ratios for 2-D braided-textile
composites.
trend can be seen for the case of increasing braider-yarn
angle. The asymptotic values correspond to the long-
itudinal and the transverse Young's moduli of the uni-
directional composites, respectively. The bundle-size ratio
and the axial-yarn content are in reciprocal relation. As
can be expected, increasing the axial-yarn content sub-
stantially improves Exx, but has little e€ect on Eyy.
Fig. 10 shows that both shear moduli, Gxy and Gzx,
increase as the braider-yarn angle decreases, but the
trend is reversed when the angle is below 35 . This trend
is quite deviant from that of the laminated composites,
where the shear modulus reached a maximum at 45 .
This may be because the compliance or the sti€ness in
the thickness direction is also involved in the averaging
process and matrix manipulation procedure. As the
axial-yarn content increases, Gxy increases. But the
trend is reversed for Gzx because the increased axial-yarn
content may sacri®ce the content of braider yarns in the
x- or z-direction.
constants of 2-D braided-textile composites have
been predicted based upon the analytic model. The
crimp-yarn angle, the axial-yarn content, and the
®ber-volume fraction were obtained from the geo-
metric model. Using the geometric parameters, 3-
D engineering constants have been determined
from the elastic model, which utilizes the coordi-
nate transformation and the averaging of sti€ness
and compliance constants based upon the volume
of each reinforcement and matrix material.
2. In order to verify the model, seven di€erent fabric
architectures have been fabricated and tested in
tensile mode. The longitudinal Young's modulus
and the Poison's ratio have been obtained. The
classical lamination theory has also been applied
to compare the predictions with the averaging
method. Relatively good agreement has been
observed between the model predictions and the
test results of carbon/epoxy composite samples.
The lamination theory is correlated well in some
cases, although it does not take into account the
yarn undulation. On the other hand, the averaging
method is more accurate when the braider-yarn
angle is small or when the bundle size of axial
yarns is much larger than that of the braider yarns.
3. Parametric studies have been conducted to investi-
gate the e€ects of braider-yarn angle and the axial-
yarn content to the elastic properties. The long-
itudinal Young's modulus varied signi®cantly by the
axial-yarn content and braider-yarn angles smaller
that 45 . The transverse Young's modulus was
greatly in¯uenced by braider-yarn angles higher that
45 , but varied insigni®cantly according to the axial-
yarn content. The e€ects of the braider-yarn angle on
the in-plane shear modulus and the Poisson's ratio
were more signi®cant than the axial-yarn content.
4. The experimental data was not enough to support
the model predictions because of the limited test
results and the lack of reliable test methods in the
thickness direction of the composites. However,
the methodology proposed in this paper can be
successfully utilized in obtaining the 3-D elastic
constants of the braided composites.
716 J.-H. Byun / Composites Science and Technology 60 (2000) 705±716
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