1. Basic Concept of Hazard The definitions of terms are the key to understand the concepts referred to in this, subject. As such, the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) has a set of widely-used and accepted definitions for terms commonly used when discussing Disaster Risk Reduction, The following is a selection of essential terms for this chapter, along with their definitions and contextual comments directly lifted from the "2009 UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction", Hazard A dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage. Comment: The hazards of concern to disaster risk reduction as stated in footnote 3 of the Hyogo Framework are “.. hazards of natural origin ond related environmental and technological hazards and risks.” Such hazards arise from a variety of geological, meteorological, hydrological, aceanic, biological, and technological sources, sometimes acting in combination. In technical settings, hazards are described quantitatively by the likely frequency of occurrence of different intensities for different areas, as determined from historical data or scientific analysis. Disaster A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected Alig electronic or mec community or society to cope using its own resources. Comment: Disasters are often described as a result of the combination of: the exposure to a hazard; the conditions of vulnerability that ‘ore present; and insufficient copacity or measures to reduce or cope with the potential negative consequences. Disaster impacts may include loss of life, injury, disease and other negative effects on human physical, mental and social well-being, together with damage to property, destruction of assets, loss of services, social and economic disruption and environmental degradation. Natural hazard Natural process or phenomenon that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage. Comment: Natural hazards are a sub-set of ail hazards. The term is used to describe actual hazard events as well as the latent hazard conditions that may give rise to future events, Natural hazard events can be characterized by their magnitude or intensity, speed of onset, duration, and area of extent. For example, earthquakes have short durations and usually affect a relatively small region, whereas droughts are slow to develop and fade away and often affect large regions. in some cases hazards may be coupled, as in the flood caused by a hurricane or the tsunami that is created by an earthquake. Technological hazards ‘A hazard originating from technological or industrial conditions, including accidents, his reserved. No part ofthis material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means ~ ani’ including photocopying ~ without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. Scanned with CamScannerdangerous procedures, _ infrastructure failures or specific human activities, that may cause loss of life, injury, illness or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage. Comment: Examples of _ technological hazards include industrial pollution, nuclear radiation, toxic wastes, dam failures, transport accidents, factory explosions, fires, and chemical spills. Technological hazards also may arise directly as a result of the impacts of a natural hazard event. logical hazard Process or phenomenon of organic origin or conveyed by biological vectors, including exposure to pathogenic micro-organisms, toxins and bioactive substances that may cause loss of life, injury, illness or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage. Comment: Examples of biological hazards include outbreaks of epidemic diseases, plant or animal contagion, insect or other animal plagues and infestations. Geological hazard Geological process or phenomenon that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage. Comment: Geological hazards include internal earth processes, such as earthquakes, volcanic activity and emissions, and related geophysical processes such as mass movements, landslides, rockslides, surface collapses, and debris or mud flows. Hydrometeorological factors are important contributors to some of these processes. Tsunamis are difficult to categorize; although they are triggered by undersea earthquakes All rights reserved. No part of this material may electronic or mechanical including photocopying and other geological essentially an oceanic manifested as hazard. events, they Fe Process thoy Mt ‘oastal Water-reigg® teq Hydrometeorological h Process or phenomenon hydrological or oceanographig Pht may cause loss of life, injury or other” impacts, property damage, loss oftiva ath and services, social and economic din weeds or environmental damage. “tion, azard Comment: Hydrometeorological include tropical cyclones (also. kn typhoons and hurricanes), hailstorms, tornados, snowfall, avalanches, coastal storm sur, floods including flash floods, drought, ie Waves and cold spells. Hydrometeoroomes conditions also can be a factor in other hazards such as landslides, wildland fires, locust plagues, epidemics, and in the transport and dispersal of toxic substances and volcanic eruption material hazards Own os thunderstorms blizzards, heey Supplementary Materials: 1 International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. (2016). Types of disasters: Definition of hazard. Available at: http://www.ifrc.org/en/what-we-do/disaster- management/about-disasters/definition-of- hazard/ 2 National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (2014, June). National Disaster Response Plan. Available at: http://www.ndrrme.gov.ph/attachments/article/ 1334/NDRP_Hydro_ Meteorological Hazards 25_ of _2014.pdf 2 be reproduced or transmitted in any form of By 2P¥ al without writen permission from the DepEd Ce" ‘ Scanned with CamScannerIl. Basic Concept of Disaster and Disaster Risk Disaster Risk is often defined by the following relationshi Exposure to hazard x Vulnerabil Disaster risk = POMEL herards Vulnerability Capacity to cope The following is a selection of additional essential terms for this chapter, along with their definitions and contextual comments directly lifted from the "2009 UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction" Consult the whole publication of terminologies (Appendix) for related concepts. These are also discussed in the “Introduction to disaster risk reduction” by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID, 2011), excerpts of which are included here Risk The combination of the probability of an event and its negative consequences. Comment: This definition closely follows the definition of the ISO/IEC Guide 73. The word “risk” has two distinctive connotations: in popular usage the ‘emphasis is usually placed on the concept of chance or possibilty, such as in “the risk of an accident”; whereas in technical settings the emphasis is usually placed on the consequences, in terms of “potential losses” for some particular cause, place and period. It can be noted that people do not necessarily share the same perceptions of the significance and underlying causes of different risks. See other risk-related terms in the Terminology: Acceptable risk; Corrective disaster risk management; Disaster risk; Disaster risk management; Disaster risk reduction; Disaster risk reduction plans; 3 Extensive risk; Intensive risk; Prospective disaster risk management; Residual isk Risk assessment; Risk management; Risk transfer. Disaster risk The potential disaster losses, in lives, health status, livelihoods, assets and services, which could occur to. a particular community or a society over some specified future time period. Comment: The definition of disaster risk reflects the concept of disasters as the outcome of continuously present conditions of risk. Disaster risk comprises different types of potential losses which are often difficult to quantify. Nevertheless, with knowledge of the prevailing hazards and the patterns of population and socio-economic development, disaster risks can be assessed and mapped, in broad terms at least. Exposure People, property, systems, or other elements present in hazard zones that are thereby subject to potential losses. Comment: Measures of exposure can include the number of people or types of assets in an area. These can be combined with the specific vulnerability of the exposed elements to any particular hazard to estimate the quantitative risks associated with that hazard in the area of interest. Vulnerability The characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard. Comment: There are many aspects of vulnerability, arising from various physical, ‘All rights reserved. No part ofthis material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means - lectronic or mechanical including photocopying — without written permission trom the DepEd Central Office Scanned with CamScannersocial, economic, and environmental {factors. Examples may include poor design ‘and construction of buildings, inadequate protection of assets, lack of public information and awareness, limited official recognition of risks and preparedness measures, and disregard for wise environmental management. Vulnerability varies significantly within a community and cover time. This definition identifies vulnerability as a characteristic of the element of interest (community, system or asset) which is independent of its exposure. However, in common use the word is often used more broadly to include the element's exposure. Capacity The combination of all the strengths, attributes and resources available within a community, society or organization that can be used to achieve agreed goals. ‘i Comment: Capacity may _ include infrastructure and physical means, institutions, societal coping abilities, as well, as human knowledge, skills and collective attributes such as social’ relationships, leadership and management. Capacity also may be described as capability. Capacity assessment is a term for the process by which the capacity of @ group is reviewed against desired goals, and the capacity gaps are identified for further action. 4, Factors to disaster risk Essentially, the factors of disaster risk are the variables in the equation (exposure to hazard, vulnerability, and capacity). All rights reserved. No part of this m: electronic or mechanical including p Detailed analysis of these variay complex and will be the subject of ea is Vill. One of the learning competent this chapter is to start developins’ &f appreciation of a multi-faceted appror'y? disaster risk by understanding the sila and effects of disasters from "giqeu® perspectives (physical, psychologicay met cultural, economic, political, |“ biological)” (DepEd ORRR curicuium gu The "World Risk Reports", by the y, Nations University - Institute Environment and Human Security, pro indepth analysis of disaster risk trom various angles. Excerpts from each report since 2011 are included in this compilation but the entire reports may be accesseq online (see citation) if a more detailed and comprehensive approach is required, ited for Supplementary Materials: Dilley, M. & Golnaraghi, M. (2005). Risk identification 2 critical component of disaster risk management Available at: https://www.Ideo.columbia.edu/chre/pdt/erip/Diley AndGolnaraghi.pdf Dillon, C. (2015, March 17). Exposed: Why Vanuatu s the world's most ‘at-risk’ country for natural hozords. Available at; http://www.diw.com/enfexposed-why- vanuatu-is-the-worlds-most-at-rsk-country-for- rnatural-hazards/a-18319825 Garschagen, M. (2015, September 21), Cities: Drivers of risk or resilience? Available at United Nations University ~ Institute for Environment and Human Security: http://ehs.unv.edu/blog/opinion/cites- drivers-of-risk-or-reslience.html Onita, L (2014, September 17). Floods, storms and quakes uproot 22 million in 2013, numbers to 1s. ‘Available at Reuters UK: httpi//uk.reuters.com/article/uk-foundation: disasters-displaced-idUKKBNOHB2PC20140916 rs \aterial may be reproduced or transmitted in any form oF by 2°Y ce hotocopying — without written permission from the DepEd Cental OF Scanned with CamScannerIntroduction to Disaster Risk Reduction From “Introduction to disaster risk reduction,” USAID Disaster Risk Reduction Training Course for Southern Africa, 2011. 1. INTRODUCTION Disasters have always been a result of human interaction with nature, technology and other living entities. Sometimes unpredictable and sudden, sometimes slow and lingering, various types of disasters continually affect the way in which we live our daily lives. Human beings as innovative creatures have sought new ways in which to curb the devastating. effects of disasters. However, for years, human conduct regarding disasters has been reactive in nature. Communities, sometimes aware of the risks that they face, would wait in anticipation of a disastrous event and then activate plans and procedures. Human social and economic development has further contributed to creating vulnerability and thus weakening the ability of humans to cope with disasters and their effects. Disasters impede human development. Gains in development are inextricably inked to the level of exposure to ster risk within any given community. In the same light, the level of disaster risk prevalent in a community is linked + tothe developmental choices exerted by that community (UNDP, 2004). The link between disasters and development is well researched and documented. The fact that disasters impact on development (e.. a school being washed away in a flood) and development increases or decreases the risk of disasters (eg. introducing earthquake-resistant building techniques) is widely accepted. Yet, every year Africa suffers disaster losses which set back development and leave our communities living in a perpetual state of ris. 5 Africa has come a long way since the global arena emphasized the need for multi- stakehoider disaster risk reduction rather than continuing the unsustainable cycle of disaster management. The 2000s saw @ number of declarations, policies, strategies, plans and programmes developed. Yet very little real implementation of the above is evident on the African continent, despite a number of inter-regional and high-level discussions and forms of collaboration. The following module will introduce you to the field of disaster risk reduction. The first part of the module will focus on defining the basic, but most important, terms in relation to disaster studies. The different elements of disaster risk management will enjoy attention, and how these different elements contribute to our understanding and better management of risk and disasters will be explained. Different types of hazards, vulnerability domains and risks will also be discussed. This module also provides a more theoretical look at the evolution of the study of disasters and in doing so emphasis will be placed on the trans- disciplinary nature of disaster risk reduction. After the theoretical foundation for the understanding of disaster risk management has been laid, the emphasis will shift towards an understanding of how disaster risk management functions as an integrated approach within the context of inable development. The last part Provide you with insight into some of the cross-cutting issues such as climate change and adaptation, disaster risk governance and gender and disaster risk issues. All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means - electronic or mechanical including photocopying — without writen permission from the DepEd Central Ofice Scanned with CamScanner2. DEFINING THE CONCEPTS Various terms linked to the activities which we have come to understand as disaster risk reduction, have evolved and been refined over the past 50 years. An over- emphasis on disaster and humanitarian relief has made way for the contemporary terms such as disaster reduction and disaster risk management. However, a common understanding of the various terms underlying disaster risk reduction is crucial if one aims to ensure a standardized approach by all stakeholders. The section that follows aims to give perspective on the most important terms used in the field of disaster reduction. The definition of these terms has been universally accepted to be valid and is a compilation of the definitions according to the published terminology of the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR, 2009). UNISDR is the secretariat of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR). It was created in December 1999 and is part of the UN Secretariat with the purpose of ensuring the implementation of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction. An alignment of _ the terminology used in disaster risk reduction in Africa with the internationally acceptable concepts is logical. 2.1 Disaster Although the focus of disaster reduction is not on any actual disaster event itself, disaster remains the main focus. Thus our efforts must be geared towards the reduction of the risk of a disaster ‘occurring. Before one can therefore focus on the more technical and complex terms of disaster risk reduction and disaster risk Management, one must have a very clear understanding of what in actual fact a “disaster” entails, | Probably one of the most debated terms in disaster reduction remains the basie definition of a disaster. Many scholars {see the work of Quarantelli, 1993p, Quarantelli & Perry, 2005) have expresseq diverse views on what exactly constitutes a disaster. Some link the existence of disaster to a specific amount of losses sustained (e.g, number of people killed and injured), others judge an event to be a disaster if a certain predefined threshold is breached (e.g. a trigger to a certain contingency measure is reached), some judge disasters on their geographical extent and significance with regard to “normat” conditions, while some express a disaster in terms of its monetary value in losses. However, since the International Decade of Natural Disaster Reduction (]ONDR) the various scientific understandings of | disaster.__have culminated in a globally accepted definition. The UNISDR (2009) defines a disaster as: “A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, — material, or environmental losses and impacts which exceeds the ability of the affected community to cope using only its own resources.” Some aspects of this definition need to be highlighted. Firstly the emphasis of the definition is on “a serious disruption”. One can therefore expect a disaster event to be something which significantly changes the “normal’. It is an event which the majority of the affected community will perceive as removing them from the “normal”. Second and most important is the distinction which the definition places ‘on abnormal events and an event which we can classify as being a disaster. If the event “exceeds the ability” of the affected Al rghts reserved, No part ofthis material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means ~ electronic or mechanical including photocopying — without writen permission from the DepEd Central Of. Scanned with CamScanner ame‘community to handle the consequences by making use of all their resources, then the event can be classified as “a disaster”. Lastly, note should be taken of the concept “community”. Various disciplines define “community” quite differently. A community is a collection of People sharing common interests and values. Despite being culturally diverse, mobile or unstable, members of a community communicate with or on behalf of each other in order to achieve a mutually beneficial outcome - they are bound together by a common goal, their sense of belonging and a sense of place. However, the management of disasters and the risk associated with disasters in most Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries becomes the responsibility of Government. One should therefore appreciate the fact that in order for a government to adequately manage disasters, the definition of “community” must be very clear. To this end it has become common practice _—_ for governments to use their administrative units to define the affected “community”. Thus if an event exceeds the coping ability of a village, or local municipality, or district, or state/province or even the nation, then a specific type of disaster can be declared (ie. local, state/provincial or national). The UNISDR goes on to indicate: “Disasters are often described as a result of the combination of: the exposure to a hazard; the conditions of vulnerability that are present; and insufficient capacity or measures to reduce or cope with the potential negative consequences. Disaster impacts may include loss of life, injury, disease and other negative effects on human physical, mental and social well- being, together with damage to property, destruction of assets, loss of services, social and economic disruption and environmental degradation.” It is important to note that the term “natural disaster” has not been used, the reason being it is inaccurate and misleading to refer to “natural disasters”. Disasters: Natural or not? Disaster risk can be determined by the presence of three variables: hazards (natural or anthropogenic); vulnerability to @ hazard; and coping capacity linked to the reduction, mitigation and resilience to the vulnerability of a community associated with the hazard in question. For example, let's assume we are dealing with a poor African community (i.e. an informal settlement situated in the 1/50 year flood-iine). Certain socio-economic and political dynamics in the country force Poor communities to settle in unsafe Conditions (e.g. distance from employment opportunities, urbanisation, poor land use Planning etc.). Along comes a natural hazard such as a significant flood, and the community settled in the flood-line is exposed to the point of experiencing a disaster. However, this should not be seen as a natural disaster. Although a natural hazard was the trigger for the disaster, it was in fact human- made. If proper settlement planning, land use planning, bullding codes, community awareness, economic policies, and the like had been in place, then this “natural disaster’ would have been mitigated. Almost all exposure to natural hazards and vulnerability can be reduced. Thus human actions lead to natural hazards becoming natural disasters. The above example highlighted a number of, other terms which are important to understand to gain a full picture of what disaster risk reduction entails. ‘All rights reserved. No part ofthis material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means - electronic or mechanical including photocopying — without written permission from the DepEd Central Ofce Scanned with CamScannerisk and disaster risk fk ‘as various connotations within different disciplines. In general risk Is defined as “the combination of the probability of an event and its negative consequences” (UNISDR, 2009). The term risk is thus multidisciplinary and is used in ‘a variety of contexts. Risk is usually associated with the degree to which humans cannot cope (lack of capacity) (eg. natural ‘One should be mindful that we as humans do not have absolute capacity and have sustained and will sustain significant losses due to natural hazards in future. We however need to realize that we also have capacity to make the right decisions, implement the right measures, and engage in inteligent development planning which will reduce the isk of disasters occurring. The reduction of a risk manifesting in a disaster therefore requires a very broad multi-sectoral and multidisciplinary focus where the structural engineer, politician, social worker, agricultural extension worker and even kindergarten teacher all have equally important roles in ensuring natural hazards do not become disasters. The term disaster risk therefore refers to the potential” (not actual and realized) disaster losses, in. lives, health status, livelihoods,» assets and services, which could occur in’a particular community or society over some specified future time period. Disaster risk is the product of the possible damage caused by a hazard due to the vulnerability within @ community. It should be noted that the effect of a hazard (of a particular magnitude) would affect communities differently (Von Kotze, 1999:35). This is true because of the level of the coping mechanisms within that particular community. Poorer communities 8 are therefore more at risk than communities that do have the capacity tg cope. Risks exist or are created within social systems. The social context in which tsk occurs is an important consideration, it should also be noted that people therefore do not share the same perceptions of risk and their underlying causes due to their social circumstances. To determine disaster risk three aspects need to be present: a hazard, vulnerability to the hazard and some form of coping capacity. These terms will now enjoy greater attention. 2.3 Hazard A hazard is defined as “a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic environmental damage” (UNISDR, 2003), Hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origin and effects. Each hazard is characterized by its location, intensity, probability and likely frequency. Typical examples of hazards can be the absence of rain (leading to drought) or the abundance thereof (leading to flooding) Chemical manufacturing plants near settlements can also be regarded as hazardous; similarly, incorrect agricultural techniques will in the long run lead to possible disasters. Hazards can either be a creation of humans (anthropogenic) or the environment (natural). Although the former can more easily be planned for than the latter, in both cases the management of the hazard will remain the same. Our development efforts and attention should therefore be focused on the presence of Allghts reserved No pat of his material may ra G ‘material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form o by any mea econ or mechanical including photocopying - without witten permission from the DepEd Cental fie Scanned with CamScannervarious hazards and this must inform our planning. A distinction should also be made between normal natural occurrences and natural hazards. Natural phenomena are extreme climatological (weather), hydrological (water), or geological (earth) processes that do not pose any threat to persons or Property. A massive earthquake in an unpopulated area (e.g, the Sahara desert) is a natural phenomenon, Once the consequences (a possible hazardous situation) of this natural phenomenon come into contact with human beings, it becomes a natural hazard. If this natural hazard (due to the unplanned or poorly planned activities of the human beings), affects them so that they are unable to cope, the situation becomes a disaster. Difference between a hazard and a disaster “Strictly speaking there are no such things as natural disasters, but there are natural hazards. A disaster is the result of a hazard’s impact on society. So the effects of a disaster are determined by the extent of a — community's wuinerability to the hazard (conversely, its ability, or capacity to cope with it). This vulnerability is not natural, but the result of an entire range of constantly changing physical, social, economic, cultural, political and even psychological factors that shape people's lives and create the environments in which they live.” Twigg (2001:6). 9 2.4 Vulnerability Vulnerability is defined as__ the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard. Vulnerability is a set of prevailing ‘or consequential conditions arising from various physical, social, economic and environmental factors which increase the susceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards (UNISDR, 2002:24). It can also. comprise physical, —socio- economic and/or political. factors that adversely affect the ability of communities to respond to events (Jegillos, 1999). Blaikie et al. (1994) are of the opinion that vulnerability is constituted by the characteristics of a person or group in terms of their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a hazard. Vulnerability can be expressed as the degree of loss resulting from a potentially damaging phenomenon or hazard, It is therefore the extent to which a community will degrade when subjected to a specified set of hazardous conditions. Vulnerability has some distinct underlying causes. The magnitude of each disaster, measured in deaths, damage, or costs (for a given developing country) increases. with the _—_ increased marginalization of the population. This can be caused by a high birth rate, problems of land tenure and economic opportunity, and the misallocation of resources to meet the basic human needs of an expanding population. As the population increases, the best land in both rural and urban areas is taken up, and those seeking land for farming or housing are forced to accept inadequate land. This offers less productivity and a smaller measure of physical or economic safety, thus rendering the community vulnerable. [All rights reserved, No part of this material may be reproduced or transmited in any form or by any means - electronic or mechanical including photocopying — without writen permission from the DepEd Cental Office Scanned with CamScanner25° Coping capacity Coping capacity for disaster _risk eduction refers to the ability of people, organizations and systems, using available skills and resources, to face and manage adverse conditions such as hazards, emergencies or disasters. Coping capacities contribute to the reduction of disaster risks (UNISDR, 2009). The focus here should therefore not only be on the individual or the community but also the capacity of the supporting mechanisms to the individual and the community at large. For example, one specific community might consist of a number of new immigrants but this new community might enjoy the support of the local municipality. In themselves, the new community might not have cohesion yet, but their capacity lays in the support, which they have. Similarly an impoverished community might not be the focus of development, but inherent in their internal social and economic structures they might possess significant coping capacity and resilience. Coping capacity is therefore just as much about what a community internally possesses, as the external structures on which they depend. 2.6 Resilience In the natural environment, resilience means that an area or eco-system under threat is restored to its original pristine state. In the construction and engineering industry, resilience would be the ability of metal or a structure to return to an original state - being able to withstand shock, weight or pressure. However, human systems cannot be untouched by life events ~ they do not necessarily return to an original or former state and the challenge is to continuously develop, Sg improve and refine existing structures systems and environments in order tg progress, Returning to an original op previous state therefore corresponds with the tendency of certain communities to return to vulnerable locations and rebulg their houses, without improving conditions and increasing chances to. progress Resilience, however, implicitly requires improvement. The UNISDR defines resilience as “the ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate to and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions” {UNISOR, 2009). This definition therefore considers the presence of a hazard and not a disaster. Thus once a disaster actually occurs, it would be incorrect to refer to resilience but rather to coping capacity. Resilience and the building of resilience should therefore be seen as an integral part of disaster risk reduction activities. Resilience therefore means the ability to “spring back from” a shock. The resilience of a community in respect of potential hazard events is determined by the degree to which the community has the necessary resources and is capable of organising itself both prior to and during times of need (UNISDR, 2009). Excerpt from: United States Agency for International Development. (2011, August). Introduction 0 disaster risk reduction, Retrieved from htp:/lwaw-preventionweb.nevfiles/26081_kp1 concepdisasterrisk1 pat 10 llrightsreserved, No pat ofthis material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any me2ns ~ electronic or mechanical including photocopying — without writen permission from the DepEd Cental Ofc. Scanned with CamScannerGovernance and civil society From World Risk Report 2011, United Nations University - Institute for Environment and Human Security. http://weltrisixobericht.de/english/ What risks are caused by “fragile” states, regarding natural hazards? What influence on disaster prevention do actors of the civil society have? How can they demand responsible and effective governance? The focal topic of World Risk Report 2011 deals with the complex relationship of “Governance and civil society” in the field of disaster prevention and disaster management. In addition to two keynote articles, it features case studies of projects of Biindnis Entwicklung Hilft member organizations, which show how civil society initiatives for disaster risk reduction and good governance work hand in hand. State failure as a risk factor — How natural events turn into disasters Whether natural events turn into disasters depends critically on the coping and adaptive capacities of governments. In 2010, when an earthquake with a magnitude of 7.0 on the moment magnitude scale struck Haiti, the consequences were devastating. More than 220,000 people were killed in the disaster (CRED EM-DAT 2011), as many people injured and 1.5 million became homeless. In some villages, about 90 per cent of buildings were destroyed. Although it was the worst earthquake in Haiti in 200 years and the epicenter was only about 25 km from Port au Prince, the capital of the country, it soon became clear that the impact of the earthquake was so severe and destructive not only because of its natural force, but also the almost complete failure Weak governance - big risk Weak governance is one of the most important risk factors with regard to the impact of natural hazards, which is shown, inter alia, in the number of deaths: states with strong institutions have fewer deaths after extreme natural events than those with weak or inexistent institutions (Kahn 2005). In states considered weak according to the Failed States index of the Fund for Peace, the government cannot or can only partially provide its citizens with basic government functions, such as security and welfare benefits, or rule of law. Many of these states primarily act as “skimming devices”: most available funds are used for their own personnel and do not flow into public interest-oriented development processes. Often, there is an oversized police and military apparatus, which cannot ensure appropriate security due to poor education and low pay of their personnel, especially in the lower echelons, as well as widespread corruption, Most weak states have only a small taxable income base since no taxes can be collected from the usually large segments of poor people, and the citizens with higher income are not properly recorded or are rarely asked to pay because of corruption. The resulting poor condition of infrastructure leads to further weakening of the enforcement capacity of the state. In addition, there is often a lack of qualified personnel or the administration is characterized by clientelistic structures that lead to inefficient. administrative of the Haitian State, as could be observed later through @ comparison with a much Sa te sige are to stronger earthquake that occurred in Chile. Saal intage of the state 1 be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means ~ erved. No part ofthis material may Allright reserved. No part ot without writen permission from the DepEd Central Office. Jeationie of mechanical including photocopying. TESS STATE Scanned with CamScannerand its structures for private interests. (Haiti -a reason for concern Haitiis a “fragile state”. In the Failed States index of the Fund for Peace, Haiti is ranked 11th, only slightly Afghanistan, the Democratic ‘of the Congo and Sudan (The Fund for Peace 2011). Although the President, the Prime Minister and many government Members are credited for their great interest and involvement, the Government is barely able to act effectively. The political system is fractioned and decision-making processes are extremely difficult (Collier 2009}, Furthermore, political corruption is a widespread phenomenon among the elite. Although the Haitian government has recognized for a long time that itis responsible for the provision of welfare benefits in the sectors of health and education, it does not have a successful track record. Most social services have been and still are delivered by NGOs. In general, the quality of government services is very poor. The inefficiency of the government and its predecessors is also reflected by the lack of building regulations and standards in the country as well as the fact that national disaster management systems have been introduced only very gradually and emergency services have received no assistance (Oxfam 2010). In addition to the severe poverty of the country, Haiti being the poorest country in the Western hemisphere, the serious shortcomings of the Government contributed significantly to the impact of the earthquake of 12 January 2010, which was fone of the biggest disasters in the world in recent The effects of weak governance, particularly on the capacities of societies to cope with and adapt to natural hazards are enormous. ‘The state is rarely able or ready to establish a functioning system of disaster preparedness and to implement it. Due to os the lack of monitoring capacities of the government and high levels of corruption building regulations ~ if they exist ~ can be bypassed. The development of disaster preparedness plans is often prevented the low qualification or sheer non-exstenes of state personnel. Further, insufficient government revenue hinders the regu conduct of awareness campaigns and the installation of early warning systems and information portals. Also, public health care states is in poor often provided insufficiently. Only rarely is it possible to develop public services so as to be prepared for coping with disasters. Lack of investment in education and research, and the resulting low level of education limit the possibilities of the population to develop strategies to cope with disasters and thus reduce the adaptive capacities of society (see box on Haiti). Yet, examples from states that have succeeded in recent years in significantly strengthening their institutions prove much more successful in coping with and adapting to disasters (see box on Chile). When neighbors save lives How hard a natural hazard strikes a society does not exclusively depend on the strength of the state. For instance, there are relatively strong, autocratic states that theoretically have the capacity of functioning disaster preparedness, but not the will to protect their citizens accordingly. Examples include the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea and Myanmar. For instance, when Cyclone Nargis swept through the Bay of Bengal in 2008 and devastated five regions of Myanmar, including the former capital of Yangon, it quickly became clear that that the military regime ruling the country was barely able to provide on its own the urgently needed emergency aid for the affected population. 12 All tghts reserved. No pat of this material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by ny means - electronic or mechanical including photocopying ~ without writen permission trom the DepEd Cental Ofte — com Scanned with CamScannerIn addition, the Junta declared the 15,000 km? of Irrawaddy Delta a “restricted area” to international aid workers and Journalists, making it greatly difficult to supply aid to ‘the victims. However, in addition to national disaster management systems, there are other effective social mechanisms that can help to reduce the disaster risk. Scientists and practitioners who deal with the issue agree that, particularly in the first days after a disaster such as an earthquake, a flood or a ( chite~a high performer \ Shortly after the devastating earthquake in Haiti, another and even stronger earthquake hit Chile. This earthquake, with magnitude of 8.8 points on the moment magnitude scale was the fifth strongest earthquake worldwide in over a hundred years. More than three million people live within 200 km of the epicentre of the earthquake. Even in Santiago de Chile, the capital located some 325 kilometres away, in many places in Argentina and even in So Paulo at a distance of a few thousand kilometres, the earthquake was still strongly felt. Despite its magnitude, the earthquake claimed only 562 victims (CRED EM-DAT 2011). The mortality rate was thus about 400 times lower than that of Haiti. A crucial difference was due to the good governance of Chile. Chile ranks 155th in the Failed States index of the Fund for Peace and is thus Positioned on the diametrically opposed side of the spectrum from Haiti (The Fund for Peace 2011), In particular, two dimensions of good governance are discussed in the literature for good disaster management: public sector efficiency and the good anti-corruption policy of the government. In 2009, Chile ranked 2ist in the “Corruption Perception Index”, ahead of Belgium, the United States and France. Since the 1960s, the government institutions have continuously established and enforced better building regulations. The stable building structure, at least of newer buildings, might be an important reason for the low number of deaths. In addition, innovative technologies were established in disaster risk management and regular training sessions held in educational institutions. The fact that the tsunami caused by the earthquake claimed many lives was due to serious errors committed by the Marine Unit in early warning and the complete collapse of telephone and internet lines after the temporary failure of power supply. (Kaufmann and Tessada 2010), 13 All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means - electronic or mechanical including photocopying — without written permission from the DepEd Central Oice Scanned with CamScannercyclone, it is above all the informal aid provided in the local context and solidarity ‘among people that are critical. In fact, most first aid is pro- vided by family and neighborhood networks. in addition, almost all societies have coping and adaptation strategies at their disposal. In fact, many disasters are not single events; they occur every year and repeatedly reveal to the affected societies the need of developing coping and adaption strategies, such as a change in building design or the creation of evacuation plans. Supporting, not replacing the State The relief aid and development work faces immense challenges, given the coincidence of weak governance and extreme natural events. With which actors and institutions is collaboration possible in the event of a disaster? How can these actors be strengthened? Which tasks can be assumed by the government and which by civil society or private actors? It is certain that both government and local civil society play 2 crucial role in disaster preparedness and that each must be _ strengthened accordingly. Given the often severe corruption, the low capacities of the state and a virtually non- existent local civil society, it seems often easier for international public donors to entrust the funds earmarked for disaster Preparedness and reconstruction after a disaster to inter- national NGOs that implement their projects. However, this creates the danger of removing responsibility from the state and weakening it even more in the long term. In Haiti, the risk of undermining state authority by the international community is currently real. Joel Boutroué, Adviser to the Haitian Prime Minister, pointed out at the _—_ Conference of the International Counc of Voluntary Agencies (ICVA) in Geneva Switzerland, in March 2011 that hardly any real cooperation between the Haitio, Government and the _internations} community is evident; instead, there is climate of mistrust. Rather than closely accompanying the Government's work and taking common action, the promised government aid is handled through international NGOs or not even disbursed This creates a vicious circle: the Government does not have the necessary nancial resources to implement actions and therefore cannot demonstrate success, which in turn would be the prerequisite for gaining assertiveness and obtaining additional funds. Therefore, there ig currently a real risk that the Haitian Government will be replaced by international NGOs in the implementation and planning processes. Disaster risk reduction and disaster management in fragile states is undoubtedly a challenging task. However, i cannot be solved by undermining local state actors. As long as the concerned governments have a minimum level of development targets, they must be supported in close partnership in bilateral and multilateral development cooperation when they implement and execute development measures. More responsibility and more money must gradually be transferred to them. This can be successful if the governments are supported in setting Up effective anti-corruption programmes. In addition, long-term plans to create local government capacities must be developed, training programmes set up, and the support of government officials by international experts guaranteed. According to the subsidiarity principle, which states that the higher and more remote level of government should only regulate what the 14 Alright reserved, No par ofthis material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means - electronic or mechanical including photocopying - without written permission from the DepEd Cental fice. ence Scanned with CamScannerlower level or the nearest level to the citizens cannot, it is important that local Government. structures in particular be strengthened. They must be allowed access to the institutions in charge of reconstruction and disaster preparedness. Civil society as a lever to strengthen the state Only when bilateral__development cooperation is impossible because of Bross human rights violations or extremely weak governance resources can be provided solely through NGOs. This approach, however, should remain temporary. An important function of NGOs is, in this case, also the strengthening of state structures in disaster preparedness. The member organizations of Biindnis Entwicklung Hilft achieve this by involving government officials in the planning processes and, with the help of their partner organizations, supporting the local population to actively demand state action in the field of disaster preparedness and beyond. Examples include the consideration of local government officials i local risk assessments or in planning and training 15 processes, or the influence of national political processes and —_ legislative procedures in disaster risk reduction. In parallel to building state capacity, civil society's coping and adaptive capacities should be encouraged at the local level. If the government fails. in disaster preparedness, then the catastrophic consequences of natural disasters can at least be mitigated at a lower level. The organizations that. collaborate _ within Biindnis Entwicklung Hilft promote the already set up social, self-help strategies, for instance, by using traditional knowledge of construction design or pre-existing early warning systems and further developing them with local partner organizations. These _ organizations also support communities that, for example, due to migration or abject poverty, have no disaster preparedness mechanisms by ensuring a common risk analysis, transferring knowledge and providing training, and supporting necessary preventive measures, such as dike reinforcements or salt-water sealing for water wells [Allrights reserved, No patt of this material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means - giectonic or mechanical including photocopying — without written permission from the DepEd Central Ofc. Scanned with CamScanner_, Environmental degradation and disasters From World Risk Report 2012, United Nations University - Institute for Environment and Human Security. http://weltrisikobericht.de/english/ Hundreds of thousands of trees toppled by a severe hurricane are a visible sign of environmental destruction wrought by a disaster. And flooded coastal villages and washed away beaches whose natural protective belt of mangroves has been chopped down in pursuit of economic interests are, in turn, a sign of the considerably greater risk in the wake of a natural disaster where the natural environment has been destroyed. There is an interactive link between environmental destruction and disasters that / many examples can serve to describe. But so far, these insights have been given too little attention by politics and science. Environmental degradation as a risk factor Torsten Welle, Michael W. Beck, Peter Mucke Intact ecosystems can significantly reduce disaster risk in four ways, corresponding to the components of the World Risk Index. + Forests and riparian wetlands or coastal ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs and sea-grass reduce exposure to natural hazards by acting as natural buffers and protective barriers that thus reduce the impacts of extreme natural events such as landslides or tidal waves. + When sustainably managed and in good condition, intact ecosystems such as grasslands, forests, rivers or coastal areas can reduce vulnerability. They contribute to nutrition, income and wellbeing. In addition to food, they can also provide medicine and building materials, or they can represent new sources of income, for example via nature-based tourism. Thus they support the livelihoods of inhabitants and supply essential goods. +. Ecosystems can enhance coping capacity in the event of a disaster. For example, if supply lines are severed, food and fresh water can be obtained from the immediate environment when that environment is healthy and intact. + Ecosystems also directly influence adaptive capacities. When the environment is in good condition, there is a greater diversity of future planning options. For example, in Haiti and other deforested and environmentally degraded areas, the opportunities for diversified strategies for reducing future vulnerability are greatly reduced. It is much easier to manage to reduce future risks when your natural resources currently are viable and intact; your choices simply are greater. The role of the ecosystems and the link between environmental degradation and the increased impact of disasters were clearly made in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) in 2005 particularly with regards to risks from flooding and forest fires. This UN MA study also showed that 60 % of the ecosystems are not being sustainably used or are in a state of ongoing degradation (MA, 2005). The UN Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2009 identified environmental degradation and the decline of ecosystems as one of the chief factors raising the risk of disasters. However, scientists have only recently begun to systematically establish the extent to which ecosystems have a direct influence on disaster risk. The Secretariat of the ‘All rghts reserved, No part of this material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means - electronic or mechanical including photocopying — without wtten permission from the DepEd Centra Off. Scanned with CamScanner —United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) has applied the ecosystem approach and referred to the role of the environment and its buffering Capacities vis-a-vis natural hazards several times in reports. It has called for detailed studies and analyses on an understanding Of ecosystems and their influence on the eduction of disaster risks (UNEP/ISDR 2008). Here, there is still a considerable Need for research and action. There are a large number of local and regional studies demonstrating that ecosystem functions and services and their Sustainable management have a mitigating. effect on disaster risk (PEDRR 2010, Sudmeier-Rieux et al. 2006). For example it is well known that agribusiness increases soil erosion and that deforestation increases risks of landslides. As a rule, ecosystem functions are very complex, and the disaster risk is influenced by many factors. At the global level, available data so far allow for restricted statements on the quantitative link between environmental degradation and risk, A correlation has however been established between the frequency of flooding and deforestation (Bradshaw et al. 2007). There are several reasons why we believe that itis difficult to find global correlations in over- all degradation and risk. First we find that the nature of the relationship depends strongly on the respective hazard and habitat type. And second, we believe that the global analysis re- quires higher resolution data of the type which are so far usually only available from local and regional surveys. Although there is an obvious need for further research in this area, there is widespread scientific evidence showing that the state of the ecosystems 17 has a profound impact on disaster risk. Increased disaster risk through environmental degradation There are numerous local- and regional- scale examples of the links between ecosystem condition and disaster risk. For example, the loss of ecosystems, such as the degradation of wetlands and mangroves along river courses, results in increased flooding. This link has been demonstrated along the Mississippi River in the USA. Here, the floodwater storage capacity of the soil has fallen by 80 percent owing to the degradation. of forest-covered wetlands along the river through canal_ building measures, leveling and draining for development purposes (MA 2005, Chapter 16). In combination with severe precipitation, snowmelt and a low level of evaporation, the degradation of alluvial zones along the courses of rivers, river regulation and the sealing of the land enhance surface runoff. The result is a higher risk of flooding since the ground and the vegetation can no longer absorb the water (Disse and Engel 2001). Furthermore, deforestation and crop farming on slopes also lead to an increase in flood risk since deforestation and agriculture in river catchment areas contribute to increased soil erosion and this in turn raises the sediment load in rivers. This process can result in the silting up of rivers, as has been demonstrated with the examples of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra (Ali 2007). The link between deforestation and flood risk has also been examined in several studies in experimental hydrological research. Deforestation raises the annual run-off volume and maximum throughflow and reduces the evaporation rate. These Properties cause an increased flood risk Scanned with CamScannersince the natural buffering capacity of the forest as an ecosystem is lowered (ADPC 2004), Degradation of this kind can lead to a roughly fourfold increase in the extent of flooding in comparison to riparian landscapes with intact, undisturbed vegetation cover (Atta-ur-Rahman and Khan 2011). +4 23rd to 29th August 2005 ++ Hurricane Katrina in the USA Reaching speeds of more than 250 kilometers an hour, Hurricane Katrina at some points bul to a category 5 hurricane (the strongest) and hit the Gulf Coast of the USA, especialy Florida, Louisiana and Mississippi, as well as Alabama and Georgia. New Orleans was particularly severely affected. Causing more than 1,800 deaths, Hurricane Katina was one ofthe five deadliest hurricanes in the history of the USA. Many coastal ecosystems were heavily damaged by Katrina and the folow-up Hurricane Rita, one month late. Louisiana's Chandeleut Islands lost around 85 percent of their surface area; these barier islands were eical nesting and feeding grounds and their toss direcly impacted hundreds of thousands birds from sandwich terns to brown pelicans. Through these storms ‘and through saltwater intrusion inland, more than 570 ‘square kilometers of marshland and coastal forests of the Gutf Coast were lost, which was on top ofthe already rapid eelina af these enatal hahitats +414th to 18th April 2006 ++ Sandstorms in China The sandstorms are a meteorological phenomenon that ‘occurs in the months of the spring in China. Industial pollution and an over-cultvaton of the soi, deforestation and overgrazing are massively increasing theit intensity and their impact. Owing to the storms, China's deserts grow by up to 10 meters each year, which leads to a loss of fertle sol Sandstorms also contain toxic harmful substances (sulfur, soot, ash, carbon monoxide) and heavy metals, which can result in an impaitment of ar, sol and water properties — for instance through acid rain. Additionally, the heavy metals can cause sustained contamination of forage plants for animals as well as thee haitals Marshes, mangrove forests, corals and sea- grass beds have a direct impact on the 18 disaster risk in coastal areas. For example the alteration of wetlands in. coasta) watersheds exacerbated flooding events in Florida and Texas (Brody et al. 2007) in looking at the impacts of cyclones at global level, the areas covered by even sem. altered coastal ecosystems were correlated with lower human mortality (Pere2-Maqueo etal, 2007). The threat of a landslide is increased by severe precipitation, snowmelt, thawing of the ground, tremors due to earthquakes and, last but not least, loss of vegetation through anthropogenic influence (BAU 2009). Peduzzi (2010) examined the link between landslides and vegetation cover with reference to the earthquake in northern Pakistan in 2005. He used geological data for this purpose (such as remote sensing data like satellite images) from which the vegetation was deduced, digital elevation models, data on active earthquake zones and digital infrastructure data (roads and rivers), and he compiled a regression model. The result was that vegetation can reduce the occurrence of landslides by 15 %, thus representing a significant risk reducing component. Disasters as a cause of environmental destruction A number of local and regional studies deal with damage to ecosystems that have been caused by natural events. The state of the environment is examined before and immediately after the event - usually with the aid of remote sensing data, provided that itis available in data banks. In China, an analysis of surface vegetation was carried out following the earthquake in Wenchuan (with a magnitude of 8.0) in May 2008. Degradation by the earthquake was at 22 percent. One of the phenomena resulting from the earthquake was a large Allrights reserved. No part ofthis material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means ‘electronic or mechanical including photocopying — without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. mt Scanned with CamScanner