UNI

VERI
STYOFCALOOCANCI
TY
Br
gy.173,
Congr
essi
onal
Road,
Cal
oocanCi
ty

PURPOSI
VECOMMUNI
CATI
ON

I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMMUNI
CATI
ON

MODULE1
COMMUNI
CATI
ON
Alexander( 1984)st at edt hatcommuni cationoccur swhenasenderexpr essesan
emot ionoraf eel
ing, creat esani dea, orsensest heneedt ocommuni cate.The
communi cat i
onpr ocessi st r
iggeredwhent hesendermakesaconsci ousoran
unconsci ousdeci siont oshar ethemessagewi thanot herper son—t hereceiver
.Itisa
processwher eintheexchangeofi nf ormat i
onbet weent woormor epeople(Bernales,
BalonandBi li
gan, 2018) .Key t
on( 2011)suppor tedt hi
snot i
onofcommuni cati
onwhen
hedef ineditasCommuni cationcanbedef inedast hepr ocessoft ransmitti
ng
i
nfor mat i
onandcommonunder standingf rom oneper sont oanot her.For
communi cat i
ontosucceed, boththepar ticipantsmustbeabl et oexchangei nformation
andunder standeachot her .I
fthisflowofi nformat i
oni sinterruptedorblocked
communi cat i
onfails.Thewor dcommuni cat i
oni sderivedf rom theLat i
nwor d,―
“communi s”,whichmeanscommon.I nourev erydayliving,foracommuni cat i
ontobe
effectivel
ytransmi tted,el ement sofcommuni cationmustbepr esentandt heseinclude
a)Speaker ,
b)Message, c)Recei ver,d)Channel ,e)Feedback, andf)Communi cative
Situati
on.

Alexander(1984)furt
herexplainsthateverycommunicati
veactisbasedonsomet hing
thatconveysmeani ng,andthatconv ey
anceist hemessage.Themessagemaybe
eit
herv er
bal(spokenorwr i
tten)ornonverbal(bodyl
anguage,physi
calappear
ance,or
vocaltone).Messagesmayal socomef rom thecont
ext—orplaceandtime—ofthe
communi cati
on.Forinstance,ifyouchooset omakeacr i
ti
calcommentt osomeone,
theplaceandt hetimey ouchooset omaket hatcommentwi l
lmakeabi gimpacton
howi twil
lber ecei
ved.
Moreover,ever
ymessagei ssentandr ecei
vedthroughoneofourf i
vesenses—iti
sseen,
heard,
touched, t
ast
ed,orsmell
ed.Thesensor ymedi athroughwhichmessagesar e
sentandreceivedarecommunicationchannels.Inawor ksetti
ng,messagesmaybe
seenthroughbodymov ement,l
etters,
memos, newslet
ters,bul
let
inboardnoti
ces,si
gns,
emai
ls,andsoon.Messagest hatarehear
dcomet hroughconversat
ions,
int
erv
iews,
pr
esent
at i
ons,
tel
ephones,r
adios,andotheraudi
omedi a.Si
ghtandsoundarethetwo
mostfr
equentcommuni cat
ionchannelsusedinoursociet
y.
Whent herecei
verget
sthemessage( t
hroughseeing,
heari
ng,f
eeli
ng,touching,or
smell
ing),
heorshewi l
lusual
l
ygivefeedback(r
eturnmessage)unconsciouslyor
consci
ously.Thus,
thecommunicati
onsprocessison-goi
ng.
Thewor stassumpt i
onasenderofamessagecanmakei sthatthemessagewi l
lbe
receivedasi ntended.Somanyt hingscangowr ongdur i
ngt hecommuni cati
onspr ocess
thatweshoul dal waysassumet hatsomet hingwi llgowr ongandt akest epstopr event
thatoccur rence.Barrier
stogoodcommuni cationsar ealway spresent .Forinstance,the
l
anguagei tselfcanbeabar r
ier—uncl earwording, sl
ang, j
argon,thet one.Anot herbar r
ier
i
st hef ail
ureoft hesendertorealizethathi
sorherbodyl anguagemi ghtcontradictthe
spokenmessage.Thechannel usedt oconv eyt hemessagemi ghtbewr ong.For
i
nst ance, youwoul dnotusethet elephonetor elayal otofstati
sticalinformation;you
woul dneedt owr i
tethatmessageonpaper .Poorl i
steni
ngski l
l
scanconst i
tuteabar rier
also( Alexander,1984) .

LESSON1:
NATURE,
DEFI
NITI
ONANDCOMPONENTSOFCOMMUNI
CATI
ON
Wear esocialbei
ngsandsuch; wefeelanintenseneedt oexpressourthoughts,
feeli
ngsandaspirat
ions,
doubts,quest
ions,andf ears.Equal
l
yintenseisourneedtobe
l
istenedto.Theseneeds-toexpressandt obelistenedto–ar ebasicorinnat
einall
of
us.
ButasBenJohnson,
theEngl
ishpoet,
hassai
d,t
heabi
l
ityt
ospeakandt
heabi
l
ityt
o
speakwel
lar
etwodiffer
entt
hings.
Speaki
ngwel l
iscomparabletoanyski
lli
nthesensethati
tcanbedev el
opedand
enhanced.Al
lthatyouhavetodoisexposeyoursel
ftovari
ousspeaki
ngsituat
ions.
Li
stenwellandstudyhowef f
ect
ivespeaker
sexpressthemsel
ves.
Asmuchas75%oft
heav
erageper
son‘
sdayi
sspentcommuni
cat
ing.
Thoseint
echni
cal
jobsareesti
matedtospendbet
ween50%and90%oft
hei
rwor
kday
engagedi
ncommunicat
ionprocess.
DEFI
NITI
ONSOFCOMMUNI
CATI
ON
1.Communicat
ionisapr
ocessbywhichweassi
gnandconv
eymeani
ngi
nan
at
temptt
ocreateshar
edunder
standi
ng.

Thi
spr
ocessr
equi
resav
astr
eper
toi
reofski
l
ls
 I
ntr
aper
sonal
andi
nter
per
sonal
processi
ng
Li
steni
ng Ev
aluat
ing
Obser
ving
Speaki
ng
Quest
ioni
ng
Anal
yzi
ng
2.I
tcanbeseenasprocessesofi
nfor
mat
iont
ransmi
ssi
ongov
ernedbyt
hreel
evel
s
ofsemi
oti
crul
es:
Sy
ntact
ic
Pr
agmat
ic
Semant
ic
3.I
tist
her
efor
easoci
alint
eract
ionwher
eatl
eastt
wointer
act
ingagent
sshar
ea
commonsetofsi
gnsandacommonsetofsemioti
crul
es.
4.TheOxfordAdvancedLearner‘
sDicti
onarydefi
nescommunication, astheactof
passi
ngnews,inf
ormation…,theactofshari
ngorexchangi
ngthought s,i
deas,feel
i
ngs
wit
hothersorwit
hagr oup;t
heactofpar t
ici
pat
ingwithorshar
ingincommon, the―we-
bel
ong-t
o-same-f
eeli
ng‖asincommuni cati
onwith…ortheactofthinkingaboutonesel
f.
5.Communi cat
ioni
sderi
vedfrom t
heLati
nwor d‗communi
s,
‘whichmeans,
―Bel ongi
ng
tomany ‖or―equal
l
y‖and―communi co‖–t oconf
erwi
thot
hers.Iti
sthemutual
exchangeofinf
ormati
on,
ideas,andunder
standi
ngbyanyef
fect
ivemeans(Ball
esterr
os,
2003).
6.Communicat
ionrefer
stotheprocessofhumanbeingsr
espondi
ngt
othesy
mbol
i
c
behav
iorofot
herpersons(
AdlerandRodman, 1997)
.
COMMUNI
CATI
ONI
SHUMAN.
COMMUNI
CATI
ONI
SAPROCESS.
COMMUNI
CATI
ONI
SSYMBOLI
C.
7.Thecommuni cat
iondonebyani malsisrel
ati
velydiff
erentfrom humans.Themanner
bywhichwecommuni cateorusedif
ferentgest
ures,facialexpression,etc.to
communicat
eisdi f
fer
entf r
om thedancethatisdonebybeest oi nstructthei
rhi
ve-
matesonthelocati
onoff oodorthechimpanzeest hathavebeent aughtt oexpr
ess
themsel
vesusingsignlanguageli
kedeafhumans.
8.Weof t
ent
alkaboutcommunicat
ionasifi
toccurr
edindiscr
ete,i
ndi
vidualact
s.In
factcommuni
cati
onisacont
inuous,ongoi
ngprocess.Consi
der,f
orexample,afri
end‘
s
complimentabouty ourappear ance.Youri nt
erpret
ati
onoft hosewor dswi l
ldependona
l
ongser i
esofexper iencesstret chingfarbacki nti
me: howhav eothersjudgedyour
appearance?Howdoy oufeel abouty our26l ooks?Howhonesthasy ourfri
endbeenin
thepast?Howhav ey oubeenf eel ingaboutoneanot herrecent
ly?Allofthishist
orywi
ll
helpshapey ourresponset otheot herperson‘sremark.Intur
n,thewor dsyouspeak
andthewayy ousayt hem wil
l shapet hewayy ourfri
endbehav estowar dyouandothers
-bothinthissit
uationandi nthef utur
e.
Thi sexampleshowst hatit
‘si
naccurat
etotalkabout―act s‖ofcommuni cationasif
theyoccurr
edinisolat
ion.Toputitdi
ff
erentl
y,communicationisn‘
taseriesofi nci
dent
s
pastedtoget
herli
kephot ogr
aphsinascrapbook;inst
ead,itismoreli
keamot ion
pict
ureinwhichthemeani ngcomesf r
om theunfoldi
ngofani nter
rel
atedseriesof
i
mages.Thef actthatcommuni cat
ionisaprocessisref
lectedinthetr
ansactional
model .
9.Symbol sar eusedt or epresentt hings,processes, ideas,oreventsinway sthatmake
communi cationpossible.Themostsi gnifi
cantfeat ureofsy mbolsistheirarbi
trar
y
nature.Forexampl e,t
her e’snologi calreasonwhyt hel et
tersi
nbookshoul dstandf or
theobjecty ou‘rereadi
ngi nclass.Speaker sofSpani shcallitali
bro,andGer mansl abel
i
taBuch.Ev eninEnglish, anotherter m wouldwor kj ustaswel l
asl ongasev eryone
agreedt ousei tinthesameway .Weov ercomet hear bi
tr
arynatureofsy mbolsby
l
inguisti
cr ulesandcust oms.Ef fectivecommuni cationdependsonagr eementamong
peopleaboutt heserules.Thi siseasi esttoseewhenweobser vepeopl ewhodon‘ t
fol
lowsl i
ngui sti
cconv entions.Forexampl e,recallhowunusual thespeechofchi l
dren
andimmi grantspeaker sofal anguagesounds.
10.Inaddi t
iontot
his,nonverbalcommuni cati
oncanhav esy mboli
cmeani ng.Aswi th
wor ds,somenonv er
balbehav i
ors,thoughar bi
trar
y,haveclearl
yagreeduponmeani ngs.
Forexampl e,tomostNor thAmer i
canspl acementofat humbandf i
rstf
ingertogether
whilefacingthepalm ofthehandout war dstandsfortheideaofsomet hingbeing―OK.
‖Butev enmor et
hanwor ds,manynonv erbalbehavior
sareambi guous.Doesaf rown
signif
yangerorunhappi ness?Doesahugst andforafri
endlygreeti
ngorasy mbol of
thehugger‘ sromanti
cinteresti
ny ou?Onecan‘ talwaysbesur e(Adl
erandRodman,
1997) .
Ot
herConcept
sofCommuni
cat
ion
1.All
enLoui
s–Communi cati
onist
hesum ofallthi
ngs(t
ell
i
ng,li
steningand
underst
andi
ng)
.Iti
sasy
st emati
cact
ivi
tyunderanygiv
encircumstances.
2.Henr
yKunt
z–Communi cat
ionisthetransf
err
ingofi
nfor
mat
ionf
rom oneper
sont
o
anot
herwhet
herornothe/
sheelici
tsthatconfi
dence.
3.GeorgeTer
ry–Communi
cat
ioni
stheexchangeofi
deal
s,f
eel
i
ngs,
andemot
ions
betweentwoormor
eper
sons.
4.Kei
thDav
is–Thepur
poseofpassi
ngi
nfor
mat
ionandunder
standi
ngbet
weent
wo
persons…withoutt
hebr
idgeofcommuni
cat
ionnoonecancr
osst
her
iverof
understandi
ng.
Ty
pesofCommuni
cat
ionaccor
dingt
oMode
Amessagemaybei mpar
tedthr
oughtheset
ypes;ver
bal
-non-v
erbalandvi
sual
.Whil
e
communi cat
ioni
softent
houghtofasver
bal
,thenon-
ver
bal modeisequal
lyessent
ial
asitenhancesone’
smessage.
A. VERBALCOMMUNI
CATI
ON
-
(Li
nguist
ics)Thepr
ocessofsendi
ngandr
ecei
vi
ngmessageswi
thwor
ds,
i
ncl
udingwr i
ti
ngandsi
gnlanguage.

-
Itr
eferst
othef
orm ofcommuni
cat
ioni
nwhi
chmessagei
str
ansmi
tt
ed
v
erball
y.

-
Communi
cat
ioni
sdonebywor
dofmout
handapi
eceofwr
it
ing.

VERBALCOMMUNI
CATI
ON:
ORAL
Spokenwor
dsar
eused
I
tincl
udesf
ace-
to-
faceconv
ersat
ions,
speech,
tel
ephoni
cconv
ersat
ion,
v
ideo,
radi
o,t
elev
isi
on,
voi
ceov
eri
nter
net
.
Communi
cat
ioni
sinf
luencedbypi
tch,
vol
ume,
speedandcl
ari
tyof
speaki
ng.

Ver
balCommuni
cat
ion:Or
al-Adv
ant
ages
I
tbr
ingsqui
ckf
eedback.
Inaface-
to-
faceconv
ersat
ion,byr
eadi
ngfaci
alexpr
essionandbody
l
anguageonecanguesswhetherhe/
sheshoul
dtrustwhat‘sbei
ngsai
dor
not
.
I
tsav
est
imei
ncommuni
cat
ion.
I
tisqui
cki
nobt
aini
ngf
eedbackoncedel
i
ver
ed.
I
tpr
ovi
descompl
eteunder
standi
ngofcommuni
cat
iondel
i
ver
edandt
her
e
i
schancet
omakei
tcl
ear
eri
ncaseofdoubt
sini
nter
pret
ati
onofwor
dsor
i
deas.
I
tismor
erel
i
abl
emet
hodofcommuni
cat
ion.
I
tisf
lexi
bleandef
fect
ivef
oral
l
.
I
tispower
ful
meansofper
suasi
onandcont
rol
.
I
tischeaperwayofcommuni
cat
ionandhencesav
esmoney
.

Ver
balCommuni
cat
ion:Or
al-Di
sadv
ant
ages
I
thasi
ssueswhencommuni
cat
ingwi
thdi
stantpeopl
e.
Iti
sdif
fi
cultf
orcertai
npeoplet
ounder
standspeechduet
ovar
iousspeech
t
onesusedinverbal
communi cat
ion.
Thi
sfor
m ofcommuni
cat
ioni
snotsui
tabl
eforl
engt
hymessage.
Thereischanceofleakofsecr
eti
nformati
onwi t
ht hehelpofmoder
n
dev
icessuchaspolygraphorl
iedet
ector
.Oftensecretinf
ormati
oncanbe
obt
ainedwhil
ethepersonisundert
heinfl
uenceofalcohol.

VERBALCOMMUNI
CATI
ON:WRI
TTEN
Inwri
tt
encommuni
cat
ion,
wri
tt
ensi
gnsorsy
mbol
sar
eusedt
o
communicat
e.
Inwri
tt
encommuni
cat
ionmessagecanbet
ransmi
tt
edv
iaemai
l
,let
ter
,
r
epor
t,memoetc.
Wr i
tt
encommuni cat
ioni
smostcommonf
orm ofcommuni
cat
ionbei
ng
usedi
nbusiness.
Ver
balCommuni
cat
ion:Wr
it
ten-Adv
ant
ages
Messagescanbeedi
tedandr
evi
sed
Wr
it
tencommuni
cat
ionpr
ovi
desr
ecor
dandbackup.
Awr i
tt
encommunicat
ionenabl
esr
ecei
vert
oful
l
yunder
standi
tandsend
appr
opr
iatef
eedback
Easyt opreserve:Thedocumentsofwrit
tencommunicati
onar eeasyto
preser
ve.Or
alandnon- ver
balcommunicati
oncannotbepreser
ved.Ifiti
s
needed,i
mportantinfor
mationcanbecoll
ectedf
rom t
hepreserved
documents.
Easypr
esentati
onofcomplexmatter
:Writ
tencommuni cati
oni
sthebest
wayt
orepresentanycompl
exmattereasi
l
yandat t
ract
ively
.
Permanentrecord:
Thedocumentsofwrit
tencommunicat
ionactasa
per
manentrecord.Wheniti
sneeded,
import
antinf
ormat
ioncanbeeasi
ly
col
l
ectedf
rom thepreser
veddocuments.
Preventionofwast
ageoft
imeandmoney :Wri
ttencommunicat
ionpr
event
s
thewasteofmoneyandti
me.Withoutmeeti
ngwitheachothert
he
communi cat
orandcommuni
catecanexchangetheirv
iews.
Accuratepresentat
ion:Throughthedocumentsoft hewr
it
ten
communicati
ont opexecutivecanpresentthei
nformati
onmoreaccur
ately
andcl
earl
y.Asi ti
salegal documentev er
ybodytakesmuchcar
edoesdr af
tit
.
Useasar ef
erence:
Ifi
tisneeded,
wri
tt
encommuni
cat
ioncanbeusedas
f
utur
eref
erence.
Delegati
onofauthor
it
y:Writ
tencommunicati
oncanhel
ptheaut
hor
it
yto
del
egatethepowerandauthor
ityt
othesubordi
nat
e.I
tisqui
tei
mpossi
blet
o
del
egatepowerwit
houtawr i
tt
endocument.
Longev
ity:
Wr i
tt
endocumentcanbepreserv
edforalongt
imeeasi
l
y.That
i
swhy;al
ltheimport
anti
ssuesofanor
ganizati
onshoul
dbebackandwhit
e.
Ef f
ecti
vecommuni cat
ion:Wri
ttencommuni cat
ionhel
pstomake
communi cat
ionef
fecti
ve.Iti
smor edependableandeff
ect
ivet
hanthoseof
otherf
ormsofcommuni cati
on.
Maintai
ningimage:
Wr i
tt
encommuni cati
onhel
pstomai
ntai
nthei
magesof
bot
hthepersonandtheorgani
zat
ion.I
talsoprot
ect
sthei
magesofthe
companyororgani
zat
ion.
Pr operi
nfor
mati
on:Iti
saproperandcompletecommunicat
ionsy
stem.
Thereisnooppor
tuni
tytoincl
udeanyunnecessar
yinf
ormati
oninawrit
ten
document.
Lessdi st
ort
ionpossibi
li
ty:I
nthiscommunicati
onsyst
em inf
ormat
ionis
recor
dedpermanent l
y.So,t
hereislesspossi
bil
i
tyofdi
stor
ti
onandalter
ati
on
oftheinf
ormation.
Noopport
uni
tyt
omi si
nter
pret
: t
her
eisanyopport
uni
tyt
omi
sint
erpr
ett
he
i
nfor
mat
ionormessagesofwrit
tencommunicat
ion.
Cont r
olli
ngt
ool
:Writt
encommunicat
ioncanhel
ptocont
rol
the
organizati
onal
act
ivi
ty.Thewr
it
tendocumentmaybeusedasatool
for
controll
ing.
Easytov eri
fy:
Theinf
ormat
ionandmessagesthatar
epreser
vedcanbe
v
eri
fiedeasil
y.I
fther
eari
sesanymisunder
standi
nganypar
tycaneasi
l
yveri
fy
t
heinfor
mat i
on.
Others:
Clearunder
standing,
Legaldocument,
Acceptabi
l
ity
,Reduct
ionof
r
isk,
Creat
ingconfi
dence,Easycir
cul
ati
on,Wideaccessorcover
ageetc.

Ver
balCommuni
cat
ion:Wr
it
ten-Di
sadv
ant
ages
Expensiv
e:Wri
ttencommunicati
oni
scompar
ati
vel
yexpensiv
e.Fort
his
communicati
onpaper,
pen,
ink,t
ypewr
it
er,
comput
erandalargenumberof
empl
oyeesareneeded.
Timeconsumi ng:Wr i
tt
encommunicati
ontakest
imetocommuni
catewit
h
ot
hers.Iti
sati
me- consumingmedi
a.Itcost
stheval
uabl
eti
meofboththe
wri
terandther
eader .
Red-
Taoi
sm: Red-
Taoi
sm i
soneofthemostdisadvant
agesofwr
it
ten
communi
cat
ion.I
tmeanstotaket
imeforappr
ovalofaproj
ect.
Usel
essfori
ll
i
ter
ateperson:
Itmessagesrecei
verisil
l
iter
ate,
wri
tt
en
communi
cati
onisqui
teimpossibl
e.Thi
sismajordisadvant
agewri
tten
communi
cati
on.
Diffi
cul
ttomaintai
nsecrecy:
Iti
sanunexpectedmedium t
okeepbusi
ness
secr
ecy.Secr
ecyisnotalwayspossi
blet
omai nt
aint
hroughwri
tt
en
communicati
on.Becausehereneedstodi
scussever
ythi
nginbl
ackandwhit
e.
Lackofflexi
bili
ty:
Sincewr i
ti
ngdocumentscannotbechangedeasil
yatany
ti
me.Lackofflexi
bil
ityisoneofthemostimport
antli
mit
ationsofwri
tten
communicati
on.Del ayi
nresponse:
Itt
akesmucht i
met ogetaresponse
 f
rom themessagerecei
ver;promptr
esponsei
snotpossi
blei
ncaseof
wri
tt
encommuni cat
ionthatispossi
blei
noral
communicat
ion.
Delayindecisi
onmaking:Wri
tt
encommunicat
iont
akesmuchti
met o
communicatewithal
lthepar
ti
esconcer
ned.Sot
hedecisi
onmakercannot
takedeci
sionsqui
ckl
y.
Costi
nrecor
dkeepi
ng:
Itisverydi
ff
icul
tandexpensi
vet
okeepal
lthe
r
ecor
dsinwri
tt
encommunicat
ion.
Compl exwor ds:
Someti
mest hewri
terusescompl
exwordsi
nwrit
inga
message.Itbecomesdif
fi
culttomeani
ngouttother
eader
.Sotheobject
ives
oft
hecommuni cat
ionmaylose.
Lackofdi rectrelati
on: I
ftherei snodir
ectrelati
onbetweenthewrit
erand
thereader,wr i
tercommuni cationcannothelpt oestabl
ishadi
rectr
elati
on
betweent hem.Ot her:Promptf eedbackisimpossi bl
e,Sl
owness,
Bureaucraticattit
ude, Understandingproblem betweenboosand
subordi
nat es,lackinqui ckclarif
icati
onandcor rect
ion,f
ormal
it
yproblem,l
ack
ofpersonal int
imacy ,etc.

B. NONVERBALCOMMUNI
CATI
ON
Nonverbalcommunicati
onisthesendi
ngorrecei
vi
ngofwordl
essmessages.
Suchgesture,bodyl
anguage,
posture,
toneofvoi
ceorf
aci
alexpr
essi
onsis
cal
lednonverbalcommunicat
ion.

I
tisal
laboutt
hebodyl
anguageofspeaker
.

I
thast
hreeel
ement
s:
1.Appearance(speaker)-Cl
othi
ng,hair
sty
le,
neatness,useofcosmeti
cs;
Appearance(surr
ounding)–room size,
li
ghti
ng,
decor at
ions,
fur
nishi
ngs
2.Bodyl
anguage-f
aci
alexpr
essi
ons,
gest
ures,
post
ures
3.Sounds-v
oicet
one,
vol
ume,
speechr
ate

C. VI
SUALCOMMUNI
CATI
ON
Visualcommunicati
on,ont heot
herhand, i
sthetypeofcommuni cat
ionthat
usesv i
sual
stoconv eyinf
ormati
onand/ ormessages.Someexampl esare
si
gns, symbol
,imagery,maps,graphs,char
ts,di
agrams,pi
ctogr
ams, photos,
drawingsoril
l
ustrat
ions,andevenv ar
iousfor
msofel ect
roni
ccommuni cation.

Visualcommuni cati
onnowoccupi esani mpor tantplaceinanywor k
env i
ronment
.Fori nstance,duri
ngpr esentati
ons, i
nstruct
ors,managers,
doctors,l
awyers,l
egi sl
ator
sandt hel i
keusev isualstot r
ansferdat
ainto
di
gest i
blei
nfor
mat i
on.Verylikel
y,theyhav egreatersuccessi ncat
chingthe
attenti
onoftheaudi encemaki ngthel at
tereasilyrecallt
heinfor
mation.

Ver
balCommuni
cat
ion:Vi
sual
-Adv
ant
ages

Itmakesuseoft echnol
ogyt
hatprovi
desapps(applicati
ons),v
ideosand
i
magest hatrel
ylessonthepri
ntedwor dmakingpresentat
ionsmor e
i
nterest
ing.Thi
sleavesapowerfulef
fectontheaudienceandpr ospect
ive
cli
ents.

Speaker s/pr esent

er sshouldbemi ndfulofthecont entoftheirpr
esentation
si
ncewr ongandi rrelev
anti nformati
onmayl eadtomi scommunication.
Li
kewi se, theyshoul dpayat tenti
ont ographicelement s,suchasposi t
ion,
color,
si ze, shapeandor ientationasalltheseplayani mpor tantr
oleinthe
presentat i
onofsl ides.Audi encesizeshouldbeconsi deredaswel l
when
preparingsl i
depresentationsorot herformsofv isuals.

TypesofCommuni cationaccordi
ngtoCont
extThissub-sect
ion,cont
exti
n
communi cati
oni sreferredtoascomposi
teofpeopleint
eract
ingwitheach
other.Communi cati
onmayal sobecl
assi
fi
edaccordingtocontext:
(1)
i
ntrapersonal
;(2)interpersonal
A.I
NTRAPERSONALCOMMUNI
CATI
ON

TheLatinprefi
xesint
ra-meanswi t
hinorinside.I
ntr
aper
sonalcommunicati
on
thenmeanst al
kingtooneself.Somel abel
itasselfori
nnert
alk,i
nner
dial
ogue.Psychologi
stscal
litwithothernamessuchassel f
-ver
bali
zat
ionor
self
-st
atement.
Int
rapersonalcommunicat
ioncanbedef i
nedal
soascommunicat
ionwi
th
one’sself
,andt hatmayi
ncludesel
f-
tal
k,act
sofimagi
nat
ionandvi
sual
i
zati
on,
andev enrecall
andmemor y(McLean,2005)
.
Communi cationsexper tLeonar dShedletskyexami nedi ntrapersonal
communi cationt hrought heeightbasiccomponent soft hecommuni cati
on
process( i
.e.,sour ce,recei ver,
message, channel, f
eedback, envir
onment ,
context,
andi nterference)ast ransacti
onal,butallthei nter acti
onoccur s
withi
nthei ndi vi
dual (Shedl etsky,1989).From planningt opr oblem solv
ing,
i
nternalconf li
ctr esolution, andev al
uati
onsandj udgment sofselfandot her
s,
wecommuni cat ewi thour selvest hr
oughi ntr
apersonal communi cati
on.All
thi
sinteract i
ont akespl acei nthemi ndwi t
houtext ernalizat i
on,andallofit
rel
iesonpr eviousi nteractionwi ththeexternalwor l
d.

B.I
NTERPERSONALCOMMUNI
CATI
ON

Inter
personalcommuni cati
oncanbedef i
nedascommuni cationbet ween
twopeopl e,
butthedef initi
onf ai
lstocapturetheessenceofar el
ationship.
Thisbroaddef i
niti
onisusef ul whenwecompar ei ttointr
apersonal
communi cati
on, orcommuni cati
onwi t
hour sel
ves, asopposedt omass
communi cati
on, orcommuni cati
onwi t
hal argeaudi ence,buti trequires
clari
fi
cati
on.Thedev elopment alvi
ewofinterpersonal communi cation
placesemphasi sont her el
ationshipr
atherthant hesizeoft heaudi ence,
anddr awsadi st
incti
onbet weeni mpersonal andper sonalinteractions.

Fami l
yformanyi st hefir
stexper ienceini nt
erpersonalrel
ationships,but
aswedev elopprofessionally
, ourrelati
onshipsatwor kmayt akeonmany
oftheat t
ri
butesweassoci atewi thf amil
ycommuni cati
on.Wel ookto
eachot herwithsimilarsibl
ingr iv
alries,
compet it
ionforattentionand
resources,andsuppor t.Thewor kplaceandourpeer scanbecomeas
close,orcloser,
thanourbi rthf amili
es,withsimilarchal
lengesand
rewards.Tosummar i
ze,interpersonal r
elati
onshipsareani mpor tantpar
t
ofthewor kenv i
ronment .

LESSON2:
 THEPROCESSANDELEMENTSOFCOMMUNI
CATI
ON
COMMUNI
CATI
ONASPROCESS
Inasur veyconductedbytheKat zBusinessSchool attheUniversit
yofPi t
tsburg,
organi
zationsrat
edcommuni cationski
ll
sast hemostimpor t
antf actorusedin
select
ingtheirmanagementst aff.Thestudyfoundthatoral
andwr it
tencommuni cat
ion
skil
lswereimportanti
npredictingjobsuccess,aswast heabil
itytocommuni catewell
withothersintheworkpl
ace( Mt dTrai
ning,2010).
Thi
sr esultmakessenseafteral
lsi
ncecommuni cat i
onisinnatetous.Ther eforeforus
tobeabl etocommuni cat
ewellisi
mportant.I
fwear enotabl etocommuni catewel l
,the
messageswesendgetl ostintr
ansl
ati
on(Mt dTraini
ng,2010).Similar
ly,
Ber nal
es, Bal
on
andBili
gan( 2018)stat
edthatwhenthefl
owofi nformationisblockedforsomer eason
orthepar t
iescannotmakethemselvesunderst
ood, thencommuni cati
onf ail
s.
Sohowdowecommuni cateef
fecti
vel
y?Wemustconsi
deradeeperunderst
andi
ngof
thepr
ocessandelement sofcommunicat
ion.Communi
cat
ionprocessmaybesimple
tocomplexdependi
ngont hesit
uati
on.Tounderst
andt
heprocessther
eisaneedto
knowtheelementsorcomponent soft
heprocess.
ELEMENTSOFCOMMUNI
CATI
ONPROCESS
Speaki
ngandli
steni
ngarev
italel
ement
sofcommuni cat
ion.Ther
efore,i
nany
communi
cat
ionsi
tuati
on,
youar ebot
hspeakerandl
i
stener
.(Vil
lamarzo,2003)
EugeneWhi
te(
1960)ment
ionsei
ghtst
agesi
nthecy
cleofcommuni
cat
ion.
Thesear
e:
oThi
nki
ng oRecei
vi
ng
oSy
mbol
i
zing oDecodi
ng
oExpr
essi
ng oReact
ing,
and
oTr
ansmi
tt
ing oMoni
tor
ing
RomanJacobsonment
ionst
hef
oll
owi
ngascomponent
sofcommuni
cat
ion:
oAddr
essor(
speaker
)
oAddr
essee(
li
stener
oCont
ext(
sit
uat
ion)
oCont
actoCode,
and
oMessage
Gronbeckdefi
nesmodelas―apict
ureorarepr
esent
ati
onofathi
ngorprocesst
hat
i
dent
if
iesthekeypar
tsorel
ement
sandi ndi
cat
eshoweachelementaf
fect
sthe
oper
ati
onsofal
loft
heel
ement
s.
Communicat
ionModel,ther
efor
e,i
sasket
chthatshowsthebasi
cel
ementsoft
he
communi
cat
ionprocess,
andhoweachelementaff
ectstheot
herel
ement
sintheent
ir
e
communi
cat
ionprocessasasy st
em
COMPONENTSOFCOMMUNI
CATI
ON
1.SPEAKER/SENDER
oAper
sonwhosendst
hemessage
oAsendermakesuseofsymbol
s(wordsorgr
aphsorv
isual
aids)t
oconv
eyt
he
messageandpr
oducerequi
redr
esponse.
oSendermay
beani
ndi
vi
dual
oragr
ouporanor
gani
zat
ion
oThev i
ews,backgr
ound,appr
oach,
skil
ls,
compet
enci
esandknowl
edgeoft
he
senderhav
egreatimpactonthemessage.
oThecommuni cati
onpr ocessbeginswit
hthesender,whoisalsocall
edthe
communi catororsource.Thesenderhassomeki ndofinfor
mation–a
command, request,oridea–thatheorshewantst osharewithother
s.Inor
der
forthemessaget ober ecei
ved,t
hesendermustfirstencodethemessageina
formthatcanbeunder stoodandt hentr
ansmiti
t.
2.MESSAGE
oI
sthekeyi
deat
hatt
hesenderwant
stocommuni
cat
e
oI
tisasi
gnt
hatel
i
cit
sther
esponseoft
her
eci
pient
.
oCommunicat
ionpr
ocessbegi
nwi
thdecodi
ngaboutt
hemessaget
obe
conv
eyed.
oI
tmustbeensur
edt
hatt
hemai
nobj
ect
iveoft
hemessagei
scl
ear
.
oMessagei
swhaty
oucommuni
cat
ever
bal
l
yornon–v
erbal
l
y
oThemessageorcont enti
stheinf
ormat i
onthatthesenderwantst
orel
aytot
he
recei
ver
.Itisrel
ayedbetweenthepart
ies.Putall
threetoget
herandyouhav
ethe
communi cati
onprocessatit
smostbasi c.
oItal
sorefer
stot
het
hought
s,i
deas,
ori
nfor
mat
iont
haty
ouconv
eyt
oyour
l
ist
eners.
Ver
bal
del
i
ver
yofmessagesi
ncl
udes:
El
ement
sofv
oice(
rat
e,v
olume,
pit
ch,
andqual
i
ty)
Ar
ti
cul
ati
on,
and
Pr
onunci
ati
on

Ver
bal
messageconsi
stsoft
hreev
ari
abl
es:
Content(
isever
ythingyousayaboutsomethi
ng:r
eferent
ial
orrel
ati
onal)Ref-al
l
r
elev
anttoyourtopic;Rel–asuggest
ionofanyrel
ati
onshi
pt oy
ourli
steners
St
ruct
ure(t
hepat
ter
nofor
gani
zat
iony
ouf
oll
ow
St
yle(
howy
ouexpr
essy
ouri
deas)

3.CHANNELORMEDI
UM

oI
sthemeansusedt
oexchangeort
ransmi
tthemessage
oThechannel
ormedi
um i
sthel
anguagey
ouuse.
oThemeansthr
oughwhi
chthesendermustchooseanappr
opri
atemedi
um f
or
t
ransmi
tt
ingt
hemessageel
sethemessagemightnotbeconvey
ed.
oIti
salsocall
edchannel,
themedium i
sthemeansbywhi
chamessagei
s
tr
ansmitt
ed.Textmessages,f
orexample,
aret
ransmi
tt
edt
hrought
hemedi
um of
cel
lphones.

4.RECEI
VERORLI
STENER
oaper
sonf
orwhom t
hemessagei
sint
ended,
aimedort
arget
ed
oThedegr eetowhichthedecoderunder
standsthemessageisdependentupon
var
iousfactor
ssuchas: knowl
edgeofreci
pient
,thei
rresponsi
venesst
othe
message,andthereli
anceoftheencoderonthedecoder.
oTheper sontowhom amessageisdir
ectedi
scalledtherecei
verorthe
i
nter
preter.I
nordert
ocomprehendtheinf
ormati
onf r
om thesender,t
herecei
ver
mustfi
rstbeabletorecei
vet
hesender‘
sinfor
mationandt hendecodeor
i
nter
pretit.

5.FEEDBACK

oI
sthemai
ncomponentoft
hecommuni
cat
ionpr
ocessasi
tper
mit
sthesender
 t
oanal
yzet
heef
fi
cacyoft
hemessage?
oIthelpsthesenderi
nconfi
rmingt
hecorrecti
nter
pret
ati
onofmessagebyt
he
decoder.oFeedbackmaybever
balornon-
verbal
.
oThecommuni cati
onprocessreachesi
tsf
inal
poi
ntwhenthemessagehas
beensuccessf
ull
ytransmi
tted,
receiv
ed,
andunder
stood.
oTher ecei
ver
,int
urn,r
espondst othesender,
indi
cat
ingcompr
ehensi
on.
Feedbackmaybedi r
ect,suchaswr i
tt
enorv er
balr
esponse,
ori
tmaytakethe
for
m ofanactordeedinr esponse.
oThecommuni cat
ionprocessi
snotal
way ssi
mpleorsmooth,ofcourse.Two
ot
herelementsmayaffecthowthemessageistr
ansmit
ted,
recei
ved,and
i
nter
preted.

6.NOI
SE

oThiscanbeanysor tofi
nt er
ferencethataff
ect
sthemessagebei
ngsent
,
recei
ved,orunder
stood.I
tcanbeasl i
teral
asstat
icov
eraphoneli
neoresot
eri
c
asmi si
nter
pret
ingalocalcustom.
7.SI
TUATI
ONorCONTEXT

oI
tref
erst
othet
imeandpl
acei
nwhi
chcommuni
cat
ionoccur
s
oThisisthesetti
ngandsit
uati
oninwhi chcommunicat
iontakesplace.Li
ke
noi
se,contextcanhaveanimpactofthesuccessf
ulexchangeofinformati
on.I
t
mayhav eaphy si
cal
,soci
al,
orcul
tur
al aspectt
oit
.

THECOMMUNI
CATI
ONPROCESS

Thegoal ofcommuni cati

oni stoconv eyinfor
mation—andt heunderstanding
oft hatinformat i
on—f rom oneper sonorgr ouptoanot herpersonorgroup.This
communi cati
onpr ocessi sdivi
dedi ntothreebasiccomponent s:Asender
transmi tsamessaget hroughachannel t
othereceiv
er .(Fi
gureshowsamor e
elaboratemodel .)Thesenderf i
rstdev el
opsanidea,whi chiscomposedi ntoa
messageandt hentransmi t
tedt otheot herpart
y,whoi nter
pretsthemessage
andr eceiv esmeani ng.Informationt heori
stshaveaddedsomewhatmor e
compl icatedl anguage.Dev elopingamessagei sknownasencodi ng.I
nterpret
ing
themessagei sreferredtoasdecodi ng.
Theot herimportantf eat
ureisthefeedbackcy cl
e.Whent wopeopleinteract,
communi cati
onisr arel
yone‐wayonly.Whenaper sonr ecei
vesamessage, she
respondst oitbygiv i
ngar epl
y.Thefeedbackcy cleisthesameast hesender ‐r
ecei
ver
feedbacknot edinFi gure1.Otherwi
se,thesendercan' tknowwhet hert
heot herpar
ti
es
properlyint
erpret
edt hemessageorhowt heyreactedt oit
.Feedbackisespeci al
ly
signi
ficantinmanagementbecauseasuper visorhast oknowhowsubor dinates
respondt odirect
ivesandpl ans.Themanageral soneedst oknowhowwor ki s
progressingandhowempl oyeesfeelaboutthegener alworksit
uation.
Thecr it
icalf
actori
nmeasur i
ngt heeffect
ivenessofcommuni cati
oniscommon
understanding.Understandingexi stswhenall par
tiesi
nvol
vedhav eamut ualagreement
astonotonl yt
heinformat i
on, butalsothemeani ngoftheinf
ormat i
on.Ef
f ect
ive
communi cati
on,t
herefore,occur swhent heintendedmessageoft hesenderandt he
i
nterpretedmessageoft her eceiverareoneandt hesame.Althoughthisshouldbet he
goalinanycommuni cation,itisnotalway sachieved.
Themostef fici
entcommuni cati
onoccursatami ni
mum costi nter
msofr esour
ces
expended.Time, i
nparti
cular,i
sanimportantresourceinthecommuni cationprocess.
Forexampl e,
itwouldbev i
rtuall
yimpossi
bleforani nst
ructortotakethet i
met o
communi cateindiv
idual
lywitheachstudentinaclassaboutev eryspecifictopic
covered.Evenifitwerepossibl
e,itwoul
dbecost ly.Thi
siswhymanager softenleave
voi
cemai lmessagesandi nteractbye‐mailr
atherthanv i
sitt
heirsubordinates
personall
y.
Howev er
,effi
cienttime‐savingcommuni cationsarenotalwayseffect
ive.Alow‐cost
approachsuchasane‐ mailnotetoadist r
ibutionli
stmaysav etime,butitdoesnot
al
way sr esulti
nev eryoneget t
ingthesamemeani ngfrom themessage.Wi thout
oppor tuniti
estoaskquest ionsandcl ar
ifythemessage, er
roneousinter
pretati
onsare
possibl e.Inaddit
iont oapoorchoi ceofcommuni cati
onmet hod,otherbarri
ersto
effecti
v ecommuni cat
ionincludenoiseandot herphysical
distr
acti
ons,language
problems, andfailuretorecognizenonv erbalsignal
s.
Somet i
mescommuni cat
ioniseffect
ive,
butnotef fici
ent.Awor kt
eam leadervisi
ting
eachteam memberi ndivi
duall
ytoexplainanewchangei nprocedur
esmayguar antee
thatevery
onetrulyunderst
andst hechange,butt
hi smet hodmaybev er
ycostlyont he
l
eader'sti
me.At eam meetingwoul dbemor eeff
icient.Intheseandotherway s,
potenti
altr
adeoffsbetweeneffecti
venessandefficiencyoccur.(―TheCommuni cati
on
Process,
‖n.d.
)
TheCommuni
cat
ionPr
ocess
Therearemanycommuni cat
ionmodelst
hatcanbeusedtov
isual
l
ydescr
ibedi
ff
erent
communi cati
onsi
tuat
ions.Herearesomemodelsthatwi
l
lal
lowsust
ogetadeeper
underst
andingoft
hecommuni cat
ionaspr
ocess.
I
. ARI
STOTLE’
SCOMMUNI
CATI
ONMODEL(
1

Ar
ist
otl
eproposedthemodelbefor
e300B.C.Hefoundthe
i
mportanceoftheaudi
encerol
eincommunicat
ionchain.Thi
smodeli
smor efocused
onpubli
cspeakingt
hanint
erper
sonalcommunicat
ion.
Ari
stot
le‘
sModelofCommuni cat
ioni
sformedwithf
ive(
5)basi
cel
ement
s,
namel
y:1.Speaker
,2.Speech,
3.Occasi
on,4.Audi
ence,
and5.Eff
ect.
Ar
ist
otl
eadv
isesspeaker
stobui
l
dspeechf
ordi
ff
erentaudi
enceondi
ff
erent
t
ime(
occasi
on)andf
ordi
ff
erentef
fect
.
II
.ARISTOTLE’SMODELOFCOMMUNI CATION(2)Ari
stotl
edef i
ned
communi cati
on(cal
ledRHETORI
Ci nhi
st i
me)as―thefacul
tyofobser vi
ng,i
nanygiven
case,theavail
abl
emeansofpersuasi
on.‖Themodelshowsthepr ocesswhichthe
speakermustf ol
l
owt ocommunicat
ehisideaormessagetohisintendedli
stener
.This
processinvolv
esfourst
eps:
1)ASpeakerdi
scov
erssomel
ogi
cal
,emot
ional
andet
hical
proof
s;
2)Hear
rangest
hesemat
eri
alsst
rat
egi
cal
l
y;
3)Hecl
othest
hei
deasi
ncl
ear
,compel
l
ingwor
ds;
and
4)Hedel
i
ver
sther
esul
ti
ngspeechappr
opr
iat
ely
.
IMPORTANTSKI LLSOFASPEAKERTheAr i
stot
eli
anmodel
seemstoemphasi
ze
f
ourimportant―f acul
ties‖orski
l
lsofaspeaker,
whichhemustuse(obser
ve)asa
meansofper suadinghislist
ener
s(audi
ence)toactaccordi
ngt
ohispl
easeor
i
ntent
ions.Theseski l
l
sar easfol
lows:
1)Logicalr
easoni
ngski
l
lscoupledwi
ththeabi
li
tyt
opr
esentet
hical
and
emot
ionalproofsofi
deasheadvancesorpr
oposes;
2)Ski
ll
sinorgani
zingorposit
ioni
nghisspeechmateri
alsst
rat
egical
ly(orsimpl
y
put,
theproperorderi
ngorsequenci
ngofmat er
ial
sinordert
ohelptheli
stenerfol
low
thespeaker
‘sthoughtst
oanef f
ecti
vecloseorendi
ng);
3)Ski
l
lsi
npr
esent
inghi
sideas/messagesi
ncl
earandcompel
l
ingwor
ds;
and
4)Ski
ll
sindel
iv
eringhisr
esul
tantspeechi
nappropri
ateorat
ori
calstyl
e(e.
g.
corr
ectpronunci
ati
on,volumeofvoi
ce,rat
eofspeed,
gesturesorbodylanguage,
timi
ng,
etc.
).
I
II
.SHANNON’
SMODEL
Thismodelarguesthatcommuni cationcanbebrokendowni nt
o6keyconcepts:
sender
,encoder
,channel
,noise,decoder,andrecei
ver
.Alaterver
sionoft
hetheor
yby
WarrenWeaveraddeda7thconcept( ‗feedback‘
)whichchangedthemodelf
rom a
l
inear
t
o

cy
cli
cal
model
(Dr
ew,
2020)
.
 Itisknownasthe―mot herofal
lmodel s‖becauseofitswidepopul ar
it
y.The
model i
salsoknownas‗ i
nformat i
ontheory‘
orthe‗ Shannontheory‘becauseShannon
wasthemai npersonwhodev elopedthetheory
.Themodel ‘
spri
mar yvalueisin
expl
aini
nghowmessagesar elostanddistor
tedinthepr ocessofcommuni cati
on(Drew,
2020)
.
I
V.SHANNON-
WEAVERMODEL
Drew,
C.(
2020)expl
ainst
hattheShannon-
Weavermodelfol
l
owstheconceptof
communi
cat
ioninali
nearfashi
onfr
om sendert
orecei
verwit
hthef
oll
owingsteps:

1.Sender(
Inf
ormat
ionSour
ce)
Themodel start
swit
hthesender.Theyaretheperson( orobj
ect
, ort
hing)
whohasthei nfor
mati
ont obegi
nwith(the‗i
nfor
mat ionsource‘
).Thesender
st
art
sthepr ocessbychoosingamessagetosend, someonet osendt he
messageto, andachannelt
hroughwhichtosendt hemessage.

Asendercansendamessageinmulti
pledi
ff
erentways:i
tmaybeorall
y
(
thr
oughspokenword)
,inwri
ti
ng,t
hroughbodylanguage,
music,
etc.
2.Encoder(Tr
ansmi t
ter
)Theencoderi sthemachi ne(orper
son)thatconver
ts
thei
deaintosignalsthatcanbesentf rom t
hesendertotherecei
ver.The
Shannonmodel wasdesi gnedori
ginall
ytoexplaincommunicati
onthrough
meanssuchast elephoneandcomput erswhichencodeourwordsusing
codesli
kebinarydigi
tsorradiowav es.

However,
theencodercanalsobeapersont
hatt
urnsani
deaint
ospoken
words,
writ
tenwords,orsi
gnlanguaget
ocommunicat
eanideatosomeone.

3.ChannelThechannelofcommunicati
onisthei
nfrast
ruct
urethatget
s
i
nf or
mati
onfrom t
hesenderandtransmit
tert
hroughtothedecoderand
recei
ver
.Wesomet i
mesal socal
lthi
sthe‗medium‘.
4.NoiseNoiseint
err
upt
samessagewhi l
eit‘
sonthewayfrom t
hesendert
othe
recei
ver
.It‘
snamedaftert
heideat
hat‗noi
se‘
couldi
nterr
uptour
underst
andingofamessage.Ther
earetwoty
pesofnoise:

i
nternalandext
ernal
.Int
ernalnoisehappenswhenasendermakesamist
ake
encodingamessageorar eceivermakesami st
akedecodi
ngt
hemessage.
Here‘sthetwopoint
swhereitcanhappen:

Atthepointofencoding(forexampl
e,whenyoumisspel
lawordinat
ext
message);Att
hepoi ntofdecoding(
forexampl
e,whensomeone
mi
sinter
pretsasentencewhenr eadi
nganemail)

Ext
ernalnoi
sehappenswhensomet hi
ngexternal(
noti
nthecontr
olofsender
orr
eceiv
er)impedesthemessage.So,ext
ernalnoi
sehappens:

Atthepoi
ntoftransmissi
onthr
ought
hechannel(
forexample,
whenwe‘ r
e
havi
ngaconversationbyabusyhi
ghwayandther
eceiveri
shavingt
roubl
e
heari
ngovert
hesoundofcar s)
Oneofthekeygoal
sforpeoplewhouset
hist
heoryistoident
if
ythecauses
ofnoi
seandtryt
omi ni
mizethem t
oimpr
ovethequali
tyofthemessage
5.DecoderDecodingistheexactopposi
teofencodi
ng.ShannonandWeaver
madet hi
smodel inref
erencetocommunicati
onthathappensthr
ough
devicesl
iketel
ephones.So,int
hismodel,
ther
eusuall
yneedst obeadev
ice
thatdecodesamessagef rom bi
narydi
git
sorwavesbacki nt
oaf or
matt
hat
canbeunder st
oodbyt herecei
ver.

I
fwe‘ r
et al
kingaboutdirectcommuni cati
onbet weenpeoplewit
houttheuse
oftechnology,ther
emayst i
l
l beaneedf ordecoding.Forexampl
e,youmight
needtodecodeasecr etmessage, tur
nwr itt
enwor dsint
osomethi
ngt hat
makessensei nyourmindbyr eadi
ngthem outloud,oryoumayneedt o
i
nterpret(decode)themeani ngbehindapi ctur
ethatwassenttoyou.

6.Receiver(Dest
inat
ion)Ther eceiveri
stheend-
poi
ntofShannonandWeaver
‘s
ori
ginalli
nearf
ramewor k.Thisist hest
epwherethepersonf
inal
l
yget
sthe
message, orwhat‘
sleftofitafteraccount
ingf
ornoise.

Feedbackoccurswhent
hereceiv
erofthemessager espondstot
hesenderin
ordert
oclosethecommunicat
ionloop.Theymightrespondtol
etthesender
knowtheygotthemessageortoshowt hesender:

Whethertheygotthemessagecl ear
lywit
houtnoi seHowwel l
they
underst
andt hemessageNonet hel
ess,t
he‗ f
eedback‘elementsseemslikea
post-
hocadd- ont
ot hemodel,andisthesubjectofalotofcr
iti
cism (
seelat
er
i
nthisarti
cleon‗disadv
antagesofthemodel ‘fordet
ail
s).

V.BERLOS’
SMCRMODEL

Ber
lo‘
smodel f
oll
owstheSMCRmodel
.Thi
smodel
isnotspeci
fi
ctoany
par
ti
cularcommunicat
ion.

Ber
lo‘
smodel
incl
udesanumberoff
act
orsundereachoft
heel
ement
s:

Sour
ce:
Thesour
cei
ssi
tuat
edwher
ethemessageor
igi
nat
es.
Communicat
ionski
ll
s–Itistheskil
loft
heindi
vi
dualt
ocommuni
cat
e.For
exampl
e,t
heabil
it
ytoread,wri
te,
speak,l
ist
enetc.

Atti
tudes–Thi sincl
udesatti
tudestowardst
heaudi
ence,subj
ectandt
owards
oneself.Forexample,fort
hestudent,
theatt
it
udei
stolearnmoreandfor
teachers,i
tistohelpteach.

Knowledge–Communi cati
ngal someanst hatthepersonneedst obe
knowledgeabl
eaboutt hesubj ectort
opic.Fore.g.ateacherneedstoknow
aboutthesubjectindetai
lthatheorshet eachessot hattheycan
communi cat
epr oper
lysucht hatthestudentsunderstandhere.

Soci
alsystem –Thesoci
alsystem i
ncludest
hev ar
iousaspect
sofsoci
ety
l
ikeval
ues, bel
i
efs,
cul
tur
e,rel
i
gionandagener al
understandi
ngofsoci
ety
.It
i
swheret hecommunicati
ontakesplace.

Forexampl
e,cl
assr
oomsdi f
ferf
rom countr
ytocount
ryj
ustl
i
kepeopl
e‘
s
behavi
our
sandhowt heycommunicate,et
c.

Cultur
e: Cul
tur
eofaparti
cul
arsociet
yalsocomesundert
hesocial
syst
em.
Accordingtothismodel
,peopl
ecancommuni cat
eonlyi
ftheabove
requir
ement saremeti
ntheproperoradequat
epropor
ti
on.

Encoder
:Thesenderoft
hemessage,
from wher
ethemessageori
ginat
es,
is
ref
err
edtoastheencoder
.Sot
hesourceencodesthemessageher
e.

MessageContent–Thebodyofamessage,fr
om thebeginni
ngtotheend,
compri
sesitscont
ent
.Forexample,
what
evertheclasst
eachert
eachesint
he
cl
ass,f
rom begi
nni
ngtoend,ist
hecont
entofthemessage.

Elements–Itincludesvari
ousthi
ngsli
kelanguage,
gest
ures,bodyl
anguage,
etc.Theyconsti
tuteall
theelementsofaparti
cul
armessage.Anycont
entis
accompaniedbysomeel ements.
Tr
eatment–I
treferst
othepacki
ngofthemessageandt
hewayinwhi
cht
he
messagei
sconveyedorthewayi
nwhichiti
spassedonordel
i
ver
ed.

Str
uct
ure–Thest
ruct
ureoft
hemessageref
erstohowi
tisar
ranged;
theway
peopl
estr
uct
uret
hemessageint
ovari
ouspart
s.

Code–Thecodeoft hemessager ef
erstothemeanst hroughwhichitissent
andinwhatform.Itcoul
dbe,f
orexampl e,l
anguage,bodylanguage,gestur
es,
music,
etc.Evencult
urei
sacode.Thr oughthi
s,peoplegiveandreceive
messagesandcommuni cat
iontakesplace.

Channel
–Itr
efer
stot
hef
ivesenseor
gans.Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethef
ivesenses:
Hear
ing
Seei
ng
Touchi
ng
Smel
l
ing
Tast
ingCommuni
cat
ionoccur
sthr
oughoneormor
eoft
hesechannel
s.

Decoder
:Theper
sonwhor
ecei
vest
hemessageanddecodesi
tisr
efer
redt
o
adecoder.
Receiver:
Ther
ecei
verneedstothi
nkall
thecontent
sandel ement
soft
he
source,soast
ocommuni cat
e/r
espondstosendereff
ect
ively
.;
Berlo’
smodel beli
evest hatf oreffect
ivecommuni cationt ot akepl ace,t
he
sourceandt her ecei
verneedt obeont hesamel evel.Onl ythen
communi cat ionwi l
lhappenort akeplacepr oper
ly.Hence, thesour ceandthe
receiv
ershoul dbesimi lar.Forexampl e, i
fthecommuni cationski l
l oft
he
sourcei sgood, thent her eceivershouldhav eequallygoodl isteningskill
s.I
t
cannotbesai dthatther eceiverdoesnotr eceivethewhol emessagebecause
event houghhemayr ecei vei t
,butmaynotbeabl etoi nterpretitsmeani ng.
Foreffect i
v ecommuni cation,thesour ceandt hereceiv erneedt obeont he
samel evel.Not e:Self-i
magedi ffersf
rom per sontoper son.For
communi cat ion,theper sonshoul dconsiderthereceiv er,speakaccor di
ngly
andgi vet hem whatt heyneed.
Cr
it
ici
sm ofBer
lo’
sSMCRmodelofcommuni
cat
ion:
1.Ther
eisal
ackoff
eedback.Theef
fect
sar
epr
act
ical
l
yunknown.
2.I
tdoesnotment
iont
hebar
ri
erst
ocommuni
cat
ion.
3.Ther
eisnor
oom f
ornoi
se.
4.I
tisar
athercompl
exmodel
.
5.I
tisal
i
nearmodel
ofcommuni
cat
ion.
6.I
trequi
respeopl
et obeont hesamelev
elf
oreff
ecti
vecommuni
cat
iont
o
happen.However
,thatrar
elyhappensi
never
ydayl
ife.
7.Themaindrawbackofthemodel
isthati
tomi
tstheusageofsixt
hsense
asachannelofcommunicati
on,
whichi
sanassett
ohumanbei ngs(thi
nki
ng,
under
standi
ng,anal
yzi
ngetc.
)
 VI
.SCHRAMM’
SMODEL,
1954

Janse(2019)inhisart
icleexpl
ainsthattheSchr amm Communi cat
ionModelisa
cycl
ical
communi cati
onmodel containi
ngal l
basicpri
nci
plesofcommuni cati
on.The
Schramm Communi cationModel offersaclassicappr
oacht oandexplanat
ionof
communi cat
ion.I
tcanbeusedt odet er
mi nehowcommuni cat
ionbetweentwopeople
workswhent hey‘
reexchanginginformation,ideas,
oratt
it
udes.
Thecy cl
icalcommuni cati
onmodel i
sbasedont het heoryandbel i
eft hat
communi cat
ionisat wo- wayst
reet
.Thismeanst here‘satleastasenderandar ecipi
ent
.
Themodel contai
nsatl eastoneotherelementaswel l;t
hemessagei tself
.Usuall
y
communi cat
iontakespl acesal
ongthet raditi
onal pathwithawast eful r
ecipi
entand
sender.Ther eci
pientandsendercanal sobeoneandt hesame.Thi si scall
edintr
a-
personalcommuni cati
on.Theformeriscal ledinterpersonalcommuni cati
on.Where
severalothermodel sandt heor
iesaboutcommuni cationarelinearinnat ure,t
he
Schramm Communi cationModeliscir
cular.Thismeansatl easttwopar ti
esare
requi
redt osendandr eceiveamessage.Bot hthesenderandt hereci pienthaveto
encodeanddecodet hemessaget ointer
pr etthemessagecor rect
ly.
WilburSchr amm publ i
shedthecircularcommuni cati
onmodel i
n1954, several
y ear
s
afterLasswel l
‘scommuni cati
onmodel waspubli
shed.Schr amm wr oteandspokeabout
thecommuni cationmodel—basedont hemodel byCharl
esEger tonOsgood—i nhis
book‗ TheProcessandEf fectsofMassCommuni cati
on‘.Hel atermadesomechanges,
i
ncl udingintr
oducingthefiel
dofexper i
ence,orcommonal ity.Thisrefersto49whati s
mut uallyunderst
oodbet weent herecipientandthesender .Aphy sicspr of
essorcan
teachmat hematicalpr
inci
plestoacl assofpsy chol
ogyst udents, butitwon‘tbeeasyas
thest udentsdon‘tshareaf i
eldofexper iencet
hatwouldhav emadei teasierto
under standthemessage.
Thr
eeEl
ement
s
Accordi
ngtotheSchr amm Communi cati
onModel,communi cat
ioni
scircul
arandt he
senderandreci
pientofthemessagecanbet hesameper son.Amessagei sencrypted
andpassedont othesameper sonortoadiff
erentperson.I
tisuptothereci
pientto
decry
ptthemessage, int
erpr
etit
,andthenencodeitagainbefor
esendingthemessage
toanewr
eci
pient(
cir
cul
ar)
.Ther
eisnof
our
thel
ement
,suchast
hei
nBer
lo‘
sSMCR
communi
cat
ionmodel.
Sour
ce(
Encoder
)
Thesour ceoft hemessagei sthesender ;t
hepar tywhosentt hemessage.Thesour ce
hastobecl earwhensendi ngt hemessageandhast obeabl etoshowwhyi tis
i
mpor tantthatther eci
pientreadsi t.Thisiswhyt hesenderofamessagehast omake
surethatthei nformati
onhei spr ov i
dingisuseful,rel
evant ,
andaccur at
e.Inorderto
ensurethatt herecipi
entcanpr operlyreadthemessage, ithast obeencoded.This
meansi tisnecessar yforthereci pi
entt oknowt hesender .Thesuccessoft heattempt
atcommuni cati
onwi lldependont heabi l
i
tytobr i
ngacr osst heinfor
mationi
nasi mple
butclearway .Thewayi nwhicht hemessagei sencodedi sinfluencedbycult
ural
aspects,percept i
ons,knowledge, atti
tudes,experiences,andski ll
s.

Reci
pient(
Decoder
)
Ther ecipientofamessagei st hepersonorgroupt owhom t hemessagehasbeensent .
Whet hertherecipientisabletodecodet hemessagedependsonanumberoff actors.
Forinstance,howmuchdoest heindi
v i
dualknowaboutt hetopi
coft hemessage,but
alsohowopenar etheyf oramessageanddot heytrustthesource.Theint
erpr
etati
ons
ofther eci
pientareinfluencedbycul t
uralaspects,percepti
ons,knowledge,
atti
tudes,
experiences,andski l
lsaswel l
.
Decodingamessagei sapsy chol
ogicalpr ocess.Aft
erthemessagehasbeenr ecei
ved,
thesti
mulusisimmediatel
ysenttot hebr ainforint
erpr
etati
on.Thisiswherethe
messagei sgi
venmeaning,ifatall
.Thispr ocessingphaseisalsocall
eddecoding.
Communi cati
onissuccessf
ul whenther ecipientcor
rectl
yint
erpret
st hemessagefrom
thesource.
Message
Inthest udiesofr hetori
candcommuni cat
ion,amessagei sdefi
nedasinformation.Thi
s
i
nf ormat i
oniscommuni cat
edthroughwor dsorot hercharactersandsymbol s.A
message, eit
herv erbalornon-
verbal,isthecont entoft hecommuni cati
onprocessand
play sanimpor tantroleintheSchr amm Communi cat
ionModel .Amessagemaycont ai
n
verbal content,
suchasspeech, signlanguage, emai l
s,What sAppmessages, orphone
calls.Amessagecanal soconsistofnon- verbalcontent ,
suchasbehav ior
,gestures,
bodyl anguage, eyecont act
,physicalcontact,t
iming, andev enart
if
acts.
FeedbackandOr
gani
zat
ions
Al
thoughi
t‘
snotcl
earl
yindicat
edintheSchr
amm Communicati
onModel,
reci
pient
s
pl
ayanimport
antr
olethroughoutt
hecommunicat
ionpr
ocess.Theyar
enotonl
y
supposedtoabsor
bthemessage, buttheyal
sorecei
vethemessageandr espondt oi
t.
Thereplyfr
om t
hereci
pienttothesender‘
smessageiscall
edfeedback.Feedbackcan
bebothv er
bal
andnon-verbal
.Sometimesit‘
saverbalr
esponse,someti
mesi t‘
sjusta
si
ghoranod.
Feedbacki sof t
enexpr essedinwr i
ti
ng,anemai lforinst
ance.Feedbacki stherefor
ea
wayt omeasur ehowt heaudi encehasr eceivedthemessage.Thi senablesthesender
toimpr ovetheef fecti
venessoft hewaymessagesar ecomposedandsent .I
fthe
audiencedoesn‘ tunder standt hemessage, thesour ceoft hemessagecanr efi
neit
basedont hefeedback.I t
‘sessent i
alforef
fecti
vecommuni cati
oninanopen
communi cat i
onenv i
ronmentt oof f
ertheoppor t
unitytoprov i
defeedback.Amanageri n
abusinessenv i
ronmentshoul dtherefor
ecreateanat mospheret hatst
imulates
feedback.Quest ionssuchas‗ Doy ougetit?‘and‗ Whatdoy outhink?‘
shouldbeasked
alotmor er egularl
y.Mor eover ,organi
zati
onscangat herfeedbackf r
om empl oyeesin
countlessway s; surv
ey s,open- doorpoli
cy,newsletters,
memos, andmeet i
ngs.
Uni
ver
salLawofCommuni
cat
ion
Oneoft hef ir
stpeopl ewhocameupwi t
hacommuni cati
ont heorywasAr i
stotle.A
numberoft hinker sfollowedi nhi sfootsteps, i
ncludingLasswel l,
Ber l
o, andShannon&
Weav er.Therei soneuni v ersallawofcommuni cat i
ont hatappli
est oall t
heset heor i
es,
anditwaswr ittenbyS. F.Scudderi n1980.Scudderwr otethatallli
vingbei ngsonpl anet
earthhavet heabi l
it
yt ocommuni cate.Communi cati
ont akesplacet hroughdi fferent
means, suchasphy si
cal changes, l
anguage, breathing,mov ement s,sounds, orby
changingcol or.Int hislawofcommuni cation,Scudderemphasi zedt hatcommuni cation
wasanessent i
al sur v
ivalt oolforcreatures,aswel lasenabl ingthem toshar e
i
nformat i
onaboutt heirpr esenceandcondi t
ions.Accor dingtotheuni versal l
awof
communi cati
on, communi cationisusedt oexpr essbi ol
ogicalneedsaswel lasf eel
ings,
thoughts,andot herki ndsofi nformat i
ont hatar enecessar ytobringacr osst he
conditi
onofal ivingcr eatur e.
AsintheSchramm Communicati
onModel encodinganddecodi ngalsohappensinthe
uni
versall
awofcommunicat
ion.Int
hislawther eci
pientdoest hedecoding.The
uni
versall
awofcommunicat
ionalsostatesthatthecommuni cati
onprocesscanbe
i
nter
ruptedinanumberofways.Thereasonf ort
hisi
sbar ri
ers.Barri
erscanaltert
he
meaningofamessageandleadtotherecipi
entinter
preti
ngiti ncor
rectl
y.