25/04/2021

Review of Link Layer

Terminology:
 Hosts and routers: nodes
global ISP
 Communication channels that
MAC Protocols and LAN connect adjacent nodes along
communication path: links
Technologies  wired links
 wireless links
 Layer-2 packet: frame,
encapsulates datagram

data-link layer has responsibility of

transferring datagram from one node
to physically adjacent node over a link
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Link Layer Services

• Framing (Frame structure)
– encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header, trailer
• Link Access (The protocol):
– Addressing: MAC Protocols
Introduces “MAC” addresses used in frame headers to
identify hosts (actually NICs) who are part of the network.
– Channel Access:
Defines the set of rules which allows the hosts to use the
(possibly shared) medium.
• Others: Flow control, error control

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Multiple Access Protocols MAC Protocol Types

Three broad classes:
• Single shared broadcast channel
• Channel Partitioning
• Two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes: – Divide channel into smaller “pieces” (Time-Slots, Frequency-Bands or
interference by code).
– Allocate piece to a node for exclusive its use.
– Collision if node or channel receives two or more signals at
– Examples: TDMA, FDMA, CDMA
the same time
• Random Access
Multiple/Media Access Control (MAC) Protocol – Channel not divided, any node can transmit at any time.
• Distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share – Allow collisions , then “recover” from collisions.
channel, i.e., determine when node can transmit – Examples: CSMA, ALOHA
• “Taking turns”
– Nodes take turns, but nodes with more to send can take longer turns.
– Might use a master/leader to coordinate the turns.
– Example: Token passing, polling

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Channel Partitioning MAC protocols: Channel Partitioning MAC protocols:

TDMA FDMA
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) FDMA (Frequency
• Access the channel in "rounds“. Division Multiple
• Each station gets fixed length slot (length = packets transmission time) Access)
in each round. • Channel spectrum
• Each slot called a Time-Slot. divided into
frequency bands.
• Unused slots go idle.
• Each station assigned
• Example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have packtes, slots 2,5,6 idle
fixed frequency band.

frequency bands
• Unused transmission
time in frequency
bands go idle.
• Example: 6-station
LAN, 1,3,4 have
packets, frequency
bands 2,5,6 idle

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Channel Partitioning MAC protocols: CDMA

• Code division multiple access (CDMA)

• Used in several wireless broadcast channels (cellular,
satellite, etc) standards
• Unique “code” assigned to each user; i.e., Code set
partitioning
• All users share same frequency, but each user has own
“chipping” sequence (i.e., Code) to encode data
• Encoded signal = (original data) X (chipping sequence)
• Decoding: inner-product of encoded signal and
chipping sequence
• Allows multiple users to “coexist” and transmit
simultaneously with minimal interference (if codes are
“orthogonal”)
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Random Access MAC Protocols CSMA/CD

• When node has packet to send
– Transmit at full channel data rate R. • No slots • Before attempting a
– No a priori coordination among nodes • Adapter doesn’t transmit if it retransmission, adapter
• Two or more transmitting nodes ➜ “collision”. senses that some other waits a random time, that
• Random access MAC protocol specifies: adapter is transmitting, that is, random access
– How to detect collisions is, carrier sense
– How to recover from collisions. • Transmitting adapter aborts
• Examples of random access MAC protocols: when it senses that another
– Pure ALOHA. adapter is transmitting, that
– Slotted ALOHA. is, collision detection
– CSMA/CD (Ethernet).
– CSMA/CA (Wireless e.g WiFi).

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“Taking turns” MAC protocols “Taking turns” MAC protocols

Channel partitioning MAC protocols: polling:
– Share channel efficiently and fairly at high load • master node “invites”
– Inefficient at low load: 1/N bandwidth allocated even slave nodes to transmit data
poll
if only 1 active node! in turn
Random access MAC protocols • concerns: master
data
– Efficient at low load: single node can fully utilize – polling overhead
channel – single point of
– High load: collision overhead failure (master) slaves
“Taking turns” protocols • Example usage:
Look for best of both worlds!
Bluetooth
6.13 6.14

“Taking turns” MAC protocols Summary of MAC protocols

• What do you do with a shared media?
token passing:
T – Channel Partitioning, by time, frequency or code
 control token passed
from one node to next • Time Division, Frequency Division, Code Division
sequentially. – Random access/partitioning (dynamic),
 token message • ALOHA, S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD
(nothing
 concern: to send) • carrier sensing: easy in some technologies (wire), hard
 single point of failure T in others (wireless)
(token) • CSMA/CD used in Ethernet
• CSMA/CA used in 802.11 (Wireless).
– Taking turns:
• Polling
• Token passing
data
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Ethernet
• Widely used LAN technology
• First network to provide CSMA/CD
• Developed in 1976 by Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research
Center) in cooperation with DEC and Intel
LAN Technologies • Can support data rates in the range of 10Mbps- 10 Gbps
• Used with a bus or star topology
•Ethernet
•FDDI
•Token Ring

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Ethernet: physical topology Ethernet: MAC Protocol

• Bus: popular through mid 90s
– All nodes in same collision domain (can collide with each
other) • Media Access Control (MAC) protocol required.
• Star: prevails today
– Active switch in center • MAC protocol: Rules on how to share medium
– Nodes do not collide with each other – nodes are in • Ethernet’s MAC protocol: CSMA/CD
different collision domains
• Hub: physically star connection but logically bus connection • Carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection
(CSMA/CD).
o CS = carrier sense
o MA = multiple access
o CD = collision detection

switch
star
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LAN Technologies LAN Technologies

Ethernet Technology Options

Ethernet
• Ethernet • 10 mbps
• Fast Ethernet • Physical Media :-
• Gigabit Ethernet • 10 Base5 - Thick Co-axial Cable with Bus Topology
• 10 Base2 - Thin Co-axial Cable with Bus Topology
• 10 Gig Ethernet
• 10 BaseT - UTP Cat 3/5
• Base Ethernet standard is 10 Mbps. • 10 BaseFL - Multimode/Singlemode Fiber
• 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps standards came later • Maximum Segment Length
• 10 Base5 - 500 m with at most 4 repeaters
• 10 Base2 - 185 m with at most 4 repeaters
• 10 BaseT - 100 m with at most 4 hubs

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LAN Technologies LAN Technologies

Fast Ethernet Fast Ethernet

• 100 Mbps bandwidth • Provision for Auto-Negotiation of media speed:
10 Mbps or 100Mbps (popularly available for copper media
• Uses same CSMA/CD media access protocol and packet only).
format as in Ethernet.
• Maximum Segment Length
• 100BaseTX (UTP) and 100BaseFX (Fiber) standards • 100 Base TX - 100 m
• Physical media :- • 100 Base FX - 2 Km (Multimode Fiber)
• 100 BaseTX - UTP Cat 5e • 100 Base FX - 20 km (Singlemode Fiber)
• 100 BaseFX - Multimode / Singlemode Fiber
• Full Duplex/Half Duplex operations.

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LAN Technologies LAN Technologies

Gigabit Ethernet 10 Gig Ethernet

• 1 Gbps bandwidth. • 10 Gbps bandwidth.
• Uses same CSMA/CD media access protocol as in Ethernet • Uses same CSMA/CD media access protocol as in Ethernet.
and is backward compatible (10/100/100 modules are
available). • Maximum Segment Length
• 1000BaseT (UTP), 1000BaseSX (Multimode Fiber) and • 1000 Base-T - Not available
1000BaseLX (Multimode/Singlemode Fiber) standards.
• 10GBase-LR - 10 Km (Singlemode Fiber)
• Maximum Segment Length
• 10GBase-ER - 40 Km (Singlemode Fiber)
• 1000 Base T - 100m (Cat 5e/6)
• 1000 Base SX - 275 m (Multimode Fiber)
• 1000 Base LX - 512 m (Multimode Fiber)
• 1000 Base LX - 20 Km (Singlemode Fiber)
• 1000 Base LH - 80 Km (Singlemode Fiber)
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Token Ring (IEEE 802.5 )

• Token ring : a number of stations connected by
transmission links in a ring topology.
Token Ring • Medium access control is provided by a small
frame, the token, that circulates around the ring
when all stations are idle.
• Only the station possessing the token is allowed
to transmit at any given time.

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Token Ring Network

with star topology Token Ring Operation
• Each station interrogates passing frame, if destined
for station, it copies the frame into local buffer.
A
• Token released after the transmission ends.
• Token can then be picked by another station that
Wiring center
wants to transmit.
• Token ring is obsolete
E

D
C

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FDDI

FDDI
E
B

C D
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Copyri ght ©2000 The McGra w Hi l l Companies Leon-Garcia & Wi djaja: Communication Networks Fi gure 6.62

FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)

• FDDI is a standard developed by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) for transmitting data on optical
fibers
• FDDI uses a ring topology of multimode or single mode
optical fiber transmission links
• Uses a dual ring:
– First ring used to carry data
– Second ring used for primary backup in case first ring fails
– If no backup is needed, second ring can also carry data
• In FDDI, token is absorbed by station and released as soon as
it completes the frame transmission {release after
transmission}.
• FDDI is obsolote

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