Q.

1
Discuss in detail different forms of disasters? Quote examples
from real world to clarify these forms?

Different forms of disasters

A. Water & Climate Related Disaster:

1. Flood
2. Cyclone
3. Tornado
4. Hailstorm
5. Cloud Burst
6. Thunderstorm & Lightning
7. Snow avalanches
8. Heat & Cold wave
9. Coastal Sea Erosion
10. Drought

B. Geologically Related Disasters:

1. Landslides and Mudflows

2. Earthquakes
3. Dam failures/ Dam Bursts
4. Mine Fire
C. Climate, Industrial & Nuclear Related Disasters:

1. Chemical & Industrial Disasters

2. Nuclear Disasters
3. Accident Related Disasters

D. Accident Related Disasters:

1. Forest Fire
2. Urban Fire
3. Mine Flooding
4. Oil-Spill
5. Major Building Collapse
6. Serial Bomb Blasts
7. Festival Related Disasters
8. Electrical disaster and Fires
9. Air, Road and Rail Accidents
10. Boat Capsizing
11. Village Fire

E. Biologically Related Disasters

1. Biological Disaster and Epidemics

2. Pest Attacks
3. Cattle Epidemics
4. Food Poisoning

Examples from real world

Q.2
What is EOC? Discuss in detail the approaches to manage
EOC?

EOC
An emergency operations center, or EOC, is a central command and control
facility responsible for carrying out the principles of emergency preparedness and
emergency management, or disaster management functions at a strategic level in
an emergency situation, and ensuring the continuity of operation of a company,
political subdivision or other organization. An EOC is responsible for the strategic
overview, or "big picture", of the disaster, and does not normally directly control
field assets, instead making operational decisions and leaving tactical decisions to
lower commands. The common functions of all EOC's is to collect, gather and
analyze data; make decisions that protect life and property, maintain continuity of
the organization, within the scope of applicable laws; and disseminate those
decisions to all concerned agencies and individuals. In most EOC's there is one
individual in charge, and that is the Emergency Manager. It has two approaches:

1. Emergency site management system

2. The incident command system

Emergency site management system

Experience has shown that there is a need for a system to manage and coordinate
the many activities during emergencies. The emergency site management system
has proven to be extremely useful in this regard because it involves a multi-
service, multi-jurisdictional effort. Moreover, it stresses the need for decision
making, communication, cooperation, and coordination among various services
and jurisdictions to ensure effective emergency response. The emergency site
management system’s main focus is to provide one framework (umbrella) to
integrate and coordinate services at the site while individual services continue to
use their own command systems. The emergency site management system is
complementary to the incident command systems. It is not intended to replace or
interfere with the command and control structures of the various response
services. Under the emergency site management system, the site manager
removes his/her agency specific hat and concentrates on the overall management
of all activities at the site – this person is a coordinator of all services/activities
and not a commander. The emergency site management system consists of two
main components: 1) the emergency site team and 2) the Emergency Operations
Centre Group. The emergency site team makes decisions on mitigation strategies
and tactics to limit the threat to people, property, and the environment at the
emergency site. The site team works in close cooperation with the Emergency
Operations Centre Group, which is responsible for supporting the site team and
making strategic decisions for the overall municipal emergency response. If the
site manager is not pre designated in the municipal emergency plan, the lead
agency concept will apply. In this system, once the EOC has been activated, the
EOC confirms or designates the service to lead. The head of the lead service then
designates the individual to assume the role of the site manager. When a site
manager is appointed, s(he) invites the control officers (highest ranking) of each
service to participate in the site team and designates support staff. Responders at
the site maintain their regular reporting relationship in accordance with their
service’s command structure. As the CBRN technical expert, you will provide
information about threats, progress and results to date and recommendations for
new or continued mitigation strategies. Your information will be needed for the
site manager to make informed decisions that result in ensuring maximum safety
considerations for all responders and effective treatment of casualties. You will be
looked upon to answer questions relating to the establishment of control of
Hazard Zones, agent identification and mitigation, PPE, casualty treatment,
limitations of local response, decontamination ability and evacuation
considerations. The emergency site management system involves a multi-service,
multi-jurisdictional effort and stresses the need for decision-making,
communication, cooperation, and coordination between various services and
jurisdictions to respond effectively in an emergency. It does not intend to
undermine, usurp or interfere with the command and control (or reporting)
structures of the various response services. While the system designates the
responsibility for managing the emergency site to an emergency site manager,
this person is a coordinator and not a “commander.” The emergency site
management system consists of two main components: 1) the emergency site
team and 2) the Emergency Operations Centre Group. The emergency site team
makes decisions on mitigation strategies and tactics to limit the threat to people,
property, and the environment at the emergency site. The site team works in
close cooperation with the Emergency Operations Centre Group, which is
responsible for supporting the site team and making strategic decisions for the
overall municipal emergency response. Canadian municipalities may experience a
wide range of emergencies caused by natural forces, accidents, or intentional acts
such as terrorism and mass disturbances. Provinces and territories have various
laws that obligate elected officials to prepare emergency plans. Sometimes,
emergencies call for a response that exceeds standard municipal operating
procedures, available resources and/or expertise. For example, an emergency
response may be required when the situation poses danger of major proportions
to the entire population of the municipality. In this instance, municipalities would
implement their emergency plan. Experience shows that effective arrangements
require a centre to facilitate direction, coordination and support of emergency
and regular operations. The design, equipment and staffing of the facility vary
with the resources and needs of municipalities. However, its purpose remains
constant. This facility is normally called the municipal emergency operations
centre, or “EOC” in its short form.
 The Incident Command System
The major backbone for managing an emergency incident rests with the incident
management system. This is not to minimize the need for proper preplanning or
training. However, when a large event happens, each responder must know their
role under ICS and how they contribute to the overall goals. Researchers have
identified four essential dimensions for affective incident command. These are (1)
an effective accountability system, (2) meaningful situational assessment, (3)
appropriate resource allocation, and (4) effective communication system (Jiang et
al., 2004). ICS allows for each of these dimensions to be met, assuming the
incident commander (IC) effectively uses the proper elements of the incident
command system. ICS defines basic operating characteristics, the management
components, and the overall structure that emergency response organizations
must utilize throughout the life cycle of an incident. The ICS is the cornerstone of
NIMS. In its most typical form, ICSs utilize the concept of a singular command—
one individual is in charge. However, the realities of attempting to coordinate
multiple entities from multiple jurisdictions required an alternate command
structure as well—that of a unified command. In unified command, all other
components of the command structure remain intact, and everybody still reports
to only a single individual, except for the IC. In unified command strategic
decisions, those at the highest level are made by a unified group with
representatives from each entity and jurisdiction. It is the role of the IC to be both
part of that group and then implement the strategic decisions made under unified
command. In practice, unified command is only used in larger incidents where
multiple groups, not of the same jurisdiction or organization, are required to
successfully manage the event. The traditional concept of government response
to an emergency incident has assumed a single organization would respond and
deliver services based on that event. This traditional concept has been replaced to
reflect a reality of public services increasingly being provided by multiple
organizations rather than a single entity (Moynihan, 2005). This response scenario
involving collaborative networks integrated both vertically and horizontally,
requires the incident management system to accommodate competing interests.
Under NIMS, these competing interests are managed by a single operational chain
of command being led by a single IC taking policy direction from the unified
group. Two essential leadership qualities are a problem-solving orientation and
adaptabilityto rapidly changing circumstances (Donahue, 2004). For the IC, these
are necessary traits. Managers, as contrasted with leaders, are often risk adverse.
In times of uncertainty, the need for calculated risk-taking and an aggressiveness
to attack emerging problems permit the IC to stay ahead of rapidly changing
conditions. However, the IC does not manage the incident alone. Many others are
involved in developing the strategic priorities and then implementing the incident
action plan. In large-scale incidents, there are four major sections under the IC,
each with a specific role. The acronym FLOP is a useful memory aid for
Finance/Administration, Logistics, Operations, and Planning. In daily use of ICS,
only the operations section is often put in place. In fact, the incident commander
often functions both as ICand the operations chief (remember this is a scalable
system). The use of a planning, logistics, or finance section only occurs in larger,
more complex, or extended operations. The finance section provides
accountability. This is an item often ignored or overlooked in the initial stages of
an incident, but the attention of policy makers often shifts to budget impact and
accountability for operations when the initial crisis subsides. The finance section,
or one of its subordinate units, tracks personnel time dedicated to various
functions, expenditures for supplies, and works with the logistics section to obtain
necessary resources. The logistics section provides for the long-term needs and
resources often overlooked in major events. Logistics must anticipate long-term
requirements for continued operation and assure resources are provided. As with
the other sections, various predefined specialty units consisting of
communications, food unit, or facilities unit may be needed depending on the
long-term operational plan. For example, who is going to feed and provide
temporary sleeping accommodations for emergency responders? The operations
section is the most utilized area of incident management. Its organization
depends on the specific type of event and the priorities established by the
incident action plan. This section may be organized by jurisdictional areas,
geographic boundaries, functional needs, or any combination of these. The
planning section’s role is often overlooked not only in local incidents, where its
usefulness is less critical, but also in larger or long-term events where a lack of
planning can be critical. The planning section should be comprised of experienced
personnel who have the skills to provide meaningful and timely analysis and then
project conditions that may exist in the near future. Additionally, many incidents
require the planning section to be staffed with subject-matter technical experts
whose specific qualifications are determined by the incident at hand. Experienced
IC’s know that success is determined by more than simply ‘‘filling in the boxes’’ on
an incident command organizational chart. There are numerous challenges in
successfully implementing the ICS. These challenges of incident management
need to be considered and addressed to assure successful handling of a disaster.
National Incident Management System: Challenges of Incident Management
Implementation of effective incident management is not without its challenges.
After the terrorist attacks of September 11, three key issues were identified as
particularly troublesome. First, emergency responders were able to rely only on
voice communications. At least initially, other types of communication were
either ineffective or not utilized. Second, there was limited situational awareness.
This inability to successfully integrate multiple data sources into the formation of
an effective representation of the crisis limited the ability of emergency
responders to effectively call for and utilize resources. Finally, long-standing
problems between police, fire, and other emergency responders were magnified
by the lack of interoperability among their respective communication systems
(Bahora et al., 2003). These challenges, and recommended actions to minimize
the impact, are detailed below. Situational Awareness The ability to achieve and
maintain situational awareness is one of the most significant challenges in
managing large-scale emergency events. Situational awareness has been
described as having a perception of the incident in its current environment,
comprehension of its meaning, and a projection of the incident into the near
future (Endsley, 2000; McQuaid, 2003).
The loss of situational awareness has been shown to lead to disastrous results.
Accordingly, much more effort must be paid to establishing and maintaining
situational awareness to successfully manage a large incident. A common
problem for incident commanders is the tendency to focus on single components
of an incident, disregarding other attributes. This tunnel vision inhibits a true
comprehension of the incident and its future impact. Because of that limitation,
the ability
to forecast near-term events is restricted. To overcome this problem, the IC must
perform rapid information sampling. This process requires a continuous
assessment of information flowing into the command center, seeking critical clues
and essential elements from the overall flow of information rather than focusing
on one or two seemingly critical components. This permits the IC to more
accurately assess all current conditions and anticipate future ones (McQuaid,
2003). Sonnenwald and Pierce (2000) found that interwoven situational
awareness between the individual, group, and among groups facilitates
emergency response. This is accomplished by ensuring frequent communications
occur between all participants. The ability of incident managers, especially among
those from different organizations, to establish trust with each other is essential
to successful incident management. As emergency events occur without warning,
and because of the increasing need of multiple agencies to work together, this
positive impact can be obtained by interagency planning and tabletop exercises.
The benefits will then be seen when incident managers are put together under
live emergency conditions. However, these efforts may be hampered by
‘‘contested collaboration,’’ a term used to describe competition between groups
that leads to dysfunctional actions. Such contested competition is often seen
between elite military units during noncombat times. The goal is to ensure these
adverse behaviors do not continue once emergency operations are underway.
Trust is also enhanced when leaders share norms and a vision of successful
incident mitigation. The establishment of shared norms/vision requires a rapid
and accurate flow of information from the field, wide dissemination of this
information (in raw form) to all team members, and communication among
incident managers regarding the meaning of the information received. Such
communication often occurs, and is enhanced, when the process is less formal
and not constrained by typical hierarchical processes. This leads to a common
sense of urgency regarding the incident and its resolution (Moynihan, 2005).
Communications A specific unit under logistics that has received much attention
after recent disasters is the communications unit. Many senior managers and
policy makers often hear the term ‘‘interoperability’’ when discussing radio
communications. Much of this discussion has focused on the radio system itself—
the hardware. Yet this is only a part of the issue. Manufacturers have engineered
systems to patch multiple radio systems together, though admittedly with some
limitations. The larger question is the ability of multiple responders to
communicate clearly in an interoperable environment. Some critics stated that a
single radio system during September 11 may have dramatically changed
outcomes. This assertion ignores the fact that 3000 emergency responders cannot
all work on a single radio channel. The ability to organize communications
rationally among large numbers of emergency responders, and assure that the
right person talks to the right person, is essential. The failure to bring a coherent
structure to radio communications will result in chaos. Policies and procedures
are needed, and must be exercised, which assign certain functions or
organizational units to different radio channels (or talkgroups in a trunked radio
system). Communications among these groups must allow for communications
between the unit leaders and the overall IC. Predetermination of which channels
are used for what purpose will reduce initial confusion in the incident. Resources
The ability to deliver all needed resources to the correct location at the correct
time, under emergency conditions, highlights the challenges that await
emergency managers. Experience has shown that resources are scarce initially.
However in some incidents, such as in hurricanes, the arrival of water and ice may
occur days to weeks after the local region is beginning to recover or when
demand is already met by other sources. In this later example, a problemdevelops
where supplies are wasted and sit idle.
National Incident Management System: Bringing Order to Chaos & 365
The planning section must be skilled at predicting needed resources and the burn
rate at which expendable supplies are consumed. Operational managers must
anticipate how many personnel and equipment will be needed in the future and
assure those needs are communicated. Resources arriving to a disaster scene
most often will be placed into a staging area where they are checked in before
being
deployed or used. Therefore, the tracking of resources is essential.
In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina’s landfall on New Orleans, those remaining
in the city fled to the convention center upon advice of city officials. In
anticipation of food, water, and ice that never arrived, FEMA lost track of their
supplies once they left their initial staging area. In 2006, FEMA made significant
efforts to track resources during future disasters. Each truck leaving a FEMA
staging area is now equipped with GPS tracking equipment so that disaster
managers can track those
resources as they move into disaster areas. Tracking of resources provides for the
financial accountability that will be required long after the initial press coverage
of an event has waned. Personnel accountability assures the safety of emergency
responders and allows managers to know what resources are already on-hand
and available for potential redeployment. Tracking of expendable supplies allows
for reimbursement and provides information to the planning section so future
demands can be anticipated. Although not necessarily a high-profile function, the
failure to properly track resources—as was
seen during Hurricane Katrina—can have significant impacts on the ability to
meet urgent needs of those impacted by an event.

Q. 3
What do you understand by the concept of prediction and
discuss the instruments used for data collection?
 Prediction
There are three stages involved in prediction:
1. Data collection
2. Analyzing data to assess the hazard
3. Translate data into a warning, and disseminating it to the general public
and the disaster task force.

Many natural and manmade hazards can be predicted before their onset. In most
cases, technology now makes it possible to actbefore disaster strikes. Predicting
different hazards requires different methods, technologies and equipment.

Each country has different organizations that possess equipment and monitoring
systems for different types of hazards. Prediction is based on the scientific data
and information collected from different sources, which is simulated through
various models, and finally analysed to determine the impacts that an identified
hazard can have.

In fact prediction is a means for hazards assessment, warnings and alert systems.
Most natural hazards are linked to atmospheric and climatic changes, which are
predictable. Within industrial and commercial settings many technical hazards can
laso be predicted using different alarm systems. For example, it is possible to
predict the onset of major storms or torrential rains and floods with fair accuracy,
often a few days in advance.

Some well known international sources of predication and forecasts of natural

hazards are:

1. The world weather watch

2. Seismological facilities in various countries
3. The tsunamis centre in the pacific warning centre in Honolulu

National sources of prediction may include:

1. National meteorological services

2. National seismological and volcano logical services
 3. Sectoral ministries and departments
4. Disaster management focal points

For example, forecasting weather helps in predicting hazards related to high

winds, storms, sea surges, tsunamis, high rainfall, flooding, and ice storms.
Prediction of wind hazards (tropical cyclones, hurricanes, typhoons) is based on
climatology and persistence. Data is normally collected in upper wind flow
patterns at different heights. Surface isobaric patterns, satellite cloud imageries,
and radar and radio observations are the main tools used for weather forecasting.
Based on the guidelines of the world meteorological organization the following
observations are made.

1. Surface observations
Wind speed and direction; atmospheric pressure; air temperature; clouds;
visibility; rainfall; radiations; dew poin temperature; and ground
temperature.

2. Sea observations
Sea surface temperature; wave speed; direction; period; and swell.

3. Upper air observations

Temperature and humidity at different heights and pressure levels.

The sources of the majority of these observations are normally the meteorological
stations on land. Some observations at sea can be made by the merchant ships
and research vessels

Instruments used for data collection

Satellite images
Accuracy of weather forecasts depends upon the availability of high-resolution
satellite pictures. These systems can also be used for identifying finishing grounds,
detecting forecasts fires, and monitoring crop conditions.
Weather radars
A weather radar, or weather surveillance radar (WSR), is a type of radar used to
locate precipitation, calculate its motion, estimate its type (rain, snow, hail, etc.),
and forecast its future position and intensity.
Modern weather radars are mostly pulse-Doppler radars, capable of detecting the
motion of rain droplets in addition to intensity of the precipitation. Both types of
data can be analyzed to determine the structure of storms and their potential to
cause severe weather.
They are often used for tracking cyclones disturbances, severe thunderstorms and
bad weather phenomenon.

Sources of data for flood forecasting

Data from earth observation satellites could deliver more timely warnings flood
warnings to Australians, according to the Commonwealth Scientific and Research
Organisation (CSIRO).
A project being carried out by the CSIRO in collaboration with the Vienna
University of Technology, and funded by the European Space Agency, will see
observations from the Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar (ASAR) on the Envisat
satellite used to increase the reliability of information that is fed into models for
monitoring and forecasting floods. Currently, the system relies on optical data
combined with passive microwave information and digital elevation models to
identify volumes of water.  But the CSIRO is developing a system to monitor and
forecast the progression of floods for better water management.
To increase the accuracy and reliability of the system, and to compensate for the
limited resolution of passive microwave data along with the fact that optical
instruments are not able to see through clouds, information derived from ASAR is
being incorporated into the system.
ASAR data can be used to continuously monitor how much water is stored in the
soil, as well as observing inundated areas during a flood because its radar can
penetrate through clouds and rain.
Albert van Dijk from the CSIRO said the system will provide many advantages.
"In Australia we have learned to live with droughts and floods. Extreme floods
cause terrible damage, but in other cases floods are vital for our river wetlands
and irrigation communities. ESA's radar observations are helping us develop
ways to monitor and predict the progression of floods,” he said.
The European Space Agency plans to launch a Sentinel-1 satellite in 2013 that will
greatly improve operational forecasting. Sentinel-1 is one of the five missions
being built specifically for Europe's Global Monitoring for Environment and
Security (GMES) programme.

Today several new sources of weather data are ready available for use in water
management practice. Present precipitation radar information, especially when
calibrated, can be of great help in obtaining well performing rainfall-runoff
models. Such precipitation data is not ready for use, but has to be cleaned and
converted into a hydrological load per sub catchment of a water system.
The availability of the ensemble weather forecast data permits stochastic analysis
with hydrological models. Such models present probability distributions of
forecasted excess water, water levels and inundation of land per unit of time. This
is an important advance in application of precipitation data to day-to-day water
management.

Q. 4
Briefly discuss frequently occurring hazards and how they can
be best managed?

Frequently occurring hazards and their

management

The earth’s weather is very mysterious. One day it is sunny the next it is raining. In
fact, sometimes as you are driving down the road, you hit the “wall” between a
sunny day and a sever thunderstorm. Man has spent years trying to predict
weather patterns but it is still an inexact science. This is a list of the most common
occurring disasters of nature:
Landslide

A landslide is a disaster involving elements of the ground, including rocks, trees,

parts of houses, and anything else which may happen to be swept up. Landslides
can be caused by an earthquake, volcanic eruptions, or general instability in the
surrounding land. Mudslides or mudflows, are a special case of landslides, in
which heavy rainfall causes loose soil on steep terrain to collapse and slide
downwards.

Avalanche

An avalanche is a geophysical hazard involving a slide of a large snow or rock mass

down a mountainside, caused when a buildup of material is released down a
slope, it is one of the major dangers faced in the mountains in winter. As
avalanches move down the slope they may entrain snow from the snowpack and
grow in size. The snow may also mix with the air and form a powder cloud. An
avalanche with a powder cloud is known as a powder snow avalanche. The
powder cloud is a turbulent suspension of snow particles that flows as a gravity
current.

Drought

A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region suffers a

severe deficiency in its water supply. Generally, this occurs when a region
receives consistently below average rainfall. It can have a substantial impact on
the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region. Although droughts can
persist for several years, even a short, intense drought can cause significant
damage and harm the local economy.

Wildfire

Wildfires, or forest fires, are uncontrolled fires burning in wildland areas.

Common causes include lightning, human carelessness, arson, volcano eruption,
and pyroclastic cloud from active volcano. The can be a threat to those in rural
areas and also to wildlife. Wildfires can also produce ember attacks, where
floating embers set fire to buildings at a distance from the fire itself.
Flood

A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land, a deluge. It is

usually due to the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake,
exceeding the total capacity of the body, and as a result some of the water flows
or sits outside of the normal perimeter of the body. It can also occur in rivers,
when the strength of the river is so high it flows right out of the river channel ,
usually at corners or meanders.

Tsunami

A tsunami is a series of waves created when a body of water, such as an ocean, is

rapidly displaced. Earthquakes, mass movements above or below water, volcanic
eruptions and other underwater explosions, landslides, large meteorite impacts
comet impacts and testing with nuclear weapons at sea all have the potential to
generate a tsunami. A tsunami is not the same thing as a tidal wave, which will
generally have a far less damaging effect than a Tsunami.

Volcanic eruption

A volcanic eruption is the point in which a volcano is active and releases lava and
poisonous gasses in to the air. They range from daily small eruptions to extremely
infrequent supervolcano eruptions (where the volcano expels at least 1,000 cubic
kilometers of material.) Some eruptions form pyroclastic flows, which are high-
temperature clouds of ash and steam that can travel down mountainsides at
speeds exceeding that of an airliner.

Tornado

Tornadoes are violent, rotating columns of air which can blow at speeds between
50 and 300 mph, and possibly higher. Tornadoes can occur one at a time, or can
occur in large tornado outbreaks along squall lines or in other large areas of
thunderstorm development. Waterspouts are tornadoes occurring over water in
light rain conditions.
Earthquake

An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth’s crust that
creates seismic waves. Earthquakes are recorded with a seismometer, also known
as a seismograph. The magnitude of an earthquake is conventionally reported on
the Richter scale, with magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes being mostly
imperceptible and magnitude 7 causing serious damage over large areas. Intensity
of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. At the Earth’s surface,
earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacement of the
ground.

Hurricane

Hurricanes, tropical cyclones, and typhoons are different names for the same
phenomenon: a cyclonic storm system that forms over the oceans. It is caused by
evaporated water that comes off of the ocean and becomes a storm. The Coriolis
Effect causes the storms to spin, and a hurricane is declared when this spinning
mass of storms attains a wind speed greater than 74 mph. Hurricane is used for
these phenomena in the Atlantic and eastern Pacific Oceans, tropical cyclone in
the Indian, and typhoon in the western Pacific.

Management
Cyclone Management
The most striking advantage of the earth observation satellite data has been
demonstrated during the recent Orissa super-cyclone event. A severe cyclonic
storm with a wind speed about 260 kmph hit the Orissa coast at Paradip on 29-
oct-99 causing extensive damage to human life, property, live stock and public
utilities. The National Remote Sensing Agency acted promptly and provided
spatial extent of inundated areas using pre-cyclone IRS LISS-III data collected on
11th October, 1999 and Radarsat Synthetic Aperture Radar(SAR) data of 2nd
November, 1999 since cloud -free optical sensor data over the cyclone-hit area
were not available (Fig.3). The map showing inundated area as on 2nd Nov, 1999
was drapped over topographical map, and was delivered to the Orissa
Government on 3rd Nov,1999. Information, thus generated, was effectively used
by various departments of Orissa Government involved in relief operations.
Subsequently, the recession of inundated areas was also studied using Radarsat
and IRS data of 5th,8th,11th,13th and 14th November, 1999. An estimated 3.75
lakh ha in Jagatsinghpur, Kendrapara, Bhadrak, Balasore, Jajpur, besides Cuttack,
Khurda and Puri districts had been found to be inundated. In addition, the crop
damage assessment was also made and maps along with block-wise statistics
derived using pre-and post-cyclone NDVI image from IRS WiFS data were also
provided to Orissa Government.

Floods
India is the worst flood-affected country in the world after Bangladesh and
accounts for one-fifth of the global death count due to floods. About 40 million
hectares or nearly 1/8th of India's geographical area is flood-prone. An estimated
8 million hectares of land are affected annually. The cropped area affected
annually ranges from 3.5 million ha during normal floods to 10 million ha during
worst flood. Flood control measures consists mainly of construction of new
embankments, drainage channels and afforestation to save 546 towns and 4700
villages. Optical and microwave data from IRS, Landsat ERS and Radarsat series of
satellites have been used to map and monitor flood events in near real-time and
operational mode(Fig.4). Information on inundation and damage due to floods is
furnished to concerned departments so as to enable them organising necessary
relief measures and to make a reliable assessment of flood damage. Owing to
large swath and high repetivity, WiFS data from IRS-1C and -1D hold great
promise in floods monitoring.
Based on satellite data acquired during pre-flood, flood and post-flood along with
ground information, flood damage assessment is being carried out by integrating
the topographical, hydrological and flood plain land use/land cover information in
a GIS environment. In addition, spaceborne multispectral data have been used for
studying the post-flood river configuration, and existing flood control structures ,
and identification of bank erosion-prone areas and drainage congestion, and
identification of flood risk zones.

Flood Disaster Impact Minimization

Flood forecasts are issued currently by Central Water Commission using
conventional rainfall runoff models with an accuracy of around 65% to 70% with a
warning time of six to twelve hours. The poor performance is attributed to the
high spatial variability of rainfall not captured by ground measurements and lack
of spatial information on the catchment characteristics of the basin such as
current hydrological land use / land cover, spatial variability of soils, etc.
Incorporation of remote sensing inputs such as satellite-derived rainfall estimates,
current hydrological land use / land cover, soil information, etc. in rainfall-runoff
model subsequently improves the flood forecast. Improvements in flood
forecasting was tested in lower Godavari basin in a pilot study titled "Spatial Flood
Warning System". Under this project, a comprehensive database including Digital
Elevation Model (DEM) generated using Differential Global Positioning System
(DGPS), hydraulic/hydrologic modeling capabilities and a Decision Support System
(DSS) for appropriate relief response has been addressed in collaboration with
concerned departments of Andhra Pradesh Government. Initial results have been
quite encouraging. The deviation in the flood forecast from actual river flood has
been within 15%.

Earthquake
Earthquakes are caused by the abrupt release of strain that has built up in the
earth's crust. Most zones of maximum earthquake intensity and frequency occur
at the boundaries between the moving plates that form the crust of the earth.
Major earthquakes also occur within the interior of crustal plates such as those in
China, Russia and the south-east United States. A considerable research has been
carried out to predict earthquakes using conventional technologies, but the
results to date are inconclusive. Seismic risk analysis based on historic
earthquakes and the presence of active faults is an established method for
locating and designing dams, power plants and other projects in seismically active
areas. Landsat-TM and SPOT images, and Radar interferograms have been used to
detect the active faults (Merifield and Lamer 1975; Yeats et al.1996; Massonnet et
al. 1993). Areas rocked by Landers earthquake (South California) of magnitude 7.3
were studied using ERS-1 SAR interferometry which matched extremely well with
a model of the earth's motion as well as the local measurements (Masonnet and
Advagna 1993). Active faults on the seafloor could also be detected by side-scan
sonar system (Prior et al, 1979). The earthquake prediction is still at experimental
stage. Successful prediction of minor earthquake have, however, been reported.
Among the major earthquakes, Chinese scientists predicted an earthquake 1-2
days ahead in 1975 (Vogel, 1980). Information on earthquake is ,generally,
obtained from a network of seismographic stations. However, very recently the
space geodetic techniques and high resolution aerial and satellite data have been
used for earthquake prediction. Space geodetic technique with Global Positioning
System (GPS) provides an accuracy of a centimetre over 1000 km and , thus, helps
in measuring the surface deformations and monitoring accelerated crystal
deformations prior to earth quakes with required accuracy.
Earthquake risk assessment involves identification of seismic zones through
collection of geological / structural, geophysical (primarily seismological) and
geomorphologic data and mapping of known seismic phenomena in the region,
(mainly epicenters with magnitudes). Such an effort calls for considerable amount
of extrapolation and interpolation on the basis of available data. There is also a
tendency for earthquake to occur in "gaps" which are in places along an
earthquake belt where strong earthquake had not previously been observed. The
knowledge of trends in time or in space helps in defining the source regions of
future shocks (Karnik and Algermissen, 1978). Satellite imagery could be used in
delineating geotectonic structures and to clarify seismological conditions in
earthquake risk zones. Accurate mapping of geomorphologic features adjoining
lineaments reveals active movement or recent tectonic activity along faults. The
relationship between major lineaments and the seismic activity has been
observed in Latur area of Maharastra, India. Space techniques have overcome the
limitations of ground geodetic surveys/measurements and have become an
essential tool to assess the movement/displacements along faults/plate
boundaries to even millimetre level accuracy.
Using Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), it has been possible to record
accurately the plate movement of the order of centimetre along baseline of
hundreds of kilometre. Similarly, satellite-based Global Positioning system (GPS)
has emerged as a powerful geodetic tool for monitoring (geological) changes over
time which is the key for understanding the long-term geo-dynamical
phenomena. GPS has been particularly useful in measuring the more complex
deformation patterns across plate boundaries where large and regional scale
strain builds up. Plate movements, slips along faults etc. have been measured
using differential GPS to an accuracy of sub-centimetres.

Volcanic Eruption
Many times precursors of volcanic eruptions have been observed in various areas
of volcanic activity. Ground deformations, changes in the compositions of gases
emitting from volcanic vents, changes in the temperatures of fumaroles, hot
springs and crater lakes as well as earth tremors are preceding volcanic eruptions.
Thermal infrared remote sensing has been applied for volcanic hazard
assessment. However, deficiencies of equipment and coverage suggest that
thermal infrared has not been adequately evaluated for surveillance of volcanoes.
The National Remote Sensing Agency has demonstrated the potential of multi-
temporal Landsat-TM thermal band data in the surveillance of active volcanoes
over Barren island volcano which erupted during March 1991 to September 1991
(Bhatacharya et al. 1992). In the last three decades, aircraft and satellite-based
thermal infrared (TIR) data have been used extensively to detect and monitor
many of the active volcanoes around the world. Repetitive coverage, regional
scale, and low cost of thermal infrared images from satellites make it an
alternative tool for monitoring volcanoes. Although the spatial resolution of
NOAA environment satellite is too coarse to record details of surface thermal
patterns, the plumes of smoke and ash from volcanoes could be detected which is
useful in planning the rehabilitation of affected areas. Studies have shown that
the upward migration of magma from the earth's crust just before eruption
inflates the volcanic cone. Such premonitory signs can easily and quickly be
detected with the aid of differential SAR interferometry. Extensive calibrations in
a variety of test areas have shown that by using this technique, changes on the
earth's surface can be detected to a centimetre accuracy.

Landslides
Aerial photographs and large-scale satellite images have been used to locate the
areas with the incidence of landslide. Higher spatial resolution and stereo imaging
capability of IRS -IC and -1D enable further refining the location and monitoring of
landslides. A number of studies have been carried out in India using satellite data
and aerial photographs to develop appropriate methodologies for terrain
classification and preparation of maps showing landslide hazards in the Garhwal
Himalayan region, Nilagiri hills in south India and in Sikkim forest area. Such
studies have been carried out using mostly aerial photographs because of their
high resolution enabling contour mapping with intervals of better than 2m in
height. The availability of 1m resolution data from the future IRS mission may
help generating contour maps at 2m intervals making thereby space remote
sensing a highly cost effective tool in landslide zonation.

Crop Pest and Diseases

One of the successful programmes where space technology has been used in risk
assessment from crop pests/diseases is the Desert Locust Satellite Applications
project of the UN/FAO for the International Desert Locust Commission. Temporal
and spatial distribution of desert vegetation and rainfall derived from NOAA-
AVHRR data have been used to identify the potential Locust breeding grounds. In
India, the desert locust is epidemic over 2 lakhs sq.km spread over Rajasthan,
Gujarat and Haryana states. Improved desert locust forecasting system is being
tried with the help of satellite data by the locust warning organizations by
narrowing down the potential breeding areas to undertake aerial spraying for
arresting further growth of locust.

Forest Fire
Several thousands of hectares of forests are burnt annually due to manmade
forest fires causing extensive damage to forest wealth. The behaviour of forest
fire depends upon three parameters: fuel, weather, and topography. Each
parameter has several characteristic parameters. The most important task in the
preparedness phase is to assess the risk. For risk assessment variables such as
land use/land cover, demography, infrastructure and urban interface are
considered. Effective mitigation of forest fire involves fuel (land cover, weather,
terrain, vegetation type and moisture level) mapping, identification of fire risk
areas, rapid detection, local and global fire monitoring and assessment of burnt
areas. The analysis of near-real time low spatial resolution (1km) and high
repetivity data from NOAA and high spatial resolution data with low repetivity
from earth resources satellites could provide the information on areas under fire.
The IRS satellite data have been used for monitoring forest fires over Nagarhole
Wild Life Sanctuary of Southern India.

Cyclone
The intense tropical storms are known in different part of the world by different
names. In the Pacific ocean, they are called 'typhoons', in the Indian ocean they
are called 'cyclones' and over North Atlantic, they are called 'hurricane'. Among
various natural calamaties, tropical cyclones are known to claim a higher share of
deaths and distruction world over. Records show that about 80 tropical cyclones
form over the globe every year. India has a vast coast line which is frequently
affected by tropical cyclones causing heavy loss of human lives and property.
Cyclones occurs usually between April and May (called pre-monsoon cyclonic
storms) and between October and December (called post-monsoon cyclonic
storms). While cyclonic storms can't be prevented, the loss of lives and damage to
the properties can be mitigated if prompt action is taken after receiving timely
warnings.
Q. 5
Write a detailed note on techniques used for capacity building
and training?

Training and Capacity Building

• Since Bangladesh is vulnerable to frequent natural disasters, such as floods and

cyclones, WHO has emphasized the importance of undertaking training and
capacity building initiatives for emergencies and has been assisting the Ministry of
Health in this area.

• Hospital staff at both primary and secondary levels has recently been trained on
providing Psychosocial Support and on Mass Casualty Management.

• A multi-sectoral core group formation plan is now in place, and training modules
with training of trainers (TOT) will be updated through workshops from October
2008.

• WHO and the Bangladesh Red Crescent Society (BDRCS) will conduct joint
simulation exercises in most of the cyclone-prone districts in October-November
2008, in collaboration with MOF&DM, UN Agencies, and INGOs & NGOs.

• Another training, on search, rescue, evacuation and first aid post-disaster,

began in August 2008 in collaboration with BDRCS and the local communities.

• Consultative meetings with the Government and other stakeholders are being
held from August 2008 on EHA benchmarks, Standard Operating Procedures for
Emergencies and development of an earthquake/Infrastructure collapse response
plan for the Health Sector.

• A workshop on Food & Nutrition in emergencies will be held in September 2008.

• Preliminary discussions are ongoing to formulate an action plan on information
and control regarding poison at all levels. Activities in this area will begin in
November 2008.

• In order to establish the Emergency Medical Services, health personnel at all

levels are being trained on ‘The Principles of Emergency Health Care ’. Four such
‘Training of Trainers’ (TOT) sessions were held for master trainers, followed by
implementation training on EPR, in Barisal and Khulna divisions. More training
sessions will be held in the remaining districts & Upazilas.

• In order to create greater awareness of the three basic principles of EMS & on
response to emergency, triage & mass casualty management, communications
material such as short video films, manuals, booklets, placards & posters are
being prepared. The films will be broadcast through national TV channels, radios,
cinema houses as trailers. The print material will be distributed at all levels.
• Emergency medical equipment and drugs are being procured to replenish buffer
stock, so that they can be readily available if a disaster occurs.

• Further training on psychosocial support will be conducted. To disseminate

basic messages for psychosocial support, specific IEC materials like posters,
leaflets, audio cassette/CD and training manuals in both English and Bengali, are
being designed.

• Caregivers are being trained on grief counseling techniques, so that they can
extend psychosocial support to all who need it, through counseling and proper
referral systems, in the Sidr affected areas.

• A handbook for identifying vulnerable areas by category, and for assessing the
environmental impact on human health, will be prepared for the health managers
and health workers of governments, NGO and INGOs. It is expected to help in
formulating preparedness plans, and in efficient resource management.
WHO Bangladesh is monitoring the the flood situation regularly. Civil Surgeons in
all districts that are likely to be affected have been kept on alert to combat any
possible occurrence of communicable diseases.

• Control rooms at district & Upazila levels have been made operational and
regular reporting to the central level have been established.
• WHO is maintaining regular liaison with other UN agencies through UN-DER
subgroup meetings. Apart from the Emergency and Humanitarian Action unit,
other WHO programmes (CSR, IVD, EH, VBD) have also been involved.

• Public health situational reports (sitrep) will be prepared on a regular basis.