NSC 1110 – BIOLOGY

TUTORIAL STUDY GUIDE

***2020***

Each topic summary has questions that are aimed at provoking discussions in the tutorials. No
one question is more important than the other and it may not be possible to cover all the
questions in one tutorial sitting. As such, tutors are free to modify the questions, or add on more
questions to ensure enhanced comprehension by the students. As a student, you are encouraged
to actively participate and prepare adequately for each tutorial by studying beforehand and
attempting the questions on your own or with your colleagues.
 1. WATER

Water is the most common liquid on earth, covering an estimated ¾ of the earth’s surface. It is
also the major component by weight of living organisms, making up 70% of a human living cell
and up to 95% of the mass of a plant cell. Water consists of two hydrogen atoms which carry a
partial positive charge and one oxygen atom carrying a partial negative charge. The water
molecule maintains a “bent” shape because of the tetrahedral arrangement around the oxygen
and the presence of a lone pair of electrons on the oxygen. A water molecule is electrically
neutral as it has no overall charge. It has 10 electrons and 10 protons.

The most important property of water is that the molecules can stick together by forming
hydrogen bonds. The physical and chemical properties of water are due to its hydrogen bonding.
The physical and chemical properties of water include it being a universal solvent, its latent heat
of vaporization, specific heat capacity, et cetera. Due to its properties, water plays key roles in
living organisms.

Questions

1. Draw a water molecule and explain what is meant by the term “dipolar”.
2. Describe how hydrogen bonding occurs between water molecules.
3. How are the properties of water linked to the polar nature of the molecule?
4. Describe the physical and chemical properties of water.
5. Discuss how the properties of water are significant to living organisms and processes.
2. BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

All biomolecules contain a Carbon chain or ring. Carbon has a great bonding capacity
because of its four valence electrons in its outer shell. It forms stable covalent bonds. The
biological molecules often consist of large carbon chains. Biological molecules include
Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids and Nucleic acids.

Biological molecules are polymers made up of monomers joined together via a dehydration
reaction (or condensation reaction). The polymers can be broken down into monomers via
hydrolysis reactions.

Questions
1. What are biological molecules?
2. Define the following terms:
a. Monomer
b. Polymer
3. Give three examples of a monomer.
4. Give three examples of a polymer.
5. Describe a condensation reaction.
6. Describe a hydrolysis reaction.
3. CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are biological molecules that contain only Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) and
Oxygen (O).They include sugars, and polymers of sugars. Carbohydrates are classified as
monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides exhibit isomerism due to the asymmetric carbon atoms. Disaccharides such
as Maltose and Lactose are reducing sugars while sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.
Polysaccharides include starch, cellulose and glycogen.

The common tests for carbohydrates are: Iodine test for starch, and the test for reducing and
non-reducing sugars using Benedict’s reagent.

Fructose

Questions
1. What is the general formula of carbohydrates?
2. Describe how larger carbohydrates are made from monosaccharide monomers.
3. What monomers make up sucrose, maltose and lactose?
4. What is an isomer?
5. Draw the isomers of glucose.
6. Explain how you would test for reducing and non-reducing sugars.
7. Describe how you would test for starch.
8. How is the structure related to function in:
a. Starch
b. Glycogen
c. Cellulose
9. State the properties and describe the functions of carbohydrates?
10. State the reasons for the solubility of glucose in water.
4. PROTEINS

Proteins are essential constituents of the structural components of animal and human
tissue. They are polymers of amino acids. Amino acids are crystalline solids that are
soluble in water, but insoluble in organic solvents. All amino acids contain two reactive
groups; an amino group and a carboxylic group. The R- group varies from one amino
acid to the other and determines the individual chemical properties of each amino acid.

Proteins have four confirmation levels; primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary
structure and quaternary structure. Proteins are classified as being either simple or
conjugated proteins. Proteins have biological functions ranging from structural storage,
transport, protective, et cetera.

Questions
1. Draw the general structure of an amino acid.
2. How many different types of amino acids are there, and how are they different?
3. Describe the formation of a peptide bond.
4. Explain how a functional protein may contain one or more polypeptides.
5. With examples, describe the structure and function of a:
a. Primary protein
b. Secondary protein
c. Tertiary protein
d. Quaternary structure
6. What are the roles of proteins in living organisms?
7. Describe the role of hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds and disulfide bridges in the
structure of proteins.
8. How would you test for proteins in a solid food sample?
9. What is the difference between globular and fibrous proteins?
5. ENZYMES
Enzymes are protein molecules which change the rate of a chemical reaction without
themselves being permanently changed by the reaction. Two theories govern the
mechanism of action of enzymes; lock and key theory and induced fit.

Enzymes are specific: i) substrate specific- some enzymes will catalyse reactions
involving one particular kind of substrate, ii) group specific- some enzymes will catalyse
reactions involving a particular group of substrates, iii) reaction type specific- some
enzymes will catalyse reactions of a particular type.
Enzyme activity is influenced by factors such as enzyme and substrate concentration, pH,
temperature, competitive and non-competitive inhibitors, cofactors, etc. Enzymes have
various uses in industry as well as in medicine.
Questions
1. What is an enzyme?
2. State the characteristics of enzymes.
3. Explain the factors that affect enzyme activity.
4. How do enzymes lower the activation energy of reactions they catalyse?
5. Define the terms; a) induced fit hypothesis; b) denaturation
6. Describe and explain the effect which a competitive inhibitor would have on the rate
of a reaction.
7. Discuss the use of enzymes in medicine.
8. State three advantages of using enzymes commercially compared with other types of
catalysts.
6. LIPIDS
Lipids are a heterogeneous group of organic compounds related more by their physical
rather than chemical properties. They have the common property of being
 relatively insoluble in water and are said to be water- hating (hydrophobic)
 soluble in nonpolar solvents such as ether, chloroform and benzene.
All lipids are polymers- long chains of repeating units joined together in a condensation
reaction during which water is released. Lipids are classified as being complex or simple
lipids. They can be saturated or unsaturated depending on the presence or absence of
double or triple bonds in the fatty acid tails. The commonest lipids are triglycerides.
Other lipids include, phospholipids and cholesterol. Lipids have various functions that
are of biological importance to living organisms.

Questions
1. What are lipids?
2. Describe the types of lipids.
3. Describe the function of lipids.
4. With the use of a diagram, describe how a triglyceride is formed.
a. Explain the following terms: a) Saturated fatty acids b) Unsaturated fatty acids
5. What is the difference between a triglyceride and a phospholipid with reference to
structure?
6. How does the length of the fatty acid hydrocarbon chain affect fluidity of cell
membranes?
7. A camel stores fat in the hump primarily as a water source rather than an energy
source.
i) By what metabolic process would water be made available from fat?
ii) Carbohydrates could also be used as a water source in the same process. What
advantage does fat have over carbohydrates?
7. NUCLEIC ACIDS

Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides. Nucleotides are composed of a pentose sugar,
a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group. The nitrogenous bases are in two groups;
pyrimidines and purines, differentiated by the number of rings they possess. There are
two types of nucleic acids: Deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA and Ribonucleic acid, RNA.
Nucleic acids carry genetic information that determines structures and physiological
processes.

The characteristics of cells and organisms are determined by the particular proteins
which are present, and the synthesis of these proteins involves DNA and RNA. DNA is
contained in the nucleus of a cell and carries the code to determine which particular
proteins are made. RNA has three forms, which then carry this information to the
cytoplasm of the cell and assemble the proteins.

Questions
1. What are nucleic acids?
2. Draw and label the monomer unit of a
nucleic acid.
3. Compare and contrast the components of
a DNA and RNA monomer unit.
4. Explain the rules of complimentary base
pairing.
5. What is a phosphodiester bond and how is
it formed?
6. Compare and contrast the structure of
DNA and RNA molecules.
7. Describe the semi-conservative method of DNA replication.
8. Name the three types of RNA and explain their functions.
9. Name the enzyme used to:
a. Separate two strands of DNA.
b. Join nucleotides to form a new strand of DNA.
8. CELLS
The cell is the tiniest building unit of an organism and is capable of carrying out all the
functions of life. Some organisms exist as single cells and as such, are referred to as
Unicellular organism, whereas, most organisms are made up of many cells, probably
even trillions of cells, and these are referred to as multicellular organisms. All cells arise
from pre-existing cells.
Cells vary in shape, structure and size. The
cell is made up of a protoplasmic mass
surrounded by the cell membrane. The
protoplasm is differentiated into a nucleus
and cytoplasm. Cytoplasm contains a group
of cellular structures called cell organelles.
Organelles allow different functions to occur
efficiently and simultaneously in different
parts of the cell.

Questions

1. Name the various organelles found in cells and explain their function.
2. What is cell differentiation and what are its advantages?
3. How are cells arranged into tissues? Give four examples of tissues.
4. How are tissues arranged into organs? Give four examples of organs.
5. How are organs arranged into organ systems? Give four examples of organ systems.
6. Outline the three statements that make up the cell theory.
7. Discuss the limitations of the cell theory.
8. Describe the structure of the plasma membrane.
9. What is the difference between facilitated diffusion and simple diffusion?
10. What is the difference between a carrier protein and channel protein with respect to
structure and function?
11. What affects the rate of diffusion?
12. What is osmosis and how does it affect animal cells and plant cells?
13. Define the terms:
a. Hypotonic d. Active f. Endocytosis
b. Hypertonic transport g. Phagocytosis
c. Isotonic e. Exocytosis
9. PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

There are two cell types in the three domains Eukarya, Eubacteria and Archaea. These are:
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are the cell type for the domains
Eubacteria and Archaea and Eukaryotic cells are the cell type for the domain Eukarya.
Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells have a number of similarities and differences with
respect to structure.

The prokaryotic cells are the simplest type of living cells. They are relatively small with a
diameter ranging from 1 -5 µm (micrometer). They typically do not have membrane-bound
organelles and lack a true nucleus. Their DNA is suspended in the cytoplasm of the cell.
Prokaryotes show a variety of cell shapes, spheres (cocci), rods (bacilli) and spirals (spirilla).
Most bacterial cell walls contain a unique material called peptidoglycan which consists of
polymers of modified sugars cross-linked by short chain polypeptides. Cellulose is not used.

Prokaryotes are useful agents in biotechnology. Prokaryotes recycle elements linking the
biological and physical components of the ecosystem. They play a significant role as
decomposers in the carbon and nitrogen cycles. They are used in manufacture of vitamins and
antibiotics and in recombinant DNA technology. However, poisonous chemicals known as
toxins are released by bacteria and are the most common cause of symptoms of bacterial
diseases. Toxins released by some types of bacteria may cause disease even when the bacteria
themselves are no longer present.

Eukaryotic cells are relatively larger than prokaryotic cells and possess a true nucleus. The
DNA is contained in the nucleus surrounded by a nuclear envelope. Eukaryotic cells are more
complex than prokaryotic cells. They have more organelles present such as the Endoplasimc
reticulum and mitochondria, e.t.c., and all these organelles are membrane-bound. Animal
calls and plant cells are all eukaryotic cells.

Questions

1. Compare and contrast the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells with respect to structure
and function.
2. What are:
a) Peptidoglycans
b) Mesosomes
c) Plasmids?
3. Explain whether viruses are living or not.
 10. DNA REPLICATION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

DNA replication is the process by which a cell makes an identical copy of its DNA. This takes
place in the nucleus during the Synthesis phase of Interphase of the Cell Cycle. DNA replication
ensures that each new daughter cell will inherit an identical copy of the DNA. DNA is a double
helix made of two strands, hence each of the two strands serves as a template for creating a new
DNA molecule. Free DNA nucleotides are used to form the new strands. This results in the new
DNA molecule having one parental strand (original strand) and a new daughter strand. The
process is said to be Semi-Conservative. Several enzymes are involved in the process and each
has a specific function.

Protein synthesis takes place in the ribosomes during Interphase of the Cell Cycle. It occurs in
two parts: Transcription and Translation. Transcription is the process by which DNA is copied
into mRNA in the nucleus. The mRNA then moves from the nucleus to the ribosomes where the
proteins are synthesised following the code from the DNA, i.e. Translation. Translation occurs in
three main steps: (1) Initiation; (2) Elongation; and (3) Termination.

Questions

1. Name the enzymes involved in DNA replication.

2. Briefly describe the role of each enzyme named in (1) above.
3. Describe the stages of DNA replication.
4. A portion of DNA has the following sequence: 5’- A-T-G-C-C-G-T-A-A-T-T-C-3’;
What is the sequence on the complimentary strand?
5. Describe the process of transcription.
6. Explain the three main steps of translation.
7. Given the following DNA sequence, answer the questions that follow:
5’ – TAC-ATG-CCG-GGT-AAG-CCT-GAC - 3’
a) What is the sequence on the complimentary DNA strand?
b) What will be the mRNA strand sequence to be transcribed from the first DNA strand?
c) What amino acids are coded for by the mRNA strand? (refer to the genetic code chart
attached)
11. CELL CYCLE

Cell cycle is the entire sequence of events happening from the end of one nuclear
division to the beginning of the next. It includes all activities that take place from the
time a cell completes dividing up to the time the produces cell starts to divide. Cell cycle
is divided into three stages; Interphase, M-phase and Cytokinesis. M-phase can either be
Mitosis or Meiosis.

In interphase, the cell is metabolically active and synthesizes new proteins and DNA.
Mitosis results in the formation of two diploid daughter cells from a diploid parent cell.
These daughter cells are genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell. Mitosis
is the basis of asexual reproduction and is responsible for growth, replacement of worn
out cells. Mitosis has four stages; Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase.

Meiosis in contrast, results in the formation of four haploid daughter cells from a diploid
parent cell (germ cell). These are genetically different from each other and from the
parent cell. Meiosis takes place in sex cells and results in the formation of gametes.
Meiosis has two divisions; Meiosis I, also known as heterotypic division and Meiosis II,
also known as homotypic division. Meiosis provides opportunities for new gene
combinations leading to genetic variation in the offspring produced.

Questions
1. Describe the stages of the cell cycle.
2. Explain the role of spindle fibres.
3. Why is mitosis important?
4. What can uncontrolled cell division lead to? Explain why.
5. How do viruses replicate?
6. How do prokaryotic cells divide?
7. What three main methods are used to treat cancer? Explain their advantages and
disadvantages.
8. What is the difference between meiosis and mitosis?
9. Name two ways in which meiosis produces genetic variation.
10. Identify one event that occurs in meiosis I, but not during meiosis II.
11. Describe the event named in (10) above.
 12. GAMETOGENESIS

Gametogenesis is the formation of the female and male gametes. In females, it is termed as
oogenesis and in males it is called spermatogenesis. Oogenesis occurs in the ovaries whereas
spermatogenesis occurs in the testes.

Spermatogenesis occurs continuously from puberty till death. It involves several steps including
mitosis and meiosis. Four spermatids are produced at the end of the meiotic phase. About 300
million sperm cells are produced per day.

Oogenesis in females starts when the female foetus is in the first trimester in the mother’s womb.
The Oogonia divide mitotically continuously until they reach a population of about 7 million.
Then they enter the meiotic division but stop in prophase I of meiosis as primary oocytes. Prior
to birth, there is a huge reduction in primary oocytes to only 2 million. When the female reaches
puberty, there remains about 400,000 oocytes in the ovaries. The meiotic division of oogenesis
continues after puberty is reached, when menarche begins. Only one primary oocyte continues to
the end of the meiotic division per month. From the four daughter cells produced only on is a
viable ovum, the other three are polar bodies having DNA and minimal cytoplasm and therefore,
non-functional. No more than one ova is produced per month.

Questions

1. Outline the stages of spermatogenesis.

2. Outline the process of oogenesis.
3. Differentiate between spermatogenesis and oogenesis.