TIME RESPONSE of the DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS

𝑈 𝑠 1 𝑌(𝑠)
𝑠 !𝐺(𝑠)
+ 3𝑠 + 4 𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑈 𝑠 ⇒ 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 ∶ 𝑦 𝑡 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑢(𝑡)

Time response of a system is to obtain 𝑦 𝑡 analytically for a specified input. In other words, time response of a system is
to take the inverse Laplace transform of 𝑌 𝑠 , for a specified input.

Example: For a system with the differential equation given as below, find the time response of the system for 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑢" 𝑡
𝑦 ## 𝑡 + 5𝑦 # 𝑡 + 6𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢(𝑡)

First step: Find the transfer function of the system.

!
𝑌(𝑠) 1 𝑈 𝑠 1
1 𝑌(𝑠)
𝑠 + 5𝑠 + 6 𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑈 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 = ⇒ ⇒ 𝑠!! + 3𝑠 + 4
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 ! + 5𝑠 + 6 𝑠 + 5𝑠 + 6
$
Second Step: Specify the input and obtain 𝑌(𝑠). 𝑈 𝑠 = 𝑈" 𝑠 =
"

1 1 1
𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑈 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑈" 𝑠 = ! × = !
𝑠 + 5𝑠 + 6 𝑠 (𝑠 +5𝑠 + 6)𝑠
1
Third Step: Find the inverse transform of 𝑌(𝑠) and obtain 𝑦 𝑡
$ + , -
𝑌 𝑠 = = + + A = 1/6 , B = -1/2 , C = 1/3
"("(!)("(*) " "(! "(*

! ! !
⇒ 𝑦 𝑡 = " 𝑢# 𝑡 + $ 𝑒 %$& − ' 𝑒 %'& Describes the situation the 𝑡 → ∞

𝑦% (𝑡) 𝑦& (𝑡)

ØAs might be observed from the example, the time response of a system is equivalent solving a differential equation. The
most tedious step of this procedure is the third step, i.e. taking the inverse Laplace Transform.

ØHowever, for 1st and 2nd order systems of a certain kind, there is no need to accomplish the third step. 𝑦 𝑡 can be
directly deduced from the transfer function of the system, i.e. 𝐺 𝑠 , as long as 𝐺 𝑠 is written in a particular format.

ØWithout loss of generality, step type inputs are mostly used for that purpose.

ØFor the response of a system, some performance specifications are defined in order to evaluate and compare the
systems. Since, even if we find 𝑦 𝑡 , our main aim is not to solve the differential equation, belonging to the system. Our
main aim is to evaluate the system’s behaviour from an engineering perspective and one way of achieving this goal is the
performance criteria defined for time response of the systems.

2
 Definitions and Explanations of Performance Criteria
v Suppose that the plot of 𝑦 𝑡 is as follows:
𝑦 𝑡 Performance Criteria:

𝒕𝒓 𝑹𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 : The required amount of time for 𝑦 𝑡 to

𝑀!
reach from 10% of its final value (0.1K) to 90% of its final
value(0.9K).
𝐾
0.9𝐾
0.98𝐾 𝒕𝒔 𝑺𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 : The minimum required time for
𝑦 𝑡 to stay within 2% tolerance band of its final value.

0.1𝐾 v Theoretically for y(t) to reach its steady value (𝑦% 𝑡 )

𝑡$ 𝑡# 𝑡" 𝑡 t must reach to infinity 𝑡 → ∞. However, practically, for
𝑡 ≥ 𝑡" the system is assumed to reach its steady state
𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒
value.
𝐾 : (The Open-Loop Gain): The final value of 𝑦(𝑡) as 𝑡 → ∞

%𝑶𝒔 (Percent Overshoot): The ratio of peak value of 𝑦 𝑡 exceeding from its final value to the final value of 𝑦 𝑡 .

0! 12
Mathematically: %𝑂𝑠 = 2
𝑥 100

3
𝒕𝒑 𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 : The instant of time at which the peak value occurs.
Ø Depending on the shape of the time response, %𝑂𝑠 and 𝑡4 might not be observed.
𝑦 𝑡

𝐾 There is no %𝑂𝑠 and 𝑡4 in this response.

0.9𝐾 Mathematically: %𝑂𝑠 = 0, 𝑡4 → ∞
0.98𝐾

0.1𝐾
𝑡$ 𝑡" 𝑡

𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒

Ø For all these performance criteria to be meaningful, the system must be stable;
i.e. the homogenous response cannot approach to ∞.
𝑦 𝑡

v Unstable system: The defined performance criteria are meaningless.

𝑡 4
 Time Response of First Order Systems
𝑈(𝑠) 1
𝑌(𝑠) 1
𝐺 3𝑠𝑠+ 4
𝑠! + 𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑈 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 ⇒ 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑈 𝑠 =
𝑠
2 𝐾 𝐴 𝐵
v Required format of 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑌(𝑠) = = + ⇒ 𝐴τ + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝐴 = 𝐾
5"($ 𝑠(𝜏𝑠 + 1) 𝑠 𝜏𝑠 + 1
𝑗𝜔 𝐴 = 𝐾 𝐵 = −𝐾𝜏
𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝐾 𝐾𝜏 𝐾 𝐾𝜏
𝑌(𝑠) = − = −
𝜎 𝑠 𝜏𝑠 + 1 𝑠 1
1 𝑛𝑜 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝜏 𝑠+
− 𝜏
𝜏 1 6 6
𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡: 𝑠 = − 1 1
𝜏 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾 − 𝐾𝑒 5 = 𝐾(1 − 𝑒 5)
v The plot of 𝑦(𝑡)
𝑦 𝑡 𝜏 ∶ time constant of the system.
Ø For 𝑡 = 𝜏, 𝑦 𝑡 = 0.63𝐾
𝐾

Ø For 𝑡 = 4𝜏, the system reaches 98% of its final value,

0.63𝐾
v 𝑡" = 4𝜏 6
1
0.98𝐾 = 𝐾 1 − 𝑒 5
v 𝑡7 = 2.2𝜏

𝜏 v There is no %𝑂𝑠 and 𝑡4 5

2𝜏 3𝜏 4𝜏 𝑡
 Ø The shape and all the details of 𝑦(𝑡) can be directly obtained from the transfer function itself.
6
8 19
For instance: 𝐾 = 8, 𝑡" = 16𝑠𝑛 𝑦 𝑡 = 8 − 8𝑒
9"($
𝜏 = 4𝑠𝑛 𝑡7 = 8.8𝑠𝑛

2
Ø In order to directly obtain 𝑦(𝑡), the format of the transfer function must be of the form: 𝐺 𝑠 =
5"($

𝐴 𝐴 𝐴/𝑝$ 𝐾
Ø Ever first order systems as below can be converted to this format: = = =
𝑠 + 𝑝$ 1 1 𝜏𝑠 + 1
𝑝$ ( 𝑠 + 1) 𝑠+1
𝑝$ 𝑝$
$8
Example: 𝐺 𝑠 = , For 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑢" (𝑡) find
:"(*

a) Time constant (𝜏) of the system

b) Settling time 𝑡" , rise time of the system
c) Final value of the system (steady state value)
d) Obtain 𝑦(𝑡) analytically.

2
Required format: 𝐺 𝑠 =
5"($
<
𝑎) 𝐺 𝑠 = ⇒ 𝐾 = 6, 𝜏 = 3𝑠𝑛 c) 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑢" final value : 𝐾 = 6
*"($
" "
1 1 %"⁄
b) 𝑡" = 4𝜏 ⇒ 12𝑠𝑛, 𝑡7 = 2,2𝜏 ⇒ 6.6𝑠𝑛 d) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾 1 − 𝑒 # =6 1−𝑒 $ = 6 − 6𝑒 $
6
Example: Assuming zero initial conditions in the circuit, by taking 𝐼(𝑠) as the input and the terminal voltage 𝑉(𝑠) as the output:
𝑎
=(")
+ a) Find the transfer function of the circuit, i.e. 𝐺 𝑠 =
>(")
𝐼
𝑉 𝑅 b) For 𝑖 𝑡 = 5 𝐴, 𝑅 = 2Ω, and 𝐶 = 0.5 𝜇𝐹
𝐶
i. Find the steady – state value of 𝑉(𝑡)
ii. Find the time constant, settling time and rise time of the system.
c) Discuss the effect of 𝑅 and 𝐶 to the speed and the steady state value of the system.
𝑏
$ A =(") A
𝑍?@ = & & = "-A($ >(")
= 𝑍?@ 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 = "-A($
(
' &(
)*

5 2 2 𝐾
𝐼 𝑠 = = 5𝑈" 𝑠 ⇒ 𝐺 𝑠 = = =
𝑠 𝑠𝑥2𝑥0,5𝑥101* + 1 0.001𝑠 + 1 𝜏𝑠 + 1

Steady state value: 5𝐾 = 10 𝑉

𝑡" = 4 𝜇𝑠𝑛
𝑡7 = 2.2 𝜇𝑠𝑛
Time constant 𝜏 : 0.001 sec = 1 𝜇𝑠𝑛

c) 𝑅 ↑ ⇒ 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑉

⇒ 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐶 ↑ ⇒ 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 7
 Second Order Systems 𝑅 𝑠 1 𝑌(𝑠)
𝑠 !𝐺(𝑠)
+ 3𝑠 + 4

𝑦̈ 𝑡 + 𝑎$ 𝑦̇ 𝑡 + 𝑎B 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑏B 𝑟 𝑡
ℒ
𝑦 𝑡 → 𝑌 𝑠 ⇒ 𝑠 ! + 𝑎$ 𝑠 + 𝑎B 𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑏B 𝑅(𝑠) All initial conditions are zero

D " E+
⇒𝐺 𝑠 = = ∶ Second order system
A(") " ,(F&"( F+
𝐾 : open loop gain. Defines the steady state
,
Ø The utilized format of second order systems: 𝐺 𝑠 =
2 G- value of the system.
,
" ,(!HG- "(G-
𝜔I : Natural frequency
Ø Every second order system belonging to that class can be written in
𝜁: Damping ratio
the required format:
,
2G- $< 9J9 𝜔I! = 4 ⇒ 𝜔I = 2
𝐺 𝑠 ⇒ , , = " , (!"(9 = " , (!JB.LJ!"(!,
" (!HG- "(G-
2𝜁𝜔I = 2 ⇒ 𝜁 = 0.5
𝐾=4
Ø The poles of the second order systems can be given as:
4𝜁 ! 𝜔I! − 4𝜔I!
𝑠$,! = −𝜁𝜔I ± = 𝑠$,! = −𝜁𝜔I ± 𝜔I 𝜁 ! − 1 This expression can be real or imaginary depending on 𝜁
2
Ø Unlike the first order systems, there can exist 4 distinctly cases in second order systems.
8
 𝑗𝜔
i. Poles are real-distinct: (𝜻 > 𝟏)
𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾 + 𝐾$ 𝑒 "&6 + 𝐾! 𝑒 ",6
𝜎
$8 𝑠! 𝑠%
Example: 𝐺 𝑠 = a) Find natural frequency 𝜔I and damping ratio(𝜁) and 𝐾
" ,($B"(:
b) Find the unit step response 𝑦 𝑡
c) Find the poles of the system
𝑅(𝑠) 1 𝑌(𝑠)
18 𝐾
𝑠 ! + 3𝑠 + 4
𝑠 ! + 10𝑠 + 9 0.9𝐾
𝐾 = 2,
0.98𝐾
𝜔5' = 9 ⇒ 𝜔5 = 3,
,
2G- !J: 5
, = 2𝜁𝜔5 = 10 ⇒ 𝜁 = 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑
" ,(!HG- "(G- " ,($B"(: 3
𝑠! = −9 𝑠' = −1
0.1𝐾
18 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝑡$ 𝑡" 𝑡
𝑦 𝑠 = = + +
𝑠 𝑠 + 1 (𝑠 + 9) 𝑠 𝑠+1 𝑠+9 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝐴 𝑠 ' + 10𝑠 + 9 + 𝐵 𝑠 ' + 9𝑠 + 𝐶 𝑠 ' + 𝑠 = 18 “overdamped system” %𝑂𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡4 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
A+B+C=0
10A+9B + C = 0 9 1 Mathematically: %𝑂𝑠 = 0
9A=18 𝑦 𝑡 = 2 − 𝑒 %& + 𝑒 %6&
4 4 𝑡4 = ∞
A = 2, B = -9/4, C = 1/4
9
 𝑗𝜔
ii. Poles are real-same: (𝜻 = 𝟏)
𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾 + 𝐾$ 𝑒 "&6 + 𝐾! 𝑡𝑒 "&6 𝑠%
𝜎

$! a) Find natural frequency 𝑤I and damping ratio(𝜁) and 𝐾

Example: 𝐺 𝑠 =
" ,(9"(9
b) Find the unit step response 𝑦 𝑡
1 c) Find the poles of the system
𝑅(𝑠) 12 𝑌(𝑆)
𝑠!! + 3𝑠 + 4 𝐾
𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 4
0.9𝐾
0.98𝐾
,
2G- *J9 𝜔5' = 4 ⇒ 𝜔5 = 2,
, = 2𝜁𝜔5 = 4 ⇒ 𝜁 = 1
" ,(!HG- "(G- " ,(9"(9
𝐾=3
𝑠!,' = −2
0.1𝐾 𝑡
12 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝑡$ 𝑡"
𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑅 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 = = + +
𝑠(𝑠 + 2)' 𝑠 (𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 2)' 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝐴 𝑠 ' + 4𝑠 + 4 + 𝐵 𝑠 ' + 2𝑠 + 𝐶𝑠 = 12

A = 3 , B = -3, C = -6 𝑡# 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡8 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡

3 −3 −6
𝑌 𝑠 = + + ' ⇒ 𝑦 𝑡 = 3 − 3𝑒 %'& − 6𝑡𝑒 %'& “Critically damped system’’
𝑠 𝑠 + 2 (𝑠 + 2) 10
 iii. Poles are complex conjugate: (𝟎 < 𝜻 < 𝟏)
𝑗𝜔
−𝜁𝜔I : 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑠$,! = −𝜁𝜔I ± 𝑗𝜔I 1 − 𝜁 !
𝑠% 𝜔" 1 − 𝜁 $ = 𝜔#
𝜔I 1 − 𝜁! ∶ 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝜔
&

𝑠 ! + 2𝜁𝜔I 𝑠 + 𝜔I! = (𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔I )! +𝜔I! − 𝜔I! 𝜁 ! 𝜁 = cos(𝜃)

𝜃 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝜎
- 𝜁𝜔" = 𝜎#
=(𝑠 + 𝜁𝜔I )! + (𝜔I! 1− 𝜁 ! )!
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾 + 𝐾$ 𝑒 1HG-6 cos 𝜔I! 1 − 𝜁 ! + 𝐾! 𝑒 1HG-6 sin 𝜔I! 1 − 𝜁 ! 𝑠!

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾 + 𝐾 ∗ 𝑒 1HG-6 cos 𝜔I! 1 − 𝜁 ! + 𝜙 , 𝐾∗ = 𝐾$! + 𝐾!!

𝑦 𝑡

𝑀! v The richest dynamics can be observed in underdamping systems.

v The performance criteria can be analytically derived by tedious
𝐾
calculations. Here, only the result will be given:
0.9𝐾
0.98𝐾 𝜋 𝜋
𝑡4 = ⇒
𝜔I 1 − 𝜁 ! 𝜔P
9 9
𝑡" = HG ⇒ Q
0.1𝐾 - .

𝑡$ 𝑡# 𝑡" 𝑡
$1H ,
%𝑂𝑠 = 𝑒 1HN/ x100 11
𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒
 9
Example: 𝐺 𝑠 =
" ,(!"(9
𝑦 𝑡

a) Find natural frequency 𝜔I and damping ratio(𝜁) and 𝐾

b) Find the unit step response
𝑗𝜔
c) Find the poles of the system
d) Find %𝑂𝑠 , 𝑡4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡" 𝑠% 3 = 𝜔#
𝜔
" =
2
𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝐾 = 1, 𝜎
−1 = 𝜎#
𝜔I = 2, 𝑡

𝜁 = 0.5,
𝑠!
𝑠$,! = −1 ± 3𝑗 𝜋
𝑡4 = = 1.81 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜔P
4 𝐴 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶 𝐴 𝑠 ! + 2𝑠 + 4 + 𝐵𝑠 ! + 𝐶𝑠 9 9
𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑅 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 = = + 𝑡" = = = 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑠(𝑠 ' + 2𝑠 + 4) 𝑠 𝑠 ' + 2𝑠 + 4 A = 1, B = -1, C = -2 HG- Q.

1 𝑠+2 1 𝑠+2 %𝑂𝑠 = 𝑒 1HN/ $1H ,

x100 = 12%
𝑌 𝑠 = − ' = −
𝑠 𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 4 𝑠 𝑠+1 '+3

1 𝑠+1 1 1
= − + 𝑦 𝑡 = 1 − (𝑒 %& 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑡 + 𝑒 %& 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑡)
𝑠 𝑠+1 '+3 𝑠+1 '+3 3 12
 𝑗𝜔
iv. Poles are purely imaginary (undamped): ( 𝜻 = 𝟎) 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

𝑈(𝑠) 𝑌(𝑠) 𝜔&

𝐾𝜔I! 𝑠$,! = ±𝑗𝜔I
𝑠 ! + 𝜔I!
𝜎
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑢" 𝑡 + 𝐾$ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔I 𝑡 + 𝐾! 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔I 𝑡
𝑦 𝑡
−𝜔&
𝐾

v Since the system is not stable, performance criteria are not meaningful for these
type of systems.
𝑡

−𝐾
$8
Example: 𝐺 𝑠 =
" ,(:
a) 𝜔5 = 3, 𝐾 = 2, 𝜁 = 0 ∶ 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
a) Find 𝐾, 𝜔5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜁 𝑗𝜔
b) 𝑠!,' = ±𝑗𝜔5 = ±𝑗3
b) Find the poles of the system 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
c) Find the unit step response 3 !K M N#LO
c) 𝑌(𝑠) = #(#'L6)
= + (#'L$')
⇒ 𝐴𝑠 ' + 9𝐴 + 𝐵𝑠 ' + 𝐶𝑠 = 18 ⇒
d) Find %𝑂𝑠 , 𝑡J 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡# . #
𝜎 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 0, 𝐶 = 0, 9𝐴 = 18 ⇒ 𝐴 = 2 ⇒ 𝐵 = −2
2 −2𝑠
−3 𝑌 𝑠 = + ' ⇒ 𝑦 𝑡 = 2𝑢# 𝑡 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡
𝑠 𝑠 + 3'
d) Performance criteria are meaningless for this system.
13
Effect of Additional Poles – Zeros to The Step Response

Ø Up to this point, we have derived the general characteristics of 1st and 2nd order systems and have defined the system
parameters (1st order → 𝐾, 𝜏, 2nd order → 𝐾, 𝜁, 𝜔I ).

Ø We related the performance criteria to these parameters and at the same time the location of the poles.

System parameters Performance Criteria Step Response

Location of the Poles

in s - plane

Ø However for third order or higher order systems, these relations are extremely difficult to obtain.

Ø Therefore it is logical to analyse the affect of the additional poles to the systems.

14
 Effect of Additional Poles: 𝑈 𝑠 𝑌 𝑠
𝐺(𝑠)

𝐾𝜔5' 𝐾𝜔5'
𝐺 𝑠 = ' ⟹𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜔5 𝑠 + 𝜔5' 𝑠(𝑠 + 𝑃$)(𝑠 ' + 2𝜁𝜔5 𝑠 + 𝜔5' )
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶𝑠 + 𝐷
𝑌(𝑠) = + + '
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑃$ 𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜔5 𝑠 + 𝜔5'
⟹ 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑒 1S$6 + 𝐾𝑒 1HG-6 cos(𝜔I 1 − 𝜁 ! 𝑡 + 𝜙)

Ø If 𝑃* ≫ 𝜁𝜔I the term 𝑒 1S$6 decays much more rapidly than the term: 𝐾$ 𝑒 1HG-6 cos(𝜔I 1 − 𝜁 ! 𝑡 + 𝜙) does
Ø In general, if 𝑃* > 5𝜁𝜔I the effect of the third pole can be neglected. The system can be considered as
a second – order system.
𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝑠% non-dominant zone dominant zone
𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝑠% and 𝑠! are dominant poles
𝑠%
𝜎 𝜎
𝑃% −𝜁𝜔" −5𝜁𝜔" −𝜁𝜔"

𝑠! v This system can be considered as if

𝑠! all poles in this region it is a classical second-order system
can be neglected

15
 Effect of Zeros: 𝑈 𝑠 𝑌 𝑠
𝐺(𝑠)

𝐾𝜔5' (𝑠 + 𝑍# ) 𝐾𝜔5' (𝑠 + 𝑍# )
𝐺 𝑠 = ' ⟹ 𝑌 𝑠 = '
(𝑠 +2𝜁𝜔5 𝑠 + 𝜔5' )(𝑠 + 𝑃$) (𝑠 +2𝜁𝜔5 𝑠 + 𝜔5' ) 𝑠 + 𝑃$ 𝑠

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶𝑠 + 𝐷
𝑌(𝑠) = + + '
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑃$ 𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜔5 𝑠 + 𝜔5'

Calculate B: 𝐴 𝑠 + 𝑃* (𝑠 ! +2𝜁𝜔I 𝑠 + 𝜔I! ) + 𝐵𝑠(𝑠 ! +2𝜁𝜔I 𝑠 + 𝜔I! ) + 𝐶𝑠 + 𝐷 𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑃* = 𝐾𝜔I! 𝑠 + 𝑍*

𝑠 → −𝑃* 𝐵 −𝑃* 𝑃*! − 2𝜁𝜔I 𝑃* + 𝜔I! = 𝐾𝜔I! 𝑍" − 𝑃* = 𝐾𝜔I! 𝜀

𝐾𝜔I! 𝜀
⇒ 𝐵= B is an extremely small number! 𝑗𝜔
−𝑃** + 2𝜁𝜔I 𝑃*! − 𝜔I! 𝑃* if 𝑍* = 𝑃* → 𝐵 = 0 𝑠%
𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑒 1S$6 + 𝐾$ 𝑒 1HG-6 cos(𝜔I 1 − 𝜁 ! 𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝜎

𝑍% 𝑃% −𝜁𝜔"
𝑍& cancel the effect of 𝑃%
extremely small (this term can be neglected). v This system can be considered as
𝑠!
a general second-order system

Ø To generalize, if a zero is located sufficiently close to a pole, it cancels the effect of the pole!
16
 𝑦 𝑡 Steady – State Errors

𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒. :

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟.
𝐾
0.98𝐾

𝑟(𝑡)

𝑡" 𝑡

𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎: 𝑡$ , 𝑡# , 𝑡" , %𝑂𝑠 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎: 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒.

For most of the control systems it is desired that the output of the system tracks the reference signal with a zero error.
In other words the error signal 𝑒 𝑡 ≜ 𝑟 𝑡 − 𝑦 𝑡
must be zero in the steady state to ensure this fact. Mathematically, this can be expressed as:
𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒. = lim 𝑒 𝑡 = 0
6→U
Since the error signal is obvious in the unity feedback configuration, it is more convenient to use this structure
when calculating the 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒.
17
 𝑅 𝑠 + 𝐸 𝑠 𝑌 𝑠
𝐺(𝑠)
𝑅 𝑠 _
𝑌 𝑠
𝐺(𝑠)

Ø To find the s.s.e. ℒ 1 𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑦(𝑡) must be calculated. Ø In this case 𝐸(𝑠) is apparent.
After calculating 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑦& 𝑡 + 𝑦% 𝑡
𝐺 𝑠
𝐸 𝑠 =𝑅 𝑠 −𝑌 𝑠 =𝑅 𝑠 − 𝑅 𝑠
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑟 𝑡 − 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑟 𝑡 − 𝑦& 𝑡 − 𝑦% (𝑡) 1+𝐺 𝑠
1
lim 𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑟 𝑡 − 𝑦& 𝑡 − 𝑦% (𝑡) = 𝑟 𝑡 − 𝑦% (𝑡) 𝐸 𝑠 =𝑅 𝑠 ⇔ 𝑒 𝑡 = ℒ 1$ 𝐸(𝑠)
6→U 1 + 𝐺(𝑠)

(for a stable system 𝑦& 𝑡 = 0 𝑡 → ∞) s.s.e: lim 𝑒 𝑡

6→U
𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒: is tedious!

Ø Theorem (Final Value Theorem): For stable signal in the 𝑠 − 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛, Bay 𝐸 𝑠 , the final value of its equivalent
in time – domain lim 𝑒 𝑡 , can be computed with the following formula, without taking the Laplace transform.
6→U

lim 𝑒 𝑡 = lim 𝑠𝐸(𝑠)

6→U "→B
18
Ø For computing 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒. using the unity feedback control scheme and building relations to open – loop transfer function
is much more convenient.
+
𝐺% (𝑠) 𝐺! (𝑠) 𝐺& (𝑠)
_

𝑅 𝑠 + 𝐸 𝑠 𝑌 𝑠
+ 𝐺(𝑠)
= 𝐺% 𝑠 𝐺! 𝑠 … 𝐺& (𝑠) _
_

+
= 𝐺 𝑠
_

Ø There is a strict relation between s.s.e. 𝐺 𝑠 and 𝑅 𝑠 . In this criterion, we do not need to restrict ourselves to 1st and 2nd
order systems. In general, let 𝐺(𝑠) be in the form of:
𝑠 + 𝑧$ 𝑠 + 𝑧! … (𝑠 + 𝑧I )
𝐺 𝑠 = V
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑝$ 𝑠 + 𝑝! … (𝑠 + 𝑝I )
Ø Definition: We define 𝐺 𝑠 as «type k system». In other words, the system type is defined by the number of open – loop
poles at 𝑠 = 0 .
𝑠+8
𝐺 𝑠 = ∶ 𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑒 1 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑠 ! + 5𝑠 + 4
𝑠(𝑠 + 7)(𝑠 + 9) 𝐺 𝑠 = ∶ 𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑒 0 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑠 + 11 𝑠 + 14 𝑠 + 7 𝑠 + 8 19
v The error function 𝐸 𝑠 is a function of 𝑅 𝑠 at the same time. we will diversify 𝑅 𝑠 as unit step, ramp and parabolic
functions
𝟏 𝑟 𝑡 𝑟
i) Unit Step Function (𝑹 𝒔 = ): 𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑟𝑢 " 𝑡 𝑅(𝑠) =
𝒔
𝑠
𝑟
1 1 1
𝐸 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 =
1+𝐺 𝑠 1 + 𝐺(𝑠) 𝑠 𝑡
$ $
s.s.e = lim 𝑒 𝑡 = lim 𝑠𝐸 𝑠 = lim 𝑠 " $(X(")
6→U "→B "→B

$ $ 𝑦 𝑡
s.s.e = = Type 1 or higher
$(YZ[ X(") )01& )01, …()01-)
)→+ $(YZ[ 5
)→+) )0!& )0!, …()0!-)
𝑟(𝑡)

$
If 𝑘 ≥ 1 (i.e.) 𝐺 𝑠 is type 1 : 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒. = $(U = 0
𝑡
$
If 𝑘 = 0 (i.e.) 𝐺 𝑠 is type 0 : 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒. =
$(26

𝑟(𝑡)
𝐾S = lim 𝐺(𝑠) : position error constant
"→B 𝑦 𝑡

Type 0

𝑡 20
 𝟏
ii) Ramp Function (𝑹 𝒔 = 𝒔𝟐)
1
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑢" 𝑡 𝑅(𝑠) =
𝑠!
𝑟 𝑡
1 1 1
𝐸 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 =
1+𝐺 𝑠 1 + 𝐺(𝑠) 𝑠 ! 𝑟
$ $
s.s.e = lim 𝑒 𝑡 = lim 𝑠𝐸 𝑠 = lim 𝑠 ,
6→U "→B "→B " $(X(")
$ $
s.s.e. = lim = : 𝑡
"→B "("X(") YZ[ "X(")
)→+
lim 𝑠𝐺(𝑠) ≜ 𝐾= : 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
"→B

If 𝑘 ≥ 2 (𝐺 𝑠 is type 2 or more) ∶

𝐾= = ∞, 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒. = 0 Type 2 or higher Type 1 Type 0

𝑠 . 𝑒.
𝑠 . .𝑒 .
If 𝑘 = 1 (𝐺 𝑠 is type 1) ∶ 𝑠 . 𝑠
𝑟(𝑡)
1 𝑟(𝑡) 𝑟(𝑡)
𝐾= = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡, 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒. =
𝐾= 𝑦 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡
If 𝑘 = 0 (𝐺 𝑠 is type 0):
𝑦 𝑡
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝐾= = 0, 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒. = ∞
21
 𝟏
iii) Parabolic Function (𝑹 𝒔 = )
𝒔𝟑
𝑟 𝑡 1 ! 1
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑢" 𝑡 𝑅(𝑠) = *
1 1 1 2 𝑠
𝐸 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 =
1+𝐺 𝑠 1 + 𝐺(𝑠) 𝑠 *
$ $
s.s.e = lim 𝑒 𝑡 = lim 𝑠𝐸 𝑠 = lim 𝑠 $
6→U "→B "→B " $(X(") 𝑡
$ $
s.s.e. = lim = :
"→B " ,(" ,X(") YZ[ " ,X(")
)→+

lim 𝑠 ! 𝐺(𝑠) ≜ 𝐾+ : 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

"→B

If 𝑘 ≥ 3 𝐾+ = ∞, 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒. = 0
$ Type 3 or higher Type 2 Type 1 or 0
If 𝑘 = 2 𝐾+ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡, 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒. =
29
If 𝑘 < 2 𝐾+ = 0, 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒. = ∞ 𝑟(𝑡) 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑟(𝑡)

𝑦 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡

22
 STABILITY
ØStability is the first and the foremost important criterion of a control system. Without stability, other performance criteria such as
𝑡J , 𝑡# , %𝑂𝑠, 𝑡8 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒. are meaningless.

ØFor a stable system, homogenous response of the system must be bounded. In other words, the transient state cannot grow without bound.

ØFor Single Input Single Output (SISO), Linear Time Invariant (LTI) systems stability is strictly related with the location of the poles

ØFor a SISO – LTI system, this is equivalent to non existence of right half s – plane poles. For a stable system no poles can lie in the right half
plane (RHP).

ØThen all is needed to check the pole distribution of the transfer function of the system.

ØIn general, depending on the control strategy, the poles of the resulting control system cannot be easily determined, even if the pole
location of the process itself is known.

𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 + 𝑧! 𝑠 + 𝑧' … (𝑠 + 𝑧5 ) 𝑌(𝑠) 𝑈(𝑠) 𝑏T 𝑠 T + 𝑏T%!𝑠 T%! + ⋯ + 𝑏!𝑠! + 𝑏U 𝑌(𝑠)

𝑠 S 𝑠 + 𝑝! 𝑠 + 𝑝' … (𝑠 + 𝑝5 ) 𝑠 5 + 𝑎5%!𝑠 5%! + ⋯ + 𝑎!𝑠! + 𝑎U

Pole distribution is obvious. Determination of Pole distribution is NOT obvious. Determination of

stability is straightforward. stability is NOT straightforward.
23
 v For systems with pole locations are known:
𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔

𝜔% 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝜔% 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝜔% 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

−𝜎$
−𝜎$ 𝜎 𝜎 −𝜎$ −𝜎' = 0 𝜎
−𝜎' 𝜎% −𝜎% −𝜎' −𝜎%

−𝜔% −𝜔% −𝜔%

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾! 𝑒 -.! / cos 𝜔&! 1 − 𝜁 ! + 𝜙 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾% 𝑒 -.# / + 𝐾0 𝑒 -." / 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾0 𝑒 -." / + 𝐾! 𝑒 -.! / cos 𝜔&! 1 − 𝜁 ! + 𝜙

+ 𝐾0 𝑒 ." / + 𝐾% 𝑒 -.# / + +𝐾! 𝑒 -.! / cos 𝜔&! 1 − 𝜁 ! + 𝜙 +𝐾%1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔& 𝑡 + 𝐾%2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔& 𝑡

𝑦 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡
Unstable system Stable system Marginally stable system

𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
Transient response grows without a bond Transient response decays to zero and finally steady Transient response neither grows without a
state response remain. Asymptotically Stable system bond nor decays. Marginally stable system 24
Routh – Hurwitz Criterion
Ø This method known as the Routh Table, is used to determine the root distribution. The method does not tell exact locations
of the poles, but it gives the number of RHP and LHP poles, hence stability can be determined with this knowledge.
…
For a characteristic equation in the form as:
𝑎I 𝑠 I + 𝑎I1$ 𝑠 I1$ + 𝑎I1! 𝑠 I1! + 𝑎I1* 𝑠 I1* + ⋯ + 𝑎$ 𝑠 + 𝑎B

𝑠I 𝑎I 𝑎I1! 𝑎I19
The sign change in the first column
I1$
𝑠 𝑎I1$ 𝑎I1* 𝑎I1L gives the number of RHP poles
𝑠 I1! 𝑎I1$ . 𝑎I1! − 𝑎I . 𝑎I1* 𝑎I1$ . 𝑎I19 − 𝑎I . 𝑎I1L
𝑎I1$ 𝑏$ 𝑎I1$ 𝑏!
𝑠 I1* 𝑏$ . 𝑎I1* − 𝑏! . 𝑎I1$
𝑏$

Example: Determine the stability of the system. + 𝑠L 1 5 1

+ 𝑠9 3 4 3 2 RHP + 3 LHP pole
+ 𝑠* 11/3 0 0 Thus, unstable system
𝑈(𝑠) … Y(𝑠)
𝑠 3 + 3𝑠 4 + 5𝑠 0 + 4𝑠 ! + 𝑠 + 3 + 𝑠! 4 3 0
− 𝑠$ -11/4 0
+ 𝑠B 3 0 25
 Example: Determine the stability of the system.

𝑈(𝑠) (𝑠 + 3) (𝑠 + 3) Y(𝑠)
𝐺 𝑠 = = 0
𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 5 (𝑠 + 7) 𝑠 + 14𝑠 ! + 48𝑠 + 35

𝑠 0 + 14𝑠 ! + 48𝑠 + 35
No sign change! The system is asymptotically stable
+ 𝑠0 1 48
No RHP poles
+ 𝑠! 14 35

+ 𝑠% 14x48−35x1
=45.5 0
'(

+ 𝑠5 45.5x35−0
= 35
45.5

Special Cases: There can be special cases in which a «0» appears in the first column.
𝜀 = 06 𝜀 = 0-
Example: Determine the stability of the system.
𝑠3 1 4 3 + +
1 1
𝑠4 −1 −4 −2 − −
"(L
𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑠0 0 (𝜀) 1 2
" : 1" ;(9" $19" ,(*"1! + −
𝑠! −4𝜀 + 1 −2
+ −
𝜀 2
%
Only one element in the column is zero. 𝑠 2𝜀 ! − 4𝜀 + 1 0 + +
The corresponding row of the zero element 1 − 4𝜀 3 3
− −
is not composed of complete zeros. 𝑠5 −2 26
Three sign changes, 3 RHP + 2 LHP poles
 " ,(9"1*
Example: Determine the stability of the system. 𝐺 𝑠 = " ;(9" $(8" ,(!B"($L

This situation indicates there are imaginary axis poles. In

𝑠4 1 8 15 contrast to the LHP and RHP poles, the location of the
𝑠0 4 20 0 imaginary axis poles can be determined by Routh table.
𝑠! 3 15 0
𝑠% 0 0 Complete row is zero It means the auxiliary polynomial
6 3𝑠 ! + 15 is a factor of 𝑠 9 +4𝑠 * + 5𝑠 ! + 20𝑠 + 15
𝑠5 6𝑥15 − 0
= 15
6 𝑑(3𝑠 ! + 15)
= 6𝑠
𝑑𝑠

No sign change. Then it means 2 LHP poles + 2𝑗𝜔 axis poles. The system is marginally stable.
To find the location of the imaginary axis poles: 3𝑠 ! + 15 = 0 ⇒ 𝑠 ! = −5 ⇒ 𝑠 = ± 5𝑗
𝑗𝜔

5 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
v The remaining poles are on the LHP, but their
location cannot be determined with this method.
𝜎

− 5 27
 Example:
𝑅 𝑠 + 𝐸 𝑠 𝐾 𝑌 𝑠
_ 𝑠 i. Determine the range of 𝐾 for which the closed loop system is asymptotically stable.
ii. If the system exhibits oscillations, (i.e. Marginally stable) find the oscillation frequency.
𝑠−1
𝑠! + 2𝑠 + 1

i) 𝑇 𝑠 =
2("1$)
+ 𝑠0 1 𝐾+1 For an asymptotically stable system, the following
" $(!" ,( 2($ "12 two equations must be simultaneously satisfied:
+ 𝑠! 2 −𝐾
? 𝑠% 2𝐾 + 2 + 𝐾 0 3𝐾 + 2 2
>0 ⇒ 𝐾>−
2 2 3
? 𝑠5 −𝐾 0
−𝐾 > 0 ⇒ 𝐾 < 0
v Then the system is asymptotically stable for −2/3 < 𝐾 < 0

ii) For a marginally stable system the row 𝑠$ must be zero.

3𝐾 + 2 2 !
2 !
1
= 0 ⇒ 𝐾 = − ⇒ In this case the imaginary axis root will be: 2𝑠 + = 0 ⇒ 𝑠 = −
2 3 3 3
3
* 𝑠= ± 𝑗
Oscillation frequency : 𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 3
*
28
 Evaluation of a Transfer Function at a Complex Point in s-plane
𝑠 + 𝑧$ 𝑠 + 𝑧! … (𝑠 + 𝑧I )
Ø Suppose that 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑆) is a transfer function of the form: 𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠 + 𝑝$ 𝑠 + 𝑝! … (𝑠 + 𝑝I )

Ø Evaluating 𝐺 𝑠 at a complex point at s-plane say 𝑠$ = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑗 one can simply let

𝑠 = 𝑠$ in 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑆) (i.e. 𝐺 𝑠$ 𝐻(𝑠$ ) ) and compute the resulting complex number, i.e
𝑀\& 𝑒 ]^1& 𝑀\ 𝑒 ]^1, 𝑀\ 𝑒 ]^1<
, <

"&(\& "&(\, … "&(\- F(\& (E= F(\, (E= … F(\< (E=

𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 → 𝐺 𝑠$ 𝐻 𝑠$ = =
"&(4& "&(4, … "&(4- F(4& (E= F(4, (E= … F(4- (E=

𝑀4& 𝑒 ]^!& 𝑀4, 𝑒 ]^!, 𝑀4- 𝑒 ]^!-

Ø If 𝑚 and 𝑛 are big numbers, this calculation can be extremely complicated and tedious.

Ø However, if the vector representative is used, this computation might be easier. To understand the logic, suppose
(𝑠 + 𝑧$ )
𝐺 𝑠 = Evaluation point: 𝑠 = 𝑠$ = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑗
(𝑠 + 𝑝$ )

Ø Then the vector representation method indicates that, to evaluate a transfer function at a complex point in 𝑠 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒s,
simply draw vectors from the zeros and poles.
29
 v Classical Method v Vector Representation
𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝑎 + 𝑧$ + 𝑏𝑗 𝑗𝜔
𝐺 𝑠$ = 𝑠%
𝑎 + 𝑝$ + 𝑏𝑗 𝑏
Or
E
! ](F7`6FI F(\&) 𝑀7 𝑀8
𝑎 + 𝑧$ + 𝑏! 𝑒 𝜃7 𝜃#
𝐺 𝑠 = E 𝑎 𝜎
](F7`6FIF(4 ) −𝑧 −𝑝
𝑎 + 𝑝$ ! + !
𝑏 𝑒 &

𝑀\ 𝑒 ]^1 𝑀\ ](^ 1^ ) 𝑏
= = 𝑒 1 ! 𝜃J = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑀4 𝑒 ]^! 𝑀4 𝑎+𝑝
𝑀# = length of the vector = 𝑀# = 𝑎 + 𝑝% ! + 𝑏!
𝑏
𝑀7 = length of the vector = 𝑀7 = 𝑎 + 𝑧% ! + 𝑏! 𝜃X = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑎+𝑧

Example: 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑆 = s + 8. Evaluate the value of 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑆 at s = −3 + 4𝑗 (what is the angle of 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑆) at 𝑠$ = −3 + 4𝑗)

𝑗𝜔
"6
1 𝑤𝑎𝑦: 2IP 𝑤𝑎𝑦: 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 4
𝑠 4 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛
5
𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)"a1*(9] = 5 + 4𝑗 = 𝑀𝑒 ]^ 𝑀7 𝑀 = 5! + 4! = 41
4 𝜃7
𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 38.66∘ ∘
5 −8 −3 𝜎 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)"a1*(9] = 41𝑒 ]*8.<<
30
 ("(!)("(9)
Example: 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = ⇒ Evaluate 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 at the point 𝑠$ = −7 + 8𝑗
("(*)("(c)

1L(8] (1*(8])
1"6 𝑤𝑎𝑦: 𝐺 𝑠$ 𝐻 𝑠$ =
19(8] 8]
: Tedious!

𝑗𝜔
2IP 𝑤𝑎𝑦: 𝑠$ 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 8
𝜃\& = 180 − 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 ≅ 122∘ 𝑀\& = 5! + 8! = 89
8 5

8 𝑀\, = 3! + 8! = 73
𝜃\, = 180 − 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 ≅ 110.56∘
3
𝜃#! 𝜎
𝑀4& = 4! + 8! = 4 5
𝜃7! 𝜃## 𝜃7# 8
𝜃4& = 180 − 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 ≅ 116.57∘
−7 −4 −3 −2 4 𝑀4, = 8
𝜃4, ≅ 90∘

𝑀\& 𝑒 ]^1& 𝑀\, 𝑒 ]^1, 𝑀\& 𝑀\, ] ^1& (^1, 1 ^!& (^!,
𝐺 𝑠$ 𝐻 𝑠$ = = 𝑒
𝑀4& 𝑒 ]^!& 𝑀4, 𝑒 ]^!, 𝑀4& 𝑀4,

∘
= 1.127𝑒 ]!L.::

31
 " ,(!"(!
Example: 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = ⇒ Evaluate 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 at the point 𝑠$ = 1 + 1𝑗. Find the resulting angle.
("(L)(" ,(8"(!L)("(8)
𝑗𝜔
𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝜃##
3 𝜃\& = 0 𝑀\& = 2
𝑀##
𝜃\, = 45∘ 𝑀\, = 2 2
𝜃7# 𝑀7
# 1
𝑠$
𝜃#$ 𝑀#$ 2
𝑀#" 𝜎 𝜃4& = 360 − 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 339.2∘ 𝑀4& = 29
−8 −5 −4
𝜃#" 𝑀7 1
𝜃7! !
5
−1 4
𝜃4, = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 38.66∘ 𝑀4, = 41
𝑀#! 5
1
𝜃#! 𝜃4$ = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 9.46∘ 𝑀4$ = 37
−3
6
−1 1
𝜃4; = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 6.34∘ 𝑀4; = 82
9

𝑀\& 𝑀\,
𝐺 𝑠$ 𝐻 𝑠$ = 𝑒] ^1& (^1, 1 ^!& (^!, (^!$ (^!;
𝑀4& 𝑀4, 𝑀4$ 𝑀4;

𝑀d = 0.003 𝜃d = −348.66∘ = 11.64∘

32
Ø For a control system there are three aspects to be considered
Modelling: A mathematical model of a physical system is obtained. There are several techniques to obtain a mathematical
model of a physical system.
Analysis: 1"6 − 2IP order system models, relationship of these models with time response and the poles. Performance
criteria, 𝑡4 , 𝑡" , 𝑡7 , %Os, s. s. e. and stability are some tools of analysis. There are several approaches to analyze a system,
whose mathematical model is previously obtained.
Design: Using a control structure and a controller to make the system behave in a desired way. In that regard, the suitable
controller is designed for the system. There are several approaches to the controller design depending on the approach to the
analysis
Ø In this course we will use time domain performance criteria (𝑡4 , 𝑡" , 𝑡7 , %Os, s. s. e.) and stability in order to specify the
systems and, we will use root-locus to design the controller structures. Our controller structures will be limited to:
General control structure to be used
𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟
𝑅(𝑠) + 𝑌(𝑠)
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠) 𝑃 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 ⇒ 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐾
_
𝑃𝐷 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 ⇒ 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐾e 𝑠 + 𝐾4
𝐾>
𝑃𝐼 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 ⇒ 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐾4 +
𝐻(𝑠) 𝑠
𝐾>
𝐶(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠) 𝑃𝐼𝐷 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 ⇒ 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐾e 𝑠 + 𝐾4 +
𝑠
𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 − 𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑇. 𝐹 =
1 + 𝐶(𝑠)𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑛 − 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑇. 𝐹. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 33
 Root Locus
Ø Root locus is a visual and powerful design tool specifying the closed loop poles path in the s-plane according to a
variable parameter. The control scheme convenient to understand the root-locus is as follows:
𝑅(𝑠) + 𝑌(𝑠) v 𝐾 : variable gain; 0 < 𝐾 < ∞ (𝐾 : positive real number)
𝐾 𝐺(𝑠)
_
v Open-loop 𝑇. 𝐹. = 𝐾𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) Open-loop poles do not change with 𝐾.

𝐻(𝑠) v Closed-loop 𝑇. 𝐹. =
2X(")
: Closed-loop poles change with 𝐾.
$(2X " f(")
1 1
Example: 𝐺 𝑠 = , 𝐻 𝑠 =
𝑠 ! + 4𝑠 + 3 𝑠+1
2 2
Open loop 𝑇. 𝐹. = (" ,(9"(*)("($)
= " $(L" ,(c"(*
: location of poles are not affected by 𝐾
?
,
) 0;)0$ 2("($)
Closed Loop 𝑇. 𝐹. = ? = : locations of closed-loop poles change by 𝐾
$( , " $(L" ,(c"(*(2
() 0;)0$)()0&)

𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦, 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 − 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑: 𝑠 * + 5𝑠 ! + 7𝑠 + 3 + 𝐾 = 0

𝐾𝐺(𝑠) 𝐾
𝑜𝑟 ⇒1+ ! =0 1 + 𝐾𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = 0
1 + 𝐾𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 (𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 1)
This format will be used for
=0 34
derivations.
Definition: Closed – Loop poles (Moves in the s-plane with 𝐾 )
$
⇒ 1 + 𝐾𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = 0 ⇒ 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = − : a negative real number
2

%
Magnitude Condition: |𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 | = 9
Angle Condition: 𝐺 𝑠]
𝐻 𝑠 = 180(2𝑛 + 1)

Ø Then an 𝑠$ point can be made one of the closed – loop poles by a suitable positive real value of 𝐾, if 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 has can
angle of 180(2𝑛 + 1) (add multiple of 180). Every s – point satisfying this condition defines the root – locus of the system.
Ø In the other words, a point in s – plane is the root locus of the closed loop system if this point satisfies the angle
¢ = 180(2𝑛 + 1). The positive real 𝐾 value for this 𝑠$ value to be a closed – loop pole can be
condition, i.e. 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)
computed by using the magnitude conditions.

1 1 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 − 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

= |𝐺(𝑠$ )𝐻(𝑠$ )| ⇒ 𝐾 = ⇒
𝐾 |𝐺(𝑠$ )𝐻(𝑠$ )| 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 − 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠

𝑠+5
Example: 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 =
𝑠 + 1 (𝑠 + 3)
i) Is 𝑠$ = −2 + 4𝑗 included by the root locus of the closed-loop
𝑅(𝑠) + 𝐾 𝐺(𝑠)
𝑌(𝑠)
_ system? If so, what is the corresponding 𝐾 value?
ii) Is 𝑠! = −3 + 2𝑗 included by the root locus of the closed-loop
𝐻(𝑠) system? If so, what is the corresponding 𝐾 value?
35
 𝑗𝜔 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
i)
𝑠$ 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = 𝜃X: − (𝜃J: + 𝜃J' ) = 127∘
4 𝜃J: = 104.04∘
𝜃J' = 75.96∘
𝜃X: = 53∘ Ø The point 𝑠! = −2 + 4𝑗 is not included by the root locus of closed – loop system.
𝑀7# 𝑀#! 𝑀##
Ø Therefore, there is no suitable positive – real 𝐾 value, resulting in 𝑠! is a closed loop pole.
𝜃7# 𝜃#! 𝜃##
𝜎
−5 −3 −1
ii)
𝑗𝜔 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = 𝜃X: − (𝜃J: + 𝜃J' ) = −180∘
𝑠! 𝜃J: = 135∘ Ø The point 𝑠' = −3 + 2𝑗 is included by the root locus of closed – loop system.
2
𝜃J' = 90∘ ! \;: \;' ' ''
𝜃X: = 45∘ Ø To find the corresponding 𝐾 value 𝐾 = = = =2
𝑀7# 𝑀#! 𝑀## |Z # [(#)| \<: ' '
𝜃7# 𝜃#! 𝜃## 𝜎
2X(")
−5 −3 −1 To verify: ⇒ =
$(2X " f(") " ,( 9(2 "((L2(*)

−𝑏 ± 𝑏 ' − 4𝑎𝑐
⇒ 𝑠' + 6𝑠 + 13 = ⇒ −3 ± 2𝑗
2𝑎
This is the actual root locus of the closed loop system. In this root
locus it can be observed that 𝑠' = −3 + 2𝑗 is included by the
root locus, hence for 𝐾 = 2 it is a closed loop pole. The other
closed loop pole is at s = −3 − 2𝑗 , as might be expected.
36
v To plot the complete root locus, some properties of the root locus must be clarified.

i. Starting Ending Points of Root Locus

$
a. Starting Point: (𝐾 = 0) ⇒ 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = 2 ⇒ 𝐾 → 0 → 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 → ∞.
This can happen for s points that are the poles of 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠).
Therefore the root – locus starts (i.e. For 𝐾 = 0) at the open – loop poles of the system. In other words for 𝐾 = 0 the
closed – loop poles are at the location of the open – loop poles.
$
b. Ending Point: (𝐾 = ∞) ⇒ 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = 2 ⇒ 𝐾 → ∞ → 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 → 0.
This can happen for s points that are open−loop zeros, i.e. The zeros of 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠).
$ ("(c)
Example: 𝐺" = , 𝐻 =
("(*)("(L) " ("(9) Find the starting-ending points of the root locus of the closed-loop system.

𝑠+7 Ø Starting point 𝑠 = −3, 𝑠 = −4, 𝑠 = −5 open-loop poles of the system. The
𝐺" 𝐻" = closed-loop poles of the system are at 𝑠 = −3, 𝑠 = −4 and 𝑠 = −5 for 𝐾 = 0.
(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 + 5)
Ø Ending points: 𝑠 = −7, the others? (zeros of the open-loop poles)

Definition: Mathematically, every s points that satisfies 𝐺" 𝐻" =0 is a zero of 𝐺" 𝐻" . These s values might be at infinity.
𝐺" 𝐻" =0 𝑠$ =-7

"(c $
lim ≈ " ,=0⇒ 𝑠!,* =∞ Therefore, there are two zeros at infinity. In general, there are n-m zeros at infinity.
" →U " $($!" ,(9c"(<B
37
To detect the location of the zeros at infinity, asymptotes of 𝐺" 𝐻" must be found. Without its proof, the formulas of
the asymptote can be given as follows:

𝑛: 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑚: 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠
For the previous example:
∑ 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 − ∑ 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 1L191*1(1c)
𝐺] = 𝜎F = =-2.5
𝑛−𝑚 !

𝜃] =
('JL!)
180° (𝑝 = 0,1,2,3, . . (𝑛 − 𝑚 − 1)) 𝜃F = 90° , 270 °
5%T

ii. Real axis segments: For a root locus of a closed-loop system,

it is straight forward to detect the real axis segment included
by the root locus using the angle condition.
𝑗𝜔
𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
Real axis segments included
As a rule of thumb, if there are odd number of poles and by the root-locus
zeros (as total) on the right of segment, this segment is
included by the root-locus. If there are even number of 𝜎
poles and zeros (as a total) on right of the segment, this −7 −5 −4 −3
segment is not included by the root locus.
Real axis segments not
included by the root-locus
38
 iii. Break away - Break in points:

Since the complex poles must exit in conjugate points:

1. A real pole pair focus a multiple pole just before leaving the real axis. This is known as a break-away point.
2. A complex-conjugate pole pair enters the real axis at the same point just before moving on the real axis. This is known
as a break-in point.
! "^ #^
v Without proof, the breakaway and the break-in points can be found by solving the following equation: =0
!$
For the previous example:

𝑠+5
𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 =
𝑠 + 1 (𝑠 + 3)

$_ %&$%'(($%*)(,$%&) $_ %&$%'(,$_ (-&$(,. ($_ (-.$(-/

= =0⇒ =0
($%*)_ ($%*)_ ($%*)_

1E± ∆ *!
𝑠 ! + 10𝑠 + 17 = 0, 𝑠 = !F
=-5 ± !
=-5 ±2 2

𝑠$ = −2,17, 𝑠! = −7,82

39
iv. Angle of Departure- Angle of Arrival: This is a property of root-locus for systems possessing complex-conjugate
poles/zeros on its open-loop transfer function.
To find the angle of departure (explain in detail) 𝜃!∗ : angle of 𝜃*∗ : angle of
arrival
departure
Departure: (𝜃X! + 𝜃X' + ⋯ + 𝜃XT )-(𝜃 ∗ + 𝜃J' + 𝜃J$ + … + 𝜃J5 )=180(2p+1)
1
Arrival: (𝜃 ∗ + 𝜃X' + 𝜃X$ + ⋯ + 𝜃XT )- (𝜃J!+ 𝜃J'+ 𝜃J$ + … + 𝜃J5 )=180(2p+1)

v. Imaginary axis (𝒋𝝎 axis) Crossing Points: For a root-locus, the imaginary axis crossing points and the corresponding 𝐾
values is of great importance, as this fact is the stability borderline which is the primary criteria for a control system to
satisfy.

1
𝐺" 𝐻" =
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 5)

¨©^ …
ª«¨©^ ¬^
= -_ «®-` «¯®-«ª°«¨ first approach

40
 v To practically sketch the root-locus of any system, the following steps should be followed:
𝑅(𝑠) + 𝑌(𝑠)
𝐾 𝐺(𝑠) Open-loop𝑇. 𝐹. = 𝐾𝐺" 𝐻" = 𝐺" 𝐻i (in terms of pole dist.)
_
-
Let 𝐺$ = , 𝐻$ = 1
𝐻(𝑠) $($%-)($%,)

i. Real Axis System: [−∞, −2] ∪ −1, 0

−2 − 1 − 0 − (0) (2𝑝 + 1)
ii. Starting Ending Point: (Asymptotes) 𝜎] = = −1, 𝜃] = 180° = 60°, 180°, 300°
3 3
3
iii. Break – away – Break – in Points: 𝜕𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
= 0 ⇒ 𝑠$ = −0.4226 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 2
𝜕𝑠
𝑠! = −1.5774 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑢𝑠
iv. Angle of Departure – Arrival: Open – loop 𝑇. 𝐹. i.e. 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 does not possess any complex –
conjugate poles and / or zeros! This step can be skipped. 60°

−60°
v. Imaginary Axis (𝒋𝝎 axis) Crossing: Routh table of closed – loop system: −0.4226

𝐾
𝑠0 1 2 𝐾𝐺(𝑠) 𝐾
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)
𝑠! 3 𝐾 = = $
1 + 𝐾𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 𝐾 𝑠 + 3𝑠 ' + 2𝑠 + 𝐾
1+ − 2
𝑠 % 6−𝐾 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)
− 3
3 6 – 𝐾 = 0 ⇒ 𝐾Q = 6
5
𝑠 𝐾 41
3𝑠 ! + 6 = 0 ⇒ 𝑠 ! = −2 → 𝑠 = ± 2𝑗
 " ,1!"(!
Example: For 𝐺 𝑠 = and 𝐻 𝑠 = 1 , plot the root locus of the closed loop system.
"("($)("(!)("(*)

bZ # [(#)
(The solution of the equation =0 ⇒ 𝑠! = −2.563, 𝑠' = −1.422, 𝑠$ = −0.298) 𝑅(𝑠) + 𝑌(𝑠)
b# 𝐾 𝐺(𝑠)
_
i. Real Axis Segments: −3 − 2 ∪ −1 0 𝐻(𝑠)
ii. Starting Ending Points(Asymptotes):
(%!%'%$%U)%(!L!) 'JL!
𝜎] = = −4, 𝜃] = 180∘ = 90∘, 270∘,
' '

iii. Break – away – Break – in Points: 𝑠@ = −2.563, 𝑠A = −1.422, 𝑠B = −0.298

iv. Angle of Departure – Arrival:
90+ 𝜃 ∗ −(45∘ + 26,56∘ + 18,43∘ + 14,03∘ )= (2𝑝 + 1) 180∘ ⇒ 𝜃 ∗ = 194,02∘
v. Imaginary Axis (𝑗𝜔 axis) Crossing: Routh table of closed – loop system:
194.02°
𝐾𝐺(𝑠) … −0.298
= 4 −2.563
1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 𝑠 + 6𝑠 0 + (11 + 𝐾)𝑠 ! + (6 − 2𝐾)𝑠 + 2𝐾

𝑠4 1 11 + 𝐾 2𝐾 −4 1

𝑠0 6 6 − 2𝐾 0
𝑠! 4𝐾 2𝐾 -49 ! -0=96>5
10 + %36!9
=0 ⇒ 𝐾 = 2.04
3
𝑠% −4𝐾 ! − 36𝐾 + 90 0 12.71𝑠 ! + 4.08 = 0 ⇒
15 + 2𝐾 𝑠 ! = −0.32 → 𝑠 = ±0.56𝑗
𝑠5 2𝐾 42
 ("(!)("(!.cL)
Example: Plot the root locus of 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 =
"(" ,(!"(!)
jX " f(")
The solution of the equation = 0 ⇒ 𝑠$ = −6.085, 𝑠! = −2.277)
j"
i. Real Axis Segments: −∞, −2.75 ∪ −2, 0
−1 − 1 − (−2 + 2.75) 2𝑝 + 1
ii. Starting – Ending Points: 𝜎] = = 2.75 𝜃] = . 180∘ = 180∘
1 𝑛−𝑚
iii. Break – away Break – in Points: 𝑠$ = −6.085 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 − 𝑖𝑛, 𝑠! = −2.277 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑢𝑠.
iv. Angle of Departure – Angle of Arrival: (𝜃X: + 𝜃X' ) − (𝜃J∗ + 𝜃J: + 𝜃J' ) = 180(2𝑝 + 1) 74.74∘ − 225 − 𝜃J∗ = 160∘
v. 𝑗𝜔 axis crossing: 𝜃J∗ = 29.26∘
𝜃X: = 45∘
Characteristic poly: 𝑠 $ + 2 + 𝐾 𝑠 ' + 2 + 4.75𝐾 𝑠 + 5.5𝐾 1
𝜃X' = arctan = 29.74∘
1.75
d.efg'LfgLd 𝜃J: = 135 ∘
⇒ 𝑏 ' − 4𝑎𝑐 = 25 − 4x4x4.75 = 25 − 76 = −51 𝜃!∗ = 29.26∘
'Lg 𝜃J' = 90∘ 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝐾 is a complex number. Cannot be 0 for any 𝐾 𝑗𝜔
−6.085
𝜃4∗
−2.75 1
𝑠0 1 2 + 4.75𝐾
𝜃7! 𝜃##
𝑠! 2+𝐾 5.5𝐾 𝜃7# 𝜎
𝑠% −2.75 −2 −1
4.75𝐾 ! + 11.5𝐾 + 4 − 5.5𝐾
2+𝐾
𝑠5 5.5𝐾
43
 Design By Root Locus

In this section the controller structures of interest will be as follows:

i. P Type Controllers: 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐾, the controller is composed of simply a gain. In other words, there are no
poles/zeros of the controller.

26
i. PD Type Controllers: 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐾e 𝑠 + 𝐾S ⇒ Mathematically, 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐾e 𝑠 + = 𝐾e 𝑠 + 𝑧` (proper
2D
format for root locus). The controller composed of one adjustable zero and gain 𝐾e .
𝐾e : 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐾4 : 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛

2E 26 2E
iii. PI Type Controllers: 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐾S + ⇒ Mathematically, 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑠+ . The controller is composed
" " 26
of one adjustable zero, one pole at s = 0 and a gain 𝐾S . (proper format for root locus)
𝐾> : 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛

? ?
2 2D " ,( 6 "( E
? ?
iv. PID Type Controllers: 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐾e 𝑠 + 𝐾S + E ⇒ Mathematically, 𝐶 𝑠 = D D
. The controller is
" "
composed of two adjustable zeros, one pole at 𝑠 = 0 and a gain 𝐾e . (proper format for root – locus)

44
Ø In all controller types (P, PD, PI, PID) the following assumption will be made:
i. The system of interest will be thought as if as classical 2IP order system, although it contains addition poles and/or
zeros.

ii. In the respect, the desired location of the closed – loop poles will be determined in accordance with the
performance criteria defined for the classical 2IP order systems.

iii. After the design step, the validity of the design will be discussed.

P – Type Controller Design

𝑒(𝑡) 𝐾𝑒(𝑡)
𝐾

Ø Using P - type controllers only limited range of performance criteria could be satisfied. The fundamental
limitation of a P – type controller is the necessity of the desired closed – loop locations to be included by
the root locus of the closed – loop system. P controller:

45
 1 For a P controller i.e. 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐾, can the closed – loop system exhibit, a 16 %𝑂𝑠 and
Example: 𝐺 𝑠 = , 𝐻 𝑠 =1
𝑠 𝑠 + 4 (𝑠 + 6) 3.32 𝑠𝑒𝑐. of settling time (𝑡# ) ? If so, find the value of corresponding 𝐾 value.
𝑅(𝑠) + 𝑌(𝑠)
'
_ 𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
16 %𝑂𝑠 ⇒ 0.16 = 𝑒 %hi/ !%h ⇒ 𝜁 ≅ 0.5
d
3.32 𝑠𝑒𝑐. 𝑡# ⇒ = 3.32 ⇒ 𝜔5 ≅ 2.4
hk?
𝑠!,' = −𝜁𝜔5 ± 𝑗𝜔5 1 − 𝜁 ' = −1.205 ± 𝑗 2.064 the desired location of the closed – loop poles. 𝐻(𝑠)

𝑗𝜔 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
Π 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
2.066 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐾 ∶
Π 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠
𝑀#" 𝑀##
𝑀#!
𝜃## 𝐾 = 43.29
𝜃#" 𝜃#! 𝜎 𝑀J: = 1.205' + 2.064' = 2.39 2.064

−6 −4 −1.205
0 𝑀J' = 1.205' + 3.052' = 3.47

2.064 𝑀J@ = 1.205' + 4.795' = 5.22

𝜃J@ = arctan = 23.29l 𝐾 = 𝑀J: 𝑀J' 𝑀J@ ≅ 43.29
6 − 1.205
2.064
𝜃J' = arctan = 36.44l
4 − 1.205 −1.205
2.064
𝜃J: = arctan = 120.28l
1.205
0 − (𝜃J@ + 𝜃J' + 𝜃J: ) ≅ 180.01 ≅ 180

Two of the poles can be assigned to 𝑠!,' = −1.205 ± 𝑗 2.064 46

PD – Type Controller Design

Ø As can be observed from the first example, P controller becomes insufficient for the system to satisfy most of the performance criteria. In
other words, if the root locus of the closed loop system does not include the desired location of the closed loop poles P controller
becomes insufficient in the design.

Ø Mathematically, the root-locus of the closed loop system can be changed by a PD controller, since it contains an adjustable zero.

v From process viewpoint v Mathematically

𝑃𝐷 = 𝐾e 𝑠 + 𝐾S 𝑃𝐷 = 𝐾e 𝑠 + 𝐾S : 𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠

𝑑 𝐾4
𝐾e 𝑃𝐷 = 𝐾e 𝑠 + = 𝐾e 𝑠 + 𝑧
𝑑𝑡 𝐾e
+ 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑒(𝑡)
+
𝐾
Ø In other word, a P type controller + an adjustable zero.
Ø If this zero is used for to complement the angle of the system
𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑒(𝑡) 𝐾e + 𝐾4 𝑒(𝑡) to 180(2𝑝 + 1) all the performance criteria can be satisfied.
𝑃𝐷 𝑑𝑡
47
 Example: Consider the first example in the P – Controller section. Can the performance criteria % 0𝑠 = 16 % and 𝑡" = 1.1 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
be satisfied by a P – type controller only? If not, design a PD controller for the closed – loop system to satisfy these criteria.
'
16 %𝑂𝑠 ⇒ 0.16 = 𝑒 %hi/ !%h ⇒ 𝜁 ≅ 0.5 1 𝑌(𝑠)
d 𝑅(𝑠) +
1.1 𝑠𝑒𝑐. 𝑡# ⇒ hk = 1.1 ⇒ 𝜔5 ≅ 7.27 _ 𝐾 𝑠 𝑠 + 4 (𝑠 + 6)
?
𝑠!,' = −𝜁𝜔5 ± 𝑗𝜔5 1 − 𝜁 ' = −3.613 ± 𝑗 6.193
the desired location of the closed – loop poles.
𝑗𝜔 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
6.193
𝜃J: = 180 − arctan = 120.26l
6.193 3.613
6.193
𝜃J' = arctan = 86.42l
4 − 3.613
6.193
𝜃J@ = arctan = 68.92l
𝑀#" 𝑀## 6 − 3.613
𝑀#!
𝜃## 0 − (𝜃J: +𝜃J' + 𝜃J@ ) = −275.6l is not included by the root –locus.
𝜃#" 𝜃#! 𝜎
−6 −4 −3.613 0

Ø If a PD controller added to the system:

𝑅(𝑠) 1 𝑌(𝑠) 𝑅(𝑠) (𝑠 + 𝑧) 𝑌(𝑠)
+ + 𝐾
_
𝐾(𝑠 + 𝑧) 𝑠 𝑠 + 4 (𝑠 + 6) = _ 𝑠 𝑠 + 4 (𝑠 + 6)

48
 𝐾S Ø As might be deduced, PD controller is used to assign two closed – loop
𝑧= : 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.
𝐾e poles to the desired locations by changing Root-Locus.
Ø These pole locations directly related to the performance criteria of
The location of 𝑧 can be selected such that:
transient state (𝑡# , 𝑡J , %0𝑠, 𝑡8 )
Ø Therefore, PD controller is used for transient state requirements!
𝜃\ − 𝜃4& + 𝜃4, + 𝜃4$ = 180 2𝑝 + 1 ⇒ 𝜃\ = 95.6k

arctan 6.193/(−3.613 − z) = 84.4k 𝑗𝜔 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

6.193 6.193
= tan 84.4 ≅ 10.2
3.613 − 𝑧

𝐾S 𝑀#" 𝑀7 𝑀##
6.193 = 36.85 − 10.2𝑧 ⇒ 𝑧 = 3.006 = 𝑀#!
𝐾e 𝜃##
0!& 0!, 0!$ 𝜃#" 𝜃#! 𝜎
To find 𝐾e = 01
≅ 46.79 −6 −4 −3.613 −𝑧 = −3.006
0
Then PD ⇒ 𝐶 𝑠 = 46.79𝑠 + 140.66 𝑀## = 7.17
𝑀#! = 6.2
𝑀#" = 6.6
𝑀7 = 6.27

49
 PI – Type Controller Design
Ø On the contrary to PD controller, PI controller is used for steady-state requirements, i.e. reducing or removing steady state errors.
(𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒.) This can be better understood from the figure below:

𝑅(𝑠) + 𝐾m (𝑠 + 𝑧) 𝑌(𝑠)
_ 𝑠
𝐺(𝑠)
𝐾n
𝐾n 𝐾m 𝑠 + 𝐾n 𝐾m 𝑠 + 𝐾m (𝑠 + 𝑧)
𝐾m
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐾m + = = =
𝐾> d 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
+ 𝐾m 𝑒 𝑡 + 𝐾n z 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑠+𝑧
𝑒(𝑡) 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑇𝐹 = 𝐾m 𝐺(𝑠)
𝑠
+
𝐾S Increase the system type by 1

Ø Since the PI controller increases the system type by 1, it tends to improve or remove 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒. depending on the input type, i.e.
step, ramp or parabolic. (for details see the steady – state errors section.)
Ø In the other words, a PI controller can be used to
v Remove 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒.
v Reduce the amount of 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒.(if removing is not possible)
Ø To remove the 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒. using a PI controller, the following steps should be followed:

v If some performance criteria for transient response are desired to be satisfied, adjust the gain of the controller to satisfy the desired criteria.
v If the system is operating under certain conditions, and there is no need to satisfy some transient state performance criteria, only find the
operating gain (𝐾 ) and skip this step.
v Since just placing a PI controller increases the system type by 1, 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒. is removed. Then all is needed to place the adjustable zero of PI.
v In that regard, place the zero of the PI sufficiently close to the origin (𝑠 = 0) in order not to change the root – locus of the system. 50
Example: The system is operating at 𝑡# = 6.36 𝑠𝑒𝑐, %0𝑠 = % 61.8, design a PI controller for this system for a zero 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒. for step inputs.
𝑅(𝑠) 1 𝑌(𝑠) 𝑠+𝑧 The adjustable zero will be placed so that the root
+ 𝐶(𝑠) 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐾m locus of the system is not affected.
_ (𝑠 + 1) 𝑠 + 2 (𝑠 + 10) 𝑠
The gain will be used to ensure the operation criteria
𝑗𝜔 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

4.1
0 − 𝜃J: + 𝜃J' + 𝜃J@ = 180 2𝑝 + 1 = 179.97 The described pole locations are included by the
root-locus of the system.
The operating 𝐾m = 𝑀J: 𝑀J' 𝑀J@ = 182
2.05
𝑀#" 𝑀#!
𝑀## Now add PI’s fixed pole at s = 0 and place the adjustable zero sufficiently close to the pole (origin).
l l
𝜃#" 𝜃#! 𝜃## 𝜎 v If 𝑧 = 0.1 ⇒ 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝜃X − 𝜃J : 𝜃J = 98.722 , 𝜃X = 95.3519 ,
−10 −2 −1 0 𝜃X − 𝜃J ≅ −1.35 approx. no effect
v If 𝑧 = 0.01 ⇒ 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝜃X − 𝜃J : 𝜃J = 98.722l , 𝜃X = 98.5854l ,
𝜃X − 𝜃J ≅ −0.14 approx. no effect
𝑗𝜔 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
v 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑠: 𝑀J: 𝑀J' 𝑀J@
\;
𝑧 = 0.1 ⇒ 𝑀J ≅ 4.15, 𝑀X = 4.13, \<
≅ 1.0
4.1 \;
𝑧 = 0.01 ⇒ 𝑀J ≅ 4.15, 𝑀X = 4.1465, \<
≅ 1.0
2.05 Then the PI controller becomes:
gA(#LX) (#LU.!) gB
𝑀#" 𝑀## v If z is selected so that 𝑧 = 0.1 ⇒ = 18.2 ⇒ = 0.1
𝑀#! # # gA
𝜃#! 𝜃## 𝜎 𝐾n = 18.2 , 𝐾m = 182
𝜃#"
−10 −2 −1
0
gA(#LX) (#LU.!) gB
v If z is selected so that 𝑧 = 0.01 ⇒ #
= 18.2 #
⇒ gA
= 0.01
51
𝐾n = 1.82 , 𝐾m = 182
 PID Type Controller Design
• PD → Satisfaction of criteria related to transient state
• PI → Removing the steady state error (steady-state criterion)
• PID → Satisfaction of both transient state criteria + steady state criterion.

v From process viewpoint v Mathematically

𝑑
𝐾e 𝐾> 𝐾e 𝑠 ! + 𝐾S 𝑠 + 𝐾> PID can be considered as:
𝑑𝑡 𝑃𝐼𝐷 = 𝐾e 𝑠 + 𝐾S + =
+ 𝑠 𝑠 PD + PI controller
𝑒(𝑡) +
q ^ q
𝐾S Bp ($_ % qr %q s )
p p Bp $%Ct ($%C_ ) • One fixed pole at 𝑠 = 0
=
+
=
$ $ • Two adjustable zeros
𝐾> ´
d
• One gain
Gain PD
𝑑𝑒(𝑡) PI
𝑒(𝑡) 𝐾o + 𝐾m 𝑒 𝑡 + 𝐾n z 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑃𝐷 𝑑𝑡

Ø To design a PID controller, the following procedure can be followed:

v Step 1: Design a PD controller (determine the location of adjustable zero + required gain) to meet the transient state criteria.
v Step2: Add the PI to the system (one fixed pole at 𝑠 = 0 and an adjustable zero sufficiently close to it) without appreciably
affecting the root locus of the system.
v Step 3: From the value of the gain and the location of the zeros, compute 𝐾e , 𝐾S , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾> parameters.
52
 Example: For the example given in PD controller design, extend the design to the PID controller so that the closed loop
system exhibits a zero 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒. for ramp inputs:
𝑅(𝑠) + 1 𝑌(𝑠)
_ 𝐶(𝑠) 𝑠 𝑠 + 4 (𝑠 + 6)
𝑡" = 1.1 𝑠𝑒𝑐,
%0𝑠 = 16%
𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒. 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑠 PID
𝐾C (𝑠+𝑧% )(𝑠 + 𝑧! )
𝑠
Step 1: Design a PD controller. (the location of adjustable zero + the value of required gain), from
the earlier PD example

𝐾e = 46.79, 𝑧$ = 3.006, 𝐾e (𝑠 + 3.006)

"(B.$
Step 2: Add PI to the system: Select 𝑧! = 0.1 ⇒ "

2D ("(\&)("(\&) 9<.c: "(*.BB< ("(B.$) 9<.c:9<.c: " ,(*.$B<"(B.*BB<

𝐶 𝑠 = = =
" " "

Step 3: Compute 𝐾e , 𝐾S , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾> parameters:

𝐾S 𝐾>
= 3.106 ⇒ 𝐾S = 145.3297 = 0. 3006 ⇒ 𝐾> = 14.0651
𝐾e 𝐾e
53
 ("(8)
Example: For the system given as: 𝐺 𝑠 = design a PID controller such that the system exhibits
"(* "(< ("($B)
𝑡J = 0.2 𝑠𝑒𝑐, %0𝑠 = 20%, 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑠. 𝑠. 𝑒. 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑠

Step 1: Design a PD controller for the closed loop system to meet the transient state criteria: 𝑃𝐷 = 𝐾e (𝑠 + 𝑧`& )
𝑗𝜔 𝑠 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

15.87
'
20 %𝑂𝑠 ⇒ 0.20 = 𝑒 %hi/ !%h ⇒ 𝜁 ≅ 0.45 𝜃J: = 107.91°
i
0.2 𝑠𝑒𝑐. 𝑡J ⇒ '
= 0.2 ⇒ 𝜔5 ≅ 17.58 𝜃J' = 97.64°
k? !%h
𝑀#"
𝜃J@ = 83.29°
𝑀7 𝑀#! 𝑀##
𝑠!,' = −𝜁𝜔5 ± 𝑗𝜔5 1 − 𝜁 ' = −8.13 ± 𝑗 15.87 𝜃X = 90.47°
𝜃#" 𝜃7 𝜃#!
the desired location of the closed – loop poles. 𝜃## 𝜎
−10 −8 −6 −3 0
−8.13

Two parameters need to be determined

𝜃XD: + 𝜃X − 𝜃J: + 𝜃J' + 𝜃J@ = 180(2𝑝 + 1) ⇒ 𝜃XD: = 18,37
15.87 15.87
arctan = 18.37 𝑧u: = + 8.13 = 55.92 the location of zero:
𝑧u: − 8.13 tan 18.37
𝑧u: = 55.92
𝑀J: 𝑀J' 𝑀J@
𝐾o = = 5.34 ⇒ the required gain: 𝐾o = 5.34 PD controller = 5.34(𝑠 + 55.92)
𝑀X 𝑀XD:

54
 𝑠 + 𝑧u' 𝑠 + 0.1
Step 2: Add PI to the system without appreciably affecting the transient response : =
𝑠 𝑠
𝐾o (𝑠 + 𝑧u: )(𝑠 + 𝑧u' ) 𝐾o (𝑠 + 55.05)(𝑠 + 0.1) 5.34 𝑠 ' + 56.02𝑠 + 5.592
𝑃𝐼𝐷 = = =
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

Step 3: Compute 𝐾e , 𝐾S , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾> parameters:

𝐾m 𝐾n
= 56.02 ⇒ 𝐾m ≅ 229.15 = 5.592 ⇒ 𝐾n ≅ 29.86
𝐾o 𝐾o

55