“That difficulty isn’t meant to defeat you; it’s meant to promote you.

A setback is simply a setup for a

greater comeback.”
“That difficulty isn’t meant to defeat you; it’s Joel
meant to promote you. A setback is simply a setup for a
Osteen
greater comeback.”
CAUSES CURE / REMEDIES
“That difficulty isn’t meant to defeatCAUSES
you; it’s Joel to promoteCURE
Osteen
meant you. A/ setback
REMEDIESis simply a setup for a
6.INCOMPLETE
3. PINHOLES AND
greater
PENETRATION comeback.”
POROSITY •Use• Check the joint
shorter carefully,
arc length and
COMMON CAUSES AND keep REMEDIES
inducting FOR
the root
the puddle WELD
opening,
molten for aroot
•Faulty joint design Joel Osteen face dimension, and the groove
• Both pinholes and
DEFECTS porosity
IN DEPOSITING longer period so that
STRAIGHT the
BEAD
•Insufficient
can be caused welding
whencurrent force angle.
arc length gasses may boil out before
•Large longCAUSES
is tooelectrode
and used CURE
• Increase
it travels to fast. the /the
REMEDIES
weld current.
metal freezes.
•Too fast welding
• Other causes forspeed • Reduce
pinholes and •Use the welding
dry electrode andspeed.
clean
1. porosity • Use
are faulty electrodes, • Correct
POOR APPEARANCE smaller
the surface diameter
of the
current of
base metal.
setting.
incorrect polarity, surface electrode.
• Use proper electrode.
conditions
• Current settingof too
thehigh
baseormetal,
too or • Check electrodes before use.
low. high sulphur and other • Allow work to cool between
• Wrongimpurities.
type of electrode. passes.
• Faulty electrode. • Adjust speed so that proper
• Overheated work. bead is formed.
• Incorrect
7. SLAGspeed of travel.
INCLUSION • Use proper
• Correct welding
welding temperature.
technique.
• Hold correct arc length.
• Current
Improper setting too low.
electrode • Increase welding speed.
• Arc too short.
manipulation. • Decrease welding speed.
• Welding speed too slow. • Use correct electrode and
4. UNDERCUTTING
• Welding speed too fast. • Reduce
proper the so
angle current andarc force
that the
• Faulty electrode manipulation. shorten
preventsthe arc length.
molten metal from
• It is usually caused by too •overtaking
Use smaller diameter
slag. of
high current or too long arc electrode.
length. • Change the electrode angle.
• It is also caused by improper
2. electrode
ARC BLOW angle manipulation or • Reduce current or suitable
too fast a welding speed. polarity
• is caused when magnetic forces • Change current to AC
present in DC build up lines of
magnetism around the arc, thus
8. CRACKED
causing the arc toWELD
blow widely • Use proper electrode.
forward or to outside, and spatter • Cool work slowly.
• Wrong type electrode.
badly.
• It•can
Base metal
also high carbon
be caused steel.
by high
5.SPATTER
• Weld cooled •Reduce current.
amperage and thetoo rapidly.
major problem
•Shorten arc length.
areas are thick plates, corner,
MOTIVATION • Too high current
deep groove and the start and
• Too long arc length
MOTIVATION
finish of joints.

MOTIVATION
“That difficulty isn’t meant to defeat you; it’s meant to promote you. A setback is simply a setup for a
greater comeback.”

Joel Osteen
• Underfill is a
discontinuity that extends
below the adjacent surface
of the base metal.

• Melt-through is a discontinuity produced when the arc melts

through the bottom of the weld.

• An arc strike
results when the
electrode strikes the
base metal during
welding, and it can
degrade base metal
properties.

• Arc strikes are prevented from certain types of work such as

pipe by placing protective wrappings around the part to
prevent accidental contact with the electrode.

MOTIVATION
• Spatter appears
as droplets of
solidified weld
metal on the base
metal adjacent to
the weld.

1
 Types
“That difficulty isn’t meant to of incorrect
defeat you; it’sshape
meantin a weld: you. A setback is simply a setup for a
to promote
greater comeback.”

Joel Osteen • Undercut is a groove

melted into the base
metal adjacent to the
weld toe or weld root
and left unfilled by
weld metal.
• Undercut is detected
by RT in groove welds,
and VT or RT in fillet
welds.

• Overlap is a
protrusion of a weld
metal built up beyond
the weld toe or the
weld root.
• Overlap is
prevented by using a
higher travel speed or
welding current,
reducing the

electrode diameter, or changing the electrode angle so that the

force of the arc will not push molten metal over unfused sections
of base metal.

• Excess weld
reinforcement can
excessively stiffen a
section of metal,
MOTIVATION causing stress
concentrations at the
base.

• Excess weld reinforcement is prevented by use of the

correct welding current, proper weld technique, and
appropriate number of weld passes to fill the joint.

9
“That difficulty isn’t meant to defeat you; it’s meant to promote you. A setback is simply a setup for a
greater comeback.”
• Tungsten inclusions are
Joel Osteen particles found in the weld
metal as a result of the
non- consumable tungsten
electrode coming in contact
with the work or the
molten metal.
• Tungsten inclusions can
be prevented at the weld
start using super imposed
high frequency current for
arc starting and a copper
strike plate.

Incomplete fusion and incomplete penetration:

• Incomplete fusion results when adjacent passes fail to melt

properly and can be caused by failure to sufficiently raise the
temperature of the surface layers of the base metal or deposited
metal.
• Incomplete fusion can be detected by RT.
• Incomplete fusion can be prevented by ensuring an adequate
surface temperature to raise the temperature of the surface
layers to the melting point to allow the deposited metal to fuse
with the surface below it.
MOTIVATION
• Incomplete joint penetration occurs when weld metal does not
penetrate completely through the joint metal thickness and can
occur when the base metal is a considerable distance from the
heat of the electrode.

8
“That difficulty isn’t meant to defeat you; it’s meant to promote you. A setback is simply a setup for a
greater comeback.”
Formation of porosity:
Joel Osteen
• Porosity is formed by gas
entrapment within the weld
during solidification if
dissolved gases cannot escape
before the metal solidifies.
• Porosity is detected by RT for
internal porosity and VT or PT
for surface porosity.
• Wormholes and shrinkage
voids are types of porosity that
cannot be detected by RT.
• Specific methods of
preventing porosity depend on
the type of welding process.

Types of inclusions:
• Slag inclusions are
nonmetallic materials formed
by slag reactions that are
trapped in a weld, and can
occur between passes or at
the groove face.
• Slag inclusions can be
prevented through proper
cleaning of the weld groove
before depositing additional
weld beads.

• Oxide inclusions are

particles of surface oxides on
MOTIVATION the base metal or weld filler
metal that have not melted
and mix with the weld metal.
• Oxide inclusions can be
prevented by cleaning out
the joint and weld area
thoroughly before welding.

7
“That difficulty isn’t meant to defeat you; it’s meant to promote you. A setback is simply a setup for a
greater comeback.”
• Toe cracks and root cracks have similar causes but different
Joel Osteen
appearances.
• Toe cracks proceed from the weld toe into the HAZ and the
base metal, whereas root cracks proceed into the base metal
from the root of a fillet weld.
• Toe cracks are generally caused by stresses from thermal
shrinkage acting on a brittle HAZ and are identified by VT, PT
and MT.
• Toe and root cracks are prevented with the welding procedures
and techniques that eliminate excessive embrittlement or
excessive stresses in the base metal.

Liquid metal embrittlement and its prevention:

•Liquid metal embrittlement commonly occurs in certain type of

metal, usually where a part is exposed to excess stress.
•Liquid metal embrittlement is prevented by avoiding
susceptible braze-metal couples or by ensuring cleanliness of
the joint surfaces before welding or brazing.

Cavities:
• Cavities are weld
discontinuities
consisting of rounded
holes of various
MOTIVATION types, either within
the weld or at the
surface of the weld.

• Cavities are caused by gas entrapment during solidification

of the weld or contraction of the weld during solidification
which cannot be replaced by molten metal.

6
“That difficulty isn’t meant to defeat you; it’s meant to promote you. A setback is simply a setup for a
greater comeback.”
Lamellar tearing and itsOsteen
Joel cause:

• Lamellar tearing is subsurface terrace and atep-like crack

pattern in wrought steel base metal oriented parallel to the base
metal working direction.
• Lamellar tearing is caused by tensile stresses in the base metal
from welding in a direction perpendicular to the working
direction, acting upon nonmetallic inclusions in the base metal
parallel to the working direction.
• Lamellar tearing is most likely occur when welding steel plate
using groove welds, fillet weld, or combination of them.
• Detection of lamellar tearing uses RT or UT, but is difficult
because lamellar tearing usually does not break to the surface.
• Lamellar tearing is prevented most reliably by use of epically
processed steel products that do not contain elongated
nonmetallic inclusions, or by reducing the stress in the weld
joint.

Cause of toe cracks and root cracks:

MOTIVATION

5
“That difficulty isn’t meant to defeat you; it’s meant to promote you. A setback is simply a setup for a
greater comeback.”
• Transverse cracks are cracks in a weld perpendicular to the
axis of the weld and sometimes
Joel Osteenextending beyond the weld into
the base metal.
• Transverse cracks are cold cracks resulting from high restraint
acting on low ductility weld metal.
• Transverse crack are detected by VT, PT, and MT as tight,
relatively straight cracks perpendicular to the weld axis.
• Transverse cracks prevention depends on the specific welding
situation – for example, using the proper filler metal composition,
higher welding current or preheat, or a large filler metal and final
weld dimension.

Appearance and causes of underbead cracks:

• Underbead cracks are cracks in

the HAZ that generally do not
extend to the surface of the base
metal.
• Underbead cracks are cold
cracks and are usually short and
discontinues.
• Underbead cracks are
hydrogen cracks that occur in
steels susceptible to hydrogen
embrittlement during welding.

• Underbead cracks are detected by UT or RT because the crack

MOTIVATION is usually below the surface and immediately adjacent to the
weld.
• To prevent underbead cracks, hydrogen creation in steels that
are susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement should be avoided,
such as by using low-hydrogen electrodes to join susceptible
steels and excluding moisture from electrodes.

4
“That difficulty isn’t meant to defeat you; it’s meant to promote you. A setback is simply a setup for a
greater comeback.”
Appearance and causes of throat cracks:
Joel Osteen

• Throat cracks are

longitudinal cracks in the
middle of the surface (throat),
and can be extension through
successive weld passes of a
crack that started in the first
pass (root pass).

• Throat cracks often appear at the surface and can often be

detected by visual examination (VT).
• Throat cracks are prevented by using joint designs that reduce
joint restraint and excessive stresses in solidifying joint metal.

Appearance and causes of crater cracks:

• Crater cracks are star-

shaped cracks which extend
from crater of the weld to the
edge of the weld.
• Crater cracks are hot cracks
formed by improperly ending
the welding arc in the crater of
the weld.

• Crater cracks are visible to naked eye and are detected with VT.
• Crater cracks are prevented by properly terminating the weld,
such as by using a run-off tab.

Appearance and causes of transverse cracks:

MOTIVATION

3
“That difficulty isn’t meant to defeat you; it’s meant to promote you. A setback is simply a setup for a
greater comeback.”
Weld defects:
Joel Osteen
• Weld defects result from weld discontinuities that by their
nature or their accumulated effect are unable to meet the
minimum acceptable requirements of the applicable fabrication
standard code.

Weld stresses:
• Defects can increase weld stresses as when, for example, the
discontinuities reduce the cross-sectional area of the weld that
is available to support the load.
• Concentrated weld stresses occur at discontinuities that
create abrupt changes of geometry, such as an abrupt change
in section thickness, resulting in a notch effect.
• Discontinuities that concentrate stresses may lead to
catastrophic failure in service.

Weld cracks:
• A crack is a fracture-type discontinuity characterized by a
sharp tip and a high ratio of length to width, and width to
opening displacement.
• Cracks are the most serious discontinuities in weldment and
are not permitted in fabrication codes and standards.
• Cracks create significant concentration at their tips and
must be removed before welding continues.

Types of cracks:
• A hot crack is a crack formed at temperature near the
completion of solidification.
• A cold crack is a crack that develops after solidification is
complete.
• A longitudinal crack is a crack with its major axis oriented
MOTIVATION approximately parallel to the weld axis.
• A transverse crack is a crack with its major axis oriented
approximately perpendicular to the weld axis.
• Cracks classified according to their location in the weld are
throat cracks, crater cracks, transverse cracks, underbead
cracks, lamellar tearing, toe and root cracks, fissures, and liquid
metal embrittlement.

2
“That difficulty isn’t meant to defeat you; it’s meant to promote you. A setback is
simply a setup for a greater comeback.”
MODULE 6:
Joel Osteen
Welding Problems

Welding
Problems

As previously explained, weld quality can only be attained

by following the five essentials, as preconditions for welding.
Without due regard to these essentials, defects will occur. The
most defects and corresponding causes and preventions are
discussed below.
The profile of a completed weld may have considerable effect on
the performance of that weld in service. It is the welding
inspector’s function to identify these discontinuities through
visual inspection and often to evaluate their acceptance, or
rejection, through the use of the applicable welding code or
standard acceptable criteria. Unacceptable weld profile can
cause problem associated with reduction in base material
thickness, a reduction in the effective weld size, or provide stress
concentrations on the weld or plate surface. These types of weld
discontinuities can often seriously detract from the overall
performance of a welded component in service. We will consider
some of the discontinuities associated with weld profiles:
Undercut, Overlap. Insufficient throat, and excessive convexity.

MOTIVATION
Weld discontinuities:
• An interruption in the typical structure of the weld.
• Is not always considered a defect.
• Are detected by nondestructive examination (NDE)

1
 METAL
WORKS
Submitted to: Prof. Imelda R. Ubag

Submitted by: Cyrelle Rose S. Jumento

Schedule: Saturday

Time: 12:00 – 3:00 pm