Reducing Teacher Stress

Michael R. Bertoch, Elwin C. Nielsen,

Jeffrey R. Curley, Walter R. Borg

Utah State University

Abstract
A prototype treatment developed to significantly reduce symptoms of stress among
inservice teachers was tested in this experiment. Thirty participants selected for high
stress levels were randomly assigned to treatment and control groups. They were
assessed on environmental, personality, and emotional variables, using self-report and
expert-judge measures, at both pre- and posttreatment. The experimental treatment was
holistic, incorporating all processes previously found to be related to reducing teacher
stress. At posttreatment, the treatment group averaged 1.02 standard deviations lower on
the stress measures than the control group. Significant differences in the posttest means,
favoring the experimental group, were found for 23 of the 39 variables measured on the
three self-report instruments. As a group, the participants demonstrated substantially
lower stress levels than the control group after the treatment, with a substantial decrease
from their pretreatment stress levels. Since the control group received no treatment,
some of the difference may be due to Hawthorne effect.

The Present Study reflects the authors' concern with the serious threat to teacher mental health
caused by occupational stress. Teacher stress is recognized as serious by virtually everyone who
has studied the problem (Phillips & Matthew, 1980). A recent search of the ERIC database
revealed a substantial amount of descriptive and correlational research regarding teacher stress.
However, an extensive literature review failed to produce any reports of projects that used
experimental design to evaluate the validity of stress reduction treatments by demonstrating
reductions in stress symptomatology. Descriptive and correlational studies have provided
important information on possible causal factors. However, these studies are frequently
restricted because of research design characteristics and theoretical limitations. The authors'
interest was to develop and evaluate a prototype treatment focused on the apparent causal
factors of stress, utilizing the most promising treatment strategies that have emerged from
previous research.

The Journal of Experimental Education 57(1), pp. 117-128, Fall 1988.Reprinted with permission of the Helen
Dwight Reid Educational Foundation. Published by Heldref Publications, 1319 Eighteenth St., NW, Washington,
DC 20036-1802. Copyright © 1988.
Selye's (1956) establishment of a final common pathway of physiologic responses evoked by
stressful events has provided an anchor for a body of theory and research directed toward
identifying unique "evocative agents" that result in stress. This work has prompted research
along many lines of inquiry. However, a critical mass of knowledge seems to have been
achieved in recent years. This knowledge has allowed several integrative paradigms to emerge
(Derogatis, 1987; Lazarus, 1966, 1981; Osipow & Spokane 1983, Pettegrew & Wolf, 1982).
These paradigms related many of the variables identified by previous research that have stress-
inducing potential.

One's current stress level may be determined by an interaction among the stress events taking
place in the environment, the nature and intensity of resulting emotional responses, and
personality characteristics of the individual. The exact nature of the relationships among these
three areas is incompletely known. Substantial evidence exists, however, to suggest that
stressors from these three sources may potentiate one another, and they are at least additive
(Derogatis, 1987). It follows that assessment and treatment of persons experiencing high levels
of stress may benefit from consideration of these three sources and their possible interactions.

A survey of recent studies of teacher stress shows that many identified stressors appear
consistently and may be subsumed under the general domains of environmental and personality-
based stressors. Environmental stressors include student discipline and attitude problems,
teacher competence, and teacher-administrator relations. Additional stressors include
accountability laws, large classes, low salaries, intense pupil dependence, and declining
community support. Sources of personality-induced stressors relate to one's self-perception.
Negative self-perception, negative life experiences, low morale, and a struggle to maintain
personal values and standards in the classroom all take their toll (Goodman, 1980; Schnacke,
1982; Schwanke, 1981).

Emotional response sets that may contribute to high stress levels have been reported rarely. This
may be due to an unrecognized need to identify this class of stressor separately from
environmental and personality variables. Negative emotions, however, have been reported as
effects of stress. Correlations have been noted between high stress levels and anger, self-doubt,
lack of confidence, exhaustion, hypertension, absenteeism, and early retirement.

In summary, the emerging views of the concept of stress and the identification of stressors from
many aspects of the teaching profession suggest the futility of trying to remediate teacher stress
with a univariate intervention. Stress operates in many dimensions, and it is not always
predictable. The authors believe, therefore, that stress management must be conceived and
implemented from a holistic perspective with consideration of many research- and theory-based
sources of stressors. Similarly, the authors believe that interventions would be enhanced by
incorporation of all processes previously found to be effective in reducing teacher stress.

This article represents the development and validation of a treatment program designed to
significantly reduce symptoms of stress among inservice teachers whose pretreatment
assessment indicated high levels of stress. A prototype treatment was administered to a sample
of teachers screened for high stress levels. An experimental design was developed to test the
null hypotheses: (a) there will be no difference between the stress level of teachers who
complete the experimental treatment and comparable control group teachers, and (b) there will
be no difference between the pre- and posttreatment stress level of teachers who complete the
experimental treatment. Hypothesis b is secondary and is concerned with experimental group
gains rather than experimental-control differences. We believe that testing this hypothesis adds
to the reader's insight into treatment effects.

Method
Participants The accessible population was public school teachers in northern Utah. Teachers
from middle and high schools gained admission to the program through a three-stage process:
(a) submitting an application after a presentation about the program at school faculty meetings,
(b) scoring in the top 30 on a screening measure indicating stress level (TSM, see Measures
section), and (c) being randomly assigned to treatment (n = 15) or control (n = 15) conditions.
Experimental group members completing the treatment received four units of graduate credit in
education, and those in the control group were given priority for the treatment during
replication. Demographic information is summarized in Table 1.

Treatment Various processes were used in the 12 2-hour treatment sessions, including lecture-
discussion, small group sharing of progress and problems, audiovisual presentations, written
test evaluations, and homework. Two experienced clinical psychologists conducted the
treatment sessions. Activities from the past week(s) were reviewed at the beginning of each
session. Session content was as follows1:

Session 1, Introduction. Administrative details, program content, and processes were covered.
The clinicians managed the group-forming process while establishing norms of participation,
respect, and openness, and modeled the relaxation response.

TABLE 1
SUMMARY OF DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
Treatment (n = 15) Control (n = 15)
Male/Female 6/9 6/9
Average age (years) 38.1, SD = 8.28 38.1, SD = 6.99
Married/divorced 15/0 13/2
Average number of children 2.5 3.1
Average years of teaching experience 9.5 9.1
Number of schools of employment 2.1 2.2
Percentage of spouses employed 60% 73%c
Average years spouses employed 9.2 9.5
Pervious mental health care 27% 20%
Alcohol use (moderate) 27% 40%
Nonprescription drug use 0% 0%
Percentage Caucasian 100% 100%
Session 2, Concept of Stress. Stress, distress, eustress, Type A and B personality
characteristics, and other manifestations of stress were covered. Stages, common causes,
consequences, and symptoms of stress were presented.

Session 3, Task-Based and Role-Conflict Stress. Task-based and role related stress were
compared. Participants' unique stressors were identified with force-field analysis planning
sheets and stress logs. Group members shared individual analyses in small groups.
Session 4, Assertiveness Life Style. The importance of assertiveness was discussed, along with
confusions, myths, differentiation from aggression, and the relationship of assertiveness to self-
confidence.

Session 5, Relaxation and Breathing. xperiential breathing and relaxation processes were
introduced. A process of systematic relaxation of all muscle groups was then practiced.
Members were encouraged to practice regularly until a "relaxation response" became automatic.
Session 6, Meditation. Meditation was described as an alternative to achieve a deeper level of
relaxation and of contact with the self. All subsequent sessions were initiated with a short
session of guided relaxation or meditation.

Session 7, Nutrition. A nutritional evaluation inventory was discussed relative to the

participants' current diets. A lecture-discussion of nutritional habits important in stress
management followed, with individual commitment to make changes.

Session 8, Exercise, Mini-Relaxation, and Stretching. A physical exercise evaluation provided

individual assessment of needs in this area. Group discussion furthered insight into personal
needs for more exercise and methods that could be used. Mini-relaxation and stretching
exercises were taught.

Session 9, Holistic Living, Mind and Body. The concept of mindfulness, defined as awareness
of self and environment, and awareness of choice and personal creativity were discussed. The
importance of making a balance in one's life was emphasized.

Session 10, Coping with Disappointment and Chemical Stressors. The place of
disappointment in the development of stress was discussed. Participants discussed customary
ways of coping with disappointment and explored less stressful alternatives.

The endocrine system was described briefly to show how sympathomimetic agents such as
caffeine and nicotine trigger an elevated baseline of activity. Agents that reduce this baseline of
stress, such as alcohol, minor tranquilizers, barbiturates, and narcotics, were discussed.

Session 11, Support System, Life Stressors, and Teacher Stress. The importance of having an
adequate social support system, both at work and in one's personal life, was discussed.

It was emphasized that to maintain balances, information about stress, and the various coping
ideas and techniques need to be utilized from day to day.
Session 12, Understanding Situations, Letting Go of Resentments, and Where to from Here. A
review of the experiences and learning from the previous sessions was held, with planning to
maintain gains made during the workshop.

Measures
Multiple measures of stress were used, as recommended by Bergin and Lambert's (1978) review
of therapeutic outcome research. Ratings were completed by participants, clinicians, and an
independent rater. Participants completed a pre- and posttreatment test battery and videotaped
clinical interviews. Follow-up data will be collected upon commencement of the replication
phase.

Structured Clinical Stress Interview. Recent meta-analytic studies (Edwards, Lambert, Moran,
McCulley, Smith, & Ellingson, 1984; Lambert, Hatch, Kingston, & Edwards, 1986) support the
authors' view that interviews by experienced clinicians may assess stressors not probed by self-
report measures, thus providing a more complete picture of the subjects' stress levels. The
Structured Clinical Stress Interview (SCSI) was developed to provide a uniform format
covering participants' current or recent stressors, environmental context and possible
precipitants, behavioral and physical symptoms, and self-rating of stress level. Interviews were
conducted during the week before and after the treatment. The interviewers were blind to group
assignment at the pretest but not at the posttest, since the clinicians were involved in the
treatment (fiscal restraints prohibited independent interviewers). A third clinician with more
than 35 years of experience, blind to groups and sequence, rated a random sample of pre- and
posttest interviews taps (n = 16) on the SCSI to provide a reliability check. Videotapes of four
pre- and four posttreatment interviews (SCSI) with the two clinicians were collapsed into a
single group to provide an adequate number of cases. Correlations with the independent
clinician's ratings yielded an r = .66. This correlation represents a minimum estimate of
interrater reliability because the sample of interviews was divided between the two clinicians.

Self-Report Measures. In addition, stress level was assessed across 39 variables using three self-
report measures that completed the assessment battery: the Derogatis Stress Profile (DSP;
Derogatis, 1987), the Occupational Stress Inventory (OSI; Osipow & Spokane, 1983), and the
Teacher Stress Measure (TSM; Pettegrew & Wolf, 1982).

The DSP consists of 77 items that assess stress levels in environmental personality, and
emotional domains. The developers reported alpha reliabilities on 11 subscales ranging from
.79 to .99. Test-retest coefficients ranged from .79 to .93 on the subjects and was .90 for total
scores (see Table 4). Some evidence of construct validity and predictive validity was also
reporter.

The OSI consists of 140 items that assess stress levels in three dimensions of occupational
adjustment: occupational stress, psychological strain, at coping resources. The developers
reported alpha reliabilities on the three dimensions of .89, .94, and .99, respectively, and on the
14 subscales from .71 to 94. Two-week test-retest coefficients from .88 to .94 were reported on
the three dimensions, and from .56 to .94 on the individual scales. Some evidence of construct
and concurrent validity was also reported.
The TSM consists of 70 items that assess stress levels on 14 variables. The author reported
alpha reliability coefficients ranging from .57 to .91. Median reliability was .82 with only two
scales below .75. Some evidence, of concurrent validity was also reported.

The above measures represent the most promising measures identified in extensive review of
contemporary instruments. Each self-report measure and the SCSI yielded total scores based on
a 5-point (SCSI, DSP, OSI) or 6-point (TSM) scale. These provided the main indices of change
in teacher stress. To estimate the concurrent validity for the self-report measures using the
clinical interview as a criterion, and to provide a rationale for including all measures in an
assessment battery, correlations were computed between pretest scores across groups (N = 30).
Ninety-five percent confidence intervals (95% CI) were determined based on Fisher's Z
transformations used to provide a normal distribution. The results presented in Table 2 show
correlations ranging from .56 to .72, suggesting that the measures are moderately correlated but
do not all measure the same construct. Correlations between the SCSI and the DSP, OSI, and
TSM were moderate and consistent at .58, .56, and .57, respectively.

TABLE 2
PEARSON CORRELATIONS BETWEEN MEASURES ON PRETESTS (N = 30)
SCSI DSP OSI
Measure r p 95% CI r p 95% CI r P 95% CI
DSP .58 < .001 .280-.884
OSI .56 < .001 .245-.762 .56 < .001 .255-.767
TSM .57 < .001 .260-.770 .58 < .001 .273-.775 .72 < .001 .490-.859

Data Analysis
The first hypothesis, which predicted no differences between the stress levels of participants
who completed the treatment and a comparable control group, was examined using analyses of
covariance (ANCOVA) between-group posttest scores from the DSP, OSI, TSM, and SCSI,
with the pretest scores entered as covariates. This analysis allowed the slope relating the pretest
and posttest to be estimated rather than forced to be 1, as when gain scores alone are used as the
dependent variable, thus providing a more sensitive test due to reduced error variance (Hendrix,
Carter, & Hintze, 1978; Linn & Slinde, 1977).

The second hypothesis, which produced no difference between the pre- and posttest stress level
of participants who received the treatment, was examined using correlated means t tests. Since
the 12 treatment sessions concluded near the end of the school year—a period described by
teachers as highly stressful—this analysis provided information on the direction of change (i.e.,
whether the treatment group improved or the control group deteriorated; see Table 3).
To determine whether the measures employed provided comparable data for assessing treatment
effects, an effect size (ES) was computed for each measure. Finding were thus transformed into
a common metric (standard deviation units), rendering an index of the magnitude of effect or
change.

To provide information concerning differences between the experimental and control groups on
the subscores obtained from the self-report measures, ANCOVAs were computed between
groups on posttreatment means scores with pretreatment scores entered as covariates. This
analysis, which indicated variables showing significant change at the posttest, will be used,
along with data from participant feedback forms completed after each session, to suggest
possible refinements in the treatment program and the instrumentation (see Table 4). However,
because of the small number of cases and the low reliability of some of the subscores, data in
Table 4 should be regarded as tentative.

Results

After the treatment, the experimental group demonstrated substantially lower stress levels than
control group members. Significant differences between experimental and control groups in
adjusted means were found on the OSI, DSP, TSM, and SCSI (see Table 3). Computation of
effect sizes for the above measures indicates how many standard deviations the treatment group
differed from the control group at posttreatment. A substantially lower stress level, averaging
1.02 SD, was found to be associated with participation in the treatment.

The experimental group demonstrated a substantial decrease in their stress level after the
treatment. Table 3 shows that DSP means decrease from 152.60 pretreatment to 117.30
posttreatment. Similar decreases in means were observed on the OSI, TSM, and SCSI, with all
four ps significant at the .001 level.

Control group means on the DSP decreased from 142.40 to 132.87 pre- to posttreatment, an
improvement significant at the .05 level. On the SCSI, however, a significantly higher stress
level was indicated at posttreatment (.05 level). The OSI and TSM showed very small changes
that were not statistically significant.

Although the experimental group indicated higher stress levels than control group on all
pretreatment measures (p = .16, .17, .024, and .021 on the DSP, OSI, TSM, and SCSI,
respectively), they were significantly on all posttreatment means adjusted for pretreatment
scores. A concern regarding internal validity in studies using samples selected for extreme
scores is that statistical regression to the mean may account for treatment gains (Borg, 1987;
Borg & Gall, 1983; Kazdin 1980). Since the subjects with the highest scores were randomly
assigned to treatment or control, both groups should have regressed a like amount. Had
regression accounted for a significant increment of stress reduction in the treatment group, a
similar change in the control group would be expected. However, although the treatment
group's average means across measures dropped from 210.30 pretreatment to 178.55
posttreatment, corresponding control group means dropped only 1.3 points, from 193.38 to
192.08 during the same period. The relative stability of the control group average scores
suggests that regression to the mean may have occurred in the context of a more stressful
posttreatment environment, thus not detectable in score changes. However, large differences in
experimental group scores also suggests that gain associated with the treatment was not
confounded with regression effects.
 TABLE 3
SUMMARY OF t TESTS, ANCOVAS, AND EFFECT SIZES
Measure DSP OSI TSM SCSI
t Tests: Control group pre-post
r(14) 2.21 –0.25 1.39 –2.27
p .04 .80 .19 .04
Mpre, SD 142.40, 24.01 360.53, 38.66 232.40, 34.98 42.20, 6.98
Mpost, SD 132.87,25.56 362.07, 36.31 224.90, 43.60 48.47, 9.56
t Tests: Treatment Group pre-post
r(14) 3.98 4.20 5.56 3.89
p .001 .001 .001 .001
Mpre, SD 152.60, 24.08 377.47, 26.68 260.53, 29.18 50.60, 11.16
Mpost, SD 117.30, 43.00 348.20, 29.37 208.70, 40.80 40.00, 10.38
ANCOVAs between treatment and control posttests
F(1, 27) 6.02 8.35 12.68 10.22
p .021 .008 .001 .004
Mc,adja, 137.68 368.05 238.18 50.25
Mt,adja, 112.44 342.22 195.49 38.22
SDpoola 25.24 34.37 38.79 9.86
Effect sizes
ES 1.0 0.75 1.10 1.22
Mc,adja, and Mt,adja, = posttest means adjusted for the pretest means (i.e., the covariate), SDpool = pooled SDs from
control pre- and posttests and treatment pretests. On all measures higher scores indicated higher stress. All t tests
were two-tailed.

DISCUSSION

The present study clearly demonstrates a reduction in teacher stress by subjects in the
experimental treatment. Table 4 shows that significant experimental vs. control differences
were found on 23 of the 39 variables measured by the self-report instruments, many of which
may be related to specific treatment content. Interestingly, treated participants scored
significantly higher (i.e., less favorably) on the self-care and rational/cognitive coping subscales
of the OSI after the treatment. This finding correlates with comments from participants on
feedback forms from later sessions such as, "It all seems so helpful, but I need more practice on
the things learned," "We covered it all—very quickly," or even "A little bit of ignorance is
bliss." Taken together, these may suggest that a sense of overload and need for integration may
have been caused by the numerous methods employed reduce stress, paradoxically introducing
a new source of stress. In response to a question on the feedback questionnaires asking which
areas had most beneficial, individual participants stressed different areas. This further suggests
that increased reduction of stress in individual cases may be enhanced through idiographic
pretreatment assessment and a more focused treatment based on individual needs. An
understanding of the process variables imbedded in the treatment package will require further
research to determine whether specific factors emerge, thus allowing a better match to
individual needs.
 TABLE 4
VARIABLES AND SIGNIFICANCE OF CHANGES BETWEEN
PRE- AND POSTTREATMENT FOR TREATMENT VS. CONTROL GROUP

Treatment Mean Control Mean

Subscale Alphaa Pre Post Pre Post F
DSP
Time Pressure .93 18.2 15.8 17.1 15.5 0.447
Driven Behavior .88 12.9 10.3 12.2 11.7 2.975*
Attitude Posture .86 16.1 13.5 15.5 14.5 2.977*
Relaxation Potential .91 15.5 10.6 13.2 12.2 3.061*
Role Definition .90 12.5 8.7 11.7 10.6 4.956**
Vocational Satisfaction .79 13.3 11.7 12.5 11.7 0.293
Domestic Satisfaction .86 12.5 8.8 11.1 10.4 3.570*
Health Posture .85 11.7 9.1 11.3 10.2 0.139
Hostility .81 10.6 8.7 10.7 10.9 4.596**
Anxiety .84 18.3 12.6 16.3 14.8 3.667**
Depression .85 11.1 7.6 10.9 10.4 5.237**
OSI
Role Overload .83 32.3 29.5 30.3 29.1 0.748
Role Insufficiency .90 28.7 23.9 28.3 28.3 5.123**
Role Ambiguity .78 26.5 22.3 23.3 23.5 0.107
Role Boundary .82 26.3 20.1 25.7 23.0 6.666**
Responsibility .71 29.4 24.1 28.3 26.9 1.981
Physical Environment .85 15.7 14.5 14.5 14.9 1.666
Vocational Strain .71 24.5 18.4 21.9 22.1 17.532***
Psychological Strain .89 30.2 21.3 24.7 23.3 4.910**
Interpersonal Strain .81 27.8 21.2 26.5 22.9 4.124*
Physical Strain .87 28.0 21.9 22.6 22.9 6.159**
Recreation .71 22.0 25.0 24.5 26.3 –0.392
Self-Care .73 22.5 31.3 23.7 27.4 –4.807**
Social Support .83 24.7 39.7 36.7 40.1 –0.582
Rational/Cog. Coping .78 28.8 35.2 29.4 31.2 –7.410**
TSM
Role Ambiguity .79 15.3 12.1 12.8 11.6 0.199
Rover Overload .76 21.0 16.9 18.0 17.9 4.312**
Role Conflict .82 20.7 17.3 18.5 17.7 4.253
Nonparticipation .76 19.1 13.5 17.1 16.3 4.767**
Role Preparedness .57 15.1 12.9 15.0 14.6 7.173**
School Stress .89 18.5 16.5 15.8 16.5 6.175**
Job Satisfaction .86 18.1 15.1 16.5 15.1 0.300
Management Style .74 16.7 12.5 15.7 15.1 13.040***
Life Satisfaction .91 16.3 11.9 13.3 12.9 5.652**
Task Stress .84 40.5 34.9 35.9 38.2 9.462***
Supervisory Support .89 12.1 9.7 9.7 8.7 0.593
Peer Support .84 9.1 6.5 7.8 7.9 4.703***
Untitled NA 21.9 17.2 20.8 19.8 3.893*
Illness Symptoms .82 16.2 11.8 15.5 12.7 0.451

a
Alpha reliability coefficients as reported in the test manuals.
* ** ***
p < .01. p < .05. p < .01.
The present study addressed a need for remediation of teacher stress with a complex,
multifaceted treatment package. As many strategies as practicable were included; some,
perhaps, were unnecessary or differentially effective in individual cases. With the main
questions resolved—validation the treatment package alters stress levels overall in the desired
direction—interest shifts toward more specific concerns. Which of the variables covered in the
treatment contribute most to stress reduction? Will a dismantling of components of the
treatment package into multiple treatments in understanding the sufficient and necessary
conditions of stress reduction? Ultimately, further research is needed to develop a treatment
strategy that will vary specific aspects of the treatment with respect to subject variables to
determine how to maximize stress reduction within teacher populations (Kazdin, 1980). More
immediately, several analyses pertinent to the present study await additional funding and time
to complete. Follow-up assessment to determine the durability of the reductions in stress over
time are anticipated at approximately 6 months and 1 year, contingent upon grant funding for
two replication phases allowing further investigation of important area.

Note

Persons wanting a detailed set of lesson plans for the 12 sessions should contact Professor
Michael Bertoch, Department of Psychology, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-2810.

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