EFFECTS OF WATER HYACINTH IN LAKE VICTORIA ON

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES IN PORT FLORENCE AND SELECTED

BEACHES IN KISUMU CITY.

SECTION ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) has been a challenging aquatic weed around
the world since 19th century. Its origin is traced back to the Amazon River Basin,
Latin America (Cilliers et al., 2003; Williams et al., 2007; Shanab et al., 2010). The
alien species has been rated as one of the top 100 alien species and among top 10
worst weed around the world (Shanab et al., 2010; Téllez et al., 2008; Gichuki et al.,
2012; Patel, 2012).

Fresh water bodies constitute a vital component of a wide variety of living

environments as integral water resource base in many human societies in the world. They
have been regarded as key strategic resources essential for sustaining human livelihood,
promoting economic development and maintaining the environment (Uganda National
Water Development Report (UNWDR), 2005). Utilization of freshwater resources include
use as source of drinking water, fishing activities, sites for domestic and industrial
effluents discharge, recreation and transportation activities.

Water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Martius) Solms-Laubuch, is a perennial, free floating

fresh aquatic weed belonging to the family Pontederiaceae (Gopal, 1987) which is
characterized by rapid and large vegetative reproduction output, and known to rapidly
colonizing new areas, as a single plant it reproduces rapidly (Zhang et al., 2010; Williams
et al., 2007). Originally from South America, water hyacinth is one of the world’s most
prevalent invasive aquatic plants. It has become naturalized in many warm areas of the
world. Water hyacinth has invaded freshwater systems in over 50 countries on five
continents; it is especially pervasive throughout Southeast Asia, the southeastern United
States, central and western Africa, and Central America (Bartodziej & Weymouth, 1995;
Brendonck et al., 2003; Lu et al., 2007; Martinez Jimenez and Gomez Balandra, 2007).

Water hyacinth is prevalent in tropical and subtropical water bodies where Anthropogenic
activities such as land use change into arable land offload nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus has led to rapid growth and spread of water hyacinth through eutrophication
of major water bodies across the world (Williams et al., 2007). In Africa, the weed started
infesting freshwater bodies massively during 1950‟s due to eutrophication of the water
bodies that contributed the weed biomass. There is not a clear record of how, why, and
when water hyacinth was introduced to water bodies outside of its native range, but
many populations are well established and persistent despite control efforts. Its success
as an invader is attributed to its ability to outcompete native vegetation and
phytoplankton for light and its release from consumers (Neochetina eichhorniae and N.
bruchi) found within its native range (Wilson et al. 2007). Changes to water hyacinth
density have the potential to affect other ecological and human communities in areas
where it is established; these changes may be perceived as positive or negative depending
on the designated or beneficial uses of the water body (Gibbons et al.,1994).

In Africa, the water hyacinth was first reported in Egypt between 1879. It is
considered one of the most notorious weed species in tropical West Africa (Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2000). Water hyacinth infestation of freshwater
ecosystems has been recently reported by several workers (Luken and Thieret, 1997;
Bolorunduro, 2000; Osumo, 2001; Masami et al., 2008); and its major effect appears to be
disruption of normal ecological functioning of aquatic ecosystems where it is found
thriving. Beneficial effects of the water hyacinth have also been reported as an aid in
water purification through conversion of toxic ammonia to usable nitrates as well as
capacity to absorb heavy metals and organic compounds from water body (Simeon et al.,
1987; Cowx and Welcomme, 1998; Ingole and Bhole, 2002). The influence of aquatic
macrophytes on the limnological properties of water bodies has been recognized (Petre,
2000; Lee and McNaughton, 2004). They may, therefore, be regarded as efficient
indicators of water quality.

In Ghana, water hyacinth was found for the first time in Tano lagoon, apparently entering
this water body from Cote d'Ivoire. More recently fishermen reported a decline in fish
catches and it was suggested that this was due to the presence of the water hyacinth.
Much of the water hyacinth in Tano lagoon is mobile, being moved by wind or water
currents. Holcik (1995), who investigated the situation, thought that the low catches are
not due to the decline in fish stocks but rather a result of both the inefficient deployment
of nets and of the difficult access to the fishing grounds due to the water hyacinth cover.

The weed was first reported in the Ugandan portion of Lake Victoria in 1990
(Thompson, 1991). It is believed that it entered the lake in 1989 via the Kagera River,
which has its mouth in the Ugandan portion of the lake (Muli 1996). Estimates made in
April 1999 and in August 1999 indicated that the input of water hyacinth into Lake
Victoria through the River Kagera was 3.5 ha per week (Mailu, 2001).
Water hyacinth in the United States was at the beginning of the 20th century on the
occasion of the Louisiana Purchase (Sculthorpe 1967). The spread continued to Florida
where there are many references to control the spread and infestations that occurred
(Schardt 1984). It was also introduced into North and South Carolina. In the countries of
South America, there are reports of its presence in 1902 in Brazil, 1942 in Argentina, 1959
in Paraguay, Uruguay, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Colombia, 1976 in Venezuela, and 1979 in
Chile. In Central America, it is cited in Mexico, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and El Salvador in
1965, Panama in 1966, and Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic from 1971. Water
hyacinth grows rapidly (Penfound and Earle, 1948) forming expansive colonies of tall,
interwoven floating plants. It has been reported that floating mats block drainage, causing
flooding or preventing subsidence of floodwaters. Large rafts accumulate where water
channels narrow, sometimes causing bridges to collapse. Water hyacinth hinders
irrigation by impeding water flow, by clogging irrigation pumps, and by interfering with
weirs (Penfound and Earle, 1948).

According to Mailu, the water hyacinth infestations in the portion of Lake Victoria in
Tanzania in 1999 were located in Mara Bay, Bauman Gulf, Speke Gulf, Mwanza Gulf, Emin
Pasha Gulf and Rubafu Bay. Currently, water hyacinth occurs also in the Kagera, Sigi and
Pangani rivers, as well as in streams and water ponds around Dar-es-Salaam and close to
Lake Victoria. The total cover estimate of water hyacinth in the Tanzanian waters of Lake
Victoria was 2000 ha (Mailu, 2001).

Water hyacinth was first sited in the Kenyan side of the lake in 1992 (Republic of Uganda,
2005). Water hyacinth occurred in form of stationary mats in sheltered bays and along
much of the lakeshore, in addition to the mobile mats that were propelled around the
lake by winds, waves and water currents (Balirwa, Wanda, and Muyodi, 2009). Despite
water hyacinth’s invasive nature and dominance in Lake Victoria in the 1990s, water
hyacinth largely disappeared from Lake Victoria by the end of 1999. For instance, no
water hyacinth was found on the Gulf from April 2002 until October 2004, only appearing
again at the next measurement date of December 2005 (Gichuki et al, 2011).

Around Port Frolence, Hippo point and Dunga beach is now fully covered by the hyacinth
and growth of algal bloom and has become a menace to communities and biodiversity. Its
rapid dissemination in these areas is stimulated by the influx of nutrients through run-offs
which cause eutrophication and the lack of natural enemies to destroy the weed. Also,
the lack of knowledge about the extent of damage to the riparian communities and the
cutting and releasing of bunches of water hyacinth into the lake by the beach
communities has also contributed to its spread. The rich biodiversity of the Winam gulf,
its social importance acting as a site for cultural manifestations and recreational activities
as well as its economic importance acting as a source of income for the local community,
all make it very important to the beach communities. This study, therefore, examined the
economic impacts of water hyacinth on Port Florence and beach communities around
Dunga beach, Lake Victoria in Kisumu County - Kenya.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Water Hyacinth is one the latest great problem among the water bodies in Africa. The
colonization is becoming a menace to many of the fresh water bodies in the continent.
The problem has resulted to Economic, Social and Environmental problems which results
to greater loses.

Lake Victoria has over the years served as a reliable economic natural and economic
resource for majority of the residents of Kisumu. Many households in the region rely
directly or indirectly on this resource for survival. A number of activities are carried out
and yield different satisfaction to the residents. The activities are varied in nature and
include employment opportunities such as Hotel management, recreation activities like
boat racing and agricultural activities since water is readily available for irrigation
purposes. The ultimate result of the activities is revenue generation to the individuals and
the government through taxation hence boosting the economy.

From 1990s the lake started becoming colonized by the water weed known as the Water
Hyacinth. The Water hyacinth has been monitored since 1993 and it reached the
maximum biomass in 1997. Towards the last month of 1997, their levels decreased due to
the El Nino rains, heavy winds and high waves in the same time frame.
In the recent years however the levels have been drastically increasing at alarming rates,
currently the surface of water at the Port Florence is fully covered and this has effect to a
number of activities.

The fast growth of Water Hyacinth allowed the plant to build huge populations in its
ranges of introduction, developing dense mats on the surface of the water and becoming
a major weed problem.

It is considered the worst aquatic weed in the world. The rapid increase and spread of the
plant into new areas is due particularly to its vegetative reproduction, a single plant being
able to develop very rapidly a significant infestation. Moving easily with water currents,
winds or other accidental means, such as fishing nets and boats. The problems arising
from the growth of Water Hyacinth in thick mats are numerous having an ultimate effect
to economic growth.

An enormous water loss through evapotranspiration, that alters the water balance of
entire regions resulting to lower water levels, the impediment to water flow, that
increases sedimentation, causing flooding and soil erosion along the banks of the lake, the
obstruction of navigation which affects both the transportation sector and large scale
fishing, hampering fishing and dramatically reducing the catch and the source of food and
income for local populations,a drastic change in the physical and chemical properties of
water and the environment in the water bodies invaded, with detrimental effects on
plants and animals and a serious threaten to agricultural production, following the
blockage of irrigation canals and drainage systems. The economy of the individuals
concerned is therefore seriously affected in many aspects.

This weed represents an environmental problem as well and indirectly a public health
problem, since it may create a microhabitat suitable for the breeding of many vectors of
human diseases and for hosting poisonous snakes.

Since its appearance in Lake Victoria, the weed has resulted to many problems. Studies
conducted in ponds and satellites in the Lake Basin in March 2000 showed that in
presence of the weed fishing was impossible and there was water shortage. Communities
had to walk long distances in search of water.

It was also noted that during heavy rains, Water Hyacinth is washed into the rain fields
causing poor germination for crops planted by the farmers and the ultimate results being
poor agricultural output for the farmers.

Water Hyacinth in Dunga Beach where Water for KIWASCO is taken turned to green due
to algae and black due to rotten Water Hyacinth resulting to expensive water treatment
as a requirement to supply water that is safe and fit for human use.
Presence of the weed also affects the recreation activities like swimming and boat racing.
Decreased visits reduces customers in hotels resulting low income generation to the
businesses around the beaches.

The time and again migration of the weed has almost made the society tend to try to
learn how to live with the problem rendering it normal. The trend is therefore expected to
increase and cause massive damage and waste of resources if efficient measures are not
taken to counter the issue at earlier state. The study therefore sought to investigate the
influence that Water Hyacinth has on the Recreation activities, Fishing industry, Tourism,
Transport, Businesses e.g. Hotels and Kisumu Water and Sewerage System Company
(KIWASCO) activities which in general constitute the main economic activities that rely on
the Lake Victoria.
 Pictures showing water hyacinth in Lake Victoria

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1.3.1 Main Objective
Effects of water hyacinth on economic activities on the community around Lake Victoria,
focusing mainly on Dunga beach, Port Florence and Hippo Point in Kisumu.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
a) Effect of water hyacinth on KIWASCO activities.
b) Effect of water hyacinth on recreation activities.
c) Effect of water hyacinth on fishing industry.
d) Effect of water hyacinth on weaving industry.
e) Effect of water hyacinth on transport activities.
f) Effect of water hyacinth on tourism.
g) Effect of water hyacinth on hotel businesses.
1.4 HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY
This research focused on the effects of water hyacinth on the economic activities carried
out in Lake Victoria. They include KIWASCO activities, fishing, recreation activities,
weaving, transport activities, tourism and hotel businesses. These activities make up the
dependent variables on the other hand, Water hyacinth is an independent variable since
it has a direct effect to these economic activities. The relationship can be represented in
the following equation.

y1+y2+y3+y4+y5+y6+y7=x+Et

Where;
y1 - KIWASCO activities
y2 - Fishing
y3 - Recreation activities
y4 - Weaving
y5 - Transport activities
y6 - Tourism
y7 - Hotel businesses
x - water hyacinth
Et - error term

1.5 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

This study has provided information that is believed to assist decision makers in making
their decision concerning the protection of aquatic environment. It also helps them to
make appropriate decisions on investment in various projects aimed at preventing the
spread of water hyacinth to other areas.
The study also assumed that economic indicators would remain the same throughout
the period of the study and that the effects of the Water Hyacinth cut-across all the
economic segments of the target community.
 This research will also add and contribute more knowledge and will help with the
development of a proposed institutional framework sustainable management of Water
Hyacinth in Lake Victoria.

1.6 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

1.6.1 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study is to cover the areas of Lake Victoria such as Dunga Beach, Hippo Point and
Port Florence in Kisumu City. The study focuses on examining the effects of water
hyacinth on economic activities such as fish harvesting, weaving industry, boat riding
transport services and recreational activities as well as tourism in Lake Victoria. The study
examines the implications of economy concerning both small scale farming and industrial
production of these activities with the patterns of production as the main concern of the
study.
The study is conducted in order to find the solutions of getting rid of the water hyacinth
Lake Victoria to help the economic activities to be carried out effectively and efficiently
as usual which in turn will contribute to the improvement of the standards of living of
the people around the area of Kisumu City and ensuring the growth and development of
economy of the Country as a whole. The period of study was from 2018-2019.
Water hyacinth has greatly increased around the areas of Port Florence, Hippo point and
even area around Dunga Beach. This has greatly affected the fishing activities in Dunga
Beach and Hippo Point since it has reduced the fishing activities due to difficulties in
harvesting the fish from the Lake. It has also affected the people negatively because they
depend on the fishing for their livelihood through provision of food and even selling the
fish to get the money to use it for other basic needs like clothing and education. It has also
resulted to starvation and low income to societies depending on the economic activities
carried out within the Lake.
These negative effects of Water Hyacinth has been a problem even to the transport sector
in offering transport services like from Port Florence in Kenya to other East Africa
Countries like Uganda and Tanzania. Also trade with other countries has been a challenge
since transport services are not effective and therefore this draws back economic progress
of a country.
1.6.2 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The study was faced with the problem of hostility since some of the targeted population
was ignorant to respond to the questions asked. This contributed to difficulties in
collection of data. At the same time people reacted differently because they were not
going to benefit from the research.
 The study was faced with the problem of financial constraints. Data collection required
comprehensive resources like questionnaires, transport funds and writing materials which
required sacrifice in contribution of funds to help in the collection of data.
Another limitation of the study was time. There was inadequate time for the research due
to other activities like classwork.
The large scale fish harvesting is done during the night and therefore the study was
focused on the small scale fish harvesting which is done during the day. This led to the
unavailability of appropriate target population for the study.

1.7 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK.

Scholars have presented and advanced several theories in an attempt to conceptualize
and explain water hyacinth and it's link to economic activities in L. Victoria.
The study was mainly based in the opportunity- Based Entrepreneurship theory by
Drucker (1985).According to the theory, it asserts that the entrepreneurs do not change
but they do exploit the opportunities that change creates. These changes may include
technology, consumer preference and others. It continues to explain that the
entrepreneur always searches for change, responds to it, and exploits it as an opportunity.
In conclusion Ducker's opportunity construct concludes that entrepreneurs have an eye
more for possibilities created by change than the problems.
In 1990 Stevenson came with a theory to extend Ducker's opportunity-based construct
and in his theory he included resourcefulness. He concludes that the hub of
entrepreneurial management is the pursuit of opportunity without regard to resources
currently controlled. He argued that the entrepreneurs identify business opportunities to
create and deliver value for stakeholders in prospective ventures. While elements of
opportunities may be recognized, opportunities are made, not found. Careful
investigation of and sensitivity to market needs as well as an ability to spot suboptimal
deployment of resources may help an entrepreneur begin to develop an opportunity. This
may or may not result in the formation of a business. Stevenson stated that the
opportunity development also involves entrepreneurs' creative work. The focus of the
study was "opportunity development" rather than "opportunity recognition". In the study,
residents of Port Florence and the surrounding areas, in spite of the problems created by
the presence of the water hyacinth on the surface of L. Victoria, some take advantage of
the entrepreneurial opportunities created by its infestation while others premise their
entrepreneurial activities on the absence of the water hyacinth