GRANMAR OF THE STONA LANGUAGE
con
JA, SOUTH ANSRICA
by
Alva Yhecler
Doctoral Dissertation
Submitted to
Department of Lincuistics
University of California
Berkeley
February 1, 1970
bers of the Dissertation Committee
Terrence 3, Kaufman
0. Brent Berlin
vary R, HaasABSTRACT
‘The grammar of the Siona language, Colowbia, South Anerica
4s oriented to the tagnemie school of linguistics. Special at-
tention has been given to the graamatical role of constituents
in terus of their particular structural level (sentence, clause,
phrase, word, etc.), Relationshive between structural levels
are stated on the assuzption that a couplex constituent aani-
festing a tagneme of one level 1s further analyzable in terns
of tagnenes of the next lover level.
The most complex levels of structure in Siona are the clause
and the word, Clause structure is displeyed in summary for: by
way of a matrix chart (page 24), This chart vresexts eisht
basic clause types of the language along one perineter and the
structural variants coumon to each one along the other. Word
structure has its greatest complexities in the verb, which is
analyzed in terns of three lover levels. Verb classes are iden-
tified with the basic clause types they manifest. A salient
feature of noun structure 1s the occurrence of classifier suf-
fixes to fora the bulk of the noun stems, Aniuate noun stexs
are distinguished on the basis of classifiers for nesculine,
feminine, end plural, Inaninate noun steus occur with any of
twenty classifier suffixes indicating shape or function.
‘The section on discourse structure presents the languace
from perspectives that point to overall senantic relationships.
Although these relationships do not lend themselves to seguen-
tation and constituency in granmatical strings, they fora an
integral part of the language. It is in this area that further
study is being directed.000,
020,
020,
100,
no,
120,
130.
140.
150.
200,
210,
aul.
2126
213.
2u4e
215.
226,
217.
218.
220,
22i.
221...
221.2.
22103.
Contents
Introduction
General
Linguistic model
Brief statement of phonology
Consonants
Vowels
Stress
syllable
Morphophonenies
Clause structure
Composition clause types
Quotative clause
Transitive clause
Intransitive clause
Progressive clause
Stative clause
Descriptive clause
Equative clause
Impersonal clause
Tagmemes of the composition clause types
Predicate tagnemes
Quotative predicate
Transitive predicate
Intransitive predicate
Page
13
43
7
19
1g
19
20
au
22
23
25
28
29
30
30
RL
32
33
35
36
36
ae
38221.4.
22165.
221.6.
22167.
221.8.
222.
222.1.
22242.
222.3.
22264,
22245.
222.64
222476
222.8.
223
223.1.
223.2.
223.36
223.4
223456
223.6.
22367.
223.8.
22309
230.
231.
23lele
Progressive predicate
Stative predicate
Descriptive predicate
Equative predicate
Impersonal predicate
Central nonpredication tagnenes
Descriptive manner
Goal
Locative referent
Object
Predicate nominative
Quotation
Referent
subject
Peripheral tagmemes
Acconpaniment
Benefactor
Interjection
Instrument
Intensifier
Locative source
Manner
Time
Vocative
Distribution clause types
Dependent clause
Subordinate clause
38
39
39
40
40
Aa
aa
he
43
43
4s
46
47
4e
48
49
49
50
50
51
52
33
33
55
5523142.
231.3
23164.
2324
232.16
232.161.
232.1624
232.1436
232.1
2326165.
232.1666
232.2.
232434
2h0,
2h.
2h2,
BH2eLe
242.20
242.3.
243,
300.
310,
Bll.
Bllele
B1L.2
312.
313.
Adjectival clause
Adverbial clause
Nominal clause
Independent clause types
Declarative clause constructions
Definite involvement
Imperative
Subjunetive
Detachnent
Indefinite involvement
Distant
Confirmation interrogative clause
Information interrogative clause
Perfective clause types
Subordinate perfective clause
Declarative perfective clause
Definite
Detachment
Subjunctive
Interrogative perfective clause
Phrase structure
Nominal
Nominal core
Apposition
Sequence
Qualifier 1
Function
56
a
5?
59
59
59
60
61
61
62
62
63
66
66
67
68
68
69
69
a
ee
72
72
23
ne
ee313.1.
BIB 2.
320.
321.
322.
323.
32h.
325.
326+
327.
330.
33.
332
BHO.
Bae
350.
352.
3524
353.
360.
400,
410,
waa,
41
4A1.1,1. Subordinate v
Function enclitic complex
Function word
Noun phrase
Modifier
Demonstrative
Qualifier 2
Qualifier 3
Noun head
Specifier phrases
Noun specifier phrase
Nominal specifier phrase
‘Temporal
Temporal core
‘Temporal phrase
Temporal demonstrative
Temporal qualifier
Temporal head
Verb phrase
Word structure
Verb
Verb composition
Subordinate verb consicuction
b inflection type one
411,1,2, Subordinate verb inflection type two
™
76
76
76
72
78
79
80
81
81
82
83
83
85
85
86
86
86
87
87
90
90
92
91
cis
98HL. 2.
W113.
a1,
WAL 5.
421.502,
WAL 5.24
421.563.
HAL. See
MALS. 5.
411, 5.65
#11.6.
41167.
jae.
waz...
412.2,
412.3,
43.
HAZ.Le
WAB.2.
413.2616
4B. 2020
413.2636
HABL 24,
413.2. 5s
413.2464
Adjectival verb construction
Adverbial verb construction
Nominal verb construction
Declarative verb constructions
Definite involvenent
Inperative
subjunctive
Indefinite involvement
Detachment
Distant past
Confirmation interrogative verb construc-
‘tion
Information interrogative verb construc-
tion
Verb theme composition
Definite verb theme
Indefinite verb theme
Distant verb theme
Verb stem composition
Simple verb stens
Complex verb stems
Verb stem construction type one
Verb stem construction type two
Verb stem construction type three
Verb stem construction type four
Verb stem construction type five
Verb stem construction type six
100
101
101
102
103
ol
105
106
107
107
108
109
109
0
an
nz
pe
4
16
17
117
ne
19
120
120413.2076
420,
42d.
H2lele
421...
W212.
W211. 36
H21 Lede
Repetitives without counterparts
Noun
Animate noun class
Ingroup human
Stem subclass la
Stem subclass 1b
Stem subclass le
Stem subclass 1d
421.1.4,1, Subclass lax
H21.1sle2, Subclass lay
421,1.44.3, Subclass ldz
W212.
W2L. 201
421,2.2.
H21.36
HL 31.
421,342.
hel
heey
422.1,
422.2,
422.201.
W22.262.
4236
423.1.
N23420
423634
Noun stem subclass 2
Stem subclass 2a
Stem subclass 2b
Noun sten subclass 3
Sten subclass 3a
Stem subclass 3b
Proper nouns and kinship nouns
Inaninate noun class
Sten subclass 1
Stem subclass 2
Subclass 2a
Subclass 2b
Spatial noun class
Sten subclass 1
Stem subclass 2
Stem subclass 3
221
122
122
123
123
125
125
125
126
126
126
127
127
128
128
128
129
129
130
130
136
137
137
137
137
137
138H2304,
423.5.
42k,
424.1.
Hau 2e
425.
430.
AGL.
432,
433.
43h,
4355
ALO,
aul,
ane,
443,
Aun,
ALS.
450,
45h.
452.
460.
470,
480,
Sten subclass 4
Stem subclass 5
Temporal noun class
Ston subclass 1
Sten subclass 2
Specifier noun
Pronoun
Animate
Inaninate
Spatial
Temporal
Interrogative
Modifiers
Adjective
Numeral
qualifier
Modifier
Adverd
Demonstrative
Nominal denonstrative
Temporal demonstrative
Function word
Interjection
Intensifier
138
139
139
139
140
140
140
ua
ke
he
142
3
yy
Lad
145,
146,
16
ake
147
we
148
148
149
1s490.
Hole
492,
4936
4g,
500,
510.
51l.
511.1.
511.2.
511.3.
512.
51261.
512020
S13.
SQLs
51362
520,
600.
610,
61.
612.
Miscellaneous forms
Conjunction
Exclanatory word
Onomatopoetic word
Special responses
Sentence structure
Complete sentences
Sentence types
Declarative
Confirmation interrogative
Information interrogative
Subordinate base
Loose knit connectivity
Close knit connectivity
Special patterns of intonation
Stimulation to excitement
Expression of disapproval
Fragmentary sentences
Discourse structure
Sentence connectivity
The Linking element
Elaboration
250
150
150
152
251
153
153
ash
15h
156
15?
159
159
160
162
162
162
163
165
166
167
168
10623.
620,
621,
622,
630,
ae
Cee
The distribution of sentence types within
discourse
Particlvant Identification end role
desiauation
Patterns of participant identification
Foous
Speaker of narrator viewpoint
The narrator's relationship to the
circumstances
‘The narrator's relationship to the
Liste
References
Bibliography
169
169
170
173
175
278
163
aVIII
Chart Index
Siona Cleuse Yatrix
Punetion Gnelitie Orr
Definite Verb
Imperative Verb
Indefinite Verb
Distant Past Verb
Perfective Predication
Nominalization
Verb Sten Cle: Ceding
Anizate Noun Specification and
Pluralization
Enelitic tiarking for Focu
sp
ue
92
124
17h
12ae
000, Introduction
010, Generel
Siona is a menber of the Western branch of the Tucancen
family and is spoken by about 150 people, who live at three
points along the Putumayo River (Colonbia~Eouador border)
between the mouths of the Cuhewbi and the PiffuBa Blanca, The
language has minor dialect variations associated with geo-
graphical spread and age differences. It 1s mutuslly intel-
ligible with Hacaguaje, spoken by about 50 people in scat-
tered dwellings along the Putumayo at Tablero and 31 Hacha
(below the mouth of the San “iguel), and along the Necaya
and Senseys, tributaries to the Cequets,
Earlier recordings of the Siona language under the
names of Ceona, Zeona, Sioni, and Quenguejoyo have been made
by Frenciscan missionary priests, whose first contact 1s re-
rs
ported to have been 1638 or earlier.2 ission establish
ments along the Napo, San Miguel and Putumayo rivers met
With native resistance and failed on numerous occasions until
1752. From then until the 1870's the Franciscan misstonaries
maintained active Work at several stations. Many of then
nade special efforts to learn the native lenguage and left
recorded Word lists and catechisms.?
Phe Siona were considered the prestige people of the
upper Putureyo during the period of the Franciscan influence,
and attempts Were made to establish the language as the lingua
franca of that region. Population estinates ranged up to. a4
8,000. Contacts with civilization since the beginning of the
twentieth century have resulted in a rapid trend toward ex-
tinction, “White man's disease in the form of small por,
measles and whooping cough, along with the Slona's inability
to cope With these, has been the major cause of depopulation.
Today only three or four older men retain tribal dress and
other practices. No one has been initiated into the office
of shaman since before the death of Arcenio Yaiguaje, the
"Taita Grande’ of the Putumayo, in 1961. Arcenio hed disqual-
Afied all the Siona men because of their use of commercial
liquor in addition to their manioc beer, thus bringing "4mpu-
rity" upon themselves.
At this writing Slona is still spoken in the family
unit, although many people under twenty-five deny they under-
stand more than a few words of the language, Intermarriage
With whites and with Indians of other tribes (Cofan, Quichua)
is coumon. Social, political and economic aspects of the
culture are approaching almost complete integration with those
of the white community. Chief Ricardo (younger brother to
Arcenio) maintains very little influence on the tribe, but
gains his reputation by vosing for photographers in his or-
nate festive dress.
The name Siona seems to have been given by the Witotos
(inhabitants of the lower Putumayo). In their language the
term means "perfume people," which fits the practice of the
Stona men in applying native perfumes to the decorative paln
fibers they attach to their upper arzs, Another possibility,wo
Which seems less plausible, is that Siona is the name given
by priests and white settlers, who have observed that these
people's ansier to 2 common greeting "dhere ere you going?"
is ziéna "to the field." The Siona call themselves aatdye
baf "people of the “ild Cane River," which is the Putunayo.
Contemporary investigation hitherto has consisted of
sporadic gathering of word lists for purposes of classifi-
"sn addition to a concentrated effort by tanuel
cation,
José Casas y Wanrique, whose field notes date fron 19239 un-
ti the present.?
As I gathered language data during various sojourns in
the tribel area between 1960 and 1968, the following infora
ants vere especially helpful: Ricardo Yaigueje, Zstanisleo
Yaiguaje, Francisco Plaguaje, Luciano Plaguaje, Sofonias
Yaniguaje , Aurelio “aniguaje, Gladys Cabrera (all of Buena
Vista, the center of the tribal area along the Putwsayo);
and Cornelio Payoguaje, who lives near the mouth of the
Piflua Kegra and represents the lacaguaje dialect.
Tt 1s difficult to evaluate the special help and en-
couragenent my collegues of the Summer Institute of Linguis-
tics have given ne throughout the period of investigation.
To begin with Dr. Kenneth Pike provided me with insignts into
the analysis of the language during workshops at Linoncocha,
Bouador 1m 1960 end 1961, His theoretical work Js the prima-
ry Influence on the developuent of this presentation. Dr.
Catherine Peeke made many valuable suggestions at about the16
same tine, I benefited greatly from the date gathering a:
tribal experience of Orville Johnson in Secoya, 2 language
closely related to Siona, 1
thanks, also, go to Dr. Viole
Waterhouse for her help on varlous aspects of the grennar
analysis in 1965; to Dr, Esther Matteson, w!
0 Tead this dis-
sertation and made many valuable suggestions; and to ‘iss
Carolyn uller, Wiss Beverly Brendrup, Siss Sheryl Takazi,
and Urs. Doris Svedbere, who typed the manuscript.
Of the faculty and graduate students in the Department
of Linguistics, University of California, Zerkeley, who have
influenced the foraation of zy theoretical views, I an espe-
cially grateful to Drs. Mary 2, Heas, WB. Zneneeau, Madison
Willies
S. Beeler, Wellece L. Chafe, nipley, Terrence 3.
Kaufman, and 0, Erent Berlin,
elous of the help given by ay Wife
I am deeply com
Margaret, who, With our four childrer., accompanied me to the
tribal area, learned to speak the lenguaze, established many
friends among the Slona, and contributed greatly toward win-
ning the confidence of these people.
Sponsorship for this investigation has been under the
auspices of the Swnmer Institute of Linguistics, Santa Ana,
California.
020, Linguistic mode?
This description of the Siona graunar® is taguexically
oriented.” The tern taguene refers to 2 granzatioal unit or
er with its conditioned variations) which
constituent (togeth:eee
bears a specific function (also called slot) within a larger
structural unit and is realized by one or more given classes
of constructions (fillers of a slot). This analysis ap-
proaches the clause level as a convenient starting point
{Section 200), After the internal structure of each clause
type (in terns of the function-class rdlationshivs of each
constituent unit) and their external distribution (in teras
of larger construction classes which manifest sentence level
tagnenes) are stated, the analysis proceeds to the next low-
er level and deals with the constituent tagaenes composing
the phrase (Section 300), Sutsequently the word, and then
the theme, stem and root are analyzed in like zanner (Section
400) until the lowest common denominator, the norpheme (or
hyper-morphene), 1s cited according to its distribution class
by which 1t 1s labeled in the lexicon.
should &
Ideally, o1 in the succession of analytical
steps at the top level in the hierarchy, discourse, and pro-
ceed fron there to sentence and then clause, so that’ taznenes
are analyzed ty level of complexity as follows:
Discourse
Sentence
Clause
Phrese
Word
Thene
StewHovey.
ysis because it
the sranmatical
course (Section
tion as asvects
shivs on a less
16
. Clause 1s used as a starting point in the anal~
enconpasses a fairly controllable "chunk" of
structure, Sentence (Section 300) and dis—
609) are dealt with at the end of the descrip-
2 together relation-
of the grammar which 6:
segnentable basis and explain features of syn-
tax which cut across various levels of the grammatical hier
archy,19
100. Brief statement of phonology®
110, Consonants
Consonants consist of two series of stops?; fortis (as-
pirated) p, t, k, k” and lenis (glottelized) b, a, 5, a”:
sibilants s (fortis), z (lenis-glottalized), & (fortis af-
fricate); semivowels w and y; nasals m and n; and larynseals
h and hY (fortis), and-? (lenis).
Lenis d is retroflexed and has allophone [P] oceurring
intervocalically. Semivoifel y has allophone [fl] occurring
contiguous to a nasalized vowel. Glottal stop /?/ is very
faint and is accompanied by a glottal effect on the contig-
uous volels in certain environments.1°
120. Vowels
Vowels are of six tongue positions:
Front Central Baek
High 4 4 u
Low e a °
Back vowels are rounded. ontrast betveen oral and nasal
ized counterparts occurs for all vowels except in the envi-
ronnent adjacent to @ nasal consonant, in which case only
the nasalized counterparts occur. Low front vowel e has the
value of [€] and has allophone [J] when nasalized, All
els have voiced offglide (phonetically long vowel and de.
scending pitch) when they occur as stressed single vowel nu-
cleus of word initial sylleble and are followed by an un