CHAPTER 4

Part 1
Sampling. Quantizing. Encoding.
 BASEBAND PULSE AND DIGITAL SIGNALING

• Analog-to-digital signaling (pulse code

modulation ) Binary and multilevel digitals signals
• Spectra and bandwidths of digital signals
• Prevention of inter symbol interference
 INTRODUCTION
 We will study how to encode analog waveforms into base
band digital signals. Digital signal is popular because of the
low cost and flexibility.
 Main goals:
• To study how analog waveforms can be converted to
digital waveforms, Pulse Code Modulation.
• To learn how to compute the spectrum for digital signals.
• Examine how the filtering of pulse signals affects our
ability to recover the digital information. Intersymbol
interference (ISI).
 PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION

 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) is used to describe the

conversion of the analog signal to a pulse-type signal in
which the amplitude of the pulse denotes the analog
information.

 The purpose of PAM signaling is to provide another

waveform that looks like pulses, yet contains the
information that was present in the analog waveform.

 There are two classes of PAM signals:

• PAM that uses Natural Sampling (gating);
• PAM that uses Instantaneous Sampling to produce a flat-
top pulse.
 Natural Sampling (Gating)

DEFINTION: If w(t) is an analog waveform bandlimited to B hertz, the PAM

signal that uses natural sampling (gating) is

ws(t) =w(t)s(t) Where

S(t) is a rectangular wave switching waveform and fs = 1/Ts ≥ 2B.

THEOREM: The spectrum for a naturally sampled PAM signal is:
si n (  n d )
 
Ws( f )  F [ w s ( t )]   c W ( f  nf )  
n 
n s
d
n   nd
W (f  nfs )

• Where fs= 1/Ts, ωs = 2π fs,

• the Duty Cycle of s(t) is d = τ/Ts ,
• W(f)= F[w(t)] is the spectrum of the original unsampled waveform,
• cn represents the Fourier series coefficients of the switching waveform.
 Natural Sampling (Gating)

w(t)

s(t)

ws(t) =w(t)s(t)
 Generating Natural Sampling


The PAM wave form with natural sampling can be generated using
a CMOS circuit consisting of a clock and analog switch as shown.
 Spectrum of Natural Sampling
si n (  n d )
 
Ws( f )  F [ w s ( t )]  
n 
c nW ( f  nfs )  d 
n   nd
W (f  nfs )

• The duty cycle of the switching

waveform is d = τ/Ts = 1/3.

• The sampling rate is fs = 4B.

si n (  n d )

Ws( f ) d 
n   nd
W (f  nfs )

si n (  n d )
d
 nd
 Recovering Naturally Sampled PAM
 At the receiver, the original analog waveform, w(t), can be
recovered from the PAM signal, ws(t), by passing the PAM
signal through a low-pass filter where the cutoff frequency is:
B <fcutoff < fs -B

 If the analog signal is under sampled fs < 2B, the effect of

spectral overlapping is called Aliasing. This results in a
recovered analog signal that is distorted compared to the
original waveform.

LPF Filter
B <fcutoff < fs -B
 Demodulation of PAM Signal
 The analog waveform may be recovered from the PAM
signal by using product detection,
 Instantaneous Sampling (Flat-Top PAM)
• This type of PAM signal
consists of instantaneous
samples.

• w(t) is sampled at t = kTs .

• The sample values w(kTs )

determine the amplitude of
the flat-top rectangular
pulses.
 Instantaneous Sampling (Flat-Top PAM)
 DEFINITION: If w(t) is an analog waveform bandlimited
to B Hertz, the instantaneous sampled PAM signal is
given
 by 
 

ws ( t )   w ( kT ) h ( t  kT )  h ( t )   w ( kT )  ( t  kT )  h ( t )   w ( t )   ( t  kT ) 
s s s s s
k  k   k  

– Where h(t) denotes the sampling-pulse shape and, for flat-top

sampling, the pulse shape is,

THEOREM: The spectrum for a flat-top PAM signal is:


1
Ws( f ) 
Ts
H (f) 
k 
W (f  nfs )

 si n  f 
H (f)   h ( t )     
  f 
 The spectrum of the flat-top PAM
 Analog signal maybe recovered from the flat-top PAM signal by the use of a
LPF. LPF Response
Note that the recovered
signal has some distortions
due to the curvature of the
H(f).
Distortions can be removed
by using a LPF having a
response 1/H(f).
 Some notes on PAM
• The flat-top PAM signal could be generated by using a
sample-and-hold type electronic circuit.
• There is some high frequency loss in the recovered analog
waveform due to filtering effect H(f) caused by the flat top
pulse shape.
• This can be compensated (Equalized) at the receiver by
making the transfer function of the LPF to 1/H(f)
• This is a very common practice called “EQUALIZATION”
• The pulse width τ is called the APERTURE since τ/Ts
determines the gain of the recovered analog signal

 Disadvantages of PAM
• PAM requires a very larger bandwidth than that of the original signal;
• The noise performance of the PAM system is not satisfying.