CHAPTER IV
Cells are considered the basic units of life in part because they
Cell
All living creatures are composed of cells, the basic unit of life.
For survival, the cell performs various activities. It grows,
reproduces and matures. It is generally accepted that there are
two types of cells: eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotic
cells are generally larger and have a very distinct nucleus
clearly surrounded by a nuclear envelope. They also have
numerous membrane-bound organelles found in the cytoplasm.
Histones, proteins associated with genetic material, are also
present. Prokaryotic cells lack a nuclear envelope and
membrane-bound organelles; an example is the bacterial cell.
(E.V. Evangelista, L. T. Evangelista & L. V. Evangelista, 2013)
Learning Objective
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:
❖ - Explain structure and characteristics of human
cell
❖ - Describe movements of particles across cell
membrane
❖ - Discuss organelles of human cell & their
function
What Defines a Cell?
come in discrete and easily recognizable packages. That's
because all cells are surrounded by a structure called the cell
membrane which, much like the walls of a house, serves as a
clear boundary between the cell's internal and external
environments. The cell membrane is sometimes also referred to
as the plasma membrane. Cell membranes are based on a
framework of fat-based molecules called phospholipids, which
physically prevent water loving, or hydrophilic, substances
from entering or escaping the cell. These membranes are also
studded with proteins that serve various functions. Some of
these proteins act as gatekeepers, determining what substances
can and cannot cross the membrane. Others function as
markers, identifying the cell as part of the same organism or as
foreign. Still others work like fasteners, binding cells together
so they can function as a unit. Yet other membrane proteins
serve as communicators, sending and receiving signals from
neighboring cells and the environment whether friendly or
alarming. Within this membrane, a cell's interior environment is
water based. Called cytoplasm, this liquid environment is
packed full of cellular machinery and structural elements. In
fact, the concentrations of proteins inside a cell far outnumber
those on the outside whether the outside is ocean water (as in Scientists to Remember
the case of a single-celled alga) or blood serum (as in the case
▪ Robert Hooke (1665) –
of a redblood cell). Although cell membranes form natural Observed “cells” in cork
barriers in watery environments, a cell must nonetheless expend
quite a bit of energy to maintain the high concentrations of
intracellular constituents necessary for its survival. Indeed, cells
may use as much as 30 percent of their energy just to maintain
the composition of their cytoplasm.

The cell is the functional basic unit of life. It was

discovered by Robert Hooke and is the functional unit of all
known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is
classified as a living thing, and is often called the building
block of life. Some organisms, such as most bacteria, are ▪ Anton van Leeuwenhoek
unicellular (consist of a single cell). Other organisms, such as (1674)- Father of Microscopy -
humans, are multicellular. Humans have about 100 trillion cells. Saw tiny living things in pond
(E.V. Evangelista, L. T. Evangelista & L. V. Evangelista, 2013) water.

Cork cell as observed by Robert Hooke the descriptive

term for the smallest living biological structure was coined by
Robert Hooke in a book he published in 1665 when he
compared the cork cells he saw through his microscope to the
small rooms monks lived in.
 ▪ Matthias Schleiden (1838) – Plants are made of cells. -We use these.

▪ Theodor Schwann (1839) – Animals are made of cells.

▪ Rudolf Virchow (1855) – New cells come from existing

▪ Janet Plowe (1931) – Cell membrane is a physical structure.

▪ Lynn Margulis (1970) – Organelles were once freeliving cells.

Cell Theory explains about:

a) All living organisms are composed of cell and cell products.

 Electron Microscope – magnifies up to a million times.
b) Cell is the basic unit of structure & function of all living
organisms. -Uses electrons
c) All cells come from the division of preexisting cell.

d) An organism as a whole can be understood through the collective activities &

interactions of its cells.

Microscopes

 Light Microscope – magnifies tiny organisms up to

1,000 times.

-Uses light and lenses.

Two Types of Cells Eukaryotes

Eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are

those cells which have nuclear material without nuclear
membrane. For ex- bacteria and blue green algae. The cell
having well- organized nucleus with a nuclear membrane
are called eukaryotic cells. For ex- onion cells and cheek
cells.

1. Has a nucleus with a nuclear envelope

2. Bigger and more complex than prokaryotes

3. Have membrane bound Organelles (golgi, ER, Prokaryotes
lysosomes…etc)

4. DNA – double-stranded and forms chromosomes

(highly organized)

5. Can be uni- OR multicellular organisms

6. Ex: animals, plants, fungi

1. NO nucleus

2. NO membrane bound organelles (just ribosomes)

3. ALL are unicellular

4. Smaller than eukaryotic cells

5. Forerunner to eukaryotic cells (smaller and more

simple)
6. DNA – single strand and circular Four Principal Parts:

7. Ex: ALL Bacteria ▪ Plasma (cell) membrane

▪ Cytoplasm
Similarities
▪ Organelles 1.

Contain all four biomolecules (lipids, carbs, proteins, ▪ Inclusions and nucleic acids)

Plasma (Cell) Membrane

1. Have ribosomes
- It is the outer lining, limiting membrane
separating
Have DNA
2. the cell internal parts from extra cellular materials &
3. Similar Metabolism external environment.
- A thin outer membrane, which maintains the
4. Can be unicellular
integrity of the cell. It keeps the cell and its contents
5. Have cell/plasma membranes or cell wall separate and distinct from the surrounding. It is a

Eukaryote VS. Prokaryote Picture double layered measuring about 4.5 nm and made of
phospholipids, cholesterol, glyco-lipid, & carbohydrate (oligosaccharides).The bi-layer is selfsealing. If a needle is
injected and pulled out, it automatically seals. (Nega Assefa & Yosief Tsige,
2003)
 Functions:

1. Separate the cytoplasm inside a cell from extra

cellular fluid.

2. Separate cell from one another

3. Provide an abundant surface on which chemical

reaction can occur.

4. Regulate the passage of materials in to and out of

cells. It also let some things in and keeps others out.

The quality selective permeability. Movement

Across-Cell Membrane Two ways: Passive Movement

▪ Passive movement uses energy Includes:

▪ Active movement consumes energy in the form of ATP. a. Simple diffusion, the random movements
of molecules from area of high concentration to the
area of low concentration. Example air in alveoli
of lung. (Nega
Assefa & Yosief Tsige, 2003)
 b. Facilitated diffusion, larger molecules, energy needed. Example: - Amino acid passes
which are not soluble in lipid need protein channel through the cell membrane.
to pass through the plasma membrane. No direct

d. Filtration, small molecules pass through selectively c.

Osmosis, a special type of diffusion referring to the permeable membrane in response to force of pressure. passage of water through a
selectively permeable
Example: - filtration in the kidney in the process of urine
membrane from an area of high water concentration to formation. lower water concentration.

Active Movements across Membranes

Substances move through a selectively permeable membrane from

areas of low concentration on side of a membrane to an area of higher
 concentration on the other side. This is against concentration gradient.
Therefore, it requires energy. (Nega Assefa & Yosief Tsige, 2003)

a) Active Transport: till equilibrium substances could b) Endocytosis, pocketing in by plasma membrane. It more by passive
movement. But if equilibrium includes: Pinocytosis – cell drinking Receptor – reached and still more molecules are needed, they
mediated Endocytosis- Endocytosis with the help of must be pumped through the membrane against receptor. Phagocytosis- cell
eating. concentration gradient. This process requires the use of ATP. One example of such processes is Sodium – potassium pump
and calcium pump. In this process all follows similar
process. These are molecules bind to carrier protein,
molecule- carrier complex pass through the membrane,
assisted by an enzyme & ATP and carrier protein returns
to its original shape
& repeat the process.

c) Exocytosis, opposite to Endocytosis, to remove out undigested

particles.
 colloids. Colloids are particles that remain suspended in the
surrounding medium. (Nega Assefa & Yosief Tsige, 2003)

Organelles

Organelles are specialized portion of the cell with a

characteristic shape that assume specific role in growth,
maintenance, repair and control. (Nega Assefa & Yosief Tsige,
2003)

Types of organelles

▪ Nucleus, Oval in shape and is the largest structure in the

Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is a matrix or ground substance in which
various cellular components are found. It is thick
semitransparent, elastic fluid containing suspended particles
and a series of minute tubules and filaments that form
cytoskeleton. Water constitutes 75-90% of the cytoplasm. It
also contains solid components, proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids and inorganic substances. The inorganic components
exist as solutions because they are soluble in water. The
majority of organic substances however are found as
cell. Contain the hereditary factor in the cell. Hence it
controls cell activity & structure. Most cell contain single
nucleus but some like matured Red Blood cell do not
contain. However Muscle cell contain several nucleuses.
The nucleus separated from other cell structure by double
membrane called nuclear membrane. Pores over the nuclear
membrane allow the nucleus to communicate with the
cytoplasm. In the nucleus a jelly like fluid that fill the
nucleus is karylymph (neucleoplasm), which contain the
genetic material called chromosome. Nucleus also contain
dark, somewhat spherical, nonmembrane bound mass called
 nucleolus. It contains DNA, RNA and protein, which assist membrane and the other is arranged with series of folds
in the construction of ribosome. called cristae. The central cavity of a mitochondrion
▪ Ribosome, tiny granules, composed of enclosed by the inner membrane is the matrix.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA). They are site of ▪ Lysosomes appear as membrane enclosed spheres. They are
protein synthesis. formed from Golgi complexes & have single membrane.
▪ Endoplasmic reticulum is a double membrane channel. It They contain powerful digestive (hydrolytic Human
is continuous with the nuclear membrane. It involved in Anatomy and Physiology 24 enzyme capable of breaking
intracellular exchange of material with the cytoplasm. down many kinds of molecules. The lysosomal enzyme
Various products are transported from one portion of the believed to be synthesized in the granular endoplasmic
cell to another via the endoplasmic reticulum. So it is reticulum and Golgi complex.
considered as intracellular transportation. It is also storage ▪ The cyto-skeleton, the cytoplasm has a complex internal
for synthesized molecules. Together with the Golgi structure consisting of a series of exceedingly small
complex it serves as synthesis & packaging center. microfilaments, microtubule
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is divided in to two. These are,
granular E.R. Containing granule and involving in synthesis
of protein and a granular E.R. that synthesize lipid &
involves in detoxification.
▪ Golgi complex, near to the nucleus. It consist 48
membranous sacs. It process, sort, pack & deliver protein to
various parts of the cell.
▪ Mitochondria, a small, spherical, rod shaped or
filamentous structure. It generates energy. Each
mitochondria possess two membrane, one is smooth (upper)
 & intermediate filaments together referred to as the
cyto-skeleton.
▪ Centrosome, a dense area of cytoplasm generally
spherical and located near the nucleus it contain
centrioles. It also contains DNA that controls their
replication. Centrosomes are made of microtubules,
which seam drinking straws. They are Involved in the
movement of chromosome during cell division.
▪ Cilia/flagella, thread like appendages, which are made
of microtubules. When they are beating forms
rhythmic movement. They are found in female
reproductive organ and upper respiratory tube.

The Cell Cycle

Actively dividing eukaryote cells pass through a series of

stages known collectively as the cell cycle: two gap phases (G1 and
G2); an S (for synthesis) phase, in which the genetic material is
duplicated; and an M phase, in which mitosis
partitions the genetic material and the cell divides. (Creative
Commons Licence)
Stages:
G1 phase. Metabolic changes prepare the cell for division.
At a certain point - the restriction point - the cell is
committed to division and moves into the S phase.
S phase. DNA synthesis replicates the genetic material. Each
chromosome now consists of two sister chromatids.
G2 phase. Metabolic changes assemble the cytoplasmic
materials necessary for mitosis and cytokinesis.
M phase. A nuclear division (mitosis) followed by a cell
division (cytokinesis). The period between mitotic divisions -
that is, G1, S and G2 - is known as interphase.
Mitosis
Mitosis is a form of eukaryotic cell division that
produces two daughter cells with the same genetic component
as the parent cell. Chromosomes replicated during the S phase
are divided in such a way as to ensure that each daughter cell
receives a copy of every chromosome. In actively dividing
animal cells, the whole process takes about one hour.
The replicated chromosomes are attached to a 'mitotic
apparatus' that aligns them and then separates the sister
chromatids to produce an even partitioning of the genetic
material. This separation of the genetic material in a mitotic
nuclear division (or karyokinesis) is followed by a separation of
the cell cytoplasm in a cellular division (or cytokinesis) to
produce two daughter cells.
In some single-celled organisms mitosis forms the basis
of asexual reproduction. In diploid multicellular organisms
sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two haploid gametes to
produce a diploid zygote. Mitotic divisions of the zygote and
daughter cells are then responsible for the subsequent growth and
development of the organism. In the adult organism, mitosis plays a
role in cell replacement, wound healing and tumour formation.

Mitosis, although a continuous process, is conventionally

divided into five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase,
anaphase and telophase. (Creative Commons Licence)

➢ Prophase Prophase occupies over half of mitosis. The nuclear membrane breaks down to form a number of small vesicles and the
nucleolus disintegrates. A structure known as the centrosome duplicates itself to form two daughter centrosomes that migrate to
opposite ends of the cell. The centrosomes organise the production of microtubules that form the spindle fibres
 that constitute the mitotic spindle. The chromosomes
condense into compact structures. Each replicated
chromosome can now be seen to consist of two identical
chromatids (or sister chromatids) held together by a
structure known as the centromere.
➢ Prometaphase The chromosomes, led by their
centromeres, migrate to the equatorial plane in the midline
of cell - at right-angles to the axis formed by the
centrosomes. This region of the mitotic spindle is known
as the metaphase plate. The spindle fibres bind to a
structure associated with the centromere of each
chromosome called a kinetochore. Individual spindle
fibres bind to a kinetochore structure on each side of the
centromere. The chromosomes continue to condense.
➢ Metaphase The chromosomes align themselves along the
metaphase plate of the spindle apparatus.
➢ Anaphase The shortest stage of mitosis. The centromeres
divide, and the sister chromatids of each chromosome are
pulled apart - or 'disjoin' - and move to the opposite ends
of the cell, pulled by spindle fibres attached to the
kinetochore regions. The separated sister chromatids are
now referred to as daughter chromosomes. (It is the
alignment and separation in metaphase and anaphase that
is important in ensuring that each daughter cell receives a
copy of every chromosome.)
➢ Telophase The final stage of mitosis, and a reversal of
many of the processes observed during prophase. The
nuclear membrane reforms around the chromosomes
grouped at either pole of the cell, the chromosomes uncoil
and become diffuse, and the spindle fibres disappear.
➢ Cytokinesis The final cellular division to form two new
cells. In plants a cell plate forms along the line of the
metaphase plate; in animals there is a constriction of the
cytoplasm. The cell then enters interphase - the interval
between mitotic divisions.
Meiosis
Meiosis is the form of eukaryotic cell division that
produces haploid sex cells or gametes (which contain a single
copy of each chromosome) from diploid cells (which contain
two copies of each chromosome). The process takes the form
of one DNA replication followed by two successive nuclear
and cellular divisions (Meiosis I and Meiosis II). As
 in mitosis, meiosis is preceded by a process of DNA replication that
converts each chromosome into two sister chromatids. (Creative Commons
Licence)

Meiosis I

Meiosis I separates the pairs of

homologous chromosomes.
In Meiosis I a special cell division reduces the cell from diploid
to haploid.
Prophase I The homologous chromosomes pair and exchange
DNA to form recombinant chromosomes.
Prophase I is divided into five phases:
Leptotene: chromosomes start to condense.
Zygotene: homologous chromosomes become
associated (synapsis) to form pairs of chromosomes (bivalents)
consisting of four chromatids (tetrads).
Pachytene: crossing over between pairs of homologous
chromosomes to form chiasmata (sing. chiasma).
Diplotene: homologous chromosomes start to separate but
remain attached by chiasmata.
Diakinesis: homologous chromosomes continue to separate,
and chiasmata move to the ends of the chromosomes.
Prometaphase I Spindle apparatus formed, and chromosomes
attached to spindle fibres by kinetochores.
Metaphase I Homologous pairs of chromosomes (bivalents)
arranged as a double row along the metaphase plate. The
arrangement of the paired chromosomes with respect to the
poles of the spindle apparatus is random along the metaphase
plate. (This is a source of genetic variation through random
assortment, as the paternal and maternal chromosomes in a
homologous pair are similar but not identical. The number of
possible arrangements is 2n, where n is the number of
closely
chromosomes in a haploid set. Human beings have 23 different
chromosomes, so the number of possible combinations is 223,
which is over 8 million.)
Anaphase I The homologous chromosomes in each bivalent are
separated and move to the opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase I The chromosomes become diffuse and the nuclear
membrane reforms.
Cytokinesis The final cellular division to form two new cells,
followed by Meiosis II. Meiosis I is a reduction division: the
original diploid cell had two copies of each chromosome; the
newly formed haploid cells have one copy of each
chromosome.
Meiosis II Meiosis II separates each chromosome into two chromatids
▪ the exchange of genetic material between homologous
chromosomes during Meiosis I
▪ the random alignment of maternal and paternal chromosomes in
Meiosis I
▪ the random alignment of the sister chromatids at Meiosis II
Note: Meiosis generates genetic diversity through:
References:

Campbell, N. and Reese, J. 2007. Essentials of Biology 7th ed.

Pearson Education.

E.V. Evangelista, L. T. Evangelista & L. V. Evangelista.

(2013). Worktext in General Zoology (Frog and Human Bodies
Compared). C&E Publishing Inc.

Hickman, C. et. al. 2006. Integrated Principles of Zoology 13 th ed.

McGraw – Hill.

Nega Assefa & Yosief Tsige.2003. Human Anatomy and Physiology.

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