The Seven Military Classics of

Ancient China
by Ralph D. Sawyer
Copyright © 1993 by Ralph D. Sawyer
Published by Basic Books, a subsidiary of Perseus Books LLC
592 pages

Focus Take-Aways
Leadership & Management • Seven of Ancient China’s most profound treatises on war are now military classics.
Strategy
Sales & Marketing
• Chinese emperors guarded these texts so they would not fall into the wrong hands.
Finance • China’s ancient generals placed a high premium on wily strategy and nimble forces.
Human Resources
• The earliest known Chinese strategist was Chiang Shang, titled “The T’ai Kung,”
IT, Production & Logistics
who lived in the 11th century B.C.
Career Development
Small Business • The Ssu-ma Fa states that the only just aim of warfare is to benefit the populace.
Economics & Politics
• Sun-tzu, now the most famous ancient Chinese strategist, believed in grand deception.
Industries
Intercultural Management • Past Chinese scholars revered Wu-tzu just as they did Sun-tzu, author of The
Concepts & Trends Art of War.
• Wei Liao’s primary advice: The emperor must always be virtuous and benevolent.
• As with the other classics, Huang Shih-kung’s strategies are often intriguingly
philosophical in tone.
• In their discourses, T’ang T’ai-tsung and Li Wei-kung discuss the contents of the
other six great military classics.

Rating (10 is best)

Overall Importance Innovation Style

8 6 6 9

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 Relevance

What You Will Learn

In this Abstract, you will learn: 1) What the basic concepts are in seven ancient classic
military texts from China; 2) Who wrote them; and 3) What is their historical context
and significance.

Recommendation
The parallels between business and warfare evoke images of brilliant generals leading
armies and brilliant CEOs leading businesses. Platoons battle and businesses compete
with bold, wily strategies and superior execution. Given these similarities, do the classic
sagas of seven ancient Chinese military strategists have insight and wisdom that might
benefit today’s business leaders? For the answer, read the “translator’s introductions” that
open each chapter in sinologist Ralph D. Sawyer’s substantive book. His notes explain how
these ancient strategists won their battles with the least possible military force. Sawyer
presents them as sage theoreticians who were masters at outwitting their opponents.
Unlike most Western military theorists, China’s ancient tacticians emphasized, “speed,
stealth…flexibility,” still quite useful skills. getAbstract recommends this fascinating,
deeply expert compilation to anyone who wants an educated overview of seven venerable
Chinese military classics. Their authority and precision of thought will intrigue modern
strategists as they have interested statesmen and military leaders throughout time.

Abstract

Stretching Back into Time

Chinese strategic and military thought dates back some 5,000 years. Ancient Chinese
“China’s classic
clan chiefs fought to establish dominance and create dynasties. As their weaponry and
military writings
have soared in tactics improved, scholars began to study their “command experience.” Military science
popularity and became a valued – and frequently applied – discipline. By the second century B.C., China
become virtually had already struggled through 10 centuries of unrelenting warfare to become a “vast,
ubiquitous.” powerful, imperially directed entity.” Twelve centuries later, during the Sung dynasty,
scholars collected the seven most profound military classics, the apogee of Chinese
military thought as written by its ancient generals. Applicants for military appointment
had to be well-versed in their ideas. These classics are:
1. “T’ai Kung’s Six Secret Teachings”
2. “The Methods of the Ssu-ma”
3. Sun-tzu’s “Art of War”
4. Wu-tzu
5. Wei Liao-tzu
“Eventually, 6. “Three Strategies of Huang Shih-kung”
battlefield lessons 7. “Questions and Replies Between T’ang T’ai-tsung and Li Wei-kung”
and command
experience became The ancient Chinese scholars believed that while imperial benevolence was the best way
the focus of to avert dissension and civil unrest, the empire could not survive without a strong military.
conscious study.” Chinese emperors relied on their armies to protect them against “barbarian” invasions by
violent nomadic tribesmen. Most Chinese rulers preferred nonmilitary solutions to their
empire’s problems, but imperial scholars preserved and studied these ancient military
treatises in secret. Scholars now study these works, but that was not always the case in
The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China © Copyright 2009 getAbstract 2 of 5
 Imperial China during the past 2,000 years when “self-styled Confucians” disparaged
all things military, ignoring Confucius’ actual thoughts on the matter. These classics
“Chinese military came to light in the 1970s, when archaeologists at a Han dynasty tomb uncovered a large
thought probably collection of scholarly texts inscribed on bamboo slips, including major portions of these
originated with classics. No one knows what other texts could have been lost over time.
Neolithic village
conflicts four or Chinese Dynastic Periods
five thousand
years ago.” To understand the historical context of these military teachings, start with the Shang
dynasty, which came to power in 1766 B.C. Its vast, central theocracy rested on the
nobility’s military prowess. Society had four classes: the ruling elite, the royal family,
slaves and commoners, mostly serfs. The military bureaucracy headed a royal army of
about 1,000 soldiers – or more as needed. Bronze weaponry became prominent. Single
battles decided most military campaigns, which set out to support or expand “royal
“Although tactical suzerainty” or overlordship, take captives and confiscate wealth.
studies continued
to be written… The Chou dynasty, which innovated the heavy use of chariots in fighting, overthrew
much of the vast the Shang in the battle at Mu-yeh. By that time, the Shang had become exhausted from
military corpus constant war against nomadic tribes. The T’ai Kung’s Six Secret Teachings report that
has undoubtedly the Chou employed “revolutionary activity” to gain military victory. As the new rulers of
been lost over
the centuries.”
a vast land and countless, deeply different groups of people, the Chou employed six royal
armies to preserve peace. They absorbed eight Shang armies into their military forces.
During the Western Chou period (1045–770 B.C.), the Chinese empire brought all
peripheral regions under its central authority. In military technology, armor became more
efficient. The “dagger-ax” or “halberd” remained the most popular weapon, though the
“longer, stronger” sword came into use. The Western Chou dynasty lasted 275 years before
“Campaigns
its authority dissipated. Feudal lords became more powerful in regional areas. Weakened
became
interminable…the Chou rulers continued to reign in some places with the support of local strongmen. The
scale of destruction feudal lords fought often, with various groups exterminating each other, vanquishing
was immense, more than 100 states and most of the nobility. The subsequent “Spring and Autumn
consuming both period” ran from 722 B.C. to 481 B.C. As it waned, despots ruled China’s battling states.
men and the
thoughts they
Their armies often had hundreds of chariots and 10,000 soldiers. The powerful states of
had committed Ch’in and Ch’i each had armies of 4,000 chariots and 40,000 soldiers.
to writing.”
As the Warring States period (403–221 B.C.) began, China had seven mighty states and
15 far less powerful states ruled by feudal despots. As agriculture and trade grew, even
the smaller states developed military forces of 100,000 soldiers. The powerful states
had more, with one arming nearly a million men and mustering 600,000 for “a single
campaign.” When the Ch’in and Ch’u battled, more than one million men fought against
“Military thought, each other. Extended battles with such giant armies resulted in mass slaughters. The
the complex campaigns required years of planning and staggering logistical support, so military
product of both leaders ascended, and fortified cities grew across China. In 307 B.C., King Wu-ling
violent war and introduced the first cavalry, greatly expanding warfare’s physical reach.
intellectual
analysis, Wei, a powerful state in central China, boasted the famous Wu Ch’i as its general and
suffered from military administrator. Though it played a large part in the era’s military history, Wei
disparagement and
became seriously circumscribed, with Han in the south, Ch’in in the west, Ch’i in the east
disrepute during
almost all the past and Chao in the north. Eventually it lost power and the Ch’in came to rule all of China.
two millennia in
Imperial China.” China’s Seven Ancient Military Classics
When the leaders of the People’s Republic of China address modern military science, they
still refer to venerable concepts from works by ancient Chinese generals. These classic
The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China © Copyright 2009 getAbstract 3 of 5
 strategic essays set the standard for “sinological and military history” from 500 B.C.
to A.D. 700. Emperors carefully guarded these ancient military masterpieces, fearing
“If I want to have
their powerful strategic concepts would fall into the wrong hands. China’s authorities
the ruler honored once considered possession of these classics by the wrong parties as clear evidence of a
and the people conspiracy plot. Even certain members of the royal family were forbidden access. Ancient
settled, how should Chinese scholars handed down the information in these classics verbally and covertly,
I proceed?” “T’ai from one generation to the next. Eventually scribes recorded the essays on bamboo and,
Kung: ‘Just love
the people’.” later, on paper, and then hid them. As a result of this elaborate secrecy, they remained
[ – Six Secret largely unknown for centuries. These seven ancient military classics are:
Teachings]
The T’ai Kung’s Six Secret Teachings
Chiang Shang, a famous 11th century B.C. general and advisor to Chou dynasty Kings
Wen and Wu, held the title T’ai Kung. He also wrote Yin Fu (Hidden Symbols) and seems
to have originated strategic studies. However, experts can only surmise chronological
rankings based on available evidence, given the passage of time. The ancient Chinese
revered him as much on the military side as they did Confucius on the civil side.
“It is self-defeating
Highlights of his Teachings include:
to fight when and 1. “Civil T’ao” – The ruler should be benevolent and put the people’s welfare first.
where it is not
2. “Martial T’ao” – A virtuous ruler can win the “minds and hearts of the people,”
advantageous.”
[ – Art of War] making the state victorious without warfare.
3. “Dragon T’ao” – Troop discipline and communication is paramount.
4. “Tiger T’ao” – The main virtues in warfare are “speed, maneuverability, unified
action, decisive commitment [and] the employment of misdirection.”
5. “Leopard T’ao – Armies must maneuver in all terrains to “contain rampaging
invaders, confront superior forces, deploy effectively and act explosively.”
6. “Canine T’ao” – These instructions cover training and mustering the main military
forces: “chariots, infantry and cavalry.”
“Warfare provides
the necessary
means for
The Methods of the Ssu-ma
chastising the evil Dating to the 4th century B.C., the Ssu-ma Fa (The Methods of the Minister of War) is
and rescuing the almost surely rooted in far more ancient materials, probably the T’ai Kung’s concepts.
oppressed.” “Fa” means laws, which it covers, along with “government policies, military organization”
[ – Ssu-ma]
and more. It also discusses “li,” the “forms of propriety.” A common thread in the Ssu-ma
Fa, as in all of these classics, is that “aiding” the people is the only proper justification
for a military operation. Ssu-ma advises battlefield commanders to sow “doubt in the
enemy’s mind” and to leave the opponent’s army an escape route so it will be able to
retreat from battle.

Sun-tzu’s Art of War

“If one must kill Among these classics, Western readers are most familiar with Sun-Tzu’s Military
men to give peace Strategy, better known as the Art of War. It is the most influential Asian military treatise
to the people, though scholars debate its origins. Many generals from Napoleon to Japanese, Chinese
then killing is
permissible…If
and Korean wartime leaders put its precepts to work. Sun-tzu teaches that generals must
one must stop war be great planners. To him, the ultimate grand strategy is to keep the populace content so
with war, although it will support the ruler. A legendary figure and wily strategist, he advocated interfering
it is war it is with the enemy’s plans and thwarting its alliances. He saw military action as a last resort,
permissible.”
after diplomacy, and said generals in battle should manipulate their opponents. For Sun-
[ – Ssu-ma]
tzu, warfare was grand deception. One primary principle: “Go forth where they do not
expect it; attack where they are not prepared.”
The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China © Copyright 2009 getAbstract 4 of 5
 Wu-tzu
Also known as Wu Ch’i, Wu-tzu (the name of the general and the name used to refer to
“If those who his writings) is famous for living on the field of war and enduring the same wretchedness
oppose the ruler as his troops. He is not as well-regarded as a person, having “killed his own wife” and
are honored, while “ignored his mother’s mourning rites.” Ancient Chinese theorists see Wu-tzu on par with
the greedy and Sun-tzu as a military strategist. His forces were never defeated. As a youth, he studied
uncivilized are
enriched, then
with two original disciples of Confucianism. He believed in using the “twin handles” of
even if there is “rewards and punishments” to motivate and discipline soldiers, and was murdered in 361
a Sage ruler he B.C. because of his “draconian measures to strengthen the military.”
cannot realize
a well-ordered Wei Liao-tzu
government.”
[ – Three This book is “purportedly” named for Wei Liao, a strategist and theoretician. Its compilers
Strategies] added the honorific “tzu,” meaning master. Seldom referring to tactics, he contended
that a Chinese state could survive during the Warring States period only by closely tying
its civil administration to its military. He advised that any ruler must exemplify virtue
and benevolence, as well as being restrained and moderate in all things. At the same time,
he believed that the state should never suppress the military’s capability for warfare.
“On the battlefield
– soon to become Three Strategies of Huang Shih-kung
a graveyard Historical evidence indicates that this philosophical work dates from around the first
– if the solders are
committed to fight
century B.C., but some scholars contend otherwise. One school of thought, based on
to the death they debated tradition, says that Chiang Shang, the famous T’ai Kung, wrote this venerable
will live, whereas classic, as well as Six Secret Teachings. The work discusses balancing “between the
if they seek to stay hard and the soft,” and offers three, quintessentially Eastern strategies that include these
alive they will die.”
“upper, middle and lower” concepts:
[ – Wu-tzu]
1. “Superior strategy” – “The soft can control the hard; the weak can control the strong.”
2. “Middle strategy” – “The righteous will not die for the malevolent.”
3. “Inferior strategy” – “One who abandons what is nearby to plan for what is distant
will labor without success.”
“For one to attack
10, nothing is
better than a Questions and Replies Between T’ang T’ai-tsung and Li Wei-kung
narrow defile. For This book compiles, examines and discusses the concepts in the earlier Chinese military
10 to attack 100, classics. Many scholars believe that it is a forgery, but its value lies in its ability to
nothing is better summarize the primary military concepts of earlier eras. Here, Emperor Li Shih-min
than a deep ravine.
(also called T’ang T’ai-tsung) converses in an elevated fashion with his trusted general, Li
For 1,000 to attack
10,000, nothing Ching. Li Shih-min was Emperor because he killed his older brother and became the heir
is better than a of his father, Li Yüan, founder of the great T’ang dynasty. A typical query and response:
dangerous pass.” “The T’ai-tsung said: ‘If I cause the enemy to perceive my orthodox as unorthodox, and
[ – Wu-tzu] cause him to perceive my unorthodox as orthodox, is this what is meant by ‘displaying a
form to others?’…Li Ching bowed twice and said: ‘Your Majesty is a spiritual Sage. You
go back to the ancients, beyond what I can attain’.”

About the Translator

Ralph D. Sawyer, a scholar on Chinese warfare and strategic thought, is a fellow of
the Centre for Military and Strategic Studies. His books include The Tao of Deception
and The Tao of Spycraft, plus many translations including Sun-tzu’s Art of War and
The Tao of War.
The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China © Copyright 2009 getAbstract 5 of 5