SolidMech1 2020

Solid Mechanics 1
Statics and Dynamics

ME10004
2020-21
Department of Mechanical Engineering
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND DESIGN
ME10004 SOLID MECHANICS 1 – 2020/2021

Course timetable
Online classes – Teams Live
Week Tutor Online Class Dates Topic
1 AL 28th Sept & 30th Sept Forces and equilibrium, free body diagrams
2 AL 5th Oct & 7th Oct Pin-jointed frames
3 JR 12th Oct & 14th Oct Free body diagrams for dynamics
4 JR 19th Oct & 21st Oct Newton’s laws, friction, non-constant acceleration
5 JR 26th Oct & 28th Oct Momentum and energy
6 AL 2nd Nov & 4th Nov Stress and strain 1
7 AL 9th Nov & 11th Nov Stress and strain 2
8 AL 16th Nov & 18th Nov Torsion
9 JR 23rd Nov & 25th Nov Moments of inertia
10 JR 30th Nov & 2nd Dec Combined motion and geared systems
11 AL & JR 7th Dec & 9th Dec Revision
12 AL & JR 4th Jan & 6th Jan Revision
Monday - 16:15-17:05 (UK time)

Wednesday - 09:15-10:05 (UK time)
Statics - AL = Alexander Lunt Dynamics - JR = James Roscow
Tutorials – In person and on Teams
Course Day Group Locations Times (UK)
A 4E 3.40, 3.44, 3.5, 3.10 13:15 – 14:05

Mechanical
Thursday B 4E 3.36, 3.37, 3.38, elounge 16:15 – 17:05
Engineering
C 4E 2.56, 2.32, 2.39, DAC, CB4.1 10:45 – 11:35
IMEE 2E 2.13, 2.14, 2.16 & 4E 2.44, 2.53A 14:15 – 15:05

Friday Jointly
Robotics 2E 3.1 14:15 – 15:05
Weekly plan
In person
Day Video Recordings Online tutorial Moodle quiz Problem sheet
tutorial
Sat Watch recording

1 ahead of online
Sun
tutorial 1 on Mon
at 16:15 Attempt problem sheet
Mon Online tutorial 1 at 16:15
ahead of in person
Tue Watch recording tutorial
2 ahead of online
tutorial 2 on Wed Attempt individual quiz
Wed Online tutorial 2 at 9:15
at 9:15 ahead of in person tutorial
Group attempt during in Opportunity to ask Times

Thur
person tutorial questions above
Group attempt during in Opportunity to ask Times

Fri
person tutorial questions above
Everyone Mechanical Engineers Groups A, B and C IMEE & Robotics

Solid Mechanics 1
Introduction
Dr Alexander Lunt & Dr James Roscow
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
We are:
Dr Alexander Lunt Dr James Roscow
Statics Dynamics
2
Hand outs & course details
 Timetable Please bring the hand out
to every session!
 Lecture notes (with blanks to fill in)
 Problem sheets
 Please collect these ahead of first lecture
 Posted to external students
Moodle page
 Moodle link:
https://moodle.bath.ac.uk/course/view.php?id=535
 Pre-learning videos (such as this one) will be available on Panopto (ME10004):
https://uniofbath.cloud.panopto.eu/Panopto/Pages/Sessions/List.aspx
 Weekly breakdown
 Item released in appropriate order each week
 Links to Teams events
 Weekly quizzes
 Problem sheets (+ eventually solutions)
 Lecture notes
 Recommended reading
 Exam information – potentially exam papers
4
Course schedule / timetable
Week Tutor Online Class Dates Topic
1 AL 28th Sept & 30th Sept Forces and equilibrium, free body diagrams
2 AL 5th Oct & 7th Oct Pin-jointed frames
3 JR 12th Oct & 14th Oct Free body diagrams for dynamics
4 JR 19th Oct & 21st Oct Newton’s laws, friction, non-constant acceleration
5 JR 26th Oct & 28th Oct Momentum and energy
6 AL 2nd Nov & 4th Nov Stress and strain 1
7 AL 9th Nov & 11th Nov Stress and strain 2
8 AL 16th Nov & 18th Nov Torsion
9 JR 23rd Nov & 25th Nov Moments of inertia
10 JR 30th Nov & 2nd Dec Combined motion and geared systems
11 AL & JR 7th Dec & 9th Dec Revision
12 AL & JR 4th Jan & 6th Jan Revision
Statics - AL = Alexander Lunt Dynamics - JR = James Roscow
Slido
 There will be some interactive elements
 The event code will be given on the slides
 You will be asked to:
 Go to https://www.sli.do/ on your smartphone/laptop
 Enter the event code #
 Respond to polls/questions that will be in the slides
 Please bring along your calculator to every session
6
Team based learning
 Each week there will be a Moodle quiz on the topic being studied
 This needs to be completed individually – between 2nd online class and group tutorial
 During the in-person tutorial:
 Discuss and resubmit a second set of answers as a team
 Within your tutor groups
 Solutions will then be revealed
 There will be prizes!
 For best individual performance
 For best team performance
 Please ensure you complete these quizzes
 Does not count towards final grade in the unit
 Your attendance will be monitored – personal tutor informed
In person tutorials
 Opportunity to ask about the unit
 Can ask for:
 Ideas in the unit to be explained
 Clarification of the background
 Someone to check your working on a problem sheet or exam paper
 Someone to check the layout of your working
 Good idea to work on problem sheets before tutorial

 Moodle quiz – team submission & solutions
 The tutorials are not confined to any particular problem sheet
 Staff are time-tabled at these sessions – may not be available at other times
 Will be streamed online for those working remotely
8
In person tutorials
Course Day Group Locations Times
4E 3.40, 3.44, 3.5,

A 13:15 – 14:05
3.10
Mechanical 4E 3.36, 3.37, 3.38,

Thursday B 16:15 – 17:05
Engineering elounge
4E 2.56, 2.32, 2.39,

C 10:45 – 11:35
DAC, CB4.1
2E 2.13, 2.14, 2.16

IMEE 14:15 – 15:05
& 4E 2.44, 2.53A
Friday Jointly
Robotics 2E 3.1 14:15 – 15:05
Types of Interaction (each week)

 All Teams based activities will be recorded
1. Pre-learning 1 (released on Saturday) – Panopto recording
 Please watch this video ahead of online session 1
2. Online session 1 (Monday 16:15-17:05) – Teams Live event
 Overview, demo, sli.do (interactive) polling
 PhD student & academics to answer questions
3. Pre-learning 2 (released on Monday) – Panopto recording
 Please watch this video ahead of online session 2
4. Online session 2 (Wednesday 9:15-10:05) – Teams Live event
 Overview, sli.do (interactive) polling, launch of individual Moodle quiz
5. In person tutorial (date and time depend on group) – run on Teams, with groups
 Intro, team Moodle quiz (same as individual), solutions
10
Mechanical
Weekly plan Everyone Engineers Groups A,
B and C
IMEE & Robotics
Video In person
Day Online tutorial Moodle quiz Problem sheet
Recordings tutorial
Saturday
Watch video 1
ahead of
Sunday online tutorial 1
on Monday at
16:15 Attempt problem
Online tutorial
Monday sheet ahead of in
1 at 16:15
person tutorial
Watch video 2
Tuesday ahead of
online tutorial 2
on Wednesday Online tutorial Attempt individual quiz
Wednesday
at 9:15 2 at 9:15 ahead of in person tutorial
Group attempt during in Opportunity to ask See times on

Thursday
person tutorial questions on sheet previous slide
Group attempt during in Opportunity to ask See times on
Friday
person tutorial questions on sheet previous slide
11
Books 12
 Plenty of good options – Level 3 shelf mark 620.1

 No particular books required – but likely to need to read around (self learning)
 Many are available online this year
 Find a book you like & perhaps buy a copy (many useful for later years)
1. Structures: Theory and Analysis – Williams & Todd
2. An Introduction to Mechanical Engineering – Clifford et al.
3. Mechanics of Materials – Gere & Timoshenko
4. Engineering Mechanics – Statics/Dynamics – Meriam & Kraige
12
Problem sheets 13
 Problem sheet for every week – contained within

handout & on Moodle Week Tutor Problem sheet
 Examples which you can use to practise – leading 1 AL Equilibrium
towards exam type questions 2 AL Pin-jointed structures
 Complete the problem sheet before coming to class 3 JR Free body diagrams
each week 4 JR Newton’s second law
 Do the examples yourself – much better than being 5 JR Energy and momentum
shown how to do them (there are numerical answers) 6 AL Stress-strain 1
7 AL Stress-strain 2
 Not part of the assessment
8 AL Torsion
 Come to the tutorials with questions/queries about the
9 JR Moments of inertia
problem sheet
Gearboxes and
Answers will be released a few weeks after the 10 JR
 combined motion
associated tutorial
13
Examinations
 Copies of past examination papers are available from the Library’s website:
https://www.bath.ac.uk/library/exampapers/?code=ME10004&sort=code&dept=
 Model solutions are not available but we are happy to discuss solutions during tutorials
 Numerical solutions are available on Moodle
 Historically a crib sheet is allowed in the examination
 1 side of A4 paper that is hand written by you
 Can contain any information you wish
 Exam in January/February 2021
 Format of exam will depend on COVID developments
14
Solid Mechanics 1
Statics – Recording 1
Introduction to statics
Equilibrium & forces
Dr Alexander J. G. Lunt – Department of Mechanical Engineering
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
15
Introduction
 What is solid mechanics/statics?
 Examples of structures
 Force as a vector
 Components and resolving

 Force equilibrium
 Resultant forces
 Problem sheet 1 – Equilibrium – In handouts and on Moodle webpage
16
What is solid mechanics?
 Study of the behaviour of solid materials under the action of forces
 Statics
 Analysis of the influence of forces but without motion
 Dynamics
 Motion of bodies under actions of forces – Dr Roscow
17
What is statics?
 Analysis of systems that are at rest
 Forces are generally in equilibrium

 No resultant forces
 Often want to design systems which do not move
 However!
 A system will move slightly when a load is applied to it (spring being loaded)
 Often can assume that these movements are small
 In this case the geometry of the problem remains the same
 In this course we will study problems where the forces can be found without considering
structural deformation
18
Example structures
 Transmits load from one place to another (usually the ground)
19
Example structures
 Transmits load from one place to another (usually the ground)
20
When we get statics wrong?
 The Quebec Bridge
 Saint Lawrence river – between Sainte-Foy and Levis
 1907 & 1916
 88 lives lost
21
When we get statics wrong?

 Florida International University
 Pedestrian footbridge
 March 2018
 6 lives lost
22
What do we want from a structure?
 Strength
 Rigidity
 Safety
 Equilibrium
23
Loading types (in this course)

 Torsion  Shear
 Tension  Compression
24
What is a force?
 An interaction that, when unbalanced will change the acceleration of an object
 Examples:
 Self-weight
 Friction
 Reaction forces
 Wind loading
 Buoyancy
 Dynamic forces
25
Force is a vector
 Has a magnitude - 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
y
 Plus a direction (angle) 1j
 Vector notation – bold for direction
x 1i
 i typically used for x-direction (horizontal)
 j typically used for y-direction (vertical)
𝑭 = 4𝒊 + 3𝒋
F
𝑭 = 4 +3 =5
3j
3
𝜃 = tan = 36.87°
4 𝜃 4i
26
Adding vector geometrically
 Place vectors end to end to determine resultant
 Produces a polygon of forces
27
Adding vectors algebraically

 Using the same coordinate system
 Sum individual terms
𝑷 = −6𝒊 + 1𝒋
𝑸 = −2𝒊 + 4𝒋
𝑹 = 7𝒊 + 4𝒋
𝑷 + 𝑸 + 𝑹 = −6 − 2 + 7 𝒊 + 1 + 4 + 4 𝒋
𝑷 + 𝑸 + 𝑹 = −1𝒊 + 9𝒋
28
Resolving a vector
 Breaking down into individual components
 Important for algebraic manipulation
 From trigonometric relations
29
Force equilibrium
 All forces balance
 No acceleration
 1D (dimension)
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 0
 2D (dimension)
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 0
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 0
30
Resultant forces
 Equivalent force on a body
 Sum of forces being applied
 Algebraic - resolve forces in convenient

directions!
 Convenience is key to many problems
 E.g. along direction of slope
 Not just in x and y directions
 Geometric – create a polygon of forces
31
Example problem
 Find the resultant force
 What force is needed to balance?
32
Example problem
33
Example problem
34
Summary
 Force is a vector quantity that can be
resolved in a given direction
 We can add forces algebraically or

geometrically
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 0
 Equilibrium is achieved when the
resultant force is 0
35
Solid Mechanics 1
Statics – Online 1
Introduction to statics
Equilibrium & forces
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
36
Introduction
 Poll questions
 Moments
 Example problems
 Problem sheet 1 – Equilibrium – In handouts and on Moodle

webpage
37
Torsion
Sli.do Q1 SM1-1 Shear
 What are the types of force in A & B?
1. Torsion in A & shear in B 3. Tension in A & compression in B
2. Tension in A & none in B 4. Torsion in A & tension in B
38
Sli.do Q2
 What forces are acting on a car parked on a slope?
1. Friction 4. Shear forces
2. Reaction forces 5. Self-weight
3. Dynamic forces 6. Torsional forces
39
Example 2
 Assumptions:
 Load acts vertically downwards
 Ignore the weights of the strut and cable
 Strut is pin-jointed to the wall (can rotate)
 Total load is 800 N
 What are the forces in:
 The cable (P)
 The strut (Q)
40
Example 2 – algebraic approach
 Forces and equilibrium at point A
 Resolve vertically and horizontally at A
 Simultaneous equations
41
Example 2 – geometric approach

 Vertical line represents 800 N load
 Tension in cable along direction 40° from
horizontal
 Compression in strut must act horizontally
 Dashed lines to represent 2 directions
 Crossing point gives magnitude
P
 Use trigonometry to determine lengths
800
sin 40° =
𝑃
40°
800
tan 40° = Q
𝑄
42
Moments
 In 2D
 About a point A
 Force times perpendicular

distance from A to the line of
action of the force
 Clockwise or anticlockwise A
about a point
 In 3D
 About an axis rather than a point anticlockwise
43
A lesson in moments
 Resultant moment (M) can be calculated from any point
 Belt A A B
𝑀 = 𝐹𝑑
 Belt B
𝑀 = 𝐹𝑑 H F F
 Head H
𝑀 = 𝐹 𝑑 + ℎ − 𝐹ℎ = 𝐹𝑑
h d
44
Moments continued
 Often do not know distance from line 𝐹𝑘 sin 𝛼
of action of the force
 Can calculate from trigonometry k
 Alternatively…
 Take component perpendicular to

line k 𝐹 sin 𝛼 𝑘
 Take its moment
45
Example: moments about A

𝑀 = 2 × 8 = 16 𝑁𝑚
𝑀 = 6 × 4 cos 55° = 13.77 𝑁𝑚
𝑀 = 9 × 5 cos 30° = 38.97 𝑁𝑚 1 2 3 4
Sli.do Q3
 What is 𝑀 ?
1. 18.79 Nm 3. 6.84 Nm
2. 9.40 Nm 4. 16.91 Nm
46
𝑀 = 2 × 8 = 16 𝑁𝑚
𝑀 = 6 × 4 cos 55° = 13.77 𝑁𝑚
𝑀 = 9 × 5 cos 30° = 38.97 𝑁𝑚 1 2 3 4

F
𝑀 =
Sli.do Q4
 What value of F is needed to prevent rotation about A?
1. 6.87 N 3. 7.96 N
2. 6.25 N 4. 8.75 N
47
1 2 3 4
F
48
Summary
 Force is a vector quantity that can be
resolved in a given direction
 We can add forces algebraically or

geometrically
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 0
 Equilibrium is achieved when the
resultant force is 0
 Moment is force times perpendicular

distance from the line of the force
49
Solid Mechanics 1
Equilibrium, friction and
free body diagrams
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
50
Introduction
 Coupled forces
 Friction
 Free body diagrams
 Strategy for solving problems
 Examples
 Problem sheet 1 – Equilibrium – handouts & Moodle webpage
51
Coupled forces
 Two equal and opposite forces form a couple
 Moment about any point is Fd

A B
F F
52
The application of force
 A system of forces on an object can lead to:
Type Net force? Net moment?
Equilibrium × ×
A couple × 
Linearly accelerating object  ×
Linearly and rotationally accelerating

 
object
53
Friction
 Opposes motion
 Max friction value = µR
 µ is the coefficient of friction
 R is the reaction force
 Low friction
 Good – winter sports
 Bad – falling on ice
 High friction
 Good – brakes and track grip
 Bad – trying to pull blocks
54
Finding µ
 Tilt table
𝑅 µ
Materials Dry and
Lubricated
clean
𝐹 Aluminum 1.15 0.3
Platinum 1.2 0.25

Silver 1.4 0.55
 Raise until begins to slip
Glass 0.95
Ice 0.05
𝛼 Steel 0.76 0.16
Wood 0.35 0.2
𝑚𝑔
55
Free body diagrams

 Useful approach for quantifying forces
 Split ‘big system’ into separate free bodies
 Draw all external forces
Symbol Meaning
 Typical forces 𝐶𝐷 Drag coefficient
 Weight = 𝑚𝑔, acts vertically downwards 𝐴 Reference area
 Normal force, pushing back from an object, acts 𝜌 Fluid mass density
along surface normal 𝑉 Velocity
 Friction = µ𝑅, opposes motion 𝑘 Spring constant
 Tension, within rope/cable, acts along axis 𝑥 Spring extension
 Drag = 0.5𝐶𝐷𝐴𝜌𝑉2, opposes motion in air
 Spring force = 𝑘𝑥, opposing extension direction
 Applied force, external forces
56
Free body examples 𝑅
𝑅
𝐹
𝑅
𝐹
𝑚𝑔
𝑅
𝑚𝑔
57
Strategy for resolving forces (2D)

1. Draw free body diagram
A. Of the entire system
B. Of each body individually
2. For each free body diagram
A. Resolve forces twice
i. 2 perpendicular directions (usually)
ii. Choose orientations strategically (save time and effort)
B. Take moments once Sometimes we can reduce the

amount of work required by
i. Select point strategically (save time and effort) changing the order of 2A and 2B
ii. Generally the point where most unknowns pass through
58
Example: loaded beam in equilibrium
 Find the reactions at the supports
 1 – only 1 free body diagram
 2Ai – resolve forces in 2 perpendicular directions
 2Aii – horizontally and vertically
 2B – moments about A or B
 No forces acting horizontally

 Resolving vertically
Forces upwards = Forces downwards
 Moments about A
Clockwise = Anticlockwise
59
Example: Connected blocks

 Blocks joined by rope
 Smooth pulley & smooth angled slope (no friction)
 3 frictional surfaces:
 Ice µ=0.05
 Wood µ=0.35
 Steel µ=0.76
 Which materials does slipping occur?
 Assume no slipping
 Then – work out value of µ for which this is true
60
 1A – draw free body diagrams
61

 Block 1
 2Aii – horizontally and vertically
 Block 2
 2Aii – along and perpendicular to slope
 From above
60°
 At slipping 30°
62
 Slipping occurs if
μ < 0.52
 3 frictional surfaces:
 Ice µ=0.05  slips
 Wood µ=0.35  slips
 Steel µ=0.76  doesn’t slip
63
Summary
 Coupled forces
 In equilibrium
 No resultant force
 0 resolved force
 0 moment about any point
 Friction
 Opposes motion
 𝐹 ≤ 𝜇𝑅
 To investigate
 Sketch free body diagrams
 Resolve twice
 Take moments once
64
Solid Mechanics 1
Equilibrium, friction and
free body diagrams
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
65
Introduction
 Poll questions
 Problem sheet 1 – Equilibrium – handouts & Moodle webpage
66
Sli.do Q1 SM1-2
 What is required for a system to be in equilibrium?
1. The system is at rest 4. The system is at a constant

velocity
2. No resultant force 5. Taking moments about any

points give 0 Nm
3. The system is accelerating at 6. Resolving forces in any

a constant rate direction gives 0 N
67
Example: Planar Forces

 Size of rectangle = 3a × 2a
 Origin O
 Find the resultant force
 Find the resultant moment
 Apply a single force to obtain equilibrium
Strategy
1 – only one free body diagram

𝑂
2Ai – resolve forces in 2 perpendicular directions
2Aii – horizontally and vertically
2B – moments once about O
68
Sli.do Q2
What is the resultant horizontal force?
1. 10 N 3. 0N
2. 30 N 4. 60 N
Sli.do Q3
What is the resultant vertical force?
1. 10 N 3. 0N 𝑂
2. 6N 4. 2N
69

Sli.do Q4
What is the resultant moment about the origin?
1. a Nm clockwise 4. a Nm anticlockwise
2. 2a Nm clockwise 5. 2a Nm anticlockwise
3. 4a Nm clockwise 6. 4a Nm anticlockwise
70
Example: Cylinder support
 Cylinder (100 N) on jointed arms
 Arms connected by rope/chain/wire
 Everything smooth
 Following options:
Type Max load (N) Cost per m (£)

Dacron string 80 6.30
Nylon rope 90 7.50
Copper chain 120 5.00
Braided steel wire 240 24.00
 Which rope do we choose?
71

 1A – draw free body diagrams
One arm
(symmetric) Full system Cylinder
72
 Entire system
 Horizontally – no forces
 Vertically:
2𝑅 = 100 N
𝑅 = 50 𝑁
 Cylinder
 Horizontally:
𝑆 cos 30 = 𝑆 cos 30
 Vertically:
100 = 𝑆 cos 60 + 𝑆 cos 60
𝑆 = 100 𝑁
73
Example: Cylinder support 30°
 We could resolve forces – however:
 We know S = 100 N and R = 50N

0.87 m
 We are looking for the value of T

1.5 m
 Better idea is to take moments about O
 Then we don’t need to determine Q and P
1.5 𝑇 cos 30 = 0.87 𝑆 + 1 𝑅 cos 60

1.30𝑇 = 87 + 25 = 112
1m
60°
𝑇 = 85.9 𝑁
74
Type Max load (N) Cost per m (£)
 T=85.9 N Dacron string 80 6.30
 Sli.do Q5 Nylon rope 90 7.50
Copper chain 120 5.00
 So which material do we choose?
Braided steel wire 240 24.00
1. Dacron string
2. Nylon rope
3. Copper chain
4. Braided steel wire
75
Summary
 Coupled forces
 In equilibrium
 No resultant force
 0 resolved force
 0 moment about any point
 Friction
 Opposes motion
 𝐹 ≤ 𝜇𝑅
 To investigate
 Sketch free body diagrams
 Resolve twice
 Take moments once
76
Solid Mechanics 1
Pin-jointed structures
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
77
Introduction
 What is a pin-jointed frame?
 Ground points
 Tension and compression in beams
 Strategy for solving pin-jointed frames
 Worked examples
 Problem sheet 2 – pin-jointed structures
78
Pin-jointed frames
 Defined as: A stable structure which is produced through the use of perfect hinge joints
and rigid beams.
 Many real structures can be analysed as a pin-jointed structure, despite making use of
rigid joints
79
Ground points
 Three main types
Built-in is not widely
used in this course
Fixed pin-joint Roller Built-in

One degree of Two degrees of Zero degrees of
freedom freedom freedom
Two reaction One reaction Two reaction
components component components
Zero moment Zero moment Moment not zero
80
Ground points
 Three main types
81
Tension and compression

 Sign convention
 Beams can carry tension or compression
 Consider which way the joint is being moved
 Tension – pulled towards beam
 Compression – pushed away from beam
 T for tension
 Tension is “positive”
A TAB B
 Subscript gives member number
 From joint A to B is TAB (or TBA equivalent – usually alphabetically)
82
Example of tension and compression
 The Baltimore truss
83
Pin-jointed assumptions
 Members joined at nodes
 Each member joins two nodes
 At nodes, members are free to rotate
 But typically, cannot due to the frame
 External forces only at nodes
 Members have no weight
84
Strategy
 No single ‘right’ way
 Consider what you are trying to achieve
 Do you need to solve for all forces?
 Usually a long hard slog
 Or is it a reduced number of forces?
 Carefully consider the analysis you perform
 Localise to the region of interest
85
Strategy
 However, a good general approach is:
1. Draw the free body diagram for the entire frame
A. Apply standard free body diagram strategy – resolve twice and take moments
B. Determine reaction forces
2. Draw the free body diagram for each node of interest
A. Start at nodes with least number of unknowns
B. Resolve forces in relevant orientations (to simplify/minimize number of calculations)
86
Zero force members
1.
 Sometimes members will have 0 force 0
 In reality these members are used to increase 0

stability
 If you can identify these this will simplify your
2. 0
calculations
T=0
 3 key cases (with no external load):
1. 2 members – non-colinear – 0 in both members
2. Colinear members – 1 with 0 force – the other must be 0 0

3.
force
3. 3 members at a joint – 2 co-linear – 0 in the other

member
87
Zero force members

1.
 Example (right to left) 0
2. 0
T=0
0
3.
88
Worked example
 Find reactions at A and E
 Find all forces in members
1. Free body diagram
 Resolving horizontally
 Moments about A
 Solving for R
89
2. Resolving at nodes
 At A
 Resolving horizontally 60°
 At B
60°
90
2. Resolving at nodes
 At C

60° 60°
 At E 60°
91
Worked example: solution
92
Summary
 Ground points
1. 0
 Fixed pivot
 Roller
0
 Built in
 Tension is positive – compression is negative
 Zero force members 2. 0
 Strategy
T=0
 Entire frame
 Resolve twice and take moments
 Solve for reactions
 Each node of interest 0
3.
 Draw free body diagram
 Resolve twice to obtain forces
93
Solid Mechanics 1
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
94
Strategy for resolving forces
 Sli.do Q1 SM1-3
 Which of these are good practice for resolving forces in a system?
1. Start by resolving forces twice
2. Resolve forces horizontally and

vertically
3. Take moments once about a strategic

point
4. Draw a free body diagram of the

entire system
95
Sli.do Q2
 Which of the following can generally be analysed as a pin-jointed frames?
1. The Eiffel tower 3. A crane
2. A suspension bridge 4. A car frame
96
Example 2 B 2 kN forces are
perpendicular to BF
 Find reactions at A and F

 Find all forces in members A F
1. Free body diagram
Q = 2 × 2 cos 60 = 2 kN
R + S = 2 × 2 cos 30 = 3.46 kN
 Moments about F
8
2 = R 12
cos 30
16
= 12R
cos 30
R = 1. 54kN
 Solving for S
S = 3.46 − R = 3.46 − 1.54 = 1.92 kN
97
Example 2
 Find reactions at A and F
 Find all forces in members
 Sli.do Q3
 Which (if any) of the members have zero force?
1. AB
2. AC
3. BC
4. BD
5. CD
6. CE
7. DE
8. DF
9. EF
98
Example 2
 At A
 Sli.do Q4
What is the value of 𝑇 ? 𝑇

2
𝑇
1. 2.35 kN
2. 2.04 kN
1.54
3. -2.35 kN
4. -2.04 kN
99
Example 2
 At A
 Sli.do Q5
 What is the value of 𝑇 ?
𝑇
1. 0.45 kN 2
𝑇
2. -0.66 kN
3. 0.66 kN
1.54
4. -0.45 kN
100
Example 2
 At F
 Sli.do Q6
 What is the value of 𝑇 ?
𝑇
1. 1.06 kN
2
2. 0.38 kN
3. -0.38 kN
0.66
4. -1.06 kN
1.92
101
Example 2
102
Summary
 Ground points
1. 0
 Fixed pivot
 Roller
0
 Built in
 Tension is positive – compression is negative
 Zero force members 2. 0
 Strategy
T=0
 Entire frame
 Solve for reactions
 Each node of interest 0
3.
 Draw free body diagram
 Resolve twice to obtain forces
103
Solid Mechanics 1
Pin-jointed structures 2
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
104
Introduction
 Method of sections
 Computational analysis
 Statical determinacy
 Past exam question
105
Method of sections
 More localised analysis needed
 Do not need all forces in a structure
 Fast and easy approach
 Section the structure and re-draw free

body diagram
 Generally works for a cut with 3

unknowns
 Some exceptions exist (4 cuts)
106
Method of sections: strategy
1. Draw free body diagram of entire structure
2. Resolve twice and take moments to determine reaction forces
3. Choose location of cut
A. Generally a maximum of 3 unknowns*
4. Draw free body diagram of the sectioned sample
5. Include internal forces of all members that were cut
6. Resolve twice and take moments to determine internal forces

*Some exceptions – see later
107
Method of sections: example

 Find the forces in members D, E and F
1. Draw free body diagram for entire structure
2. Resolve twice and take moments once
Horizontally
Vertically
Moments about 1
R1 R2
H1
108
3. Choose location of cut (3 unknowns)
4. Draw free body diagram of the sectioned
region
5. Include internal forces of all members that were
cut
6. Resolve twice and take moments once to
determine internal forces
Vertically
X
Moments about X
109

3. Choose location of cut (3 unknowns)
4. Draw free body diagram of the sectioned
region
5. Include internal forces of all members that were
cut
6. Resolve twice and take moments once to
determine internal forces
Horizontally
110
How do computers solve pin-jointed
frames?
 Using previous sample
 Determine 2 equations for each node
 We can do the same at each node
𝛼 = 60°
111
How do computers solve pin-jointed

frames?
 Populate a matrix M
 Vector of unknown forces f
 Vector of applied reactions r
𝐌𝐟 = 𝐫
 Invert M and multiply through

to obtain f
You will be introduced to Matrix
manipulation in your maths course – it is
𝟏 𝐌𝐟 𝟏𝐫 not a requirement of this module
𝐌 =𝐟=𝐌
112
Statical determinacy
 A system is statically determinate if the forces within it can be found using equilibrium
alone
 We have a test to see if this is the case
 𝑛 = number of nodes (joints)
 𝑚 = number of members
 𝑟 = number of reactions
 2 from a fixed pin
 1 from a roller
 Number of unknowns = 𝑚 + 𝑟
 Number of equations = 2𝑛
 Resolving twice at each node
113
Statical determinacy
 Frame is statically determinate (we can solve for all forces) if:
 Number of equations = number of unknowns
 2𝑛 = 𝑚 + 𝑟
 Frame is statically indeterminate (we do not have sufficient equations to solve for all
members) if:
 Number of equations < number of unknowns
 2𝑛 < 𝑚 + 𝑟
 Frame is a mechanism (one or more joints have the freedom to move, as there are not
sufficient members/reactions to hold it in place) if:
 Number of equations > number of unknowns
 2𝑛 > 𝑚 + 𝑟
114
Examples:
𝑛=
𝑚=
𝑟=
2𝑛 =
𝑚+𝑟 =
115
Examples:
𝑛=
𝑚=
𝑟=
2𝑛 =
𝑚+𝑟 =
116
Examples:
𝑛=
𝑚=
𝑟=
2𝑛 =
𝑚+𝑟 =
117
Past exam question

 Q1 2016/2017
Figure Q1a shows a pin-jointed structure
which carries four external loads. All
individual members have a length of 2m.
(a) Show that the vertical components of Figure Q1A
the reactions at A and C are respectively
3 kN downwards and 21 kN upwards.
[2 marks]
Resolving vertically
Moments about C
118
Past exam question
(b) Six of the tensions in the members have been
found. These are: Figure Q1A
TAB = -1.732 = -3/√3 kN TAE = 3.464 = 6/√3 kN
TBC = -7.506 = -13/√3 kN TBE = -5.774 = -10/√3 kN
TBF = 5.774 = 10/√3 kN TEF = 4.619 = 8/√3 kN
Find the forces in the other five members clearly TDG
3
indicating whether they are tensile or cos 30 =
2
compressive. cos 60 = 0.5 60° D
[18 marks]
TCD
We will use the notation that positive is tensile, 10 kN
negative is compression.
Node D - resolving vertically Node D - resolving horizontally
119
Past exam question

TAB = -1.732 = -3/√3 kN TAE = 3.464 = 6/√3 kN
TBC = -7.506 = -13/√3 kN TBE = -5.774 = -10/√3 kN
TBF = 5.774 = 10/√3 kN TEF = 4.619 = 8/√3 kN TFG
Find the forces in the other five members clearly 3
2 TCG
compressive. cos 60 = 0.5
[18 marks] 5.77 kN
Method of sections along line shown.
Resolve vertically Resolving horizontally
120
Past exam question
TAB = -1.732 = -3/√3 kN TAE = 3.464 = 6/√3 kN
TBC = -7.506 = -13/√3 kN TBE = -5.774 = -10/√3 kN
TBF = 5.774 = 10/√3 kN TEF = 4.619 = 8/√3 kN
TCF 13.86
Find the forces in the other five members clearly 3
2
compressive. 60°
cos 60 = 0.5 60°
[18 marks]
7.50 5.77
Node C resolving horizontally C
21 kN
121
Past exam question

(c) The structure in figure Q1a has n=7 nodes, m=11
members, and r=3 components of reaction. Comment Figure Q1B
on the significance of the fact that 2n = m + r.
[2 marks]
The structure in figure Q1b has the sliding support at
node C replaced by one which does not slide. This
means that r=4. Which members can be removed?
Which (if any) of the members can be removed (so
that m=10) leaving a rigid pin-jointed structure? Consider removing each 1 individually and
examine what happens to the structure.
[3 marks]
1. AB 7. CG
2n is the number of equations or the number of
2. AE 8. CD
resolvable unknowns
3. BC 9. DG
m+r is the number of members plus the number of 4. BE 10. EF
reactions, in other words the number of unknowns 5. BF 11. FG
When 2n=m+r the number of equations equals the 6. CF
number of unknowns and the system is statically
determinate
122
Summary
 Resolve twice and take moments of entire structure to determine reaction forces
 Choose location of cut – 3 unknowns (generally)
 Draw free body diagram - include internal forces
 2𝑛=𝑚+𝑟 – statically determinate
 2𝑛<𝑚+𝑟 – statically indeterminate
 2𝑛>𝑚+𝑟 – mechanism
 Past exam question
123
Solid Mechanics 1
Pin-jointed structures 2
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
124
Introduction
 Poll questions on the topics covered
 Demonstration
125
Method of sections: exception

10 kN 10 kN
 K-truss
 Resolve horizontally I
D
𝐻 = 0 kN F
3m
 Sli.do Q1 SM1-4
 What are the values of 𝑉 and 𝑉 ? C H
VA VJ
1. V = 7.5 kN, V = 12.5 kN
3m
2. V = 12.5 kN, V = 7.5 kN HA B J
A
E G
3. V = 5 kN, V = 15 kN 4m 4m 4m 4m
4. V = 15 kN, V = 5 kN
126
10 kN 10 kN
 Find 𝑇 , 𝑇 , 𝑇 and 𝑇
I
D
 Can work out lots of members F
3m
individually
C H
VA VJ
 However – use method of sections
3m
HA B J
 Following location A
E G
4m 4m 4m 4m
 Need to redraw free body diagram
127

10 kN 10 kN
 Resolve horizontally D 𝑇
𝑇 + 𝑇 = 0 kN F
𝑇 = −𝑇 3m
𝑇
 Take moments about H C H
 Sli.do Q2 𝑇
3m
B 𝑇
 What are the values of 𝑇 and 𝑇 ? A
E
4m 4m 4m
1. T = −12.5 kN, T = 12.5 kN
2. T = −7.5 kN, T = 7.5 kN
3. T = 7.5 kN, T = 7.5 kN
4. T = −5 kN, T = 5 kN
128
10 kN 10 kN
I
D
F
3m
 Know 𝑇 and 𝑇
C H
VA VJ
3m
HA B J
 Make a new cut
A
E G
4m 4m 4m 4m
 Need to redraw free body diagram
129

10 kN 10 kN
 Resolve horizontally D
5 − 5 + 𝑇 cos 36.9 + 𝑇 cos 36.9 = 0 kN F 36.9°
𝑇 cos 36.9 + 𝑇 cos 36.9 = 0 kN 3m
𝑇 cos 36.9 = −𝑇 cos 36.9 𝑇
𝑇 = −𝑇 C
 Take moments about E 𝑇

3m
 Sli.do Q3 B
A
 What are the values of 𝑇 and 𝑇 ? E
4m 4m 4m
1. T = −5 kN, T = 5 kN
2. T = 7.5 kN, T = −7.5 kN
3. T = −6.25 kN, T = 6.25 kN
4. T = 5 kN, T = −5 kN
130
Statical determinacy (reminder)
 A system is statically determinate if the forces within it can be found using equilibrium
alone
 We have a test to see if this is the case
 𝑛 = number of nodes (joints)
 𝑚 = number of members
 𝑟 = number of reactions
 2 from a fixed pin
 1 from a roller
 Number of unknowns = 𝑚 + 𝑟
 Number of equations = 2𝑛
 Resolving twice at each node
131
Statical determinacy (reminder)

 Frame is statically determinate (we can solve for all forces) if:
 Number of equations = number of unknowns
 2𝑛 = 𝑚 + 𝑟
 Frame is statically indeterminate (we do not have sufficient equations to solve for all
members) if:
 Number of equations < number of unknowns
 2𝑛 < 𝑚 + 𝑟
 Frame is a mechanism (one or more joints have the freedom to move, as there are not
sufficient members/reactions to hold it in place) if:
 Number of equations > number of unknowns
 2𝑛 > 𝑚 + 𝑟
132
Demonstration
𝑛=
𝑚=
𝑟=
2𝑛 =
𝑚+𝑟 =
133
Demonstration
𝑛=
𝑚=
𝑟=
2𝑛 =
𝑚+𝑟 =
134
Demonstration
𝑛=
𝑚=
𝑟=
2𝑛 =
𝑚+𝑟 =
135
Demonstration
𝑛=
𝑚=
𝑟=
2𝑛 =
𝑚+𝑟 =
136
Demonstration
𝑛=
𝑚=
𝑟=
2𝑛 =
𝑚+𝑟 =
137
Sli.do Q4
 Identify the determinacy of this structure:
1. Statically determinate
2. Statically indeterminate
3. Mechanism
4. Mechanism + statically indeterminate?
138
Sli.do Q5
 Identify the determinacy of this structure:
1. Statically determinate
2. Statically indeterminate
3. Mechanism
4. Mechanism + statically indeterminate?
139
Summary
 Resolve twice and take moments of entire structure to determine reaction forces
 Choose location of cut – 3 unknowns (generally)
 Draw free body diagram - include internal forces
 2𝑛=𝑚+𝑟 – statically determinate
 2𝑛<𝑚+𝑟 – statically indeterminate
 2𝑛>𝑚+𝑟 – mechanism
140
Solid Mechanics 1
Stress, strain, Young’s
modulus and Poisson’s ratio
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
141
Introduction
 Hooke’s law
 Young’s modulus
 Relations between
stress and strain
Robert Hooke Thomas Young
1635-1703 1773-1829
 Example sheet 3 –
stress-strain 1
142
Why is this important?
 Stress – forces within a
FEA
material/structure
 Strain – extension of a
material/structure Hyatt regency collapse –
114 dead 1981
 Design of structures – Finite

Element Analysis (FEA)
 Failure of components
De Havilliand Comet – Liberty ships brittle
426 dead 1950’s fracture – 1940’s
143
It’s not only historic…

 Hunterston B Nuclear
Reactor
 Cracks in Graphite
core growing faster
than expected
 Reactor has been

turned off for 3 years
now.
 370 cracks found
144
Hooke’s Law
14
 One of the first material laws
 Demonstration  12
 Force is proportional to extension 10
 F = kx 8
Force
 k is spring stiffness 6
 Gradient of plot is k 4
 Larger k correspond to a stiffer spring 2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Extension (cm)
145
Stress
 Defined as force (F) per unit cross sectional area (A)
 Units = Nm-2=Pa (Pascals) 𝐹
𝜎=
 Typically measured in MPa = 106 Pa 𝐴
 Represented by Greek letter sigma (𝜎)
𝐹 2𝐹 𝐹
𝜎 = 𝜎= = 2𝜎 𝜎= = 0.5𝜎
𝐴 𝐴 2𝐴
𝐹 𝐴 2𝐹 𝐴 𝐹 𝐴
𝐹 2𝐹 𝐹
146
Strain
e
 Defined as extension (e) per unit length (L)
 Unitless measurement 𝑒
𝜀=
 Typically on the order of 10-3 for metals 𝐿 𝑒
𝜀= = 0.5𝜀
 Represented by Greek letter epsilon (𝜀) 2𝐿
2𝑒
𝑒 𝜀= = 2𝜀
𝜀 = 𝐿 𝑒
𝐿
2𝑒
𝑒 2𝐿
𝐿
𝐿
147
Strain demo
5 cm
 Square of rubber – 5 cm x 5 cm 2
 Apply force – extends
1
 New size – 7 cm x 4 cm
5 cm
 Strain along loading (1) direction
𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 7 − 5

𝜀 = = = =
𝐿 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 5 7 cm
 Strain perpendicular to loading (2) direction
4 cm
𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 4 − 5

𝜀 = = = =
𝐿 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 5
 Known as Poisson’s effect – see later in lecture
148
Young’s modulus High
stiffness
Stress (Pa)
Medium
 Before the sample deforms plastically (permanently) stiffness
 Plot of stress vs strain is linear
 Usually on the order of GPa = 109 Pa

Low
 Gradient of this line is Young’s modulus stiffness
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 𝐹/𝐴 𝐹𝐿
𝐸= = = = Strain
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀 𝑒/𝐿 𝑒𝐴
Material Young’s modulus (GPa)
Mild steel 210
 Denoted by capital E Copper 120
Bone 18
 Material dependent parameter
Plastic 2
Rubber 0.02
149
Stress-strain curves
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BHZALtqAjeM Material Properties 101 by Real Engineering
150
Stress-strain curves
A - Yield point
- End of linearity
- Transition from elastic (returns to original shape)
to plastic (permanently deformed)
B – Ultimate Tensile Stress/Strength
- Necking begins
- Maximum stress
C – Fracture
- Maximum strain
O – Origin
- Stress = Strain = 0
P – Generic point on the curve
- Tangent modulus is the gradient of tangent at P Generally not widely used, but have
been historically in this course
- Secant modulus is the gradient of line OP
(included for completeness)
151
Stress strain curve variations

 Ductile material
 Large plastic deformation before rupture
 Tough material
 Ability of material to absorb energy
before rupture
 Brittle material
 Rupture with small amounts of plastic
deformation
 Strong material Strain hardening
 Material which is able to withstand a
large force without plastic deformation or
rupture
 Large Young’s modulus A plastic material
 Plastic material
 Limited elastic response with significant
permanent deformation before rupture
152
Proof stress
 Estimate of yield point Proof
stress
 Draw line with gradient =

E from 0.2% on strain axis
Stress (Pa)
E
 Find where it cuts curve
 This is 0.2% proof stress 0.002 Strain
153
Sign convention
 Tension is positive (as in pin-jointed) 𝐹 𝐴
𝐹 𝑒
𝜎= & 𝜀= 𝐿 𝐿+𝑒
𝐴 𝐿
𝜎>0 & 𝜀>0

𝐹
 Compression is negative 𝐹 𝐴
−𝐹 −𝑒
𝜎= & 𝜀=
𝐴 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿−e
𝜎<0 & 𝜀<0

𝐹
154
Side note on stress
 For a bar with constant cross section
 Force is constant along the bar Historically this has caused difficulty
 Therefore stress will also be constant
𝐹 𝐹
𝜎= 𝜎=
𝐴 𝐴
𝐴
𝐴
𝐹
𝜎= 𝐹
𝐴 𝜎=
𝐴
𝐴
𝐴
155
Summary
 Hooke’s law
 F = kx
 Stress + Strain
 Definitions
 Stress-strain curves
156
Solid Mechanics 1
Stress, strain, Young’s
modulus and Poisson’s ratio
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
157
Introduction
 Poisson’s ratio
 Relations between
Siméon Poisson
stress and strain 1781-1840
𝜎 𝜈𝜎 𝜈𝜎
𝜀 = − −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
 Example sheet 3 – 𝜎 𝜈𝜎 𝜈𝜎
𝜀 = − −
stress-strain 1 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜀 = − −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
158
Example
 Steel bar E = 210 GPa
 Length = 0.5 m
 Substitute numerical values
 Square cross section, side 10 mm
 Force = 30 kN
 Find strain & extension of the bar
 Rearrange definition of Young’s modulus
𝜎 𝜎
𝐸= ∴ 𝜀=  Rearrange definition of strain
𝜀 𝐸
 Substitute definition of stress
𝐹 𝐹
𝜎= ∴ 𝜀=
𝐴 𝐸𝐴
159
𝜎 y
𝜎 𝜀 = z
Poisson’s ratio 𝐸
x
 Going back to effect saw in demo 𝜎
 Extension in one direction causes compressive strain in other direction
 It is proportional 𝜀 = −𝜈𝜀 𝜀 = −𝜈𝜀 Material Poisson’s ratio

Gold 0.44
Silicon 0.27
 Constant of proportionality is Poisson’s ratio
Rubber 0.50
Magnesium 0.35
 Denoted by Greek letter nu – ν
Titanium 0.34
Copper 0.33
 Typical value around 0.33
Aluminum alloy 0.33
Polymers 0.25-0.50
 Unitless measure Steel 0.30
160
Demo – auxetic material
 Poisson’s ratio is generally positive (from previous table)
 Extension in 1 direction causes compression in the
perpendicular direction
 Auxetic materials
 Defined as having a negative Poisson’s ratio
 Extension in 1 direction causes extension in the
perpendicular direction
 Can be designed intentionally through shape
 Certain rocks and minerals – cristobalite
 Applications:
 Biomedical – surgical implants, stents
 Filters – easy clean
 New field – lots of exciting applications arising
161
1D Stress y
z
 Apply a stress 𝜎 along x axis 𝜎 x
𝜎
𝜀 =
 Can write out strains induced in other 2 directions
𝜎 𝜎
𝜀 = −𝜈𝜀 = −𝜈 𝜀 = −𝜈𝜀 = −𝜈
𝐸 𝐸
162
What happens to volume? y z
x
 Extend length 𝑋 by increment ∆𝑋
Z
∆𝑋
𝑋 + ∆𝑋 = 𝑋 1 + = 𝑋(1 + 𝜀 )
𝑋
𝑌 + ∆𝑌 = 𝑌 1 + 𝜀 𝑍 + ∆𝑍 = 𝑍(1 + 𝜀 ) Y
 Now consider the volume 𝑉 = 𝑋𝑌𝑍

𝑉 + ∆𝑉 = 𝑋 + ∆𝑋 𝑌 + ∆𝑌 𝑍 + ∆𝑍 X
 Substitute from above

𝑉 + ∆𝑉 = 𝑋 1 + 𝜀 𝑌 1 + 𝜀 𝑍 1 + 𝜀 = XYZ 1 + 𝜀 1+𝜀 1+𝜀
 Substitute 𝑉 = 𝑋𝑌𝑍 and expand bracket This type of proof

could be in the exam
𝑉 + ∆𝑉 = V 1 + 𝜀 + 𝜀 + 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀
163
What happens to volume? y z
𝑉 + ∆𝑉 = V 1 + 𝜀 + 𝜀 + 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 x
Z
 Take 𝑉 from either side and divide through by 𝑉
∆𝑉
=𝜀 +𝜀 +𝜀 +𝜀 𝜀 +𝜀 𝜀 +𝜀 𝜀 +𝜀 𝜀 𝜀
𝑉
Y
 However, 𝜀 ≪ 1, 𝜀 ≪ 1 and 𝜀 ≪ 1
∆𝑉
=𝜀 +𝜀 +𝜀
𝑉
X
 For 1D stress case Z
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝜀 = 𝜀 = −𝜈 𝜀 = −𝜈 𝜎 𝜎
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
 Substitute in to expression for volumetric strain

∆𝑉 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 Y
=𝜀 +𝜀 +𝜀 = −𝜈 −𝜈 = 1 − 2𝜈
𝑉 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
X
164
Back to our example
 Length = 0.5 m
 Square cross section, side 10 mm
 Poisson’s ratio = 0.3 Examination of the term in brackets in the
volumetric equation:
 Force = 30 kN
∆𝑉 𝜎
= 1 − 2𝜈
 𝜀 = 1.43 × 10 𝑉 𝐸
 What are the strains in the y an z directions? No volumetric change if 1 − 2𝜈 = 0
𝜀 = 𝜀 = −𝜈𝜀 = −0.3 1.43 × 10 = −4.28 × 10 i.e. when 𝜈 = 0.5
So rubber with 𝜈 = 0.5 doesn’t change volume!

 Slido Q1 SM1-11
 What is the change in volume?
1. 7.15 × 10 m
2. 2.87 × 10 m
3. 2.15 × 10 m
4. 5.01 × 10 m
165
2D stress system z
y x
 2 stresses in 2 different orientations e.g. 𝜎 and 𝜎
 Can superimpose (add up) strain contributions from 2 orientations
+ =
𝜎 + 𝜈𝜎 𝜎 𝜈𝜎
𝜀 = 𝜀 = −𝜈𝜀 = − = 𝜀 = −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜈𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜈𝜎
𝜀 = −𝜈𝜀 = − + 𝜀 = = 𝜀 = −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜈𝜎 𝜈𝜎 −𝜈 𝜎 + 𝜎
𝜀 = −𝜈𝜀 = − + 𝜀 = −𝜈𝜀 = − = 𝜀 =
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
166
3D stress system
 3 stresses in 3 different orientations e.g. 𝜎 , 𝜎 and 𝜎
 Can superimpose (add up) strain contributions from 3 orientations
+ + =
𝜎 + 𝜈𝜎 + 𝜈𝜎 𝜎 𝜈𝜎 𝜈𝜎
𝜀 = 𝜀 =− 𝜀 =− = 𝜀 = − −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜈𝜎 + 𝜎 + 𝜈𝜎 𝜎 𝜈𝜎 𝜈𝜎
𝜀 =− 𝜀 = 𝜀 =− = 𝜀 = − −
𝜈𝜎 𝜈𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜈𝜎 𝜈𝜎
𝜀 =− + 𝜀 =− + 𝜀 = = 𝜀 = − −
167
Matrix representation
 Combine equations into matrix representation, 𝑫 is just convention
𝜀 = − −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜀 = − −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜀 = − −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝜺 = 𝑫 𝝈
 Use standard matrix inversion to determine reverse relationship
𝜎 1−𝜈 𝜈 𝜈 𝜀
𝐸
𝜎 = 𝜈 1−𝜈 𝜈 𝜀
𝜎 1 + 𝜈 1 − 2𝜈 𝜀
𝜈 𝜈 1−𝜈
𝝈 = 𝑫 𝜺
168
Example problem:
 10 cm cube of steel dropped from sea surface to a point 1000 m
deep
 E = 210 GPa, 𝜈 = 0.3
 What is the volume change?
 Pressure = height × density of water × gravitational constant
 Pressure = -1000 m × 1000 kgm-3 × 10 ms-2 = -10 MPa = 𝜎
(assume constant pressure over 10 cm)
𝜎 =𝜎 =𝜎 =𝜎
𝜎 𝜈𝜎 𝜈𝜎 𝜎
𝜀 = − − = 1 − 2𝜈
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎 𝜎
𝜀 = 1 − 2𝜈 𝜀 = 1 − 2𝜈
𝐸 𝐸
169
Example problem:
 10 cm cube of steel dropped from surface 1000 m deep in sea
 E = 210 GPa, 𝜈 = 0.3
 What is the volume change?
 Pressure = -ℎ𝜌𝑔 = -1000 m × 1000 kgm-3 × 10 ms-2 = -10 MPa = 𝜎
(assume constant pressure over 10 cm)
𝜎
𝜎 =𝜎 =𝜎 =𝜎 𝜀 =𝜀 =𝜀 = 1 − 2𝜈
𝐸
Bulk modulus: K =
∆
=𝜀 +𝜀 +𝜀 = 1 − 2𝜈 = 𝜎/𝐾 ∆
Such that: = 𝜎/𝐾
∆𝑉 = 𝑉 1 − 2𝜈 =
170
Summary
 Hooke’s law
 F = kx
 Stress + Strain
 Definitions
 Stress-strain curves
 Poisson’s ratio
 Relations between stress and strain
 1D, 2D and 3D
171
Solid Mechanics 1
Stress and strain in
‘variable’ shapes
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
172
Introduction
 Stress and strain in variable shapes
 Materials in parallel
 Constant strain
 Materials in series
 Constant stress
 Variable cross sections
 Example sheet 3 – stress-strain 1
173
What do we mean by materials in series?

F
 Examples:
 Metal joint to a wood F
beam
 Prosthetic limbs
 Ceramic insulators
F
 Uniform stress/force
approximation F
 All materials experience
the same force
 Same stress if a constant F

F
cross sectional area
174
What do we mean by materials in parallel?
 Examples
 Metal rebar reinforcements in

cement
 Wood/metal A-beams
 Carbon fibre
 Uniform extension/strain
approximation
 All materials extend the same

amount
 Same strain if originally the

same length
175
Analogy with electrical circuits
Parallel Series
Constant extension Constant potential Constant force Constant current

(strain) drop (stress)
176
Example 1 - Parallel
 Steel/aluminum composite
 Length L = 0.8 m
 P = 100 kN
 Steel E = 210 GPa
 Aluminium E = 69 GPa
 What is the extension (𝑥)?
 Break the force down:
Total force = Force on steel + Force on aluminium
 However:
177
Example 1
 Therefore force in steel
𝐹 =
 Force in aluminium
𝐹 =
 Therefore:
 Rearrange to give
178
What do we mean by ‘variable’ cross
section?
 Examples:
 Tapered washers/nuts
 Tapered beams
 Tapered suspension forks
 Strain and stress vary as a

function of position
 Need to introduce idea of

functional variation
 Area, extension, strain and stress

all vary with x
179
Functional variation 30 mm 50 mm
 Define a coordinate system

0.5 m
 Origin (usually reference wall/point)
50 mm
 Distance (typically 𝑥) 30 mm
 Example - conical beam

0.5 m
 0.5 m long
 Starting diameter 30 mm 𝑥
 Final diameter 50 mm
 We can describe diameter d as a

𝑑(𝑥) (mm)
function of distance along the beam 𝑥

 This is expressed as 𝑑(𝑥)
 We can plot this function
𝑥 (m)
180
Determining d(x)
𝑑(𝑥) (mm)
 𝑑(𝑥) is a linear function 𝑟
2𝑟
 𝑑 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
 c = intercept = 0.03 m 𝑥 (m)
∆ . .
 m = gradient = = = 0.04 unitless
∆ . 𝑤
 𝑑(𝑥) = 0.04𝑥 + 0.03 𝑎
8
 Depending upon the beam we can have different
Length (cm)
6
functions and length measurements e.g.
4
 Width (of a square beam) 𝑤(𝑥) = 1 + 5𝑒 2
 Radius (of an ellipse) 𝑟 𝑥 = 2 + sin 10𝑥 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
 Side length (of a pentagon) 𝑎 𝑥 = 1 + 4𝑥 − 1
x (m)
w(x) r(x) a(x)
Examples
Square ellipse pentagon
181
Determining A(x) 𝑟
2𝑟
 Use the expression for 𝑑(𝑥) to determine area
variation as a function of 𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥) 𝑑
 For a cylindrical cross section 𝐴 =

𝑤
. .
 Therefore 𝐴 𝑥 = =
𝑎
 We can do the same for the following examples:

60
 Area of a square cross section 𝐴 = 𝑤 50
 Therefore 𝐴 𝑥 = 𝑤 𝑥 = 1 + 5𝑒 40
A (x) (cm2)
 Area of this ellipse 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟 30
 Therefore 𝐴 𝑥 = 2𝜋 𝑟(𝑥) = 2𝜋 2 + sin 10𝑥 20
10
 Area of a regular pentagon 𝐴 = 0

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
x (m)
 Therefore 𝐴 𝑥 = = Circle Square Ellipse Pentagon
182
Strain & extension as a function of x
 Need to derive an expression for strain as a function of 𝑥
𝑠 𝑠
 Start by defining the ext between the origin and 𝑥 as 𝑒 𝑥
 Small slice of material of thickness ∆𝑥 at distance 𝑥 from origin F
 After the application of constant force the beam has extended

𝑥 + ∆𝑥
 Distance from origin to surface 1 (𝑠 ) is now
𝑥 + 𝑒(𝑥)
 Distance from origin to surface 2 (𝑠 ) is now 𝑠 F

𝑠
𝑥 + ∆𝑥 + 𝑒(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)
 Therefore width of slice has changed to:

𝑥 + ∆𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑥+𝑒 𝑥 = ∆𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑒(𝑥)
183
Strain & extension as a function of x

 Width of slice has changed from ∆𝑥 to: General definition of a differential
∆𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑒(𝑥) 𝑑𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓 𝑥 = = lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆ → ∆𝑥
 Definition of strain:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ − 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
ε= =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
 So for the slice at distance 𝑥 the strain (which is now a function of 𝑥) is:
∆𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 + ∆𝑥
∆𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 − ∆𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 ∆𝑥 − 𝑒(𝑥)
ε(𝑥) = =
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
 We can then make ∆𝑥 very small, towards the limit ∆𝑥 → 0
 Comparing this to the definition of a differential gives:

𝑒 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑒(𝑥)
ε 𝑥 = lim =𝑒 𝑥 = Before After
∆ → ∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥 extension extension
184
Relationship to stress, force and area
 We have shown
𝑑𝑒(𝑥)
ε 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥
 If we consider a material with a constant Young’s modulus E we can say:
𝜎(𝑥) 𝜎(𝑥)
𝐸= ∴ 𝜀(𝑥) =
𝜀(𝑥) 𝐸
 Stress is a function of 𝑥 as we know:
𝐹
𝜎(𝑥) =
𝐴(𝑥)
 Therefore:
𝜎 𝑥 𝐹 𝑑𝑒(𝑥) 𝐹 Isaac Gottfried

𝜀 𝑥 = = ∴ = Newton Wilhelm Leibniz
𝐸 𝐸𝐴(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐴(𝑥)
185
𝐵 𝐶−B
Determining extension
 We know that:
𝐿 𝑒(𝐿)
𝑑𝑒(𝑥) 𝐹
=
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐴(𝑥)
𝑥
 But what if we want to know the extension

of a particular length?
𝐿 + 𝑒(𝐿)
𝐹
𝑒(𝐿) = 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐴(𝑥)
𝐶 − 𝐵 + 𝑒(𝐵 𝑡𝑜 𝐶)
 Or between 2 points (𝐵 & 𝐶)?
𝐹
𝑒(𝐵 𝑡𝑜 𝐶) = 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐴(𝑥)
186
Example 3
 Conical beam
 Force = 200 kN
 Aluminum E = 70 GPa
 Same dimensions as previously
 𝑑(𝑥) = 0.04𝑥 + 0.03
. .
 𝐴 𝑥 =
 What is the extension of the entire beam?
187
Summary
 Stress and strain in variable
shapes
 Constant strain
 Constant stress
𝐹 𝑑𝑒(𝑥) 𝐹
𝑒(𝐿) = 𝑑𝑥 =
 Variable cross sections 𝐸𝐴(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐴(𝑥)
188
Solid Mechanics 1
Stress and strain in
‘variable’ shapes
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
189
Introduction
 Sli.do questions on stress/strain in variable shapes
 Example questions
190
Example 2 – Series SM1-12
 P = 20 kN
 What is the total extension?
 From previous lecture:
𝐸= ∴ 𝑥=
 Sli.do Q1 What is the extension in the steel?
1. 0.45 mm
2. 0.045 mm
3. 0.95 mm
4. 0.095 mm
191
Example 2 - Series
 P = 20 kN
 What is the total extension?
 From previous lecture:
𝐸= ∴ 𝑥=
 Sli.do Q2 What is the extension in the aluminium?
1. 0.45 mm
2. 0.36 mm
3. 0.73 mm
4. 0.58 mm
192
Proved in recording 10
𝑒(𝐿) = 𝑑𝑥 =
𝐸𝐴(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐴(𝑥)
 A(x) is the variation of area along the length of the beam as a function of position x
 e(x) is the extension of the beam at position x (relative to starting point)
 F = force applied to the beam
 E = Young’s modulus
 Need to remember these – please add them to your crib sheet
193
Remember to use radians not degrees!

Example 4 1.25 m
 Beam with square cross section is attached to a fixed wall

 Width variation is unknown – length 1.25 m
 Steel E = 200 GPa 200 kN
 Tensile load of 200 kN applied
 The extension has been identified using Digital Image 𝑥
Correlation (DIC)
𝑥 s𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 = + × 10 +𝐶
2 4
 Where 𝑥 is the distance from the wall and C is an unknown

constant.
 A position 1 m from the wall the extension is 0.1 mm
 Find the extension at a point 0.5 m from the wall
194
Remember to use radians not degrees!
Example 4
 We know that 𝑒 1 = 0.1 mm therefore:
 Therefore:
195
Example 4
Steel E = 200 GPa
Load of 200 kN applied
𝑥 s𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 = + × 10 + 2.73 × 10 Sli.do Q3 What is w(x)?
2 4
1. 10cos x
2. 0.1cos x
 Find the variation of the cross sectional width 𝑤(𝑥)
3. 10sec x
 We know that the cross section is square therefore
𝐴 𝑥 = 𝑤(𝑥) 4. 0.1sec x
 From our previous derivations we know:
𝑑𝑒(𝑥) 𝐹
=
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐴(𝑥)
 Therefore:
𝑑𝑒(𝑥) 𝑑 𝑥 s𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥
= + × 10 + 2.73 × 10 = cos (𝑥) × 10
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 4
196
Summary
 Stress
and strain in variable
shapes
 Constant strain
 Constant stress
𝑒(𝐿) = 𝑑𝑥 =
 Variable cross sections 𝐸𝐴(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐴(𝑥)
197
Solid Mechanics 1
Stress and strain:
thermal and shear
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
198
Introduction
 Thermal strain
 Strain caused by a change in
temperature
 Coefficient of thermal expansion
𝜀 = 𝛼∆𝑇
 Shear stress/shear strain
 Strain caused by shearing forces
 Shear modulus
𝐺 =
199
What is thermal strain?

 When an object is heated – it expands
 When an object is cooled – it contracts
 Higher kinetic energy – increased vibrations – larger volume occupied
(by atoms)
 Examples 𝜀 = 𝛼∆𝑇
 Road bridge expansion gaps
 Glass cracking due to uneven thermal expansion when holding a hot liquid
 Strain is proportional to the change in temperature
Material 𝛼 (℃ )
 Constant of proportionality is the coefficient of
linear thermal expansion Diamond 1 × 10
Glass 9 × 10
 Greek letter alpha 𝛼
Concrete 12 × 10
 Units are ℃ or Kelvin-1 (K ) Stainless steel 17 × 10
 Typically on the order of 1 − 100 × 10 ℃ Aluminium 23 × 10

Water 69 × 10
200
Can we have a negative ?
 Some materials have very small or even
negative 𝛼
 Extremely rare
 For example zirconium tungstate
 𝛼 =≈ −10 × 10 ℃ (over limited temp range)
 Associated with structural rearrangement Tending towards

(smaller volume)
 Energy overcomes internal forces
 Groups of atoms rotate to reduce volume
 Useful to mix with a normal material to give an

effective 𝛼 = 0
201
Example 1 – self stressing

 Stainless steel bar between two rigid end plates
 E = 200 GPa
 𝛼 = 17 × 10 ℃
 Heated by 100℃
 What is the resultant stress within the bar?
 Elastic strain
 Thermal strain
 Total strain
202
Example 2 – 2 material system
 Three bars between 2 rigid (but moveable) end plates
 𝐸 = 200 GPa
 𝛼 = 17 × 10 ℃
 𝐸 = 70 GPa
 𝛼 = 23 × 10 ℃
 Total starting length = 1m
𝐴 = 0.02 m
 Heated by 100℃ 𝐴 = 0.03 m
 What is the resultant stress in the steel?
203

 What the bars want to do:
 But they are constrained:
 What actually happens:

 Steel is stretched
 Aluminium is compressed
204
 Total strain in aluminium
 Total strain in steel
 Constraints mean that strains are equal:
 Multiply through by Young’s moduli and rearranging:
205

 No external forces acting on the system
 Therefore force within aluminium must be equal and opposite to force in steel
 Substituting into previous equation:
 Rearranging gives:
206
Shear stress
 Shear stress – Greek symbol tau - 𝜏
 Defined 𝜏 =
 Units Pa – typically MPa
 Arises from a force acting parallel to

the cross sectional surface of a
material
207
Shear strain
 Shear stress – Greek symbol gamma - 𝛾
𝐿
 Defined based on ratio of displacement 𝐿 per unit height of
material 𝐿
𝐿 𝐿
= tan 𝛾
𝐿
 However 𝐿 ≪ 𝐿
𝐿
= tan 𝛾 ≈ 𝛾
𝐿
 Unitless
 Strain change induced by a force acting parallel to the cross

sectional surface of a material
 Sometimes diagram shown in alternative form
208
Shear modulus
 Shear modulus – Letter G
Material 𝑮 (𝑮𝑷𝒂)
 Defined as the ratio of shear stress to
Diamond 478
shear strain
Aluminium 26
𝜏 Steel 80
=𝐺
𝛾 Glass 26
Polyethylene 0.11
 Units Pa – typically GPa Rubber 6 × 10
209
Example 4
 Polyethylene block G = 110 MPa
 Calculate the shear stress A B
 Calculate the shear strain
A B
𝐿
40 mm
 How far does point A move?
210
Complementary shear stresses
𝐹 𝐹
 Consider a block of unit depth 1m
 In other words 1 m deep
 Height a, width b
a a
 No direct forces being applied (only shear)
 We apply a force 𝐹 to the top surface b b

𝐹 𝐹
𝜏 = =
1 𝑏 𝑏 𝐹 𝐹
𝜏
 Only other horizontal force is on lower surface – resolve for equilibrium
𝐹 =𝐹
 Acts over same area, therefore
𝜏 =
𝐹 𝐹
= =𝜏
a
1 𝑏 𝑏
 Shown that couple arises with equal and opposite shear stresses b
𝜏 =𝜏
211
Complementary shear stresses

𝐹
 However – we know that a couple leads to rotation
 There must be other forces on the other two faces
 These must have the same magnitude (𝐹 ) and are a Resultant
equal and opposite to each other moment
b
 From previous slide
 To find 𝐹 we now take moments 𝐹

𝐹
 Choose origin to be lower left corner
𝐹 𝑎 = 𝐹 (𝑏)
𝐹𝑎
𝐹 =
𝑏 𝐹
a 𝐹
 Shear stress from 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹𝑎 1 𝐹 b
𝜏 = = = = =𝜏
1 𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 O 𝐹
212
Complementary shear stresses y
x 𝜏
 Therefore the same shear stress is present on
all faces
 Convention
𝜏 a 𝜏
 Shear stress on surface y in x direction 𝜏
 Shear stress on surface x in y direction 𝜏
b
 However 𝜏 =𝜏
 Same is true in 3D 𝜏
 Label 𝜏 is the shear stress acting in the q

direction on a face whose normal is in the p
direction
 This is in the positive q direction if the normal to
the face is in the positive p direction
 This is in the negative q direction if the normal to
the face is in the negative p direction
213
Summary
𝜏
 Thermal strain
 Strain caused by a change in temperature
 Coefficient of thermal expansion 𝜏 a
 𝜀 = 𝛼∆𝑇 b
 Shear stress/shear strain 𝜏
 Shear modulus
 𝐺=
214
Solid Mechanics 1
Stress and strain:
thermal and shear
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
215
Introduction
 Sli.do questions
 Demo – bimetallic strip
216
 Three bars between 2 rigid (but moveable) end plates
 𝐸 = 200 GPa
 𝛼 = 17 × 10 ℃
 𝐸 = 70 GPa
 𝛼 = 23 × 10 ℃
 Total starting length = 1m
𝐴 = 0.02 m
 Heated by 100℃ 𝐴 = 0.03 m
 What is the resultant stress in the aluminium

 How far do the end plates move?
217

 Use to calculate stress in aluminium:
−𝜎 𝐴 −41.3 × 10 0.02 𝐸 = 200 GPa
𝜎 = = = −27.5 MPa 𝛼 = 17 × 10 ℃
𝐴 0.03
𝐸 = 70 GPa
 Strain in two beams are:
𝜎 𝜎 𝛼 = 23 × 10 ℃
𝜀 = + 𝛼 ∆𝑇 𝜀 = + 𝛼 ∆𝑇
𝐸 𝐸 ∆𝑇 = 100 ℃
 Q1 Sli.do What is the extension of the system (from 1m starting length)?
1. 0.21 mm
SM1-13
2. 0.81 mm
3. 1.21 mm
4. 1.91 mm
5. 2.11 mm
6. 2.41 mm
218
Demo – bimetallic strips
 Beam made up of 2 different materials
 Differing coefficient of thermal expansion in
each material
 Heating
 One side wants to expand more than the other
 Causes bending of the strip
 Uses:
 Thermometers
 Switches
 Irons
 Kettles
219
Example 3 – bimetallic strip

𝑡 = 0.5 mm
 0.5 mm of brass 𝛼 = 19 × 10 ℃
𝐿 𝑡
 0.5 mm of invar 𝛼 = 1.2 × 10 ℃ 𝑡
 Known radius of curvature = 50 cm
 Find the temperature change in the strip. 𝐿
𝜃
 Strain in brass: 𝑅
𝑥 𝑡 = 0.5 mm
𝜀 = 𝛼 ∆𝑇 =
𝐿
 Extended length:  Strain in invar:
𝑥
𝜀 = 𝛼 ∆𝑇 =
𝐿
𝐿 = 𝐿 + 𝑥 = 𝐿(1 + 𝛼 ∆𝑇)
 Extended length:
𝐿 = 𝐿 + 𝑥 = 𝐿(1 + 𝛼 ∆𝑇)
220
Example 3 – bimetallic strip
𝑡 = 0.5 mm
 Definition of arc:
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿
𝜃= 𝑡
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝑡
 Therefore:
𝐿 𝐿
𝜃= =
𝑅+𝑡 𝑅−𝑡 𝐿
𝐿 𝑅−𝑡 =𝐿 𝑅+𝑡 𝜃
𝑅
 Substituting from previous slide: 𝑡 = 0.5 mm
𝐿(1 + 𝛼 ∆𝑇) 𝑅 − 𝑡 = 𝐿(1 + 𝛼 ∆𝑇) 𝑅 + 𝑡 𝑡 +𝑡

∆𝑇 =
𝑅 𝛼 −𝛼 −𝛼 𝑡 −𝛼 𝑡
 Rearranging for ∆𝑇
0.5 × 10 + 0.5 × 10
∆𝑇 =
0.5 19 × 10 − 1.2 × 10 − 19 × 10 0.5 × 10 − 1.2 × 10 0.5 × 10
𝛼 ∆𝑇 𝑅 − 𝑡 − 𝛼 ∆𝑇 𝑅 + 𝑡 = 𝑅+𝑡 −𝑅+𝑡
∆𝑇 = 112 ℃
∆𝑇 𝑅 𝛼 − 𝛼 − 𝛼 𝑡 − 𝛼 𝑡 =𝑡 +𝑡
221
Example 5
 We need to bolt two sheets of metal together
𝐹
 Two design ideas 𝐹
 Design 1 – £20
Design 1
 Design 2 – £50
Cost £20
 The steel bolts have a diameter of 5 mm
𝐹 𝐹
 Shear strength of 630 MPa
 Applied force of 12 kN
Design 2
 Which design is optimal? Cost £50
222
Example 5 – design 1 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟 = 2.5 mm
𝜏 = 630 MPa
 Shear will take place along line DD’
𝐹 = 12 kN
 Free body diagram of bolt C shown
 Shear force 𝑃 can be found by resolving forces
𝐹
𝐹=𝑃
 This corresponds to a shear stress of:
𝑃 𝐹 12000 𝑃
𝜏 = = = = 611 MPa 𝐹
𝐴 𝜋𝑟 𝜋 0.0025
223
Example 5 – design 2 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟 = 2.5 mm

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 630 MPa
 Shear will take place along lines MM’ and NN’
𝐹 = 12 kN
 Free body diagram of bolt L shown
 Shear force 𝑃 can be found by resolving forces 𝐹
𝐹
𝐹 =𝑃 +𝑃 ∴ 𝑃 = 0.5𝐹
 This corresponds to a shear stress of:

𝑃
𝑃 𝐹 12000
𝜏 = = = = 306 MPa 𝑃
𝐴 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋 0.0025
224
Example 5 – decision
 Shear strength of 630 MPa Criterion Design 1 Design 2
 Sli.do Q2 Which design would you choose? 𝜏 (MPa) 611 306
1. Design 1 Cost (£) 20 50
𝐹
𝐹
Design 1
2. Design 2
𝐹 𝐹
Design 2
225
Summary
𝜏
 Thermal strain
 Strain caused by a change in temperature
 Coefficient of thermal expansion 𝜏 a
 𝜀 = 𝛼∆𝑇 b
 Shear stress/shear strain 𝜏
 Shear modulus
 𝐺=
226
Solid Mechanics 1
Stress and strain in 2D
and 3D
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
227
Introduction
 Stress and strain in 2D and 3D
 What happens when we cut in

different orientations
 Relations between direct and shear

stress
 Relationship between shear

modulus and Young’s modulus
228
Stresses in 2D
 The stress that is present within a cross
section depends upon the plane of the
cut
 Varies with orientation
 Direct stress also results in shearing at
different angles
 Following analysis
 Known external stresses
 Convert to forces
 Use equilibrium to find corresponding
forces
 Convert back to stresses using new surface
areas
229
Example 1 – beam in tension

 Consider cube – cross sectional area 𝐴 𝜎
𝜎
 Uniform tensile stress 𝜎
𝐴
 What are the stresses at an angle of 45°?
 Convert to forces 𝐹 = 𝐴𝜎
𝐴𝜎 𝐴𝜎
 Section the block at angles of 45°
 Resolve forces along new face

−𝐴𝜎
−𝐴𝜎 cos 45 = =𝑆
2
𝐴𝜎 𝐹
 Resolve forces perpendicular to new face
𝐴𝜎 𝑆
𝐴𝜎 cos 45 = =𝐹
2 45°
230
Example 1 – beam in tension
𝐴𝜎 𝐹
−𝐴𝜎 𝐴𝜎 𝐴
=𝑆 & =𝐹 𝑆
2 2
45°
 New area 𝐴 = = 2𝐴
𝜎 𝜎
 Convert back to stresses
𝐹 𝐴𝜎 1 𝜎 𝜏
𝜎 = = =
𝐴 2 𝐴 2 2 45°
𝑆 −𝐴𝜎 1 −𝜎
𝜏 = = = 𝜎
𝐴 2 𝐴 2 2 𝜎
2
 Can now draw new magnitudes back on the block −𝜎
2
45°
231
Example 2 – tension + compression

𝜎
 We can do the same thing for a cube
experiencing 2 stresses 𝜎 𝜎
𝐴𝜎
 Same magnitude – tension in x direction,
compression in y direction
𝐴
 Convert to forces 𝐹 = 𝐴𝜎
𝜎
𝐴𝜎 𝐴𝜎
 Section the block at angles of 45°
 Resolve forces along new face 𝐹

𝐴𝜎
−2𝐴𝜎
−𝐴𝜎 cos 45 − 𝐴𝜎 cos 45 = =𝑆 𝑆
2
45°
 Resolve forces perpendicular to new face 𝐴𝜎
𝐴𝜎 cos 45 − 𝐴𝜎 cos 45 = 0 = 𝐹
𝐴𝜎
232
Example 2 – tension + compression
−2𝐴𝜎 𝐴𝜎 𝐹
=𝑆 & 0=𝐹
2 𝑆 𝐴
45°
 New area 𝐴 = = 2𝐴
𝐴𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝜏
𝐹 1 45°
𝜎 = =0 =0
𝐴 𝐴 2
𝑆 −2𝐴𝜎 1 𝜎
0
𝜏 = = = −𝜎 𝜎
𝐴 2 𝐴 2
−𝜎
 Can now draw new magnitudes back on the block
45°
 Only shear stress present at 45°

𝜎
233
General result 𝜎
𝜎 𝜎
 Can generalise for stresses 𝜎 in x direction and 𝜎 in
y direction and angle 𝜃 for cut
 Areas will now differ between horizontal and vertical
– not a 45° cut 𝜎
𝜃 𝐴
 Define A as diagonal area (rather than left/bottom) 𝐴 cos 𝜃
 Convert to forces 𝐹 = A cos 𝜃 𝜎 and 𝐹 = A sin 𝜃 𝜎

𝐴 sin 𝜃
 Section the block at angles of θ
 Resolve forces along new face 𝐴𝜎 cos 𝜃 𝜃 𝐹
− 𝐴𝜎 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 + (𝐴𝜎 sin 𝜃) cos 𝜃 = 𝑆 𝑆
 Resolve forces perpendicular to new face

(𝐴𝜎 cos 𝜃) cos 𝜃 + (𝐴𝜎 sin 𝜃) sin 𝜃 = 𝐹 𝐴𝜎 sin 𝜃
234
General result
− 𝐴𝜎 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 + (𝐴𝜎 sin 𝜃) cos 𝜃 = 𝑆
𝐴𝜎 cos 𝜃 𝜃 𝐹
(𝐴𝜎 cos 𝜃) cos 𝜃 + (𝐴𝜎 sin 𝜃) sin 𝜃 = 𝐹
𝑆
 New area 𝐴 = 𝐴

𝐴𝜎 sin 𝜃
𝐹
𝜎 = = 𝜎 cos 𝜃 + 𝜎 sin 𝜃
𝐴
𝜎
𝑆 𝜎 𝜃
𝜏 = = 𝜎 −𝜎 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝐴 𝜏
 Good idea to write these on crib sheet

𝜎
 However I understand this proof is complex – there is a
quicker way!
235
Mohr’s circle of stress

 We will be looking at Mohr’s circle for
applied direct stresses only
 Only in 2D
 Will cover in more detail next semester
 Simple strategy for finding shear and
direct stresses at an angle theta
 Christian Otto Mohr
236
Mohr’s circle strategy
1. Draw axis of shear stress against
direct stress
 Shear axis is negative direction
2. Mark two points on the 𝜎 axis at 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝜎 and 𝜎
3. Draw a circle between the two
points 𝜎 +𝜎
2
 Centred on the 𝜎 axis at midpoint 𝜎
𝜎 𝜎
 With a radius equal to - i.e. 𝜏
magnitude of this number

𝜎
237

4. Find the angle 𝜃 from the x direction
and the new surface normal 𝜏
5. Identify if it is clockwise or
2𝜃
anticlockwise 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝜎
6. Starting at 𝜎 find the point 2𝜃
around the circle in the same Normal to
direction new
𝜎 surface
7. Read off the direct stress and shear
𝜃
stress at this point to give solution 𝜎
𝜃 𝜎
 Note that 𝜏 is negative as the axis is 𝜏
flipped
𝜎
238
𝜎
Example 3 𝜎 𝜎
 Determine the direct and shear stress at 45°

 Same as example 2
𝜎
1. Draw axis of shear stress against direct
𝑟=𝜎
stress
𝜎 = −𝜎
2. Mark two points on the 𝜎 axis at 𝜎 and 𝜎 𝜎
𝜎 =𝜎
3. Draw a circle between the two points
 Centered on origin as = =0
 Radius =𝜎
𝜏
239
Example 3 𝜎 𝜎
45°
4. Angle 𝜃 = 45° from the x direction

and the new surface normal
𝜎
5. Angle is anticlockwise
𝑟=𝜎
6. Starting at 𝜎 find the point 2𝜃 = 90° 2𝜃 = 90°
around the circle in the same
direction 𝜎 = −𝜎
𝜎 =𝜎 𝜎
0
𝜎 = 0 and 𝜏 = −𝜎 −𝜎
45°
(as before)
𝜎 𝜏
240
𝜎
Example 4 𝜎 𝜎
60°
 Determine the direct and shear stress at 60°

 Same stress state as example 3 – can therefore
reuse Mohr’s circle 𝜎
4. Angle 𝜃 = 60° from the x direction and the new
surface normal
2𝜃 = 120°
5. Angle is anticlockwise 𝜏
6. Starting at 𝜎 find the point 2𝜃 = 120° around 𝜎 = −𝜎
the circle in the same direction
𝜎 𝜎 =𝜎 𝜎
7. Read off the direct stress and shear stress with −𝜎
trigonometry at this point to give solution 2
−𝜎 𝜎
𝜎 = −𝜎 cos 60 = − 3𝜎
2 2 𝑟=𝜎
− 3𝜎 60°
𝜏 = −𝜎 sin 60 =
2
𝜎 𝜏
241
Relationship between shear modulus

(G) and Young’s modulus (E)
0
 From 45° result on 𝜎 = 𝜎 and 𝜎 𝜎
𝜎 = −𝜎 𝜎
−𝜎
 We know that the shear stress is 45° 45°

− 𝜎 acting along surface
𝜎 𝜎
 Can flip the sign to make a
positive stress in opposite
𝑎
direction 𝑎
 Now consider a small square of 𝑎 𝑎

size a on the surface of the
sample
242
Relationship between G and E
 Square is experiencing pure shear
 From proof last time – shear on 1
surface leads to equal shear on 3
other surfaces as shown
 Strain will act to compress

vertically and lengthen
horizontally
 Compare to definition of shear

strain (previous lecture)
 Angle reduces from to −
243

 Length from A to C is twice length from center to A
𝜋 𝛾
𝐴𝐶 = 2 𝐴𝑂 = 2𝑎 cos −
4 2 𝑂
𝜋 𝛾 𝜋 𝛾
𝐴𝐶 = 2𝑎 cos cos + sin sin
4 2 4 2
 But is very small, we can make the approximations

𝛾 𝛾 𝛾
cos ≈ 1 & sin ≈
2 2 2
 We can therefore say
𝜋 𝛾 𝜋 2𝑎 𝛾 𝛾
𝐴𝐶 ≈ 2𝑎 cos + sin ≈ 1+ ≈ 𝑎 2 1+
4 2 4 2 2 2
244
𝛾
𝐴𝐶 ≈ 𝑎 2 1+
2
 The original length 𝐴𝐶 was: 𝑂
𝐴𝐶 = 𝑎 +𝑎 =𝑎 2
 Therefore considering strain in the x direction

𝛾
𝐴𝐶 − 𝐴𝐶 𝑎 2 1+ −𝑎 2 𝛾 a a
𝜀 = = 2 =
𝐴𝐶 𝑎 2 2
𝐴𝐶
C A
 From the definition of shear modulus:
𝜏 𝜏 𝛾 𝜏
𝐺= ∴ 𝛾= ∴ 𝜀 = = a a
𝛾 𝐺 2 2𝐺
245

 We know the magnitude of 𝜏 = 𝜎, therefore:
𝜏 𝜎 𝜎
𝜀 = =
2𝐺 2𝐺 𝜎
 Going back to our definition for strain in 2D: 45°
𝜎 𝜈𝜎
𝜀 = −
𝐸 𝐸 𝜎
 In this case 𝜎 = 𝜎 and 𝜎 = −𝜎, therefore:

𝜎 𝜈𝜎 𝜎 1 + 𝜈 It should be noted that this
𝜀 = + = relationship is only true for
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
isotropic materials. In other
 Comparing top and bottom expressions for 𝜀 gives: words, the same mechanical
properties in all directions (E and
𝜎 𝜎 1+𝜈 𝐸 𝜈) can be used to describe all
𝜀 = = ∴ 𝐺= behaviour.
2𝐺 𝐸 2 1+𝜈
246
Summary
𝐸
𝐺=
 What happens when we cut in
2 1+𝜈
different orientations
 Relations between direct and shear

stress – Mohr’s circle
 Relationship between shear

modulus and Young’s modulus
247
Solid Mechanics 1
Stress and strain in 2D
and 3D
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
248
Introduction
 Example sheet
 Exam question
249

1. Draw axis of shear stress against
direct stress
2. Mark two points on the 𝜎 axis at 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝜎 and 𝜎
3. Draw a circle between the two
points 𝜎 +𝜎
2
 Centred on the 𝜎 axis at midpoint 𝜎
𝜎 𝜎
 With a radius equal to - i.e. 𝜏
magnitude of this number

𝜎
250
4. Find the angle 𝜃 from the x direction
and the new surface normal
𝜏
5. Identify if it is clockwise or
2𝜃
anticlockwise 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝜎
6. Starting at 𝜎 find the point 2𝜃
around the circle in the same Normal to
direction new
𝜎 surface
𝜃
𝜃 𝜎
 Note that 𝜏 is negative as the axis is 𝜏
flipped
𝜎
251
Example 1
A cube of material is experiencing a
tensile stress of 2σ in the x direction and a 𝜎
compressive stress of σ in the vertical
direction.
θ°
a) Draw Mohr’s circle for the system
2𝜎 2𝜎
252
Example 1 SM1-14
Using this circle determine the direct and
shear stresses for when 𝜎
b) θ=45°
45°
Sli.do Q1 – What are the values of 𝜎 and 𝜏 ?
2𝜎 2𝜎
1. σ = 1.5σ and τ = −1.5σ
2. σ = 0.5σ and τ = −1.5σ
3. σ = 1.5σ and τ = 1.5σ
4. σ = 0.5σ and τ = −0.5σ
5. σ = −1.5σ and τ = −1.5σ
6. σ = 1.5σ and τ = 0.5σ 𝜎
253
Example 1
b) θ=30°
30°
2𝜎 2𝜎
1. σ = 0.75σ and τ = −1.5σ
2. σ = 1.25σ and τ = 3 3σ/4
3. σ = 0.75σ and τ = 1.5σ
4. σ = −1.75σ and τ = −1.5σ
5. σ = 0.75σ and τ = −3 3σ/4
𝜎
6. σ = 1.25σ and τ = −3 3σ/4
254
Example 2
A cube of material is experiencing a
compressive stress of 2σ in the x direction 𝜎
and a compressive stress of σ in the
vertical direction.
θ°
a) Draw Mohr’s circle for the system
2𝜎 2𝜎
255
Example 2
b) θ=60°
60°

2𝜎 2𝜎
1. σ = −0.75σ and τ = −0.5σ
2. σ = −1.25σ and τ = 3σ/4
3. σ = −0.75σ and τ = 0.5σ
4. σ = −1.75σ and τ = −0.5σ
5. σ = −0.75σ and τ = − 3σ/4
𝜎
6. σ = −1.25σ and τ = − 3σ/4
256
Exam question
ME10004 exam paper: Jan 2014
257
Solution
 We can consider the proof outlined previously to derive the following
expressions:
𝜎 = 𝜎 cos 𝜃 + 𝜎 sin 𝜃
𝜎
𝜏 = 𝜎 −𝜎 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
2𝜎
𝜎
 For this system where 𝜃 = 135°, 𝜎 = 2σ and 𝜎 = σ:
𝜏
𝜎 = 2σ cos 45 + σ sin 45 = 1.5σ
𝜏 = σ − 2σ sin 45 cos 45 = −0.5σ
258
Solution using Mohr’s circle
1. Draw axis of shear stress against direct stress 𝜎
2. Mark two points on the 𝜎 axis at 𝜎 = 2𝜎 and 𝜎 = 𝜎 𝜃 = 135° 2𝜎
3. Draw a circle between the two points 𝜎
 Centred on the 𝜎 axis at midpoint = 1.5𝜎 𝜏 𝜏
 With a radius equal to = 0.5𝜎
4. Angle 𝜃 = 135° from the x direction and the new 𝑟 = 0.5𝜎
surface normal
𝜎 =σ 𝜎
𝜎 𝜎 = 2σ
5. Angle is clockwise
6. Starting at 𝜎 find the point 2𝜃 = 270° around the
circle in the same direction
2𝜃 = 270°
7. Read off the direct stress and shear stress at this point
to give solution
𝜎 = 1.5𝜎 and 𝜏 = −0.5𝜎
259
Summary 𝐺=
𝐸
2 1+𝜈
 Example sheet
 Exam question
 Please complete this week’s individual Moodle
quiz – number 7 ahead of the in person tutorial
260
Solid Mechanics 1
Torsion
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
261
Introduction
 Torsion
 Main relationship
 Rotating systems
 Polar second moment of area
 Example sheet 5 - torsion
262
Examples of systems in torsion
 Rotating shafts
 Transmitting force/rotation
 Turbines shafts ME10004 exam paper: January 2015
 Wind
 Jet engines
263
Examples of systems in torsion

 Drive shafts
 Axels
 Gearboxes
 Propellers
264
Torsion relationships
𝛾
 Beam length L and radius r
Original Deformed
 Consider a rectangular section on
the surface of the tube
 Application of torsion causes a

shear strain of 𝛾
𝐴
 From the definition of shear strain 𝐶
𝐶𝐵
𝛾 ≈ tan 𝛾 = 𝐵
𝐿
 Therefore 𝐿
𝐶
𝛾𝐿 = 𝐶𝐵
𝐴 𝛾
𝐵
𝐿
265
Torsion relationships 𝐶
 From the previous slide 𝐵 𝜃
𝛾𝐿 = 𝐶𝐵 𝑟
 Examining the end of the tube
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 × 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝐶𝐵 = 𝑟𝜃
 Therefore
𝛾𝐿 = 𝑟𝜃
 Substituting for shear stress 𝐴

𝜏 𝜏 𝐶
𝐺= ∴ 𝛾=
𝛾 𝐺
𝑟𝜃 𝜏 𝜏 𝐺𝜃 𝐵
= ∴ =
𝐿 𝐺 𝑟 𝐿
𝐿
266
Shaft with applied torque
 Wall restraint is supplying torque
restraint
 No resultant force/rotation – must be

equal and opposite
 If we section the beam along its length
 Draw new free body diagrams for

either end
 Once again forces must be equal and

opposite
 Torque is being transmitted by shear

forces within the cross section
267
Sectioned shaft
 Torque is being transmitted by shear forces within the cross section
 We know shear force is max at edge and min at centre
 Therefore not constant
 Need to add up contributions of small elements
 Torque from small element:

𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝛿𝑇 = 𝜏 𝑑𝐴 × 𝑟 = 𝜏𝑟 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝐴
 Total torque is sum of all small elements
 Integrate over entire area A
𝑇= 𝜏𝑟 𝑑𝐴 𝜏 𝑑𝐴
268
Sectioned shaft
 From previously:
𝜏 𝐺𝜃 𝑟𝐺𝜃
= ∴ 𝜏= 𝐽= 𝑟 𝑑𝐴
𝑟 𝐿 𝐿
 Substituting into our expression for Torsion:
𝐺𝜃𝑟 𝐺𝜃 𝐺𝜃
𝑇= 𝜏𝑟 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑟 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑟 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐽
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
 Where J is the polar second moment of area of the cross section (more detail in 3 slides)
 Diving through by J:
𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝜏
= =
𝐽 𝐿 𝑟
269
Torsion fundamental relationship
𝑇 = torque
𝐽 = Polar second moment of area of cross-section
𝜏 = shear stress
𝑟 = radius being considered
𝐺 = shear modulus
𝜃 = angle of twist
𝐿 = shaft length being considered
270
Torsion fundamental relationship
 Shear stress varies linearly with radius
 Zero at centre
 Maximum on outer surface

SOLID MECHANICS 2
 Angle varies linearly with distance 𝜎 = direct stress
along shaft (of constant cross 𝑦 = distance from neutral axis
sectional area) 𝑀 = bending moment
𝐼 = second moment of area
 There is a similar relationship for direct 𝐸 = Young’s modulus
𝜌 = radius of curvature
stress (Solid Mechanics 2)
271
Polar second moment of area of a

cross section: J
 Analogies with moment of inertia 𝐼 (but not the same)
 This will be covered in dynamics 𝐽= 𝑟 𝑑𝐴
 Taken about an axis through the centre of rotation in a
direction perpendicular to the cross-section A
 Units are m
𝐼 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑀
𝐽
𝐽
272
Element in polar coordinates
𝑦
 Need to integrate over the area
𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝐴
 In 2D cartesian coordinates an element of area
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
 In polar coordinates
𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑟𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑟
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑟𝑑𝜃 𝑑r
𝑑𝜃 𝑟
273
Example calculation of J: annulus

 Annulus inner radius 𝑟 and outer radius 𝑟
𝐽= 𝑟 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑟 𝑟𝑑𝜃 𝑑r
𝑟
 Careful consideration of the limits 𝑟
274
Example calculation of J: rectangle
 Rectangle width 𝑏 and height ℎ - rotation about centre
𝑦
𝐽= 𝑟 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑥 𝑑y 𝑥 𝑟
ℎ
 Careful consideration of the limits

𝑏
𝑟
𝑦
𝑟 =𝑥 +𝑦
275
List of second moments of area
𝜋 𝑏ℎ + ℎ𝑏
𝐽= 𝑟 𝐽= 𝑏ℎ + ℎ𝑏
2 12 𝐽=
36
𝜋 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑎
𝜋 𝐽= 5 3
𝐽 = 𝑟 −𝑟 4 𝐽= 𝑎
2 8
276
Example 1
 Steel shaft
 Length 1.2 m
 Radius 20 mm
 G = 80 GPa
 Torque 200 Nm
 Find the max shear stress and twist at the end
 Max shear stress is on outer surface
277
Example 1
 Steel shaft
 Length 1.2 m
 Radius 20 mm
 G = 80 GPa
 Torque 200 Nm
 Rearrange equation again for twist at the end
278
Summary
 Torsion
Main relationship
Rotating systems
Polar second moment of area
279
Solid Mechanics 1
Torsion
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
280
Introduction
281
Example 1 SM1-15
𝜏 𝐺𝜃
=
𝑟 𝐿
 Holds at any radius r and at any length

along the shaft
 Torsion applied to a 5 cm diameter steel

bar 𝐺 = 80 GPa
 𝜃 = 0.1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 at 𝐿 = 1 𝑚
 Sli.do Q1 What is the shear stress on the

end of the bar on the outer surface?
1. 20 MPa 3. 200 MPa
2. 400 MPa 4. 40 MPa
282
Example 1
𝜏 𝐺𝜃
=
𝑟 𝐿
 𝜃 = 0.1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 at 𝐿 = 1 𝑚
 Sli.do Q2 What is the shear stress at

𝑟 = 1 cm halfway along the bar?
1. 80 MPa 3. 160 MPa
2. 40 MPa 4. 400 MPa
283
Example 2
 Find the max shear stress and twist
𝑇 = 1000 × 0.05 = 50 Nm
 Slid.do Q3 – What is the polar second
moment of area (J) for this shaft?
1. 5.21 × 10 m
2. 3.26 × 10 m
3. 3.26 × 10 m
4. 3.26 × 10 m
284
Example 2
𝑇 = 1000 × 0.05 = 50 Nm
 Slid.do Q4 – what is the maximum shear
stress in this shaft?
1. 18.4 MPa
2. 36.8 MPa
3. 73.6 MPa
4. 147 MPa
285
Example 2
𝑇 = 1000 × 0.05 = 50 Nm
 Slid.do Q5 – what is the maximum twist in
this beam?
1. 0.0115 rad
2. 0.0038 rad
3. 0.0076 rad
4. 0.0191 rad
286
Example 2
 We can now plot the variation of different
parameters as a function of position:
287
Example 2
288
Example 2
289
Summary
 Torsion
Main relationship
Rotating systems
Polar second moment of area
290
Solid Mechanics 1
Torsion Examples
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
291
Introduction
 Torsion
 More in depth problems
 Exam questions
292
Example 1
 Stepped steel shaft
 G = 70 GPa Shaft 1
Shaft 2
 Find max shear stress in both parts and
total angle of twist
𝜋0.03
𝐽 = = 1.27 × 10 m
2
 Find the polar second moment of
area for both shafts
𝜋0.02
𝜋𝑟 𝐽 = = 2.51 × 10 m
𝐽= 2
2
293
Example 1
 Find max shear stress in both parts Shaft 1
Shaft 2
 Max shear stress is on outer surfaces 𝜋0.03

𝐽 = = 1.27 × 10 m
2
2000 0.03
𝜏 = = 47.2 MPa
1.27 × 10 𝜋0.02
𝐽 = = 2.51 × 10 m
2
2000 0.02
𝜏 = = 159 MPa
2.51 × 10
294
Example 1
 Find the total twist Shaft 1
Shaft 2
 Find twist on each shaft
2000 0.3 𝜋0.03

𝜃 = = 6.74 × 10 rad 𝐽 = = 1.27 × 10 m
70 × 10 1.27 × 10 2
2000 0.2
𝜃 = = 2.27 × 10 rad 𝜋0.02
70 × 10 2.51 × 10 𝐽 = = 2.51 × 10 m
2
𝜃 = 𝜃 + 𝜃 = 2.95 × 10 rad
295
Example 4
 2 m long steel driveshaft is required
𝑟
 Maximum weight is 30 kg
0.9a s
 𝜌 = 8050 kg m , 𝐺 = 80 GPa
a c
 Shear yield stress 𝜏 = 175 MPa
 Three options for cross section s
 Which is best? Annulus Circular Square
 Determine values for a, c and s
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 J for a square cross section
𝑚 = 𝜌 𝐿 𝐴 = 30 = 8050 2 𝐴
𝐴 = 1.86 × 10 m 𝑠 0.0432
𝐽 = = = 5.78 × 10 m
6 6
 For square cross section
𝑠 = 1.86 × 10
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑠 = 0.0432 m 𝑟 = + = = 0.0304 m
2 2 2
296
Example 4
𝐴 = 1.86 × 10 m2
𝑟
 For circular cross section s
0.9a
𝜋𝑐 = 1.86 × 10 a c
𝑐 = 0.0244 m = 𝑟
𝜋𝑐 𝜋0.0244 s
𝐽 = = = 5.53 × 10 m
2 2  Max power means maximum torque for a
 For annular cross section given frequency
𝜋 𝑎 − 0.9𝑎 = 0.19𝜋𝑎 = 1.86 × 10 𝑃 =𝑇 𝜔
𝑎 = 0.0559 m = 𝑟  Determine an expression for 𝑇
𝜋 𝑎 − 0.9𝑎 𝜋 0.0559 − 0.0503 𝜏 𝐽
𝐽 = = 𝑇 =
2 2 𝑟
𝐽 = 5.26 × 10 m
297
Example 4 𝑟
0.9a s
a c
 𝜏 = 175 MPa
s
 𝑟 0.0559 m 0.0244 m 0.0304 m
 𝐽 5.26 × 10 m 5.53 × 10 m 5.78 × 10 m
 𝑇 = 16.4 kNm 3.97 kNm 3.33 kNm
 Therefore annular cross section allows us carry the most power without yielding
298
Exam question 2014/2015
 Stepped shaft at D1 and D2
 Motor M provides 5 kW at 80 rev s-1
 Two cables have same tension
 D1 radius = 48 mm
 D2 radius = 24 mm
 G = 28 GPa
 As a function of distance x from
the motor draw the variation of:
 Torque
 Maximum shear stress
 Angular twist (in degrees) relative
to the motor end,
299

 Angular frequency:
𝜔 = 𝑓 2𝜋 = 80 2𝜋 = 502 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠
 Total torque:
𝑃 5000
𝑃 = 𝜔𝑇 ∴ 𝑇 = = = 9.95 Nm
𝜔 502
 Force at D1 and D2 are equal
𝐹 =𝐹
 D1 radius = 48 mm and D2 radius = 24 mm, therefore
𝑇 = 138 0.048 = 6.63 Nm
𝑇 = 𝐹 0.048 𝑇 = 𝐹 0.024
𝑇 = 𝑇 + 𝑇 = 𝐹 0.048 + 𝐹 0.024 𝑇 = 138 0.024 = 3.32 Nm
𝑇 = 9.95 = 𝐹 0.048 + 𝐹 0.024 = 0.072 𝐹
𝐹 = 𝐹 = 138 N
300
9.94
T (Nm)
3.31
1 2 x (m) 3
301

 Polar second moment of area for a cylindrical cross section:
𝜋𝑟
𝐽=
2
 General expression for shear stress
𝑇𝑟 𝑇𝑟 2𝑇
𝜏= = =
𝐽 𝜋𝑟 𝜋𝑟
2
 First shaft
2𝑇 2 9.95
𝜏 = = = 6.33 MPa
𝜋𝑟 𝜋 0.01
 Second shaft
2𝑇 2 3.32
𝜏 = = = 4.12 MPa
𝜋𝑟 𝜋 0.008
302
6.33
𝜏 (MPa)
4.12
1 2 x (m) 3
303

 Polar second moment of area for a cylindrical cross section:
𝜋𝑟
𝐽=
2
 General expression for angular rotation
𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐿 2𝐿𝑇
𝜃= = =
𝐽𝐺 𝐺𝜋𝑟 𝐺𝜋𝑟
2
 At D1
2𝐿𝑇 2 1 9.95
𝜃 = = = 0.0226 rad = 1.30°
𝐺𝜋𝑟 28 × 10 𝜋 0.01
 Rotation from D1 to D2
2𝐿𝑇 2 1 3.32
𝜃 = = = 0.0184 rad = 1.05°
𝐺𝜋𝑟 28 × 10 𝜋 0.008
𝜃 =𝜃 +𝜃 = 1.30 + 1.05 = 2.35°
304
2.35
𝜃 (degrees)
1.30
1 2 x (m) 3
305
Summary
 Torsion
 Exam questions
306
Solid Mechanics 1
Torsion Examples
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
307
Introduction
 Torsion
 Exam questions
308
Example 2
 Hollow shaft
 Outer diameter = 100 mm
 Wall thickness = 5 mm
 Rotates at 2 Hz
 Max allowable shear stress is 100 MPa
 What is the maximum torque and the power transmitted?
 We will need the relationship between power and torque:

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 × 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔
 𝜔 is in 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠 to convert from frequency to angular speed:

𝜔 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 2𝜋 = 2 2𝜋 = 12.5 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠
309
Example 2 SM1-16
 Hollow shaft
 Outer diameter = 100 mm
 Wall thickness = 5 mm
 Sli.do Q1 – What is J for this shaft?
1. 5.40 × 10 m
2. 3.37 × 10 m
3. 5.80 × 10 m
4. 2.91 × 10 m
310
Example 2
 What is the maximum torsion?
𝑇𝑟
𝜏= 𝜏 ≤ 100 MPa
𝐽
𝑇𝑟
≤ 100 MPa
𝐽
 Max torsion on outer surface
100 × 10 𝐽
𝑇≤ 𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔
𝑟
100 × 10 3.37 × 10 𝑃 ≤ 6775 × 12.5

𝑇≤
0.05
𝑇 ≤ 6775 Nm 𝑃 ≤ 85.0 kW
311
Example 3
 Turbo-generator
 Output power P=20 MW at angular frequency
= 3000 𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑚𝑖𝑛
 Assume 100% efficient
 Coupling is a hollow steel shaft
 Density 𝜌 = 7800 𝑘𝑔 𝑚
 G = 80 GPa
 Length L= 2m
 Outer diameter D = 200 mm
 Following requirements:
 Mass < 220 kg
 Shear stress < 60 MPa
Need to find a suitable inner diameter
 Twist < 1 degree
312
Example 3
 From mass limits:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝜋
𝑉= 𝑑 −𝑑 ×𝐿
4
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝜋𝐿
𝑀= 𝑑 − 𝑑 × 𝜌 ≤ 220 𝑘𝑔
4
220 4 220 4
𝑑 −𝑑 ≤ = = 0.0180
𝜋𝐿𝜌 𝜋 2 7800
0.2 − 𝑑 ≤ 0.0180
0.2 − 0.0180 ≤ 𝑑
Need to find a suitable inner diameter
𝑑 ≥ 0.148 m
313
Example 3
 Find the angular speed from angular frequency of
3000 𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑚𝑖𝑛 :
𝑎𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) 3000
𝑅𝑜𝑡 𝑠 = = = 50 𝑠
60 𝑠 60
𝜔 = 𝑓 2𝜋 = 50 2𝜋 = 314 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠
 Find the torque from power:

𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔
𝑃 20 × 10
𝑇= = = 63700 Nm
𝜔 314
 Find expression for J:
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 Need to find a suitable inner diameter
𝐽= 𝑟 −𝑟 = 𝑑 −𝑑 = 0.2 − 𝑑
2 32 32
314
Example 3
𝑇 = 63700 Nm 𝐽= 0.2 − 𝑑 𝜏 = 60 × 10
 Sli.do Q2 What diameter limit is associated with

the shear stress limit?
1. 𝑑 ≥ 0.151 3. 𝑑 ≥ 0.155
2. 𝑑 ≤ 0.151 4. 𝑑 ≤ 0.155
315
Example 3
𝜋
𝑇 = 63700 Nm 𝐽= 0.2 − 𝑑
32
 What diameter limit is associated with the twist?
𝑇𝐿 𝜋
𝜃= ≤
𝐽𝐺 180
𝜋 180𝑇𝐿 180 63700 2

0.2 − 𝑑 =𝐽≥ = = 9.12 × 10 0.2 − 9.29 × 10 ≥𝑑
32 𝜋𝐺 𝜋 80 × 10
32 6.71 × 10 ≥𝑑
0.2 − 𝑑 ≥ 9.12 × 10 = 9.29 × 10
𝜋
𝑑 ≤ 0.161 m
316
Example 3
 From mass
𝑑 ≥ 0.148 m
 From shear strength
 From twist
𝑑 ≤ 0.161 m
 Therefore need to choose a value in the range:
317
Example 4
 2 m long steel driveshaft is required
 Maximum weight is 30 kg
 𝜌 = 8050 kg m , 𝐺 = 80 GPa
0.9a
 Shear yield stress 𝜏 = 175 MPa a
 Shown than annular cross section is optimal
 What is the twist at yield?
𝜏 = 175 Mpa
Annular cross
section
𝑟 = 0.0559 m
𝐽 = 5.26 × 10 m
𝜏 𝐽
𝑇 = = 16.4 kNm
𝑟
318
Example 4
𝜏 = 175 MPa 𝐺 = 80 GPa 𝑎 = 0.0559 m L = 2m
 Sli.do Q3 What is the total twist at yield for the annular cross section?
1. 0.039 rad
2. 0.078 rad
3. 0.117 rad
4. 0.156 rad
319
Summary
 Torsion
 Exam questions
 Please complete this week’s individual Moodle quiz –
number 8 ahead of the in person tutorial
320
Solid Mechanics 1
Revision 1
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
321
Introduction 𝑅
 Revision class 𝐹
 Summary sheet
𝛼
 Equilibrium and forces
 Pin jointed structures 𝑚𝑔

 Stress, strain, Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio
 Stress and strain in ‘variable’ shapes
 Thermal and shear stress
 Torsion
322
Summary Sheets
 Key messages from the course
 Use during revision and production of
crib sheet
 Note: Please do not use this in
isolation, you also need to use and
understand the lecture notes,
including several larger proofs which
are not in this summary
323
Forces & moments

 Have a magnitude and direction
 Equilibrium is obtained when resultant force is 0
 Resultant force is obtained by adding forces geometrically or algebraically
 Moment is force times perpendicular distance from the line of action
324
Forces & moments
 Friction 𝐹≤𝜇𝑅 where 𝜇 is the coefficient of
friction and R is the reaction
 Free body diagrams – split up and draw all 𝑅
external forces
 Strategy for resolving forces 2D 𝐹
 Draw free body diagram of the entire system +
each body individually
 For each free body diagram

𝛼
 Resolve forces twice in 2 perpendicular directions
(choose orientations strategically) 𝑚𝑔
 Take moments once (select point strategically)
325
 Grounding points – 2 main ones for this course
 Tension in beams is positive and shown as arrows
pointing towards beam center
 The strategy for pin-jointed structures

 Resolve twice and take moments to determine
reaction forces
2. Draw the free body diagram for each node of
interest
 Start least number of unknowns + choose orientation
carefully
326
 Zero force members simplify your calculations
 Solve for external reactions using normal approach
 Cut max of 3 beams (exceptions in some cases) and
redraw free body diagram with beam forces
 Resolve and moments for these values
 Statical determinacy – n=nodes, m=members,
r=reactions
 2n = m+r statically determinate
 2n <m+r statically indeterminate
 2n>m+r mechanism
 Be careful! Consider the actual structure as it can be a
mix
327
Stress and strain

 Hooke’s law F=kx k = spring stiffness, x=extension
 Stress 𝜎 = (MPa)
 Strain 𝜀 = (unitless)
/
 Young’s modulus 𝐸 = = = =
/
 Material dependent parameter, in elastic region
 A - Yield point
 End of linearity
 Transition from elastic to plastic
 B – Ultimate Tensile stress/Strength
 Necking begins + max stress
 C – Fracture
 Max strain
 P – Generic point
 Tangent modulus is the gradient of tangent at P
 Secant modulus is the gradient of line OP
328
Stress and strain
 Proof stress – estimate of yield
 Line gradient E from 0.2%
 Tension +ve compression -ve
 Poisson’s ratio ν – approx. 0.33 (unitless)
 Ratio of direct to perp strain
∆
 =𝜀 +𝜀 +𝜀
∆
 Bulk modulus K = for isotropic materials such that: = 𝜎/𝐾
1D stress 2D stress 3D stress
𝜎 𝜎 𝜈𝜎 𝜎 𝜈𝜎 𝜈𝜎
𝜀 = 𝜀 = − 𝜀 = − −
𝜈𝜎 𝜎 𝜈𝜎 𝜎 𝜈𝜎 𝜈𝜎
𝜀 =− 𝜀 = − 𝜀 = − −
𝜈𝜎 𝜈𝜎 𝜈𝜎 𝜎 𝜈𝜎 𝜈𝜎
𝜀 =− 𝜀 =− − 𝜀 = − −
329
Stress and strain

 Total force is sum of forces in each material
 Constant strain
 Constant stress/force
 Variable cross sections

 Describe variation in length as a function of distance 𝑒(𝐿) = 𝑑𝑥 =
𝐸𝐴(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐴(𝑥)
 Use to determine A(x) as a function of distance
 Thermal strain 𝜀 = 𝛼∆𝑇 where 𝛼 is coefficient thermal expansion
 Typically 1 − 100 × 10 ℃
330
Stress and strain – shear + rotations
 Shear stress 𝜏 = (MPa)
 Shear strain =𝛾
 Shear modulus = 𝐺 (GPa)
 𝐺= for isotropic
materials
 Complementary shear
stresses
331

 2D stresses
 𝜎 = = 𝜎 cos 𝜃 + 𝜎 sin 𝜃
 𝜏 = = 𝜎 −𝜎 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
 Mohr’s circle (for 2D direct stresses only)
332
Torsion
 𝑇 = torque
 𝐽 = Polar second moment of area of cross-section
 𝑟 = radius being considered
 𝜃 = angle of twist
 𝐿 = shaft length being considered
 Deriving J for new geometries
 Power = Torque x angular

frequency (𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔)
333
Semester Vacation
 Over the semester vacation please:
 Practice old exam questions from the library
 Put together your crib sheet for the exam
 Review the notes and make your own key points list
 Make use of the summary sheets
 Complete and review all of the tutorial sheets
 Review note error list on the Moodle page
 Fill in the Unit Evaluation
334
Summary 𝑅
 Revision class 𝐹
 Summary sheet
𝛼

 Torsion
335
Solid Mechanics 1
Revision 1
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
336
Introduction 𝑅
 Recording 21 – revision of all topics 𝐹

 Today - example problems
𝛼

 Torsion
337
Summary Sheets
 Key messages from the course
 Use during revision and production of
crib sheet
 Note: Please do not use this in
isolation, you also need to use and
understand the lecture notes,
including several larger proofs which
are not in this summary
338
Forces & moments example
question
 A hydraulic jack has a handle length of 1 m which is used to
compress a 5 cm piston at a distance of 20 cm from the pivot. 𝐹
The load cylinder has an area of 50 cm and is being used to lift

the edge of a car which has a wheelbase of 1.5 m and a 20 kN 𝑂
weight of 20 kN. Determine the force required on the end of 1.5 m

𝐹
the jack to raise the car. 𝐹
 Moments about point O 1m

20 cm
𝐹 1.5 = 2 × 10 0.75 50 cm
𝐹 = 1 × 10 N 𝐹
5 cm
339
Forces & moments example

question SM1-21
 Determine required pressure inside jack
𝐹 1 × 10
𝑃= = = 2 MPa 𝐹
𝐴 0.005
 Sli.do Q1 What is the force required on the handle?
20 kN 𝑂
1. 1000 N 3. 4000 N
2. 200 N 4. 500 N
1.5 m
𝐹
𝐹
1m
20 cm
50 cm
𝐹
5 cm
340
Pin-jointed structures example
question
𝑉 𝑉
 Members AC and BD have length 0.5m and the
other members have length 1m.
 Find the forces in all nine members stating 𝐻
clearly whether each is tensile or compressive.
𝑉 + 𝑉 = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6 kN
𝐻 =0
 Moments about B
𝑉 1 + 3 0.5 = 2 1.5 + 1 0.5
𝑉 + 1.5 = 3 + 0.5 = 3.5
𝑉 = 2 kN
𝑉 = 6 − 𝑉 = 6 − 2 = 4 kN
341

question
𝑉 = 2 kN 𝑉 = 4 kN
 Resolving vertically at A ad B
𝑇 = 2 kN 𝑇 = 4 kN
 Resolving vertically at E
𝑇
𝑇 cos 30 = 2 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 = 2.31 kN
60°
 Resolving horizontally at E 𝑇
𝑇 cos 60 + 𝑇 =0
𝑇 = −1.15 kN
342
question
𝑇
 Resolving vertically at G 𝑇 60°

𝑇 cos 30 = 3
𝑇 = 3.46 kN
 Resolving horizontally at G
𝑇 cos 60 + 𝑇 = 0
𝑇 = −1.73 kN 𝑇 𝑇
 Resolving vertically at F
𝑇 cos 30 + 𝑇 cos 30 = 1 60°
𝑇 + 𝑇 = 1.15 60° 60°
 Resolving horizontally at F 1.15 1.73
1.15 + 𝑇 cos 60 = 1.73 + 𝑇 cos 60
𝑇 − 𝑇 = 1.15
𝑇 = 1.15 kN 𝑇 = 0 kN
343

question
 Sli.do Q2 What is 𝑇 ?
2
1. 1.15 kN
2. -1.15 kN
𝑇
3. 2.31 kN
60°
4. -2.31 kN
60°
0
2.31
344
Stress and strain example question
 A solid circular cylinder whose material has Young’s modulus E is stretched 𝑃
by an axial force P. Obtain an expression for the extension X(r,h) in terms of
the radius r of the cylinder, its height h, and the other parameters.
Sli.do Q3 What is the expression X(r,h)?

𝑟
1.
ℎ
2.
3.
4.
𝑃
345

 A test specimen made from a material for which E
= 70 GPa
 The specimen has height 100mm and a circular
cross-section whose radius varies parabolically
between 10mm and 20mm. Taking y as the vertical
distance (in metres) from the centre of the
specimen, the radius (in metres) r at height y is
given by
𝑟 = 4[ (0.05)2 + 𝑦2]
 The specimen is subjected to an axial load P which
stretches it.
 Find the extension for the specimen when the load
is P = 1kN, and check that it lies between the
extension of a uniform cylinders of radii 10mm and
20mm, that is X(0.01,0.1) and X(0.02,0.1) as in part
(a).
346
𝑃 0.1 1000 0.1
𝑋 0.01,0.1 = = = 4.55 × 10 m
𝐸𝜋0.01 70 × 10 𝜋 0.01
𝑃 0.1 1000 0.1

𝑋 0.02,0.1 = = = 1.14 × 10 m
𝐸𝜋0.02 70 × 10 𝜋 0.02
. .
𝐹 𝐹 1000
𝑋= 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐴 𝑥 . 𝐸𝜋𝑟(𝑥) . 70 × 10 𝜋(4[(0.05)2 + 𝑦2])
.
1000 1
𝑋= 𝑑𝑥 𝑎 = 0.05
70 × 10 𝜋 16 . ([(0.05)2 + 𝑦2])
347

.
1000 1
𝑋= 𝑑𝑥 𝑎 = 0.05
70 × 10 𝜋 16 . ([(0.05)2 + 𝑦2])
1000 1 𝑥 𝑎𝑥 .
𝑋= tan +
70 × 10 𝜋 16 2𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 +𝑥 .
1000 1 0.05 0.05 0.05 −0.05 −0.05 0.05

𝑋= tan + − tan +
70 × 10 𝜋 16 2 0.05 0.05 0.05 + 0.05 0.05 0.05 + 0.05
𝑋 = 2.92 × 10 m
348
example question
 A larger body contains an element which
is a cube. The only stresses acting on the
faces of this cube are a direct stress 2σ
and a direct stress of σ on the
perpendicular faces. Find (in terms of σ)
the direct stress σ1 acting on face ACGE
and the shear stress τ acting across this
face.
𝜎 = 2𝜎
𝜎 =𝜎
𝜎 = 𝜎 cos 𝜃 + 𝜎 sin 𝜃 𝜃 = 45°
𝜎 = 2𝜎 cos 45 + 𝜎 sin 45 = 1.5𝜎
𝜏 = 𝜎 − 𝜎 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝜏 = 𝜎 − 2𝜎 sin 45 cos 45 = −0.5𝜎
349

example question
 Using Mohr’s circle approach
we draw the following
𝜏
 𝜃 = 135° clockwise
2𝜃
 Read from diagram 𝜎 𝜎 2𝜎 𝜎
𝜎
𝜎 = 1.5𝜎
45°
2𝜎
𝜏 = −0.5𝜎
𝜎 𝜏
𝜏
350
Torsion example question
 Two square beams of side length a are attached at either end at a
distance a to produce a compound beam with the cross section show. 𝑎
The centre of rotation is at the origin. Find the polar second moment of
area of this beam.
0.5𝑎
𝐽= 𝑟 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
0.5𝑎 0.5𝑎
 Write down correct limits
. . . . 𝑎
𝐽= 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
. . . .
𝑎
. . .
𝑦 𝑦
𝐽= 𝑥 𝑦+ + 𝑥 𝑦+ 𝑑𝑥
. 3 .
3 .
351
Torsion example question

. . .
𝑦 𝑦
𝐽= 𝑥 𝑦+ + 𝑥 𝑦+ 𝑑𝑥
. 3 3 𝑎
. .
0.5𝑎
.
3𝑎𝑥 27𝑎 𝑎𝑥 𝑎 𝑎𝑥 𝑎 3𝑎𝑥 27𝑎
𝐽= + − − − − + + 𝑑𝑥 0.5𝑎 0.5𝑎
. 2 24 2 24 2 24 2 24
𝑎
. .
13𝑎 2𝑎𝑥 13𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 13𝑎 𝑎 13𝑎
𝐽= 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 = + = + + +
. 6 3 6 .
12 12 12 12 𝑎
7𝑎
𝐽=
3
352
Semester Vacation
 Over the semester vacation please:
 Practice old exam questions from the library
 Put together your crib sheet for the exam
 Review the notes and make your own key points list
 Make use of the summary sheets
 Complete and review all of the tutorial sheets
 Review note error list on the Moodle page
 Fill in the Unit Evaluation
353
Solid Mechanics 1
Past exam questions
ME10004
Semester 1 – 2020/2021
354
Introduction
 Past exam questions
355
Q1 2014
A pin-jointed structure is to be designed to carry a

smooth pulley of diameter 200mm. A cable is to pass
over the pulley in order to lift a load of weight W using
an electric motor M. The structure is to be made using
metal bar of cross-sectional area 20 mm2 and the direct
stress (tensile or compressive) in any member must not
exceed 100 MPa when the load is moving at constant
speed.
Two designs are proposed as shown in figure Q1. In both
cases, the lengths (between pivot points) of the
horizontal and vertical members are all 1m. It can be
assumed that the members, the pulley and the cable
are weightless.
356
Q1 2014
(a) Sketch the free body diagram of either structure (excluding the pulley). Find the
horizontal and vertical components of the support reactions, showing that the components
at the upper support both have magnitude W, and the reaction at the lower support has
magnitude 2W. [5 marks]
𝑉 W
 Resolve vertically 1 𝐶 1 𝐸
𝑅
𝑉 =𝑊
 Resolve horizontally 𝐴 W
𝑅 +𝑅 =𝑊
1
 Moments about A
𝑊 2 =𝑅 1
𝑅 = 2𝑊 𝑅
𝑅 = 𝑊 − 𝑅 = 𝑊 − 2𝑊 = −𝑊 𝐵
𝐷
357
Q1 2014
(b) Find the maximum load W that can be carried by each structure and hence suggest
which is the better design. [20 marks]
 At node E (same for both)
𝑊 + 𝑇 cos 45 = 0 W
𝑇 = − 2𝑊 𝑇 𝐸
𝑇 + 𝑊 + 𝑇 cos 45 = 0 W
𝑇 +𝑊−𝑊 =𝑇 =0 𝑇
 For design 1 at node A
W
 Resolving vertically 𝐴
𝑇 =𝑊 W
𝑇
𝑇 =𝑊
𝑇
358
Q1 2014 SM1-23
 At node B
𝑊 + 𝑇 cos 45 = 0
𝑇 = − 2𝑊 𝐵
W 0
𝑇 +𝑇 cos 45 = 0 𝑇
𝑇 =𝑊
𝑇
 Sli.do Q1 – What is 𝑇 ?
1. W W
2W
2. -W
𝑇
3. 2W
𝐷
4. - 2W
359
Q1 2014
 Therefore absolute maximum force for design 1 = 2𝑊
 Design 2 – 0 force members W

𝑉
𝑅 𝐶 𝐸
 Sli.do Q2 Which members are 0 force?
1. AB 𝐴 W
2. AC 𝐴
3. AD
4. BD
5. CD 𝑅
6. CE 𝐵 𝐷
7. DE
360
Q1 2014
1. W 0
𝑇 2W
2. -W
3. 2W 𝑇
4. -2W 𝐷
1. 2W
2. - 2W
3. 2W
4. -2W
361
Q1 2014
 (b) Find the maximum load W that can be carried by each structure and hence suggest
which is the better design. [20 marks]
𝐹 𝐹
𝜎 = 100 MPa = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 20 × 10
𝐹 = 100 × 10 20 × 10 = 2000 N
 For Design 1
𝐹 = 2𝑊 ∴ 𝑊 = 1414 N
 For Design 2
𝐹 = 2𝑊 ∴ 𝑊 = 1000 N
 Therefore design 1 is better as it can carry a larger load before failure (or have a higher safety
factor for a given load)
362
Q2 2014
(a) A cuboid of material is immersed in water and hence is subject to a uniform hydrostatic
pressure p. The volumetric strain is defined as the change in volume divided by the original
volume. Show that the volumetric strain is the sum εx + εy + εz of the strains in the three main
cartesian directions.
 From lecture 5:
 Extend length 𝑋 by increment ∆𝑋 Z
∆
𝑋 + ∆𝑋 = 𝑋 1 + =𝑋 1+𝜀 𝑌 + ∆𝑌 = 𝑌 1 + 𝜀 𝑍 + ∆𝑍 = 𝑍(1 + 𝜀 )
Y
 Now consider the volume 𝑉 = 𝑋𝑌𝑍
𝑉 + ∆𝑉 = 𝑋 + ∆𝑋 𝑌 + ∆𝑌 𝑍 + ∆𝑍
X
 Substitute from above
y z
𝑉 + ∆𝑉 = 𝑋 1 + 𝜀 𝑌 1 + 𝜀 𝑍 1 + 𝜀 = XYZ 1 + 𝜀 1+𝜀 1+𝜀
363
Q2 2014
 Substitute 𝑉 = 𝑋𝑌𝑍 and expand bracket
𝑉 + ∆𝑉 = V 1 + 𝜀 + 𝜀 + 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀
 Take 𝑉 from either side and divide through by 𝑉

Z
∆𝑉
=𝜀 +𝜀 +𝜀 +𝜀 𝜀 +𝜀 𝜀 +𝜀 𝜀 +𝜀 𝜀 𝜀
𝑉 Y
 However, 𝜀 ≪ 1, 𝜀 ≪ 1 and 𝜀 ≪ 1
X
∆𝑉
=𝜀 +𝜀 +𝜀 y z
𝑉
364
Q2 2014
Hence, show that the volumetric strain of the cuboid of material is −3𝑝(1 − 2𝜈) / 𝐸 where 𝐸 is the
Young's modulus of the material and 𝜈 its Poisson's ratio. [10 marks]
𝜎 = 𝜎 = 𝜎 = −𝑝
𝜀 = − −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
−𝑝 𝜈𝑝 𝜈𝑝 −𝑝
𝜀 = + + = 1 − 2𝜈
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎 𝜈𝜎 𝜈𝜎 −𝑝 𝜎 𝜈𝜎 𝜈𝜎 −𝑝
𝜀 = − − = 1 − 2𝜈 𝜀 = − − = 1 − 2𝜈
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
∆𝑉 −3𝑝
=𝜀 +𝜀 +𝜀 = 1 − 2𝜈
𝑉 𝐸
365
Q2 2014
A test component consists of a vertical cylinder of
phosphor-bronze surrounded by a tube of zinc
and a tube of steel. The cylinder and the tubes are
concentric and their ends are bonded to two
inflexible plates. At 20oC, the cylinder and tubes
have the same height. The table below gives E, α,
and the cross-sectional area A of each part.
The component is placed into an environment
where its temperature is raised by 50oC.
With some explanation, carefully form equations
which relate the direct stresses induced in the
three materials, and hence find those stresses.
[15 marks]
E α A
steel 200 GPa 10 × 10-6 K-1 0.0128 mm2
zinc 80 GPa 30 × 10-6 K-1 0.0415 mm2
phosphor-bronze 100 GPa 18 × 10-6 K-1 0.0380 mm2
366
Q2 2014
 Total strain in steel
𝜎
𝜀 = + 𝛼 ∆𝑇
𝐸
 Total strain in zinc
𝜎
𝜀 = + 𝛼 ∆𝑇
𝐸  Rearranging first two equations gives
 Total strain in phosphor bronze
𝜎 𝜎𝐸
𝜀 = + 𝛼 ∆𝑇 𝜎 = + 𝐸 ∆𝑇 𝛼 − 𝛼
𝐸 𝐸
 Constraints mean that strains are equal:
 Rearranging first and third equation gives

𝜀 =𝜀 =𝜀
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎𝐸
+ 𝛼 ∆𝑇 = + 𝛼 ∆𝑇 = + 𝛼 ∆𝑇 𝜎 = + 𝐸 ∆𝑇 𝛼 − 𝛼
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
367
𝜎𝐸
Q2 2014
𝜎 = + 𝐸 ∆𝑇 𝛼 − 𝛼
𝐸
𝜎𝐸
𝜎 = + 𝐸 ∆𝑇 𝛼 − 𝛼
𝐸
 No external forces acting on the system
 Therefore sum of stresses times area must be 0.
𝜎 𝐴 +𝜎 𝐴 +𝜎 𝐴 =0
 Substituting in from previous slide:
𝜎𝐸 𝜎𝐸
𝜎𝐴 + + 𝐸 ∆𝑇 𝛼 − 𝛼 𝐴 + + 𝐸 ∆𝑇 𝛼 − 𝛼 𝐴 =0
𝐸 𝐸
 Rearranging gives:
𝐴 𝐸 𝐴 𝐸
𝜎 𝐴 + + = ∆𝑇 𝐴 𝐸 𝛼 − 𝛼 +𝐴 𝐸 𝛼 −𝛼
𝐸 𝐸
368
Q2 2014
 Substituting numbers into the previous equation
𝜎 = 100 MPa
 Use this an input to:
𝜎𝐸
𝜎 = + 𝐸 ∆𝑇 𝛼 − 𝛼 = −40 MPa
𝐸
 As well as
𝜎𝐸
𝜎 = + 𝐸 ∆𝑇 𝛼 − 𝛼 = 10 MPa
𝐸
369
Q2 2015
A uniform steel cable of length a and cross-
sectional area A0 is hung down a mine shaft. The
cross-section can be assumed to be square. The
depth from the top of the cable is denoted by z.
For steel, the density is ρ, Young’s modulus is E,
and Poisson’s ratio is 𝜈; the acceleration due to
gravity is g.
The left part of figure Q2 shows the unstretched
cable with the typical point P at depth z. The
cable at P has to support the weight of the cable
below it. So, on the right of figure Q2, in the
stretched situation, point P has moved to depth
z+e(z) where e(z) is the extension of that part of the
cable between the top and P.
Show that the decrease in cross-sectional area at
P is: 2𝜈ρg(a – z)A0/E [10 marks]
370
Q2 2015
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴 = 𝑋𝑌
∆𝑋 ∆𝑌
𝐴 + ∆𝐴 = 𝑋 + ∆𝑋 𝑌 + ∆𝑌 = 𝑋𝑌 1 + 1+ 𝑌 A0
𝑋 𝑌
∆𝑋 ∆𝑌
𝜀 = 𝜀 = 𝑋
𝑋 𝑌
𝐴 + ∆𝐴 = 𝐴 1 + 𝜀 1+𝜀 = 𝐴 (1 + 𝜀 + 𝜀 + 𝜀 𝜀 )
∆𝐴 ∆𝐴
1+ =1+𝜀 +𝜀 +𝜀 𝜀 =𝜀 +𝜀
𝐴 𝐴
𝜀 ≪1 & 𝜀 ≪1
371
Q2 2015
 Volume below 𝑃 = 𝑎 − 𝑧 𝐴
 Load at 𝑃 = 𝑚𝜌𝑔 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑎 − 𝑧 𝐴
 Direct stress at 𝑃 = 𝜎 = = 𝜌𝑔 𝑎 − 𝑧
 Direct strain at 𝑃 = 𝜀 = =
𝑎
 Direct strain in x at 𝑃 = 𝜀 = −𝜈𝜀 =
 Direct strain in y at 𝑃 = 𝜀 = −𝜈𝜀 =
∆
 Change in area: = 𝜀 +𝜀 = + =
 Reduction in area = − ∆𝐴 =
372
Q2 2015
( – )
Show that the extension at P is: 𝑒(𝐿) = [15 marks]
From the notes we know: 𝑒(𝐿) = ∫ 𝑑𝑥

( )
However, in this case F is a function of z not A, 𝐹 = 𝐹 𝑥 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑎 − 𝑧 𝐴 and 𝐴 = 𝐴 , therefore:
𝐹 𝑧 𝜌𝑔 𝑎 − 𝑧 𝐴 𝜌𝑔 𝑧 𝜌𝑔 𝐿
𝑒 𝐿 = 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑎𝑧 − = 𝑎𝐿 −
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴 𝐸 2 𝐸 2
𝜌𝑔𝐿(2𝑎 – 𝐿)
𝑒(𝐿) =
2𝐸
373
Q3 2015
The propeller shaft of a ship is a hollow circular cylinder of length 10 m and internal diameter
d = 0.15 m. It transmits 7.5 MW of power at a rotary speed of 240 rev min-1. The shear
modulus for the material is G = 80 GPa. There are two design constraints: the shear stress in
the shaft must not exceed 150 MPa and the overall twist must not exceed 8 degrees.
If the outer diameter of the shaft is expressed as λd where λ is a constant, show that the
constraint on the shear stress means that λ4 – 3.00λ – 1 ≥ 0 [10 marks]
𝜔 = 240 𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4 𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑠 = 8𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠
𝑃 7.5 × 10
𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔 𝑇 = =
𝜔 8𝜋
𝜋
𝐽= 𝜆𝑑 −𝑑
32
374
Q3 2015
𝜏 = 150 MPa on outer surface 𝑟 =
 From torsion equation
𝜏 150 × 10 𝑇 7.5 × 10 32
= ≥ =
𝑟 𝜆𝑑 𝐽 8𝜋 𝜋 𝜆𝑑 −𝑑
2
 Simplifying
150 8𝜋 𝑑 𝜆 − 1 ≥ 7.5 𝜆𝑑 16
7.5 16
𝜆 −1 ≥𝜆 ≈ 3.00𝜆
150 8𝜋 0.15
𝜆 − 3.00𝜆 − 1 ≥ 0
375
Q3 2015
You may assume that: the real roots of the equation λ4 – 3.00λ – 1 = 0 are 1.54 and –0.33.
Select the outer diameter for the lightest shaft that satisfies both of the design constraints
and which is a whole number of centimetres. [15 marks]
 𝜆 > 1 therefore 𝜆 = 1.54 outer diameter = 𝜆𝑑 = 1.54 0.15 = 23.1 cm miniumum
 𝜃 = 8° = 0.139 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝐺𝜃 80 × 10 𝜃 𝑇 7.5 × 10 32
= ≥ =
𝐿 10 𝐽 8𝜋 𝜋0.15 𝜆 − 1
7.5 × 10 32 10
𝜆 −1 ≥ = 5.375
8𝜋 0.15 80 × 10 0.139
𝜆 ≥ 6.375
𝜆 ≥ 1.59 Whole number of
centimeters = 24 cm
 Therefore 𝜆𝑑 = 1.59 0.15 = 23.8 cm miniumum
376
Summary
 Past exam questions
 If you can answer these questions, then you should do well on the exam!
Best of luck!
377
University of Bath
ME10004: Solid Mechanics 1
Statics Summary Sheets
Dr Alexander Lunt (ajgl20@bath.ac.uk)
Forces & moments

• Have a magnitude and direction
• Equilibrium is obtained when resultant
force is 0
• Resultant force is obtained by adding
forces geometrically or algebraically
• Moment is force times perpendicular distance from line of action
• Friction 𝐹≤𝜇𝑅 where 𝜇 is the coefficient of friction and R is the reaction

• Free body diagrams – split up and draw all external forces
• Strategy for resolving forces 2D
1. Draw free body diagram of the entire system + each body individually
2. For each free body diagram
A. Resolve forces twice in 2 perpendicular directions (choose
orientations strategically)
B. Take moments once (select point strategically)
• Ground points
• Tension is positive
1
• Strategy for pin-jointed structures
o Resolve twice and take moments to determine reaction forces
2. Draw the free body diagram for each node of interest
o Start least number of unknowns + choose orientation carefully
• Zero force members – simplify your calculations
• Method of sections – cut max 3 beams and redraw free body diagram
• Statical determinacy – n=nodes, m=members, r=reactions
o 2n = m+r statically determinate
o 2n <m+r statically indeterminate
o 2n>m+r mechanism
o Be careful! Consider the actual structure as it can be a mix
Stress and strain

• Hooke’s law F=kx k = spring
stiffness, x=extension
𝐹
• Stress 𝜎 = (MPa)
𝐴
𝑒
• Strain 𝜀 = (unitless)
𝐿
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 𝐹/𝐴 𝐹𝐿
• Young’s modulus 𝐸 = = = = (GPa)
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀 𝑒/𝐿 𝑒𝐴
• Material dependent parameter, in elastic region
• A - Yield point
o End of linearity
o Transition from elastic to plastic
• B – Ultimate Tensile stress/Strength
o Necking begins + max stress
• C – Fracture
o Max strain
• P – Generic point
o Tangent modulus is the gradient of tangent at P
o Secant modulus is the gradient of line OP
2
• Proof stress – estimate of yield
o Line gradient E from 0.2%
• Tension +ve compression -ve
• Poisson’s ratio 𝜈 – approx. 0.33 (unitless)
o Ratio of direct to perp strain
∆𝑉
• = 𝜀𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧
𝑉
3𝐸
• Bulk modulus K = (1−2𝜈) for
∆𝑉
isotropic materials such that: = 𝐾𝜎
𝑉
• 1D stress
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
o 𝜀𝑥 = 𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 = −𝜈 𝑥 , 𝜀𝑧 = −𝜈 𝑥
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
• 2D stress
𝜎𝑥 𝜈𝜎𝑦
o 𝜀𝑥 = −
𝐸 𝐸
𝜎𝑦 𝜈𝜎𝑥
o 𝜀𝑦 = −
𝐸 𝐸
𝜈(𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 )
o 𝜀𝑧 =
𝐸
• 3D stress
𝜎𝑥 𝜈𝜎𝑦 𝜈𝜎𝑧
o 𝜀𝑥 = − −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎𝑦 𝜈𝜎𝑥 𝜈𝜎𝑧
o 𝜀𝑦 = − −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎𝑧 𝜈𝜎𝑥 𝜈𝜎𝑦
o 𝜀𝑧 = − −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
• Matrix representation:
• Materials in parallel 𝐿
𝐹
o Total force is sum of forces in each material 𝑒(𝐿) = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
o Constant strain 0 𝐸𝐴(𝑥)
• Materials in series 𝑑𝑒(𝑥) 𝐹
o Constant stress/force =
• Variable cross sections 𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐴(𝑥)
o Describe variation in length as a function of distance
o Use to determine A(x) as a function of distance
• Thermal strain 𝜀 = 𝛼∆𝑇 where 𝛼 is coefficient thermal expansion, units
℃−1 typically 1 − 100 × 10−6 ℃−1
3
𝐹
• Shear stress 𝜏 = (MPa)
𝐴
𝐿2
• Shear strain =𝛾
𝐿1
𝜏
• Shear modulus = 𝐺 (GPa)
𝛾
𝐸
• 𝐺= for isotropic materials
2(1+𝜈)
• Completmentary shear stresses
• 2D stresses
𝐹𝜃
o 𝜎𝜃 = = 𝜎𝑥 cos 2 𝜃 + 𝜎𝑦 sin2 𝜃
𝐴𝜃
𝑆𝜃
o 𝜏𝜃 = = (𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥 ) sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝐴𝜃
• Mohr’s circle (for 2D direct stresses only)
4
Torsion
𝑇 = torque
𝐽 = Polar second moment of area of
cross-section
𝑟 = radius being considered
𝜃 = angle of twist
𝐿 = shaft length being considered
• Be able to derive J for new geometries
• Power = Torque x angular frequency 𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔
5
UNIVERSITY OF BATH
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ME10004: SOLID MECHANICS I
PROBLEM SHEET - EQUILIBRIUM
Q1 Determine the resultant of each system of concurrent forces shown in figure Q1. What
force is needed to bring each system into a state of equilibrium?
[ 20.1N at 51.6◦; 227N at −60.9◦; 225N at 68.5◦; none]
30N 100N 150N 150N 120N

200N 108o
150o
20N 100N 120o
60o 235o 71o
15o 45o 30o
45o 30o 30o 315o 341o
160N
15N 250N 320N 100N 250N
Fig Q1: Systems of concurrent forces

Q2 The shaded shapes in figure Q2 are made up of squares of side a = 50mm. Find the
resultant force (and line of action of the force) or couple of each system.
[20N hor left through centre of square; 66.5N at 45◦ through SW corner; 0.5Nm anticlockwise]
20N 40N P
10N 18N 10N

11N
30N 20N 45o
20N B
30o
30N 29N 20N
400N
45o
A
20N 82N
10N 30N
Fig Q2: Systems of planar forces Fig Q3: Load
Q3 Figure Q3 shows a 400N load supported by a combination of a straight strut AP and a

cable BP. Find the forces in the strut and the cable.
[ strut 1.09kN (compression); cable 773N (tension)]
Q4 In level flight, the chord AB of an airplane wing makes an angle α = 5◦ with the
horizontal as in figure Q4. The resultant effect of the wind pressure on the wing for such
conditions is defined by the load L and drag D components as shown. Resolve these forces into
components parallel and perpendicular to the chord AB. Find also the resultant of the lift and
drag components.
[ 274N; 6.047kN; 6.053kN at 87◦ to the chord]
Q5 Figure Q5 shows a steel shaft comprising a cylinder of length 1m and diameter 60mm to
which are attached two discs as shown. The shaft is supported at its ends by two bearings.
Sketch the free body diagram of the shaft and estimate the reaction forces at the bearings.
(ρ = 7850 kg m−3 for steel and g = 9.81 m s−2)
[ 1.60kN; 992N]
Dimensions in millimetres
L=6kN
60
A D=800N

B 400
Fig Q4: Aerofoil 600
60 48 220 60 255 84 165 48 60
Fig Q5: Rotating shaft
Q6 Figure Q6 shows a typical design for a vehicle weighbridge. Each of the levers has a : b
in the ratio 1 : 10 as shown. A balance load of W = 12N is required on the lowest lever. If the
centre of mass of the vehicle is midway between its axles and that the vehicle is
symmetrically placed on the weighbridge, find the mass of the vehicle. What happens if the
assumptions are not valid?
[ 1480kg]
Fig Q6: Schematic diagram of a weighbridge
Q7 A crane jib is shown in figure Q7. By considering appropriate parts of the structure and
sketching their free body diagrams, find: the forces in members AB and AC; the tension in
the cable DE; the reaction components at hinge H; and the supporting forces (including any
moments) required on the shaft S.
[ 80.8kN (tension); 75.0kN (compression); 144kN (tension); 129kN (hor to left); 34.3kN (ver
down); 130kN; 240kNm]
E
1m
3m
B D
H 1m
A C S
30kN 100kN
15m 3m 3m 60o
Fig Q7: Crane jib Fig Q8: Ladder
Q8 A long ladder leans against a wall at an angle of 30◦ to the vertical as shown in figure Q8.
The wall is assumed smooth and the coefficient of friction between the ladder and the ground is
0.55. A builder climbs the ladder. Sketch the free body diagram for the ladder. [You may wish
to ignore the weight of the ladder.] What is the frictional force at the base when the builder
is half-way up? How far can the builder go up the ladder before disaster strikes? If you were
told that the coefficient of friction is in fact 0.6, would you climb the ladder to the top?
[ 29% of weight of builder; 95% along the ladder; ....]
UNIVERSITY OF BATH
PROBLEM SHEET - PIN-JOINTED STRUCTURES
Q1 For the pin-jointed frame shown in figure Q1, find: the greatest compression load; the
greatest tension load; the largest force in a diagonal member.
(All horizontal and vertical members are 1m). [ 6kN; 5kN; 1.41kN]
B D F H J L
1m
A C E G I K M
1kN
6m
Fig Q1: Pin-jointed frame

Q2 The framework shown in figure Q2 is used to support a steel car body of mass 200kg.
Calculate the support reactions and the forces in members AB, BF and EF.
[ 1.96kN (ver), 2.94kN (hor); 2.94kN (hor); 2.94kN (ten); 0; 3.53kN (com)]
3m 3m 3m
A B C D W W
B C
E
6m A D
F
45o 45o
G F E
Fig Q2: Framework supporting car body Fig Q3: Framework
Q3 Find the support reactions and the forces in the framework shown in figure Q3.
[ A: W/2 (up); D: W/2 (down); AB, ED: -W/2√2; BC,EF:-W/4; BF:-3W/4;
CD,AF: W/2√2; CE: W/4; CF: W/√2]
4m
3m
C
2.2m 92kN
D 3m
Fig Q4: Framework

Q4 Find the internal forces in the pin-jointed structure shown in figure Q4.
[ AB: 50kN (com); BC: 92kN (com); CD: 0; BD: 60kN (ten)]
2kN
B
4m 1kN
3m A C
2m
D 10kN
16m
1m
E 14m 15m
Fig Q5: Framework

Q5 Find the internal forces in the pin-jointed structure shown in figure Q5.
[ AB: 18.01kN (ten); BC: 18.26kN (ten); CD: 17.62kN (com); BD: 14.57kN (com); AD:
3.31kN (ten); DE: 26.89kN (com)]
Q6 For the pylon structure shown in figure Q6, determine the forces in members AB, BD,
BC and DE indicating whether each is in tension or compression.
[Exam question, Jan 07, modified].
[ AB: 3.89kN (com); BD: 0; BC: 3.89kN (com); DE: 3.94kN (ten)]
3m 3m 3m 3m 3m
3m H
3m
H I J D E A
E
3m G
15o G B 15o
F C
3m 1.8kN 1.8kN F
K L 4m
3m
J D
5m C K
1.5m A
1.5m
B
Fig Q6: Pylon Fig Q7: 3D framework
Q7 Figure Q7 shows a rectangular pin-jointed space frame. Guy wires EJ and GK are attached
to the structure at E and G as shown and are tightened until the tension in each is 1800N. Find
the force in each member of the structure.
[ EF, EH, FG, GH: 447N (ten); AF, AH, CF, CH: 745N (com); AE, CG: 1.69kN (com);
BF, DH: 1.19kN (ten)]
UNIVERSITY OF BATH
PROBLEM SHEET - STRESS-STRAIN 1
Q1 The stiffness of a spring (in its linear elastic range) is defined to be tension divided by
extension. A metal bar under an axial load can be regarded as a spring. If its length is L, its
cross-sectional area is A, and its Young’s modulus is E, show that its stiffness is EA/L.
Q2 The information in table 1 was obtained from a tensile test on a magnesium alloy specimen.
The diameter of the specimen was 11 mm, and the extensions were measured over a gauge length
of 50 mm. Plot (sketch) the stress-strain graph and hence obtain Young’s modulus and the 0.2%
proof stress. At a stress of 280 MPa, what are: the tangent modulus, and the secant modulus.
[ 46.3 GPa, 295 MPa, 15.6 GPa, 38.9 GPa]
Load (kN) 0.0 2.5 5.0 10.0 13.0 17.0 21.0 24.5 27.5 30.0
Ext (mm) 0.000 0.028 0.057 0.113 0.148 0.193 0.242 0.304 0.394 0.607
Table 1: Load-extension results
Q3 An aluminium alloy rod of length 1.8 m and rectangular cross-sectional of area 250 mm2 is
subjected to a compressive load of 45 kN. Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio for the material
are: E = 71 GPa and ν = 0.33. Determine the decrease in length and increase in area of the
bar.
[ 4.56 mm, 0.418 mm2]
Q4 A steel bar of length 2.5 m with a square cross-section of side 100 mm is subjected to an
axial tensile load of 1300 kN. Assuming that for the steel, Young’s modulus E is 200 GPa, and
Poisson’s ratio ν is 0.3, find the elongation of the bar and the change in cross-sectional area.
[ Part of exam question in January 2010]
[ 1.625 mm, 3.9 mm2 reduction]
Q5 A rod whose length is 0.5 m has a cross-sectional area which varies linearly from 400 mm2
at one end to 1000 mm2 at the other end. If Young’s modulus for the material is E = 140 GPa,
calculate the increase in length of the bar when it carries a load of 160 kN
[ 0.873 mm]
aluminium
100kN 100kN
steel
aluminium
100kN 100kN
aluminium steel aluminium
Fig Q6: Three rods
Q6 Figure Q6 shows three circular rods of length 0.8 m: two are made of aluminium and have
a diameter of 20 mm; the third is made of steel and has a diameter of 40 mm. The Young’s
modulus of aluminium is 70 GPa and of steel is 210 GPa. The upper part of the figure shows
the rods side-by-side and subjected to a compressive load of 100 kN. In the lower part, the rods
are placed end-to-end and subject to the same compressive load. Find the contractions of each
of the rods in each of the two loading cases.
[ 0.260 mm, 0.260 mm, 0.260 mm, 3.64 mm, 0.303 mm, 3.64 mm]
Q7 A cube of material is subjected to a tensile stress σx in the x-direction. In the z-

direction, there is no restraint, but, in the y-direction, there is a restraining tensile stress σy
such that the strain in the y-direction is half that in the z-direction. Show that the strain in
the x-direction is given by
𝜎𝑥 (2 − 𝜈)(1 + 𝜈)
𝜀𝑥 =
𝐸 2+𝜈
[ Other part of exam question in January 2010]
Q8 The stress-strain equation for a material (which does not obey Hooke’s law) may be
approximated by the following equation (where the stress σ is given in Pascals).
𝜎 𝜎 3
𝜀= + [ ]
70 × 109 2 × 109
Calculate the value of the 0.2% proof stress. What are the values of the tangent and secant
modulus at a stress of 300 MPa.
[ 252 MPa, 20.9 GPa, 39.2 GPa]
UNIVERSITY OF BATH
PROBLEM SHEET - STRESS-STRAIN 2
Q1 A rubber block (100 mm × 100 mm × 40 mm) is attached to two steel plates as shown
in figure Q1. The rubber has a Young’s modulus of E = 10 MPa and a Poisson’s ratio of ν =
0.5. Estimate the shear modulus of the rubber. The lower plate is held fixed (in a horizontal
plane) and a horizontal force of 4 kN is applied to the upper plate. How far does this plate
move?
[ 3.33 MPa, 4.80 mm]
3MN
20m
20m
Fig Q1: Rubber block between steel plates Fig Q2: Bridge pillar
Q2 The bridge pillar shown (schematically) in figure Q2 supports a vertical load of 3 MN.
Determine the total volume of concrete in the pillar if its density is ρ = 2400 kg m−3, and the
allowable compressive stress is limited to 1 MPa. What would be the volume of a column of
constant cross-section designed under the same conditions?
[ 113.4 + 214.3 = 328 m3, 2060 m3]
Q3
H 180N
(a) y  yx
(b) 30mm
G (c) (d)
E 20mm
x 360N F 360N
D C
z yx 40mm B
A
Fig Q3: Block under direct and shear forces and material elements
(i) Part (a) of figure Q3 shows an element in equilibrium within a block. If the rest of the
block exerts a shear stress τyx on the element as shown, show that it must also exert a shear
stress of the same magnitude on the left and right vertical sides.
(ii) Part (b) of figure Q3 shows a cuboid of a rubber material subject to direct forces of 360 N
acting on two side faces and a shear force of 180 N acting across the top face. The base of the
block is held fixed. Parts (c) and (d) of the figure show elements within the body; the length
of the base of each element is twice its height so that its sloping face is parallel to one of the
diagonal planes EBCH and AFGD. What are the forces and stresses acting on the faces of
these elements [hint: take note of part (i)]? Determine the stresses associated with the central
regions of diagonal planes EBCH and AFGD; in each case find the direct stress acting in the
material in a direction perpendicular to the plane, and the shear stress acting parallel to the
plane.
[ 240 kPA, 330 kPA, 0 kPA, 150 kPA]
Q4 The state of stress of an element of material is such that: a stress σx is exerted in one
direction, lateral contraction is free to occur in a second (y) direction but is completely pre-
vented in a third (z) direction. If the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio for the material are
E = 200 GPa and ν = 0.3 respectively, calculate the values of the applied stresses (σx and σz)
such that strain is εx = 0.001. What then is the value of the strain εy in the y-direction?
[ 220 MPa, 65.9 MPa, −0.000429]
Q5 A cuboid of material is subject to a hydrostatic stress (that is, it is underwater and subject
to the pressure of the water). The volumetric strain εvol is defined as the change in volume
divided by the original volume. Show that
εvol = εx + εy + εz
Hence, for a specimen of material subjected to a uniform hydrostatic pressure of magnitude p,
show that the volumetric strain of the material is
3p(1 − 2ν)
εvol = −
E
where E is the Young’s modulus of the material and ν its Poisson’s ratio.
[ Exam question, January 2008 ]
Q6 The component illustrated in figure Q6 consists of a steel rod of cross-sectional area

600 mm2 coaxially surrounded by a copper tube of cross-sectional area 1200 mm2. It is not
subjected to any external load and there is no internal stress at 20◦C. Its temperature is
changed from 20◦C to 100◦C. Carefully form two equations relating the axial stresses set up in
the copper and the steel, and hence find these stresses.
For steel: E = 205 GPa, α = 11 × 10−6 K−1
For copper: E = 115 GPa, α = 16 × 10−6 K−1
[ Exam question, January 2009]
[ copper: 21.7 MPa (com); steel 43.4 MPa (ten)]
stainless steel: thickness 10mm
copper: thickness 20mm
500mm
800mm
Fig Q6: Steel rod and copper tube TC (T+100)C
Fig Q7: Two tubes

Q7
Young’s modulus (E) Poisson’s ratio (ν) thermal exp coeff (α)
(Pa) (K−1)
steel 200 × 10 9
0.30 11 × 10−6
copper 100 × 109 0.34 17 × 10−6
Two circular tubes both of length 2000 mm are fixed together (one inside the other) at their
ends as shown in figure Q7. This is when each tube has temperature T and the tubes are
unstressed. A temperature difference is then created by raising the temperature of one end to
(T + Td) where Td is 100◦C, such that the temperature varies linearly from one end of the
tubes to the other. Show that the strain in either tube due to the thermal effect alone is
αTd/2. Form equations relating the direct stresses in the two tubes and hence find them.
[ steel: 23.0N mm−2 (ten); copper: 18.5N mm−2 (com)]
Q8
𝜎𝜃
Using the general relationship for stress rotation 𝜎𝑥 𝜃
in 2D or Mohr’s circle for stress, determine 𝜏𝜃 and 𝜏𝜃
𝜎𝜃 when:
a) 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎, 𝜎𝑦 = −𝜎 and 𝜃 = 45°
b) 𝜎𝑥 = 2𝜎, 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎 and 𝜃 = 45°
𝜎𝑦
c) 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎, 𝜎𝑦 = −𝜎 and 𝜃 = 60°
d) 𝜎𝑥 = 2𝜎, 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎 and 𝜃 = 30°
Under what conditions does 𝜏𝜃 = 0?
[a) 0, -σ; b) 1.5σ, -0.5σ; c) -0.5σ, -√3 σ/2; d) 1.75σ, -√3 σ/4]
UNIVERSITY OF BATH
PROBLEM SHEET - TORSION
density Young’s Poisson’s Shear Yield UTS Coeff of

modulus ratio modulus strength lin thm exp
ρ E ν G α
10 −6 K−1
kg m−3 GPa GPa MPa MPa
steel 7850 210 0.3 80 220 430 11
Q1 A solid steel shaft has a diameter of 150 mm and transmits a torque of 50 kNm. Calculate
the maximum shear stress in the shaft and the angle of twist over a length of 3 m.
[ 75.5 MPa, 2.16 degrees]
Q2 A hollow steel shaft having an external diameter of 150 mm is to transmit a torque of

26.5 kNm. What should be the internal diameter so that the maximum shear stress is 50 MPa?
[ 100.34 mm]
Q3 A turbo-generator (figure Q3) has an output of 20 MW at 3000 rev min−1. The efficiency
of the generator is 95%. The hollow steel shaft coupling the turbine to the generator has an
external diameter of 180 mm and an internal diameter of 100 mm. Determine the maximum
shear stress in the shaft.
[ 64.68 MPa]
turbine
turbine generator
generator
gear-box
Fig Q3: Turbo-generator (schematic) Fig Q4: Turbo-generator with gear box (schematic)
Q4 A generator (figure Q4) is driven through a 6 : 1 reduction gear-box by an air turbine

which runs at 18000 rev min−1. [This means that the generator shaft rotates more slowly.] The
turbine develops 40 kW and the gear box losses can be neglected. The generator shaft is
hollow, and the turbine shaft is solid. Each is 150 mm long and is made of steel for which the
maximum working shear stress is limited to 60 MPa. The angle of twist of the generator
shaft must not exceed 0.5◦. Calculate the inside and outside diameters of the generator shaft
and the diameter of the turbine shaft.
[ 20.09 mm, 25.78 mm, 12.17 mm]
Q5 The stepped steel shaft shown in figure Q5 carries a torque T acting at one end as shown.
If the shaft consists of two solid circular sections with the diameters shown, determine the
maximum value of T when the (maximum) allowable shear stress is 14 MPa and the twist
(rotation) of the free end (relative to the fixed end) is limited to 3.5◦.
[ Exam question, January 2011, modified ]
[ 594 Nm ]
Q6 A marine diesel engine which develops 30 kW at 3000 rev min−1, drives a propeller through
a 3 : 1 reduction gearbox. If the efficiency of the gearbox is 85%, determine the minimum
diameter of the propeller drive shaft, if the (maximum) allowable shear stress in the material
used for the shaft is 70 MPa.
When used to go astern (i.e. in reverse), a 5 : 1 reduction gear is used. Assuming an efficiency
of 75% and the same value of (maximum) allowable shear stress as given above, what is the
minimum shaft diameter to satisfy both forward and backward conditions?
[ 26.1 mm, 29.6 mm ]
Q7 Figure Q7 shows a solid steel stepped shaft of length 0.55 m and diameters 50 mm and
30 mm. It is supported at one end and driven at 30 rev min−1 by a motor M whose output
power is 20 kW. The shaft is supported near its other end by a bearing B in which it is free to
rotate. The shaft drives a machine via two sprockets, S1 and S2, which are assumed to provide
equal resistive load torques to the shaft. Young’s modulus (E) of steel is 200 GPa; its shear
modulus (G) is 80 GPa. The distance x is measured (in metres) from the motor.
Sketch graphs of the following functions of x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 0.55. Clearly indicate the values of
x and the function at points where the graph “jumps” or the slope changes (or other features
occur).
(a) T (x), the internal torque in the shaft at position x
(b) τ (x), the maximum shear stress in the shaft at position x
(c) θ(x), the angular twist (in degrees) of the shaft’s cross-section at position x measured
relative to the cross-section at M, so that θ(0) = 0
T
S1 S2
160mm (diam)
M
B
60mm 80mm
3m
30mm (diam)
50mm (diam)
4m
x
Fig Q5: Stepped shaft 200mm 200mm 90mm 60mm
Fig Q7: Shaft with sprockets

Q8 Calculate the polar second moment of area J for beams with the following cross sections. The
centre of rotation for all cross sections is the origin (symmetry can help you in these).
[a) a4/3, b) b4π/4, c) 5√3c4/8]

Solid Mechanics 1 – ME10004
Recorded Lecture 5
Introduction to Dynamics
Aims: To introduce the fundamental principles of:
• statics
• kinematics
• dynamics
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
Email: jir24@bath.ac.uk
Course content
1. Introduction 1 8. Energy 28
2. Newton’s Laws of Motion 3 9. Rotational Motion 33
3. Free Body Diagrams 4 10. Moment of Inertia 35
4. Newton’s Second Law Examples 9 11. Rotational Acceleration 38
5. Friction 13 12. Gearboxes 43
6. Non Constant Acceleration 16 13. Past exam questions 51
7. Momentum 22
Using your handouts
• Gaps have been left in your handouts for you to fill in during
recorded lectures
• These include spaces for derivations, workings for example

problems etc.
• Completed notes for each section will be uploaded throughout

semester
History of Dynamics (Western)

• Aristotle (384-322BC)
– Physicist and philosopher
• Argued that heavier objects fell more quickly than light objects
• Galileo (1564-1642)
– Physicist, mathematician, astronomer and philosopher (often described
as father of science)
• All objects accelerate due to gravity at same rate
– g ~ 4m/s2
• Newton (1643-1727)
– Seminal contributions to optics, calculus (with Leibniz)
– Formulated laws of motion and universal gravitation
– g = 9.81 m/s2
CO2 comparison
Walking Cycling Motorbike Car
Top speed mph mph mph mph
CO2 g/km g/km g/km g/km pp

emissions (1 passenger) (2 passengers)
Fuel n/a n/a mpg mpg

consumption
Mass kg kg kg kg
Max
passengers
CO2 comparison
Bus Train (diesel) Train Plane (A380) Helicopter
(electric)
Top speed mph mph mph mph mph
CO2 g/km g/km g/km g/km g/km

emissions (40 pass) (195 pass) (195 pass) (471 pass) (7 pass)
Fuel mpg mpg mpg mpg mpg

consumption (equiv.) (equiv.) (equiv.)
Mass t t t t t
Max
passengers
Newton’s laws of motion
• First law
A particle remains at rest or continues to move in a straight line with a
uniform velocity if there is no unbalanced force acting on it.
• Second law
The acceleration of a particle is proportional to the resultant force acting on
it and is in the direction of the force.
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
• Third law
The force of action and reaction between contacting bodies are equal in
magnitude, opposite in direction and collinear.
Solving problems in dynamics
- In order to establish the acceleration of a body we must first consider

the forces acting upon that body.
- We do this by drawing a Free Body Diagram (FBD).
- Definition: A Free Body Diagram is a diagram of a body, isolated

from its surroundings, showing the forces and moments that are acting
upon it. Always include a set of coordinate axes
Free body diagrams
• Isolate bodies to separate cause and effect
Process:
1. Decide which system to isolate

2. Isolate chosen system by drawing a diagram which represents its complete
external boundary
3. Identify all forces that act on the isolated system and represent them in their
proper location
4. Define coordinate axes
Free body diagram examples

1. Draw the FBD of the drum
2. Draw the FBDs of the following objects
3. Draw the FBDs of the balls

Now apply Newton’s second law for 𝑥 direction:
Summary
• Understanding dynamics underpins much of what you will do in
mechanical engineering
• Dynamics problems essentially deal with Newton’s Second Law
• First and Third Laws also important for solving problems
• Solving problems begins with free body diagrams
Online Tutorial 5
Introduction to Dynamics
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
Sli.do Q1 SM1-5
Which of Newton’s laws of motion do we need to consider to
define a free body diagram?
a) First law
b) Second law
c) Third law
d) All of them
e) None of them
Example
Draw the correct FBD of the crate and the person
Sli.do Q2 SM1-5
Which way does the bike move due to the applied force, F?
R4
a) Forwards
R2 b) Backwards
c) It depends
F
crank length R1 R3
FBD:
Resolve forces in the 𝑥 direction
Sli.do Q3 SM1-5
The diagram shows a rear wheel drive car accelerating up a hill.

What direction does friction act at the front and rear wheels?
a) Friction down the hill at front and rear
b) Friction down the hill at front and up the hill at rear
c) Friction up the hill at front and down the hill at rear
d) Friction up the hill at the front and rear
Free body diagram of car
Example
The bulldozer is shown pushing an oil drum. Draw an FBD of the drum (a)
neglecting friction, and (b) with friction. How is the motion of the drum
affected?
Summary
• Understanding dynamics underpins much of what you will do in
mechanical engineering
• Dynamics problems essentially deal with Newton’s Second Law
• First and Third Laws also important for solving problems
• Solving problems begins with free body diagrams

Recorded Lecture 6
Solving Problems in Dynamics
Aim:
Develop strategy for solving Dynamics problems, utilising:

• Free body diagrams
• Newton’s laws of motion, in particular Newton’s Second Law
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
Solving problems in dynamics
1. Draw free body diagram
2. Apply Newton’s second law (𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎)
3. If, after resolving forces and torques, there are more unknowns than equations
DON’T PANIC!
Apply equations of:
Kinematics
• Describes the position of an object at a given time, t, based on
its initial location, velocity and acceleration.
• Do not need to know what the forces acting upon the body are if
we know these things
• Problems can be solved geometrically
• Dynamics deals with the forces and their influence on the
motion of an object
Notation
!
Rather than !", we will use the shorthand, ⦁
!#
Such that: = 𝑥̇ = velocity
!"
!!
And for a second derivative: !" !
!! #
!" !
= 𝑥̈ = acceleration
Example
If Mass A is 2 kg and Mass B is 8 kg, calculate the acceleration of
B and the tensions in the string connecting A and B. Neglect any
friction between A and the floor.
Free Body Diagram of A
Free Body Diagram of B
Newton’s second law (NSL), mass A:
NSL, mass B:
Assuming string is not stretchy

Therefore
Example
A lorry is driving down a slope at 50 mph and applies its brakes
which provide a force of 50 kN at the trailer wheels and 1 kN at
the cab wheels. If the trailer has a mass of 20 tonne and the cab
a mass of 1.1 tonne, what is the deceleration of the vehicle and
the force in the trailer coupling?
sin 𝜃 = 0.1
Step 1: Calculate deceleration of combined body
FBD of combined body:
NSL combined (in 𝑥 direction):
Step 2: What is the force in the coupling between cab and trailer?
Online tutorial 6 – try before hand

Summary
• Solving problems in dynamics first requires correct free body
diagram
• Then Newton’s second law can be applied
• We will use dot notation to denote velocity (𝑥)̇ and acceleration
(𝑥)̈

Online Tutorial 6
Newton’s Second Law
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
Example
A lorry is driving down a slope at 50 mph and applies its brakes
which provide a force of 50 kN at the trailer wheels and 1 kN at
the cab wheels. If the trailer has a mass of 20 tonne and the cab
a mass of 1.1 tonne, what is the deceleration of the vehicle and
the force in the trailer coupling?
sin 𝜃 = 0.1
Step 1: See previous lecture notes

Step 2: Draw FBD of individual bodies:
Sli.do Q1 SM1-6
Based on the free body diagram, identify
the correct equation for the acceleration of
the cab.
a) 𝑚! 𝑥̈ ! = 𝑚! sin 𝜃 − 𝐹",! − 𝑇
b) 𝑚! 𝑥̈ ! = 𝑚! 𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝐹",! − 𝑇
c) 𝑚! 𝑥̈ ! = 𝑚! sin 𝜃 + 𝐹",! + 𝑇
c) 𝑚! 𝑥̈ ! = 𝑚! 𝑔 sin 𝜃 + 𝐹",! + 𝑇
Sli.do Q2 SM1-6
Based on the free body diagram, identify
the correct equation for the acceleration of
the trailer.
a) 𝑚$ 𝑥̈ $ = 𝑚$ 𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝐹",$ − 𝑇
b) 𝑚$ 𝑥̈ $ = 𝑚$ 𝑔 sin 𝜃 + 𝐹",$ + 𝑇
c) 𝑚$ 𝑥̈ $ = 𝑚$ 𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝐹",$ + 𝑇
c) 𝑚$ 𝑥̈ $ = 𝑚$ 𝑔 sin 𝜃 + 𝐹",$ − 𝑇
NSL cab (in 𝑥 direction):
NSL trailer:
Sli.do Q3 SM1-6
We now have two equations but three unknowns
(𝑥̈ ! , 𝑥̈ $ and 𝑇). What assumption can we make to
help eliminate one or more unknowns?
sin 𝜃 = 0.1
a) The trailer decelerates faster than the cab by a
factor of their relative masses
b) The trailer decelerates faster than the cab by a
factor of their relative masses
c) The trailer decelerates faster than the cab by a
factor of their relative mass to braking force ratio
d) The trailer and the cab are rigidly linked
Making assumptions
• If faced with a problem that seems to have more unknowns than

equations, it is often useful to make a simplification or assumption.
• These should be clearly stated in your workings (e.g. in an exam)
• Very important to enable proper scrutiny of workings and assessment of
whether an answer is correct enough (depends what you’re engineering!)
Sli.do Q4 SM1-6
Assuming 𝑥̈ + = 𝑥̈ ,, what is the force in the
coupling between the cab and the trailer?
sin 𝜃 = 0.1
a) 1.50 kN
b) 1.58 kN
c) 1.66 kN m1 = 1.1 tonne
d) 1.74 kN m2 = 20 tonne
FB,1 = 1 kN
FB,2 = 50 kN
𝑥̈ ! = 𝑥̈ $ = −1.44 ms %$
Summary
• Carefully considering dynamic systems enable us to solve
problems related to the motion of connected bodies
• We often need to make assumptions to solve engineering
problems
• These should be clearly stated
• If we want a more accurate answer, we need to revisit our assumptions

Recorded Lecture 7
Friction in Dynamics
Aim:
• Understand the effect of friction in both opposing and causing motion

• Understand how to include consideration of frictional forces in
Dynamics problems
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
Friction
1. Friction always opposes motion
2. Friction is independent of area
3. Limiting friction of stationary objects (AKA ‘stiction’) is proportional to
normal force
𝑓2 ∝ 𝑁
4. Similarly, for objects in motion, dynamic friction is proportional to normal
force
𝑓3 ∝ 𝑁
5. Constant of proportionality is called the coefficient of friction, 𝜇
General form: 𝑓 = 𝜇𝑁 𝜇! < 𝜇1
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1534701100
Force of friction: 𝑓 = 𝜇𝑁
Under what condition does the
box move?
Normal force: 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑃 > 𝜇𝑚𝑔
Example
Three blocks are stacked on top of each other. What is largest value of F for
which no sliding will take place between any pair of surfaces?
𝐹
𝜇4 = 0.4 C 𝑚7 = 30 kg
𝜇, = 0.3 B 𝑚6 = 5 kg
𝜇+ = 0.25 A 𝑚5 = 15 kg
Case 1: Block C slides on Block B; Blocks A & B remain stationary

Case 2: Blocks B & C slide together on Block A
Case 3: Blocks A, B & C all slide together

Example
A cyclist leans at an angle of 𝜃 degrees to the vertical. If the
coefficient of friction between the tyres and the ground is 0.8,
what is the maximum velocity that they can cycle around a bend
of radius 20m?
Have a go before online tutorial 7
Hint: Centripetal acceleration

Summary
• Friction opposes direction of motion
• But also can initiate motion
• A driven wheel spins if there is no friction between the tyre and the
ground
• The frictional force is equal to the normal force applied from a
surface to a body, multiplied by the coefficient of friction
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁
• Static friction is typically larger than dynamic friction

Online Tutorial 7
Friction
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
• Friction opposes direction of motion
• Also causes motion, e.g. in tyres
• The frictional force is equal to the normal force applied from a
surface to a body, multiplied by the coefficient of friction
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁
• Static friction is typically larger than dynamic friction
Example
A cyclist leans at an angle of 𝜃 degrees to the vertical. If the
coefficient of friction between the tyres and the ground is 0.8,
what is the maximum velocity that they can cycle around a bend
of radius 20 m?
Sli.do Q1 SM1-7
In which direction(s) is the cyclist accelerating? 𝑥
a) Positive 𝑥 𝑦
b) Negative 𝑥
c) Positive 𝑦
d) Positive 𝑥 and positive 𝑦
e) Negative 𝑥 and positive 𝑦
f) No acceleration
𝑣$
𝑎& =
𝑟
Sli.do Q2 SM1-7
What is the maximum cornering velocity of the cyclist?
a) 𝑣 = 4 ms ;+
b) 𝑣 = 8.85 ms ;+
c) 𝑣 = 12.5 ms ;+
d) 𝑣 = 17. 7 ms ;+ 𝜇 = 0.8
Corner radius = 20 m
𝑦
Sli.do Q3 SM1-7
𝑥
A block is pushed down a slope inclined at angle, 𝛼, with
an initial velocity, 𝑣' . The coefficient of friction between the
block and the slope is 𝜇. Draw a free body diagram and
identify the correct Newton’s Second Law equation for the
acceleration in 𝑥.
a) 𝑊 − 𝜇𝑁 = 𝑚𝑥̈
b) 𝑊 cos 𝛼 = 𝑚𝑥̈
c) 𝑊 sin 𝛼 = 𝑚𝑥̈
d) 𝑊 sin 𝛼 − 𝜇𝑁 = 𝑚𝑥̈
Sli.do Q4 SM1-7
If the block has an initial velocity, 𝑣' = 2 ms %! ,
a mass of 1.5 kg and the coefficient of friction,
𝜇 = 0.6, how long does the block take to stop?
a) 0.61 seconds
b) 0.92 seconds Equations for constant acceleration:
c) 1.23 seconds
𝑣 $ = 𝑢$ + 2𝑎𝑠
d) 1.54 seconds 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 0.5𝑎𝑡 $
Solution:
Summary
• Friction important to consider in free body diagrams and
problems in dynamics
• Frictional force of a surface can by multiplying the coefficient of
friction between the two contacting surfaces by the normal force
at the surface
Recorded Lecture 8
Non-Constant Acceleration
Aim:
• Derive equations for acceleration under variable force

• Apply these equations to problems in Dynamics
• Develop strategies for finding approximate solutions to complex
problems
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
Non-constant acceleration
1. In most real cases, acceleration is not constant
2. In this lecture we will develop methods of solving problems of
where acceleration varies with time
3. More tricky, but always remember Newton’s second law:
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
- Acceleration will not be constant if force varies with time

- Mass may also vary with time (e.g. a rocket burning fuel as it accelerates)
Acceleration of a racing car
Complete the following graph for a 2 wheel drive car. Start from stationary
and then maximum acceleration to top speed followed by maximum braking
to a standstill
Acceleration
Velocity
Constant acceleration
Standard equations: Rotational equivalents:
Velocity (ms-1)
Time (s)
More likely to encounter non-constant, or non-linear, acceleration
Resistance per
tonne
10 m/s 20 m/s
Velocity
Acceleration under variable force

Consider an object with thrust, T, and drag, BV2, e.g. an automobile:
FBD:
Consider distance, 𝑥, as a function of velocity, 𝑉:
Acceleration:
NSL:
Acceleration under variable force
Velocity now derived as a function of time, 𝑡, rather than distance, 𝑥:
FBD:
Acceleration
NSL:
V(t) in case of reverse thrust (braking)
FBD:
NSL:
Standard integral gives:

Complex F(v) relationships
If a force is a complex function of velocity such that a mathematical solution is not
possible, it is often best to approximate the motion to a series of constant
accelerations (tutorial Q 4.12)
Method as follows:
1.
2.
3.
Example: Variable acceleration, numerical

method
The thrust generated by a rocket varies as the fuel is burnt and the forward
speed increases according to the table below. Likewise the aerodynamic
and gravitational drag varies as a complex function of velocity due to air
density changes at high altitude. The initial mass of the rocket is 10 kg but
this reduces as the fuel is burnt. Estimate the approximate time and distance
travelled by the rocket starting from rest up to a velocity of 100 ms-1.
Speed, v (ms-1) Thrust, T (N) Drag, D (N) Mass, m (kg) Average Force (N), Average Acceleration, Time interval, (s) Distance, s (m)
(ms-2)
0 1000 100 10
20 900 150 8
40 850 200 6.5
60 800 300 5
80 775 400 4
100 750 600 3.5
Total
Summary
• Many problems in dynamics involve non-constant acceleration due to a
variable force
• Drag is a very typical example of a velocity-dependent force
• We use integral functions to add up all the little individual contributions to
distance, 𝑥, or time, 𝑡
Online Tutorial 8
Non-Constant Acceleration
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
Example: Variable acceleration, numerical method

The thrust generated by a rocket varies as the fuel is burnt and the forward speed increases
according to the table below. Likewise the aerodynamic and gravitational drag varies as a
complex function of velocity due to air density changes at high altitude. The initial mass of
the rocket is 10 kg but this reduces as the fuel is burnt. Estimate the approximate time and
distance travelled by the rocket starting from rest up to a velocity of 100 ms-1.
Speed, v (ms-1) Thrust, T (N) Drag, D (N) Mass, m (kg) Average Force (N), Average Acceleration, Time interval, (s) Distance, s (m)
(ms-2)
0 1000 100 10
20 900 150 8
40 850 200 6.5
60 800 300 5
80 775 400 4
100 750 600 3.5
Total
When we have lots of calculations to do, better to use computer!
Sli.do Q1 SM1-8
A tanker with a mass of 300,000 tonne has a resistance of 60v2 kN.
What is the power required to achieve a speed of 7.5 ms-1?
a) 3.375 kW
b) 450 kW
c) 25.3 MW
d) Not enough information
Sli.do Q2 SM1-8
What is the time from rest to 7 ms-1 with thrust of 3.375 MN?
a) 4.86 km
b) 9.73 km
c) 19.5 km
d) 38.9 km
Solution:
Sli.do Q3 SM1-8
What distance does it take to stop from 7 ms-1 with 1500 kN reverse thrust?
a) 4.86 km
b) 9.73 km
c) 19.5 km
d) 38.9 km
Solution:
Sli.do Q4 SM1-8
When travelling at 7 ms-1 the engine fails. How far does the tanker travel
before the velocity to decreased to 1 ms-1?
a) 4.86 km
b) 9.73 km
c) 19.5 km
d) 38.9 km
Solution:
Summary
• Many problems in dynamics are complicated by non-constant
acceleration
• We have derived expressions to allow us to calculate distance
or time to reach a certain velocity due to a non-linear
acceleration, e.g. drag
• Not expected to remember derivations for exam

Recorded Lecture 9
Momentum
Aim:
• Understand conditions for conservation of momentum

• Use consideration of momentum to solve problems in Dynamics
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
Momentum
Useful to consider momentum when force varies as a function of time
Newton’s second law: 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

Rotational form:
Change in momentum (sometimes referred to as impulse) often written

in the form:
Example
The force acting on a rocket varies with respect to time according to the
graph.
Calculate the velocity of a 0.1 kg rocket after 10 s (neglect gravity)
F (N )
20 F = 2t
0 10 t
F (N )
20 F = 2t
0 10 t
Example
Concrete is released into a dumper truck at a rate of 50 kgs-1. If released from a
height of 1 m, what is the force on the truck assuming no splash back?
Conservation of momentum
Conservation of momentum is important when internal forces are large
compared with external forces, e.g. a skater on ice or the collisions of
balls on a snooker table.
If the external forces are small, the centre of gravity of a system cannot
move as a result of internal forces.
When two bodies collide and move on, there is a loss of kinetic energy
although momentum is conserved.
If two masses m1 and m2 have initial velocities v1 and v2 calculate the change
in the kinetic energy if the masses are locked together following the collision.
Change in momentum =
In a collision,
Momentum is conserved
If this is true, we can say
Final velocity of two bodies in collision is therefore

Now, consider energy
Example
A crate has a mass of 120 kg and is raised up a slope by a winch that
generates a tension of 1300 N in the rope shown below. The coefficient of
friction between the crate and the slope is 0.6.
Calculate the speed of the crate after 3 seconds, starting from rest.
FBD:
Example
A person of mass 70 kg stands at the centre of a stationary barge of mass 500 kg.
a. If the person starts running to the right with a velocity of 3 m/s what is the resulting
velocity of the barge?
b. If the person stops when he reaches the right end of the barge, a distance of 4 m from
the middle, what are his position and the barge’s position relative to their original
position?
Summary
• Momentum is the product of the mass of an object and it’s velocity. As
such it is a vector quantity
• An impulse is the change in momentum over time
• If the external forces acting on a system are small compared to the internal
forces, or the time of a collision is small, momentum is considered

Online Tutorial 9
Momentum
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
Sli.do Q1 SM1-9
What conditions are required for the conservation of momentum?
a) The centre of gravity of the body does not change
b) External forces acting on a body are small compared to internal forces
c) The time of a collision or impact is small
d) All of the above
Example
A person of mass 70kg stands at the centre of a stationary barge of mass 500kg.
a. If the person starts running to the right with a velocity of 3 m/s what is the resulting
velocity of the barge?
b. If the person stops when he reaches the right end of the barge, a distance of 4 m from
the middle, what are his position and the barge’s position relative to their original
position?
a.
b.
𝑚) 𝑔 𝑚( 𝑔
Sli.do Q2 SM1-9
Two masses, 𝑚+ = 2 kg and 𝑚, = 500 g, travelling at 𝑣+ = 2 ms ;+ and 𝑣, =
7 ms ;+ in the same direction, collide and lock together following a collision.
What is their final velocity?
a) 1.4 ms-1
b) 3.0 ms-1
c) 4.5 ms-1
d) 6.0 ms-1
Sli.do Q3 SM1-9
Two masses, 𝑚+ = 2 kg and 𝑚, = 500 g, travelling at 𝑣+ = 2 ms ;+ and 𝑣, =
7 ms ;+ in the same direction, collide and lock together following a collision.
What is the change in energy?
a) Energy is conserved
b) 5 J
c) 10 J
d) 5000 J
Recorded Lecture 10
Energy
Aim:
• Understand how consideration of Energy can be used to solve

problems in Dynamics
• Use consideration of work done, and kinetic and potential energy to
solve problems
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
Energy
Energy can be transferred from one form to another but cannot be created
or destroyed
Often useful to think about the work done, i.e. the energy that is put into a
system:
In dynamics, we’re typically interested in energy in two forms:
1)
2)
Example
A train of mass 100 tonne is travelling at 10 mph. It is brought to rest by
sprung buffers in a distance of 0.75 m. What is the spring stiffness of the
buffers?
Example
What is the compression in the buffers if we consider energy dissipated due
to coefficient of 0.1?
Non-linear force
Δ𝐸 = = 𝐹 𝑑𝑥
If we have a graph, rather than using integral function we can separate into
discrete areas and add them up
e.g.
Force
Work done
Distance
Example
Calculate the energy required to launch a satellite with mass of 1 tonne to a height of 500 km.
Until now, we have taken gravity as constant acceleration (9.81 ms-2), however, gravitation force
actually varies with distance between two bodies, r, measured from their Centres of Gravity:
Try before next Online Tutorial
In a forging operation, a 50 kg weight is lifted into position 1 and released
from rest. It falls a vertical distance of 0.4 m and strikes a workpiece in
position 2. If the springs are extended by 0.2 m in position 1 and their
combined stiffness is 10 kN/m, calculate the impact velocity.
Summary
• Energy can be transferred to a different form but cannot be
destroyed
>
• In dynamics, we’re usually interested in kinetic energy ( 𝑚𝑣 ? )
?
> ?
or potential energy (𝑚𝑔ℎ or 𝑘𝑥 )
?
• The work done on a body is equal to the force x the distance it
works over (Work = 𝐹𝑑)
• Again, for non-linear forces, or springs with pre-loads, we can
calculate energy graphically
Online Tutorial 10
Energy
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
Sli.do Q1 SM1-10
In a forging operation, a 50 kg weight is lifted into position 1 and released from rest. It falls
a vertical distance of 0.4 m and strikes a workpiece in position 2. What forms of energy are
present at position 1?
a) Kinetic energy
b) Potential (spring) energy
c) Potential (spring + gravitational) energy
d) Potential (spring + gravitational) and kinetic energy
Sli.do Q2 SM1-10
a vertical distance of 0.4 m and strikes a workpiece in position 2. If the springs are extended
by 0.2 m in position 1 and their combined stiffness is 10 kN/m, what is the initial potential
energy of the system?
a) 196 J
b) 200 J
c) 396 J
d) 1 kJ
Solution:
Sli.do Q3 SM1-10
a vertical distance of 0.4 m and strikes a workpiece in position 2. If the springs are extended
by 0.2 m in position 1 and their combined stiffness is 10 kN/m, what is the impact velocity?
a) 3.98 ms-1
b) 7.85 ms-1
c) 15.9 ms-1
d) 19.9 ms-1
Solution:
Example
A string applies a constant force of 80 N to a collar A that slides on a
frictionless post. The collar has a mass of 2 kg and vertical motion of the
collar extends a spring of stiffness 37.5 N/m.
Calculate the velocity of the slider when it has risen a height of 0.4 m.
Force on collar is non-linear but again we can approach the problem by considering
energy.
Recorded Lecture 17
Moments of Inertia
Aim:
• Understand concept of centre of mass and moment of inertia, and

their affect on rotational motion and acceleration
• Understand how centre of mass and moment of inertias can be
calculated to solve problems in Dynamics
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
Moment of inertia
Newton’s second law for linear motion:
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑥̈
Newton’s second law for rotational motion:

Centre of gravity
Objects tend to rotate about their centre of gravity (CoG).
- Can find the CoG of an object by suspending it from several different
points.
- The centre of gravity lies on the intersection of the verticals through the
support points.
We can also apply this principle in theory.
Consider a body of total mass, m, and uniform thickness:
y
dm
x Total mass M,
uniform thickness
x
If we have a series of known point masses, 𝛿𝑚, each with a mass of 𝛿𝑚/𝑀
where M is total mass, we can find the centre of gravity, 𝑥,̅ by summing their
individual moments (and same for 𝑦C and 𝑧)̅
Can also write as:

Example
Calculate the centre of mass in 𝑥 for the following assemblies:
𝑥 𝑥
1m 2m
1 kg 1 kg 1 kg 2 kg
(a) (b)
In real systems, it is rare we have point masses.
Usually, the variation of mass with location is a continuous

function of the geometry.
For continuous systems, we add up infinitesimal contributions by

integrating:
Moment of inertia
The moment of inertia of a mass is a measure of how the mass is distributed
about an axis of rotation, defined by:
Mass of element, 𝑑𝑚
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
Units are
Sometimes, e.g. on tutorial sheets, we can use 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑘 ,

where
Parallel axis theorem

If the moment of inertia of a volume about an axis passing through the CoG
is known, we can calculate the moment of inertia about a parallel axis using:
Inertia in action
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AQLtcEAG9v0
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wTcatD-anCw
Source:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/s
uny-osuniversityphysics/chapter/11-
2-conservation-of-angular-
momentum/
Example
Find the moment of inertia of the following system, where point masses
have mass, 𝑚, and mass of spokes is negligible:
x
Finding centre of mass of a trapezium
a
Thickness, t
Density, 𝜌
h 𝑑𝑥
L
𝑥
G G
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝜌𝑡 G 𝑥
𝑥̅ = = 𝑑𝑚 = = 𝑏− 𝑏−𝑎 𝜌𝑡. 𝑑𝑥 = = 𝑥 𝑏− 𝑏−𝑎 . 𝑑𝑥
F 𝑀 F 𝑀 ℎ 𝑀 F ℎ
𝜌𝑡 𝑏ℎ, 𝑎 − 𝑏 ℎ,
𝑥̅ = +
𝑀 2 3
Moment of inertia of a trapezium

a
Thickness, t
Density, 𝜌
h 𝑑𝑥
L
𝑥
G G
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝜌𝑡 G 𝑥
𝑥̅ = = 𝑑𝑚 = = 𝑏− 𝑏−𝑎 𝜌𝑡. 𝑑𝑥 = = 𝑥 𝑏− 𝑏−𝑎 . 𝑑𝑥
F 𝑀 F 𝑀 ℎ 𝑀 F ℎ
𝜌𝑡 𝑏ℎ, 𝑎 − 𝑏 ℎ,
𝑥̅ = +
𝑀 2 3
Summary
• Inertia is rotational mass
• Objects usually rotate through their centre of gravity
• If they do not, we can find their moment of inertia using parallel axis
theory
• To find moment of inertia of a mass, we add up (integrate) all
the infinitesimal elements that make up that mass as a function
of the distance from the axis of rotation

Online Tutorial 17
Moments of Inertia
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
Recap
• The moment of inertia can be thought of as rotational mass
• As such, we can solve Newton’s Second Law problems for
rotational systems using:
Where
• Objects usually rotate about their centre of mass
Sli.do Q1 SM1-17
We want to find the centre of mass in the horizontal
direction of the rotating shaft. What expression
correctly describes the mass of a disc with density,
𝜌, radius, 𝑟, and thickness, 𝑡?
a) 𝜋𝑟 $ 𝑡𝜌
b) 2𝜋𝑟𝑡
c) 𝜋𝑟 $ 𝑡
d) 2𝜋𝑟𝑡𝜌
To find the centre of mass, we can redraw the discs as point
masses
Sli.do Q2 SM1-17
What distance is the centre of mass from the left
hand end of the shaft?
a) 406 mm
b) 478 mm
c) 522 mm
d) 606 mm
Sli.do Q3 SM1-17
A spinning ice skater with their arms and legs stretched out has a total moment of inertia
about their axis of rotation of 3.0 kg m2. As they pull their arms and leg in, their angular
speed increases from 1.5 rev s−1 to 3.5 rev s−1. What is the total change in their moment of
inertia?
a) -1.7 kg m2
b) -1.3 kg m2
c) 1.7 kg m2
d) 1.3 kg m2
Sli.do Q4 SM1-17
What assumption do we have to make to solve this problem?
a) Energy is conserved
b) Momentum is conserved
c) Energy and momentum are conserved
d) None of the above
Assuming
Recorded Lecture 18
Rotational Acceleration
Aim:
• Understand equivalence between moment of inertia for rotational

motion and mass for linear motion
• Derive an expression to convert between linear and rotational
acceleration
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
Rotational acceleration
Rotational equivalent of 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
Torque = moment of inertia × angular acceleration
Units:
Example
If a ring and a disc with equal mass are released on a uniform
slope, which one accelerates quicker?
𝜃 𝜃
FBD:
Combine (1), (2) and (3):
Moment of inertia of a hollow ring

If the mass, 𝑚, of a ring is concentrated at the outer circumference, what is its
moment of inertia?
𝐼HH =
𝑟
Moment of inertia of a uniform disc
𝑥 𝑥
Front view Side view
I I I I
𝑥J 𝜋𝑡𝜌𝑟 J 𝑚𝑟 ,
𝐼HH = = 𝑥 ,𝑑𝑚 = = 𝑥, N 2𝜋𝑥𝑡𝜌. 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑡𝜌 = 𝑥 4. 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑡𝜌 = =
4 F
4 2
F F F
𝜃 𝜃
Which one accelerates faster?

Example
String
Mass, 𝑚
Moment of inertia, 𝐼
Radius, 𝑟
Derive an equation for acceleration due to gravity

Summary
• Newton’s second law also applies to rotational acceleration but
in slightly different form:
• We can easily convert between rotational and linear

acceleration:
• This relationship assumes no slip or elastic deformation of

strings, pulleys, etc.

Online Tutorial 18
Rotational Acceleration
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
Recap
• Previously we looked at how to solve problems where objects
are rotating using Newton’s Second Law
• We also developed a relationship between rotational and linear
motion
Sli.do Q1 SM1-18
The cricket roller is pushed by two men such that a force of 400 N acts along the axis of the
push bar. The roller may be taken to be a cylinder of diameter of 0.75 m, length 1 m, thickness
20 mm and density 2400 kg/m3. The mass of the push bar and friction at the axle may be
neglected. What is the correct equation to describe the forces in the horizontal direction?
a) 𝑃 sin 30 − 𝜇𝑁 = 𝐼 𝜃̈ 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 ,
b) 𝑃 sin 30 + 𝜇𝑁 = 𝐼 𝜃̈
c) 𝑃 cos 30 − 𝜇𝑁 = 𝑚𝑥̈
d) 𝑃 cos 30 + 𝜇𝑁 = 𝑚𝑥̈
Sli.do Q2 SM1-18
The cricket roller is pushed by two men such that a force of 400 N acts along the axis of the
push bar. The roller may be taken to be a cylinder of diameter of 0.75 m, length 1 m, thickness
20 mm and density 2400 kg/m3. The mass of the push bar and friction at the axle may be
neglected. What is the acceleration at the centre of the roller?
a) 0.19 ms-2 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 ,
b) 0.91 ms-2
c) 1.57 ms-2
d) 3.10 ms-2
Sli.do Q3 SM1-18
An experiment is set up as shown in the following figure to measure the second moment of mass
(moment of inertia) I, of a flywheel. A block of mass 15 kg is attached to a cord wrapped around
the rim of the flywheel. When the block is released from rest it is observed to fall 3 metres in 5
seconds. What is the acceleration of the block?
a) 0.12 ms-2
b) 0.24 ms-2
c) 0.48 ms-2
d) 0.60 ms-2
Sli.do Q4 SM1-18
An experiment is set up as shown in the following figure to measure the second moment of mass
(moment of inertia) I, of a flywheel. A block of mass 15 kg is attached to a cord wrapped around
the rim of the flywheel. When the block is released from rest it is observed to fall 3 metres in 5
seconds. Estimate the value of I. The friction in the bearings and the mass of the cord may be
neglected.
a) 336 kg m2
b) 449 kg m2
c) 731 kg m2
d) 1345 kg m2
Recorded Lecture 19
Gearboxes
Aim:
• Develop a general appreciation for different types of gearboxes and

their importance for mechanical systems
• Derive terms for the moment of inertia of geared systems
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
Gearboxes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yHcrvO5ZkNI
Manual transmission
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wCu
9W9xNwtI
Epicyclic or planetary gearbox
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ARd-Om2VyiE
Continuously variable transmission
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PEq5_b4LWNY
Why do we use gearboxes?
1.
2.
3.
Moment of inertia in geared systems

𝐼$
𝐼!
𝑟$
𝑟!
𝑇 𝜃! 𝜃$
Input
Output
Velocity at interface has to be the same
When drive gear rotates 𝜃> , driven gear rotates
𝑟$
𝑟!
𝜃! 𝜃$
And if no slip:
In general, the gear ratio is defined as
So we can write Torque as
Or alternatively
Usually, gearboxes are used to transmit power, e.g. from engine to wheels
on a car. As such, we also would expect a load torque acting in the opposite
direction to the drive torque.
If a load torque, 𝑇M , is present at the output, this translates to a torque at the

input of 𝑇M /𝐺:
Example
If torque from motor is 100 Nm, what is the angular acceleration
of the flywheel?
Flywheel 𝐼N = 1 kgm,
Motor
Gear box 𝐼O = 100 kgm,
𝐺 = 5: 1
𝜃*
Summary
• Gearboxes are very useful for mechanical machines
• The output rotational speed or torque due to an input speed or
torque depends on the gear ratio, G
• The effective moment of inertia of a geared system is related to
the gear ratio
• The load torque is reduced at the input by a factor of G

Online Tutorial 20
Gearboxes 1
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
Example
If torque from motor is 100 Nm, what is the angular acceleration of the
flywheel?
Flywheel 𝐼N = 1 kgm,
Motor
Gear box 𝐼O = 100 kgm,
𝐺 = 5: 1
𝜃*
Sli.do Q1 SM1-19
Now consider a load torque of 100 Nm on output shaft. What is the new
angular acceleration of the flywheel?
Flywheel
Motor
Gear box
a) 2.4 rad s-2
b) 3.2 rad s-2
c) 4.0 rad s-2 𝜃!
𝑇! = 100 Nm
d) 4.8 rad s-2

Flywheel
Motor
Gear box
𝜃!
𝑇! = 100 Nm
Maximum output acceleration

Output acceleration is a function of G:
Peak acceleration as a function of gear

ratio from previous example:
Peak occurs at maxima, i.e.

G as a function of I
Gear ratios of multiple gears

H I
• The gear ratio is given by: 𝐺 = H! or G = I!
# #
where r is gear radius and z is the number of teeth.
• To calculate the overall gear ratio of a gearbox, for example, we

can simply multiply the gear ratios of individual gears together
Sli.do Q2 SM1-19
The diagram shows a typical 3-speed gearbox. The gears are
meshed all the time; for 1st and 2nd gear, A and B, respectively,
are locked to the output shaft. In 3rd gear, the input and output
shafts are locked together giving a gear ratio of 1:1. The
number of teeth are labelled on the diagram.
What is the combined gear ratio of 1st gear?
a) 0.35
b) 1.63
c) 2.87
d) 3.56
Sli.do Q3 SM1-19
The diagram shows a typical 3-speed gearbox. The gears are
meshed all the time; for 1st and 2nd gear, A and B,
respectively, are locked to the output shaft. In 3rd gear, the
input and output shafts are locked together giving a gear ratio
of 1:1. The number of teeth are labelled on the diagram.
When the engine delivers 64 kW at 5000 rev/min, what is the

output torque in first gear?
a) 350 Nm
b) 463 Nm
c) 570 Nm
d) 2200 Nm
Recorded Lecture 20
Gearbox holding torques
Aim:
• Understand the concept of holding torques in gearboxes based on

free body diagram
• Calculate holding torques for gearbox problems
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
Gearbox holding torques

Need to bolt down gearboxes to stop the casing from rotating – this is called the
From FBD, we can calculate this:
Note that the output or load torque is always in the opposite direction to the output rotational
motion.
If the system is in equilibrium, the net torque = 0
Example
A gear box of ratio 9:-1 (reversed rotational direction) is used to transmit a power of 1 kW
from an electric motor of speed 1500 rpm. What is the gear box holding torque?
Past exam question

An automatic radar tracker with a motor moment of inertia of
0.05 kgm2 turns an aerial of inertia 150 kgm2 through a
reduction gearbox. The gearbox has a reduction ratio of 50:1
(aerial in same direction as motor)
a) Calculate the effective inertia of the combined motor and

aerial as seen at the motor output shaft.
𝐼, 150
𝐼POO = 𝐼+ + ,
= 0.05 + = 0.11 kgm,
𝐺 50
b) Calculate the initial acceleration of the aerial if the motor
torque is 5 Nm.
c) If the motor torque is 5 Nm and a load torque of 100 Nm is

applied to the aerial output shaft, calculate the new aerial
acceleration.
d) Calculate gearbox holding torque.
Summary
• Gearboxes need to be bolted down to stop them rotating
• The holding torque is the torque required to stop rotation
• Can be calculated from free body diagram
• Output, or load, torque always opposite in direction to input torque
Online Tutorial 20
Gearboxes 2
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
Sli.do Q1 SM1-20
The diagram shows a typical 3-speed gearbox. The gears
are meshed all the time; for 1st and 2nd gear, A and B,
respectively, are locked to the output shaft. In 3rd gear, the
input and output shafts are locked together giving a gear
ratio of 1:1. The number of teeth are labelled on the
diagram.
When the engine delivers 64 kW at 5000 rev/min, holding

torque is required in second gear?
a) 77.5 Nm
b) 108 Nm
c) 155 Nm
d) 210 Nm
Solution
Sli.do Q2 SM1-20
A reduction gearbox consists of an input gear with an inertia of 0.05 kgm2 and 20 teeth driving a
gear with 60 teeth mounted on a lay shaft with an inertia of 0.1 kgm2. The other end, of the lay
shaft drives the output shaft with an inertia of 0.5 kgm2 through a reduction gear of ratio 5:1.
Calculate the overall reduction gear ratio and the effective inertia of the system measured at the
input shaft.
a) 0.33 : 1
b) 1.5 : 1
c) 3 : 1
d) 15 : 1
Solution
Sli.do Q3 SM1-20
A reduction gearbox consists of an input gear with an inertia of 0.05 kgm2 and 20 teeth
driving a gear with 60 teeth mounted on a lay shaft with an inertia of 0.1 kgm2. The other
end, of the lay shaft drives the output shaft with an inertia of 0.5 kgm2 through a reduction
gear of ratio 5:1.
Calculate the effective inertia of the system measured at the input shaft.
a) 0.61
b) 0.63
c) 0.52
d) 0.78
Solution
Sli.do Q4 SM1-20
If the input power to the gearbox is 10 kW at a speed of 1500 rev/min and the gearbox efficiency
is 90%, calculate the output torque.
a) 14.3 Nm
b) 859 Nm
c) 955 Nm
d) 5400 Nm
Solution
Sli.do Q5 SM1-20
If the input power to the gearbox is 10 kW at a speed of 1500 rev/min and the gearbox efficiency
is 90%, calculate the holding torque.
a) 64 Nm
b) 389 Nm
c) 640 Nm
d) 796 Nm
Solution

Recorded Lecture 22
Past paper questions
• Past exam questions and worked answers
Dr James Roscow
Room: 4E 3.15
Past exam Q1: The layout of an overhead crane is shown in figure Q4 (below). The load is
raised by a motor that winds up a light cable. From the motor the cable passes over a pulley
E in the trolley, around pulley P which moves with the load, over pulley G and is attached to
the crane beam at H. While the load is being lifted a brake acting on the wheels holds the
trolley stationary on the beam. At a certain instant the load is being raised with an
acceleration of 5 m/s2 upward.
The mass and moment of inertia of pulleys E and G, and friction of all bearings may be
neglected.
The following data are provided:
Load: Mass, 𝑀1 = 150 kg
Pulley, P: Mass, 𝑀( = 15
Moment of inertia, 𝐼( = 0.2 kgm$
Diameter, 𝐷( = 0.35 m
Trolley: Mass, 𝑀2 = 30 kg
a) Draw Free Body Diagrams of the load, the pulley and the trolley. [9 marks]
b) Estimate the tension in the lift hook at M. [5 marks]
c) Estimate the tension in the cable at N and the cable at O. [5 marks]
d) Estimate the horizontal force on the wheels needed to keep the trolley
stationary and the minimum coefficient of friction between the trolley
wheels and the beam. [6 marks]
Past exam Q2: The figure below shows a spring of free length 50mm and stiffness 100N/m
with zero pre-load, which is used to spin the flywheel when it is released. When the spring
tension reduces to zero it disconnects from the flywheel shaft, which has a diameter of 10
mm. The flywheel has a mass of 200 grams and a moment of inertia of 2.5x10-4 kgm2. The
angle made by the spring and the horizontal is 45°.
a) Draw a Free Body Diagram of the flywheel. [5 marks]

b) Draw a graph of the spring force versus extension and calculate the energy stored in the spring
when extended from the free length of 50 mm to 100 mm. [5 marks]
c. Calculate the vertical reaction at the flywheel bearing and the initial acceleration of the flywheel in
the condition shown. [5 marks]
d. Calculate the angular velocity to which the flywheel will be accelerated. [5 marks]
e. The flywheel stops because of shaft friction after about 400 revolutions. Estimate the average
friction torque. If you had included this friction in your calculations of part d, would it have had a
significant affect on your answer? [5 marks]

Solid Mechanics I – Free Body Diagrams
Draw Free Body Diagrams of the following bodies. Q 3.4 Draw FBDS of the block B and the wedge
Remember to separate the body from its A. There is friction between the wedge and the
surroundings and include all the forces applied by ground and between the wedge and the block.
the outside world to the body. Include coordinates.
Q 3.1 The lorry below is rear wheel drive and

suffers from friction in its front wheel bearings.
Ignore aerodynamic effects.
Q 3.5 Draw an FBD of the woman in the rotating

drum, with the floor in place and with the floor
Q 3.2 The pendulum is falling due to gravity. removed. There is friction between the womans’
Neglect air resistance. back and the wall.
Q 3.3 Draw FBDs for the block A and the

combined block B and pulleys. Neglect friction in
the pulley bearings. Draw the same FBDs with
friction in the pulley bearings.
Q 3.6 Draw a FBD of the piston in the cylinder.

There is friction between the cylinder and the bore
and high pressure gas in the cylinder.

Solid Mechanics I – Newton’s Second Law
The following steps are basic to every problem:
1. Draw appropriate Free Body Diagram

2. Choose a suitable frame of reference
3. Apply Newton’s second law in the appropriate direction
Q 4.1 A crane is lifting a crate of mass 20 kg with

an upward acceleration of 6 m/s2 by means of a
single cable. What is the tension in the cable?
[316N] Q 4.3 Determine the acceleration of the 100 kg
mass for each of the cases illustrated. The mass
and friction of the pulleys are negligible. Hint- Take
Q 4.2 The platform, together with the load it carries, care to draw accurate Free Body Diagrams.
weighs 3000N, and is raised by winding the [4.89 m/s2, 1.96 m/s2]
supporting cable around the drum A which is driven
by the motor and gear unit B so as to give tension
of 1200 N in the cable. Find the initial acceleration
of the platform. What is the initial acceleration of
the part of the cable between the drum and the
upper pulley?
[1.96ms-2 (up), 3.92 ms-2 (down)]
Q 4.4 The frame shown is given a steady horizontal

acceleration a=2g. Determine the reaction between
the sphere, which weighs 10N and the vertical
surface. [17.32N]
(ans. 17.32N)
Q 4.5 The crate shown has a mass of 15 kg and is Q4.8 The collar A has a mass of 10 kg and slides
being pulled up a plane at 30o by a cord parallel to on a vertical shaft. The spring is uncompressed
the plane. Calculate the tension necessary to give when the collar is in the dotted position. Determine
the crate an acceleration parallel to the plane of the initial acceleration of the collar when it is
5m/s2. The coefficient of friction is 0.3. released from rest in the position illustrated. The
[186.7N] coefficient of friction between the collar and the
shaft is 0.2, and the stiffness of the spring is
2500N/m.
[24.2m/s2]
Q 4.6 The electric train shown consists of three

coaches A,B,C of mass 35t, 45t and 35t
respectively. It is travelling at 60km/hr when the
brakes are applied to coaches A and B, giving a
braking force on each of these coaches of 25 kN,
but no braking force on C. Calculate the force in
each coupling.
[ 9.78kN and 15.21kN compression]
Q 4.9 The wedge A is free to slide without friction

on the fixed horizontal surface, and friction may
also be neglected between the plunger B and its
guides, which constrain the plunger to slide at right
angles to the face of the wedge. Between the
plunger and the wedge the coefficient of friction is
0.3. The mass of the wedge is 40 kg and that of the
plunger 60 kg. The system is released from rest.
Determine the acceleration of the wedge if the
Q 4.7 A 200 kg crate rests on a 100 kg cart; the
wedge angle is 30 degrees. Hint- The plunger is
coefficient of friction between the crate and the cart
accelerating as well as the wedge.
is 0.25. If the crate is not to slip with respect to the
[2.59m/s2]
cart, calculate:
a) The maximum acceleration of cart

b) The maximum allowable magnitude of the
force P which may be applied to the cart.
[2.45m/s2, 735 N]
Q 4.10 Two bodies of mass 5 kg and 209 kg slide Q 4.12 The force at the wheel of a locomotive is
on 45˚ inclines, as shown, and are connected given by:
together by a string which passes over a small, light
frictionless pulley at the apex. Motion of the 5kg T= 125x103 N for 0<v<20.8 m/s (75 km/hr)
mass is resisted by a tangential force of 0.2 times T= 2.6 x 106/v N for v>20.8 m/s (>75km/hr)
the normal reaction (coefficient of friction is 0.2).
Motion of the 20 kg mass is resisted by a tangential When coupled to a train of mass 300t the total
force which is independent of the normal reaction resistance is given by
but varies with sliding velocity according to the
relationship: R= 4.75 kN + 13.6v2 N (v in m/s)
Tangential force= 2.5 (Sliding velocity)2 This train has a maximum speed of 200 km/hr on a
(S.I Units) level straight track. Use the approximate numerical
approach to calculate
If the masses are released from rest, calculate the
distance they will move before reaching a speed of a) The maximum acceleration
4m/s. b) The time taken to reach 75 km/hr
[ans. 2.65m] c) The time taken to reach 175 km/hr
d) The maximum speed up an incline of 1 in
150.
[0.4m/s2, 52.7 s, 236s (ish), 47.2 m/s]
4.13 The figure shows a small block P of mass

15kg resting on another block Q, of mass 60 kg.
The small block is held to the rigid wall BC by a
rope DE parallel to AB. AB is a plane inclined at an
angle of 15˚ to the horizontal. An external force of
360 N parallel to the plane AB acts on the block Q.
Q 4.11 The power developed by the locomotive of Draw the Free Body Diagram for each block
a fast train of a total mass 515t is 6MW at maximum showing clearly all the forces acting and calculate:
speed of 270km/hr. The rolling resistance is 0.5%
of its weight. If the total resistance is of the form a) The acceleration of Q when the system is
A+BV2, calculate the value of B. Calculate also the released
tractive effort of the locomotive for an initial b) The tension in the rope DE
acceleration of 0.35m/s2 starting from rest.
[9.73, 205.5kN] The coefficient of friction between all surfaces in
contact is 0.3
[4.28m/s2, 80.7 N]

Solid Mechanics I – Energy and Momentum

Q 5.1 A goods wagon of 80 tonne is moving along Q 5.6 A buffer has a stiffness of K1=0.25MN/m for
a horizontal track at 3km/hr in a marshalling yard. compressions up to 200mm and K2= 0.65 MN/m for
A second wagon of 60 tonne, moving at 5km/hr on compressions above 200mm. Such a buffer is used
the same track and in the same direction as the to bring to rest a railway truck of 25 tonne moving
first, reaches it and the two are coupled without at 4km/hr. If the rolling resistance is 0.3% of the
rebound by an automatic device. Calculate the weight of the truck calculate the compression of the
common speed of the two coupled wagons and the buffer (assuming no rebound).
loss of energy during the coupling operation. [0.315m]
[1.07m/s, 5.3 kJ]
Q 5.7 A force F acts on a slider at an angle ɸ to the
Q 5.2 The wheels of a car of mass 880 kg lock on direction of the slide as shown. As the slider moves
tarmac (µ=0.9) at a speed of 30ms-1. Estimate the the force changes in magnitude and direction. If x
time required to stop. [3.4s] is the distance moved by the slider
Q 5.3 A 120 kg motorbike plus 80 kg rider is to F = 60x ɸ = 3x2 (SI units)

accelerate from zero to 5ms-1 in 0.8s. Estimate the
average force required. [1250N]
Calculate the work done on the slider by the force
Q 5.4 A very small rocket motor used for controlling F in moving from x=0 to x=0.5m. If the slide is
a satellite is fired giving the thrust variation shown. frictionless and the slider is at rest initially calculate
Estimate the impulse and, if the satellite mass is the velocity of the slider at x=0.5m. The mass of the
800kg, estimate the speed change. slider is 0.8 kg. [6.81J, 4.12m/s]
[:≈11Ns, 0.014ms-1]
Q 5.8 A solid steel rod 1m long supports a collar of

weight 600N as shown. Determine the maximum
tension in the rod if the collar, which is free to slide
on the rod, is dropped on to the nut from a height
Q 5.5 The weight shown is released from rest with of 100mm. The upper end of the rod is rigidly fixed
the cord in the horizontal position shown. When the and the extension of the rod is proportional to the
bottom position is reached the cord strikes is a tension. The rod extends 0.01mm with a tension of
small fixed bar as shown and the weight follows the 600N.
dotted path. Calculate the velocity of the weight at [ans:85.5 KN]
B and C. [6.26 m/s, 4.43m/s]

Solid Mechanics I – Moments of Inertia
Q 9.1 An electric motor supplies a power of 200W Q 9.4 A drum is driven by a rope of length 20m. If
to drive an unloaded flywheel of moment of inertia the diameter of the drum is 0.5m and its moment of
2kgm2 at a steady speed of 600 rev/min. How long inertia about the centre of gravity is 0.1kgm2 what
will it be before the flywheel comes to rest after the is its maximum speed if the tension in the rope is
power is switched off assuming the frictional couple 10N?
remains constant? [39.5s] [63rad/s]
Q 9.2 A figure skater is spinning about a vertical Q 9.5 Determine from first principles the moment of
axis with his arms extended vertically upwards. Will inertia of a thin plate of mass per unit area rt, cut
they spin faster or slower when they allow their into triangular shape as shown, about an axis
arms to fall until they are horizontal? Has their passing through the apex and parallel to the base.
kinetic energy increased or decreased? How do What is the corresponding radius of gyration?
you account for the change? [ ¼ rtbh3 h/√2 ]
A horizontal disc rotating freely about a vertical axis

has a speed of 90 rev/min. A small piece of putty of
mass 0.02kg falls vertically on to the disc and sticks
to it at a distance of 50mm from the axis. If the
speed is thereby reduced to 80 rev/mm calculate
the moment of inertia of the disc. (Hint: assume
conservation of momentum).
[4x10-4 kgm2]
Q 9.3 The flywheel shown in the figure is acted on

by a roller which produces a force of 10 N. What is Q 9.6 The pendulum of a clock is made from a
the angular acceleration? Assume that 90% of the circular steel bar of 10mm diameter and length
flywheel mass lies in the rim at a radius of 0.275m 250mm. On its end is a 50mm cube of steel. If the
and the total mass is 10kg. density of steel is 7850kg/m2 what is the pendulum
moment of inertia if it is pivoted about one end? The
How fast must the flywheel rotate in order to store inertia of a uniform rod, through the c.of g. is ml2/12.
50 Joules of energy? If the pendulum amplitude is 15 degrees and the
maximum potential energy during the stroke is 0.1J
What is the rim speed and how long does it take to what is the pendulum mid stroke angular velocity?
raise the flywheel to speed?
[4,2 rad/s2 (ish), 11.85 rad/s, 3.54 m/s, 2.79s] [0.078kgm2, 1.6 rad/s]

Solid Mechanics I – Gearboxes and Combined Motion
Q10.1 The diagram shows a typical 3-speed Q10,4 Under what circumstances can the spool of
gearbox. The gears are in mesh all the time; for 1st thread below be retrieved by pulling at the thread?
and 2nd gear A and B respectively are locked to the Assume sufficient friction on the floor so that the
output shaft. In 3rd gear the input and output shafts spool will roll without slipping. Show that the
are locked together giving a gear ratio of 1:1. The horizontal acceleration of the spool is
number of gear teeth are labelled on the diagram.
For each of the intermediate gears calculate the !"("$%&' − ))
output speed and torque and the torque required to +(, 2 + " 2 )
hold the casing, when the engine delivers 64 KW
at 5000rev/min.
[1st gear 1745 rev/min, 350 Nm, 228Nm] where k is the radius of gyration of the spool and
[2nd gear 3059 rev/min, 200Nm, 77.5Nm] m is the mass.
Q10.5 An automatic radar tracker with a motor

moment of inertia of 0.014kgm2 turns an aerial of
movement of inertia 28.8kgm2 through a reduction
gearbox. On start up the gearbox has a ratio of
Q10.2 The double gear shown rolls on the 60:1.
stationary lower rack; the velocity of its centre A is a. Calculate the initial acceleration of the
1.2 m/s directed to the right. Determine the angular aerial if the motor torque is 1Nm
velocity of the gear, the velocity of the upper rack b. Calculate the optimum gear ratio which
R and the point D. would give the maximum acceleration at
[ 8rad/s, 2m/s, 1.697 m/s at 45o] the aerial for any given motor torque. Hint-
Differentiate w.r.t G.
c. The motor characteristics are such that the
maximum torque available falls as the
motor speeds up at the rate of 7% of the
Inner radius 100mm standstill torque for every 20rad/s.
Outer radius 150mm Calculate the reduction ratio for maximum
acceleration of the aerial when it turns at 8
rad/s.
[ 0.757 rad/s2, 45.4,15.7]
Q10.3 A reduction gearbox consists of an input
gear with an inertia of 0.05kgm2 and 20 teeth
Q10.6 A flywheel of inertia I is supported on a shaft
driving a gear with 60 teeth mounted on a lay shaft
of radius r. A rope of negligible thickness is wound
with an inertia of 0.1kgm2. The other end, of the lay
around the shaft and supports a mass M hanging
shaft drives the output shaft with an inertia of
vertically. A constant frictional couple C acts on the
0.5kgm2 through a reduction gear of ratio 5:1.
shaft. Prove that the angular acceleration of the
Calculate the overall reduction gear ratio and the
shaft is given by
effective inertia of the system measured at the
input shaft. If the input power to the gearbox is 10
kW at a speed of 1500 rev/min and the gearbox (%&' − ))
efficiency is 90% calculate the output torque and !̈ =
the holding torque provided by the mounting bolts (%' 2 + -)
on the gearbox casing.
[15:1, 0.063kgm2, 859Nm, 796Nm]

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Solid Mechanics 1

Statics and Dynamics

ME10004 SOLID MECHANICS 1 – 2020/2021

Monday - 16:15-17:05 (UK time)

Statics - AL = Alexander Lunt Dynamics - JR = James Roscow

Tutorials – In person and on Teams

Course Day Group Locations Times (UK)

A 4E 3.40, 3.44, 3.5, 3.10 13:15 – 14:05

IMEE 2E 2.13, 2.14, 2.16 & 4E 2.44, 2.53A 14:15 – 15:05

Sat Watch recording

Group attempt during in Opportunity to ask Times

Group attempt during in Opportunity to ask Times

Everyone Mechanical Engineers Groups A, B and C IMEE & Robotics

 Lecture notes (with blanks to fill in)

 Please collect these ahead of first lecture

 Posted to external students

 Pre-learning videos (such as this one) will be available on Panopto (ME10004):

 Links to Teams events

 Problem sheets (+ eventually solutions)

 Exam information – potentially exam papers

Statics - AL = Alexander Lunt Dynamics - JR = James Roscow

 The event code will be given on the slides

 You will be asked to:

 Go to https://www.sli.do/ on your smartphone/laptop

 Enter the event code #

 Respond to polls/questions that will be in the slides

 Please bring along your calculator to every session

 Good idea to work on problem sheets before tutorial

4E 3.40, 3.44, 3.5,

Mechanical 4E 3.36, 3.37, 3.38,

4E 2.56, 2.32, 2.39,

2E 2.13, 2.14, 2.16

Types of Interaction (each week)

Group attempt during in Opportunity to ask See times on

 Plenty of good options – Level 3 shelf mark 620.1

1. Structures: Theory and Analysis – Williams & Todd

2. An Introduction to Mechanical Engineering – Clifford et al.

3. Mechanics of Materials – Gere & Timoshenko

4. Engineering Mechanics – Statics/Dynamics – Meriam & Kraige

 Problem sheet for every week – contained within

 Numerical solutions are available on Moodle

 Historically a crib sheet is allowed in the examination

 1 side of A4 paper that is hand written by you

 Can contain any information you wish

 Exam in January/February 2021

 Format of exam will depend on COVID developments

 Components and resolving

 Problem sheet 1 – Equilibrium – In handouts and on Moodle webpage

 Forces are generally in equilibrium

 Often want to design systems which do not move

 Often can assume that these movements are small

 In this case the geometry of the problem remains the same

When we get statics wrong?

Loading types (in this course)

Adding vectors algebraically

 Sum individual terms

 Sum of forces being applied