THE ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM
MATT
DEVID ONA
 WHAT IS ENDOCRINE SYSTEM?
The endocrine system is a series of glands that produce and
secrete hormones that the body uses for a wide range of
functions. These control many different bodily functions,
including:

Respiration Metabolism Reproduction

Sensory perception Movement Sexual development
Growth

Hormones are produced by glands and sent into the bloodstream

to the various tissues in the body. They send signals to those
tissues to tell them what they are supposed to do. When the
glands do not produce the right amount of hormones, diseases
develop that can affect many aspects of life.
❑ PINEAL GLAND
❑ HYPOTHALAMUS
❑ PITUITARY GLAND
❑ THYROID GLAND
❑ Thymus
❑ PARATHYROID GLANDS
❑ ADRENAL GLANDS
❑ PANCREAS
❑ OVARY
❑ TESTIS
01
 Introduction

Pineal gland is also called

conarium, epiphysis cerebri, pineal
organ, or pineal body, endocrine
gland found in vertebrates that is
the source of melatonin, a hormone
derived from tryptophan that plays a
central role in the regulation of
circadian rhythm (the roughly 24-hour
cycle of biological activities
associated with natural periods of
light and darkness).
The pineal gland is located deep in the brain in
an area called the epithalamus, where the two
halves of the brain join. In humans, this is
situated in the middle of the brain; it sits in
a groove just above the thalamus, which is an
area that co-ordinates a variety of functions
related to our senses.

The pineal gland is best known for the
secretion of the hormone melatonin, which is
released into the blood and possibly also into
the brain fluid, known as cerebrospinal
fluid. Pineal melatonin is a hormone that
regulates the body's daily (circadian) clock and
so melatonin is commonly used in human
research to understand the body's biological
time.
There is a rhythm to the biology of the pineal
gland and melatonin is secreted according to
the amount of day light a person is exposed to.
It varies with changes in day length and this is
why the pineal gland is sometimes referred to
as both an endocrine clock and an endocrine
calendar.
Melatonin secreted by the pineal gland is an
important part of the body's circadian timing
system and can synchronise daily rhythms (see
the articles on jet lag and circadian rhythm sleep
disorders).
Melatonin is secreted more when it is dark
which explains melatonin’s role in sleep. There
is considerable research that shows that without
the pineal gland and its secretion of melatonin,
animals are unable to adapt physiologically to
seasonal changes.
OTHER FUNCTION OF PINEAL GLAND:
✓ Regulation of Endocrine Functions
✓ Conversion of Nervous System Signals
to Endocrine Signals
✓ Causes Feeling of Sleepiness
✓ Influences Sexual Development
The major hormone produced by the pineal gland is melatonin.

Melatonin is a hormone made by the pineal gland. That's a pea-

sized gland found just above the middle of your brain. It helps
your body know when it's time to sleep and wake up.

Normally, your body makes more melatonin at night. Levels

usually start to go up in the evening once the sun sets. They
drop in the morning when the sun goes up. The amount of light
you get each day -- plus your own body clock -- set how much
your body makes.

You can also buy melatonin supplements. They come in pills,

liquids, and chewables. You might find them in natural or
synthetic forms. The natural forms are made from the pineal
gland in animals
 DISORDERS

The dysfunction of the pineal

gland produces less melatonin
secretion, which may result
in insomnia, abnormal thyroid
function, anxiety, intestinal
hyperactivity, and menopause.
pressure, Seasonal Affective
Disorder, abnormal adrenal
functions.
02
 Introduction

The hypothalamus is a small

but important area in the
center of the brain. It
plays an important role in
hormone production and helps
to stimulate many important
processes in the body and is
located in the brain,
between the pituitary gland
and thalamus.
 The hypothalamus is located on the undersurface of
the brain. It lies just below the thalamus and
above the pituitary gland, to which it is attached
by a stalk. It is an extremely complex part of the
brain containing many regions with highly
specialised functions.

The hypothalamus’ main role is
to keep the body in homeostasis
as much as possible.
Homeostasis means a healthful,
balanced bodily state. The body
is always trying to achieve this
balance. Feelings of hunger, for
example, are the brain’s way of
letting its owner know that they
need more nutrients to achieve
homeostasis.
The hypothalamus acts as the
connector between the endocrine
and nervous systems to achieve
this. It plays a part in many
essential functions of the body
such as:
•body temperature
thirst
•appetite and weight control
•emotions
•sleep cycles
•sex drive
•childbirth
•blood pressure and heart rate
•production of digestive juices
•balancing bodily fluids
 As different systems and parts of the body send
signals to the brain, they alert the hypothalamus to
any unbalanced factors that need addressing. The
hypothalamus then responds by releasing the right
hormones into the bloodstream to balance the body.

One example of this is the remarkable ability of a

human being to maintain an internal temperature of
98.6 °Fahrenheit (ºF).

If the hypothalamus receives a signal that the

internal temperature is too high, it will tell the body
to sweat. If it receives the signal that the temperature
is too cold, the body will create its own heat by
shivering.
 To maintain homeostasis, the hypothalamus is
responsible for creating or controlling many hormones
in the body. The hypothalamus works with the pituitary
gland, which makes and sends other important hormones
around the body.

Together, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland

control many of the glands that produce hormones of
the body, called the endocrine system. This includes
the adrenal cortex, gonads, and thyroid.
 To maintain homeostasis, the hypothalamus is
responsible for creating or controlling many hormones
in the body. The hypothalamus works with the pituitary
gland, which makes and sends other important hormones
around the body.

Together, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland

control many of the glands that produce hormones of
the body, called the endocrine system. This includes
the adrenal cortex, gonads, and thyroid.
Hormones secreted by the hypothalamus include:

A hypothalamic disease is any disorder that prevents
the hypothalamus from functioning correctly. These
diseases are very hard to pinpoint and diagnose because
the hypothalamus has a wide range of roles in the
endocrine system.
The hypothalamus also serves the vital purpose of
signaling that the pituitary gland should release
hormones to the rest of the endocrine system. As it is
difficult for doctors to diagnose a specific, incorrectly
functioning gland, these disorders are often called
hypothalamic-pituitary disorders.
In these cases, there are some hormone tests that
doctors might prescribe to get to the root of the
disorder.
Causes and risk factors
The most common causes of hypothalamic
diseases are injuries to the head that impact the
hypothalamus. Surgeries, radiation, and tumors can
also cause disease in the hypothalamus.
Hypothalamus problems also appear to have a
genetic link in Prader-Willi Syndrome. This is a
condition in which a missing chromosome leads to
short stature and hypothalamic dysfunction.
✓ Additional causes of hypothalamic disease can
include:
•eating disorders, such as bulimia or
anorexia
•genetic disorders that cause excess
iron buildup in the body
•malnutrition
•infections
•excessive bleeding
03
 Introduction

The pituitary gland is a small

pea-sized gland that plays a major
role in regulating vital body
functions and general wellbeing.
It is referred to as the body's
'master gland' because it controls
the activity of most other
hormone-screting glands.
 The pituitary gland is a small gland that sits in the sella
turcica (‘Turkish saddle’), a bony hollow in the base of the
skull, underneath the brain, and behind the bridge of the nose.
The pituitary gland has two main parts, the anterior pituitary
gland, and the posterior pituitary gland. The gland is attached to
a part of the brain (the hypothalamus) that controls its activity.
The anterior pituitary gland is connected to the brain by short
blood vessels. The posterior pituitary gland is actually part of
the brain and it secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream
under the command of the brain.
 The pituitary gland is called the 'master gland' as the hormones it produces
control so many different processes in the body. It senses the body's needs
and sends signals to different organs and glands throughout the body to
regulate their function and maintain an appropriate environment.

It secretes a variety of hormones into the bloodstream which act as

messengers to transmit information from the pituitary gland to distant cells,
regulating their activity. Through secretion of its hormones, the pituitary gland
controls metabolism, growth, sexual maturation, reproduction, blood pressure
and many other vital physical functions and processes.

hypothalamus and then stored in the posterior
The anterior pituitary gland produces the following
hormones and releases them into the bloodstream:
❑ adrenocorticotropic hormone, which stimulates the
adrenal glands to secrete steroid hormones,
principally cortisol
❑ growth hormone, which regulates growth, metabolism
and body composition
❑ luteinising hormone and follicle stimulating hormone,
also known as gonadotrophins. They act on the
ovaries or testes to stimulate sex hormone
production, and egg and sperm maturity
❑ prolactin, which stimulates milk production
❑ thyroid stimulating hormone, which stimulates the
thyroid gland to secrete thyroid hormones.
Two hormones are produced by the
pituitary gland before being secreted into the
bloodstream. These are:
❑ antidiuretic hormone (also called
vasopressin), which controls water
balance and blood pressure
❑ oxytocin, which stimulates uterine
contractions during labour and milk
secretion during breastfeeding.
Between the anterior pituitary and the
posterior pituitary lies the intermediate
pituitary gland. Cells here produce:
❑ melanocyte-stimulating hormone, which
acts on cells in the skin to stimulate the
production of melanin.
 DISORDERS
Conditions that affect the pituitary gland directly can be
divided into three main categories:

✓ Conditions that cause the pituitary gland to produce

too much of one or more hormone(s). Examples
include acromegaly, Cushing's disease and
prolactinoma.

✓ Conditions that cause the pituitary gland to produce

too little of one or more hormone(s). Examples
include adult-onset growth hormone deficiency,
diabetes insipidus and hypopituitarism.

✓ Conditions that alter the size and/or shape of the

pituitary gland. Examples include empty sella
syndrome.
04
 Introduction

The thyroid gland is part

of the endocrine system and
produces thyroid hormones,
which are important for
metabolic health.
 The thyroid gland is located at the front of the
neck just below the Adam's apple (larynx). It is
butterfly-shaped and consists of two lobes
located either side of the windpipe (trachea). A
normal thyroid gland is not usually outwardly
visible or able to be felt if finger pressure is
applied to the neck.
 FUNCTION

The thyroid gland produces

hormones that regulate the body's
metabolic rate controlling heart,
muscle and digestive function, brain
development and bone maintenance.
Its correct functioning depends on a
good supply of iodine from the diet.
Cells producing thyroid hormones are
very specialised in extracting and
absorbing iodine from the blood and
incorporate it into the thyroid
hormones.
 The thyroid gland produces thyroxine (referred to as T4), which
is a relatively inactive prohormone. The highly active hormone is
triiodothyronine (referred to as T3). Collectively, thyroxine and
triiodothyronine are referred to as the thyroid hormones. The
thyroid gland produces just 20% of the high active T3, but it
produces 80% of the prohormone T4. Once secreted by the thyroid,
specific enzymes in other tissues like the liver or kidneys may
transform T4 into the active hormone T3.

In addition, there are other hormone-producing cells within the

thyroid gland called C-cells. These cells produce calcitonin.
Calcitonin plays a role in regulating calcium and phosphate levels
in the blood, which is important for your bone health and
maintenance.
❑ Goiter - enlargement of the thyroid
gland
❑ Hyperthyroidism - when your thyroid
gland makes more thyroid hormones
than your body needs
❑ Hypothyroidism - when your thyroid
gland does not make enough thyroid
hormones
❑ Thyroid cancer
❑ Thyroid nodules - lumps in the
thyroid gland
❑ Thyroiditis - swelling of the
thyroid
5
 SHORT DEFINITION
The thyroid gland is part
of the endocrine system and
produces thyroid hormones,
which are important for
metabolic health.
The thymus gland lies in the
chest, directly behind the
breastbone (sternum), and in
front of the heart in the area
between the lungs called the
anterior mediastinum.
The thymus gland is very active from before
birth until puberty, and it functions as both a
lymphatic organ and an endocrine organ (an
organ of the endocrine system that produces
hormones). In order to understand the role the
thymus gland plays in immunity, it's helpful to first
distinguish between T lymphocytes and B
lymphocytes.
The thymus gland produces several hormones
including:
✓ Thymopoietin and thymulin: Hormones that
assist in the process where T cells differentiate
into different types
✓ Thymosin: Accentuates the immune response
as well as stimulating pituitary hormones such
as growth hormone
✓ Thymic humoral factor: Acts similarly to
thymosin, but increases the immune response
to viruses in particular
6
 Introduction

The parathyroid glands

are situated in the neck
and control the levels of
calcium in the blood.
 LOCATION

The parathyroid glands are

small pea-sized glands located
in the neck just behind the
butterfly-shaped thyroid gland.
Most people have four
parathyroid glands, with two
parathyroid glands lying behind
each 'wing' of the thyroid
gland

FUNCTION
The parathyroid glands are
important in tightly controlling
calcium levels in the bloodstream.
Because of this, calcium levels are
generally very stable. This is
important to ensure the nervous
system and the body’s muscles can
work properly, and also that bones
remain strong.
HORMONES
The parathyroid glands produce
a hormone called parathyroid
hormone. The main target organs
where parathyroid hormone exerts
its effects are the bones and the
kidneys. When calcium levels are
low, parathyroid hormone is
released by the parathyroid glands
into the blood and causes the bones
to release calcium and increase
levels in the bloodstream. It also
causes the kidneys to stop calcium
being lost in urine as well as
stimulating the kidneys to increase
vitamin D metabolism.
 DISORDER
❑ Hypoparathyroidism - a rare condition
characterised by inadequate parathyroid
hormone production from the parathyroid
glands, resulting in low calcium levels in the
bloodstream.

❑ Parathyroid Cancer - a rare disease in

which malignant (cancer) cells form in the
tissues of a parathyroid gland.

❑ Hyperparathyroidism - Hyperparathyroidism
is when your parathyroid glands create too
much parathyroid hormone in the
bloodstream.
7
 Introduction

Adrenal glands, also known

as suprarenal glands, are
small, triangular-
shaped glands located on top
of both kidneys. Adrenal
glands produce hormones that
help regulate your metabolism,
immune system, blood pressure,
response to stress and other
essential functions.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: ❑ Zona reticularis – It produces DHES or
dehydroepiandrosterone (also called
androstenolone)
There are three distinct layers of the adrenal glands.
Adrenal Medulla
Adrenal Capsule The last and innermost part of the adrenal gland is
The primary function of this capsule layer is to the medulla. It contains the Chromaffin cells, which
enclose and protect each of the adrenal glands. produce the body’s main source of catecholamines
(such as adrenaline and noradrenaline) and
Adrenal Cortex endorphins. These are stored and released in
The adrenal cortex is the outermost layer of the response to stress.
adrenal gland which is devoted to the production of
aldosterone, cortisol, and androgens hormones.
There are three layers of cortex called zones which
can be examined and easily differentiated under a
microscope:
❑ Zona glomerulosa – It secretes mineralocorticoids like
aldosterone
❑ Zona fasciculata – It is responsible for producing
corticosteroids like cortisol. Also secrets small quantities
of androgens (such as testosterone and androstenedione)
 LOCATION

The Adrenal Glands are found

on top of each kidney. Even
the name “Adrenal” directly
refers to their location:
(Latin: ad– “near” and renes
– “kidneys.”) These glands
are also known as suprarenal
glands. (enes – “kidneys.”)
 FUNCTION
▪ One of the most well-known responses – the
Fight or Flight Response is triggered by the
release of stress hormones from the adrenal
glands.
▪ The adrenal glands produce a variety of
hormones. These hormones are very crucial
for the normal functioning of the body. For
instance, the glands secrete cortisol, which
has anti-inflammatory properties and aids the
immune system.
▪ The adrenal gland also helps to regulate
metabolism and blood pressure through
various other hormones.
The adrenal cortex produces three hormones:
✓ Mineralocorticoids - it stimulates active sodium
reabsorption in kidneys.
✓ Glucocorticoids - it stimulates gluconeogenesis and fat-
breakdown in adipose tissue
✓ Adrenal androgens: male sex hormones mainly
dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and testosterone. All
have weak effects, but play a role in early development of
the male sex organs in childhood, and female body hair
during puberty.
The adrenal medulla produces catecholamines:
❑ Catecholamines include adrenaline, noradrenaline and
small amounts of dopamine – these hormones are
responsible for all the physiological characteristics of the
stress response, the so called 'fight or flight' response .
 DISORDER
❑ Adrenal insufficiency. The adrenal gland
releases too little of the hormone cortisol
and sometimes, aldosterone. Symptoms
include fatigue, stomach upset, dehydratio
n, and skin changes. Addison's disease is
a type of adrenal insufficiency.

❑ Cushing's disease. Overproduction of a

pituitary gland hormone leads to an
overactive adrenal gland. A similar
condition called Cushing's syndrome may
occur in people, particularly children, who
take high doses of
corticosteroid medications.
8
 Introduction
The pancreas is an organ
located in the abdomen. It
plays an essential role in
converting the food we eat
into fuel for the body's
cells. The pancreas has two
main functions: an exocrine
function that helps in
digestion and an endocrine
function that regulates blood
sugar.
 LOCATION

The pancreas is located in the

upper abdomen behind the stomach,"
Knowlton said. The right end of the
pancreas is wide and called the
head. From the head, the organ
tapers to the left. The middle
sections are called the neck and
body, while the narrow end on the
left side of the body is called the
tail.

FUNCTION
Our pancreas plays a big role in digestion. It is
located inside your abdomen, just behind your
stomach. It's about the size of your hand. During
digestion, your pancreas makes pancreatic juices
called enzymes. These enzymes break down sugars,
fats, and starches. Your pancreas also helps your
digestive system by making hormones. These are
chemical messengers that travel through your
blood. Pancreatic hormones help regulate your
blood sugar levels and appetite, stimulate stomach
acids, and tell your stomach when to empty.
Pancreatic enzymes
Pancreatic enzymes
Your pancreas creates natural juices called pancreatic
enzymes to break down foods. These juices travel through
your pancreas via ducts. They empty into the upper part of
your small intestine called the duodenum. Each day, your
pancreas makes about 8 ounces of digestive juice filled with
enzymes. These are the different enzymes:
➢ Lipase. This enzyme works together with bile, which your
liver produces, to break down fat in your diet. If you don't
have enough lipase, your body will have trouble absorbing
fat and the important fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K).
Symptoms of poor fat absorption include diarrhea and
fatty bowel movements.
➢ Protease. This enzyme breaks down proteins in your diet.
It also helps protect you from germs that may live in your
intestines, like certain bacteria and yeast. Undigested
proteins can cause allergic reactions in some people.
➢ Amylase. This enzyme helps break down starches into
sugar, which your body can use for energy. If you don’t
have enough amylase, you may get diarrhea from
undigested carbohydrates.
 HORMONES
❑ Glucagon. Alpha cells make up about
Many groups of cells produce hormones 20% of the cells in your pancreas that
inside your pancreas. Unlike enzymes that produce hormones. They produce
are released into your digestive system, glucagon. If your blood sugar gets too
hormones are released into your blood and low, glucagon helps raise it by sending a
carry messages to other parts of your message to your liver to release stored
digestive system. Pancreatic hormones sugar.
include:
❑ Gastrin and amylin. Gastrin is primarily
❑ Insulin. This hormone is made in cells of made in the G cells in your stomach, but
the pancreas known as beta cells. Beta some is made in the pancrease, too. It
cells make up about 75% of pancreatic stimulates your stomach to make gastric
hormone cells. Insulin is the hormone acid. Amylin is made in beta cells and
that helps your body use sugar for helps control appetite and stomach
energy. Without enough insulin, your emptying.
sugar levels rise in your blood and you
develop diabetes.
 DISORDER

❖ Acute pancreatitis is a sudden attack

causing inflammation of the pancreas and
is usually associated with severe upper
abdominal pain.

❖ Chronic pancreatitis is the progressive

disorder associated with the destruction of
the pancreas.

❖ Hereditary Pancreatitis

❖ Pancreatic Cancer.
9
 Introduction
✓ The gonads, the primary reproductive
organs, are the testes in the male and the
ovaries in the female. These organs are
responsible for producing the sperm and
ova, but they also secrete hormones and
are considered to be endocrine glands.

✓ The female gonads, the ovaries, are a pair

of reproductive glands. They are located in
the pelvis, one on each side of the uterus,
and they have two functions: They produce
eggs and female hormones the testes in the
male, this organ is responsible for producing
the sperm, they are located behind the penis
in a pouch of skin called the scrotum.
 FEMALE GONADS ❑ Progesterone – These are the

HORMONES hormones whose function is to

prepare the uterus for
conception, regulating changes
in the uterus during the
❑ Estrogens – are responsible for Menstrual cycle, ovulation
maturation and maintenance of aids, and stimulating gland
the vagina and uterus, and are development for the production
also involved in ovarian of milk during pregnancy.
function, such as maturation of
ovarian follicles. In addition,
estrogens play an important
role in regulation of
gonadotropin secretion. For
these reasons, estrogens are
required for female fertility.
 MALE GONADS
HORMONES
❑ Testosterone is a sex hormone
that plays important roles in
the body. In men, it's thought
to regulate sex drive
(libido), bone mass, fat
distribution, muscle mass and
strength, and the production
of red blood cells and sperm.
A small amount of circulating
testosterone is converted to
estradiol, a form of estrogen.
❑ Androstenedione an androgen, one of
several "male" sex hormones that are
responsible for the onset of sexual
differentiation in males and females
and the development of secondary male
physical characteristics such as a
deep voice and facial hair.
❑ Inhibin these hormones inhibit the
release of FSH and thought to be
involved in sperm cell regulation and
development.
SLIDEGO.COM

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www.hormone.org/what-is-endocrinology/the-
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❑ Thyroid gland
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overview-
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❑https://www.cancer.gov/types/parathyroid/pati
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pdq#:~:text=Parathyroid%20cancer%20is%20a
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digestion#:~:text=During%20digestion%2C%20your%2
0pancreas%20makes,that%20travel%20through%20yo
ur%20blood.
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