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Ubc - 1966 - A8 K3
Ubc - 1966 - A8 K3
by
MASTER OF ARTS
i n the
.. DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as conforming t o t h e
reouired standard.
without my w r i t t e n permission.
Department of
The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia
Vancouver 8, Canada
ii
ABSTRACT
T h e ' d e f i n i t e i n t e g r a l has an I n t e r e s t i n g h i s t o r y . In
TABLE OP CONTENTS
Page
V BIBLIOGRAPHY *3
iv
LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I w i s h t o e x p r e s s my thanks t o Dr. M a u r i c e S i o n f o r
suggesting t h e t o p i c , and f o r h i s g r e a t a s s i s t a n c e d u r i n g t h e
encouragement i n i t s p r e p a r a t i o n .
acknowledged:
CHAPTER ONE A B r i e f H i s t o r y of E a r l y C o n t r i b u t i o n s
dum argument.
But t h i s i s i m p o s s i b l e s i n c e the p o l y g o n Pg
i s included i n A . By a s i m i l a r argument
c
2 • 2
A. : A 0 < d n : d 0 leads to a c o n t r a d i c t i o n .
i d x d .... 2 2
Hence the r e s u l t A^ : Ag =» d^ : dg i s proved.
T h i s Method o f E x h a u s t i o n was used e x t e n s i v e l y by
Eudoxus and h i s s u c c e s s o r s u n t i l the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . The
p r o c e d u r e had the advantages o f b e i n g l o g i c a l l y c o r r e c t and i n -
tuitively c l e a r but had the d i s a d v a n t a g e s of b e i n g cumbersome t o
a p p l y and d i f f i c u l t t o deduce new r e s u l t s from.
Archimedes ( 2 8 7 - 2 1 2 B. C ) , who' i s g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d -
ered t o be the g r e a t e s t m a t h e m a t i c i a n of a n t i q u i t y , g r e a t l y ex-
tended the work of f i n d i n g a r e a and volumes of g e o m e t r i c f i g u r e s .
He supplemented the Method of E x h a u s t i o n and d e v i s e d an ingenious
h e u r i s t i c method f o r f i n d i n g r e s u l t s b e f o r e p r o v i n g them f o r m a l l y .
He was t h e n a b l e t o a n t i c i p a t e many of the r e s u l t s of i n t e g r a l
calculus.
Fig. 2
He approximated t h e a r e a o f the p a r a b o l i c segment ABC by suc-
o f t h e s u b j e c t , e s p e c i a l l y i n the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
The s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y saw a r e v i v a l o f i n t e r e s t i n t h e
problems.
v i s i b l e s or i n f i n i t e s i m a l s . I n f a c t , t h e p e r i o d i n t h e seven-
I n t e g r a t i o n became a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i d e a o f summing t h e s e
indivisibles.
He was f a c e d w i t h t h e problems o f f i n d i n g t h e a r e a o f an e l l i p t i
t e r e s t e d i n gauging t h e c o n t e n t s o f wine c a s k s . To s o l v e t h e s e
f i n i t e number o f i n f i n i t e l y s m a l l pyramids. To f i n d t h e c o n t e n t
by an i n d i v i s i b l e , b u t i t seems he v i s u a l i z e d p o i n t s as b e i n g
i n d i v i s i b l e s o f l i n e s , l i n e s as being i n d i v i s i b l e s o f s u r f a c e s ,
and p l a n e s a s b e i n g i n d i v i s i b l e s o f volumes. To f i n d l e n g t h s ,
a r e a s , o r volumes, he added up t h e i n d i v i s i b l e s . To a v o i d t h e
i s i l l u s t r a t e d , by t h e s o - c a l l e d C a v a l i e r i ' s Theorem.
, I f two s o l i d s have e q u a l a l t i t u d e s , and i f
s e c t i o n s made by p l a n e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e bases
snd at equal distances'from them a r e always i n a
g i v e n r a t i o , t h e n t h e volumes o f t h e s o l i d s
are a l s o i n t h a t r a t i o .
C a v a l i e r i ' s u s e o f i n d i v i s i b l e s t o prove p r o p o s i t i o n s
can be i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g s i m p l e example ( [ 5 ] , p. I l 8 ) .
He was i n t e r e s t e d i n p r o v i n g t h a t . p a r a l l e l o g r a m ACDP has a r e a
e q u a l t o double t h e a r e a o f A CAF or A CDF and proceeded as
follows:
A r
Fig. 3
If EF: = CB and HE and BM a r e p a r a l l e l t o CD then t h e
By a s i m i l a r b u t more i n v o l v e d p r o c e d u r e , Cavalleri
as b e i n g e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e f o r m u l a J x dx = • ^ , although
•o .
he thought o f h i s work as p e r t a i n i n g o n l y t o g e o m e t r i c a l con-
c o n c e n t r a t e d on a g e o m e t r i c a l approach w h i l e Fermat, P a s c a l ,
P r a c t i c a l l y a l l a u t h o r s i n the p e r i o d from
lc30 t o 1660 c o n f i n e d themselves to. quest-
. i o n s d e a l i n g w i t h a l g e b r a i c c u r v e s , espec-
. i a l l y tnose w i t h the e q u a t i o n s a y = b x
and they found each i n h i s own way, f o r m u l a s
c m a
equivalent to x" dx = ' • , f i r s t f o r p o s i -
... ' J
Q m-fl
tive integers m , later for m negative
i n t e g e r and f r a c t i o n a l . ( [ 4 2 ] , p. 13&)
P i e r r e Fermat d e v i s e d a precedure f o r c a l c u l a t i n g a r e a
a g e o m e t r i c s e r i e s and t h e new i d e a o f a l i m i t .
.:..• F i g . 4.
He f i r s t s u b d i v i d e d t h e i n t e r v a l from 0 to b , not i n t o a
f i n i t e number o f s u b i n t e r v a l s , b u t i n t o an i n f i n i t e number o f
time. •
P P p
S""= b q
(b - eb) + (eb) (eb - 3%) + ( e % ^ ( e b - e b ) +.. 3
.P 2p
= b§ (b - eb) [ 1 + elf-- +' e-q+2 +. . .
1-e q
Substituting e = E he found: q
p+q. n _ ,q-l
q /1-E . o"q~ (1-E) ( 1 + E + E
4
he l e t e = 1 ( i n s i n u a t i n g a l i m i t as e approaches one ) .
t i o n p o s s e s s e s many o f t h e i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e
t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e o p e r a t i o n . He regarded t h e p r o c e d u r e as
thought o f a g e n e r a l i z e d p r o c e d u r e .
W a l l i s ' procedure i s i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g
example t a k e n from Hooper ( [ 2 9 ] , pp. 256-258) . I n t h i s example,
W a l l i s was i n t e r e s t e d i n comparing t h e a r e a under t h e curve
2
OBAC
. ./ . F i g . 5
He began by subdividing t h e i n t e r v a l OB into m + 1 equal parts
and formed approximating
:
r e c t a n g l e s w i t h t h e h e i g h t s s e l e c t e d so
•• ••
:
o 'p p 2
t h a t t h e t o t a l . a r e a would be p r o p o r t i o n a l t o 0 + 1" + 2 '....+ m..
.......... 2
The a r e a o f r e c t a n g l e OBAC i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o (m + l ) m .
Hence t h e r a t i o o f t h e a r e a s i s 0 +
—'''
1
p
+
. ' Sub-
2 + m
rri (m + 1)
s t i t u t i n g v a l u e s f o r m he found:
. (1) a = 1 TTlt = 1 / 5
+-/
] 6
... (2) m = 2 . .
:
4 HX 4 = 1 / 3 + 1A2 ..
- . (3) m... 5
;
^9 : i - l / 3 + 1/16
r a t i o n a l except n = - 1 . He was a b l e t o a p p l y t h e s e r e s u l t s t o
problems o f q u a d r a t u r e s and c u b a t u r e s .
of the d e f i n i t e i n t e g r a l . I n f a c t , a c c o r d i n g t o Boyer ( [ 5 ] , P
...the b a s i s f o r t h e concept o f t h e d e f i n i t e
i n t e g r a l may be c o n s i d e r e d f a i r l y w e l l es-
t a b l i s h e d i n t h e work o f Fermat and W a l l i s .
B u t , as he p o i n t s out
a ( x + d) n . I f , i n t h i s e q u a t i o n , one uses t h e b i n o m i a l
p r o c e d u r e b u t was t h i n k i n g i n terms o f a l i m i t c o n c e p t ) , t h e
m
r e s u l t w i l l be y = ax n~ . Hence, I f t h e a r e a i s z = (——)
m+n
m+n :a
ax n t h e curve w i l l be y = ax n" . C o n v e r s e l y , i f t h e curve
- n m + n
i s y = ax n t h e n t h e a r e a w i l l be z - ( ) ax . Thus n
. m+n' v
Newton, c o n s e q u e n t l y d e f i n e d t h e i n t e g r a l , o r f l u e n t , as he
c a l l e d i t , as t h e i n v e r s e o f t h e f l u x i o n o r d e r i v a t i v e and con-
centrated on t h e methods f o r f i n d i n g d e r i v a t i v e s .
x n + 1
, :
,
n+1
16.
d e f i n e d t h e i n t e g r a l as t h e I n v e r s e of the f l u x i o n or d e r i v a t i v e ,
w h i l e L e i b n i z i n p r a c t i c e used t h e i d e a o f an a n t i d e r i v a t i v e .
E u l e r a l s o s t r e s s e d t h e i n t e g r a l as t h e i n v e r s e o f t h e d i f f e r -
c a l c u l i i n t e g r a l ! s o f 17*58., d e f i n e d i n t e g r a l c a l c u l u s as t h e
method o f f i n d i n g from a g i v e n r e l a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t i a l s , t h e
o n l y as a means o f a p p r o x i m a t i n g t h e value o f t h e i n t e g r a l .
y = s i n x + 4x , y = a ... would be c l a s s i f i e d as f u n c t i o n s .
by a s i n g l e a n a l y t i c e x p r e s s i o n , w h i l e a r b i t r a r y c u r v e s c o u l d
IS.
not be ( [ 3 5 ] , P • 3) .
r e e x a m i n a t i o n o f these fundamental i d e a s .
F o u r i e r f i r s t showed t h a t some d i s c o n t i n u o u s f u n c t i o n s
c o u l d be r e p r e s e n t e d by a s i n g l e a n a l y t i c e x p r e s s i o n , namely a
trigonometric series. F o r example, a f u n c t i o n e q u a l t o 1 from
0 to a , and 0 from a t o ir has a t r i g o n o m e t r i c e x p a n s i o n .
Thus t h e requirement o f h a v i n g an a n a l y t i c e x p r e s s i o n d i d n o t
d i s t i n g u i s h between a t r u e . f u n c t i o n and some a r b i t r a r y f u n c t i o n s .
Moreover i t seemed no l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y t o a s s o c i a t e t h e e x i s t e n c e
of a s i n g l e a n a l y t i c e x p r e s s i o n w i t h t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f a f u n c t i o n
because such e x p r e s s i o n s c o u l d a p p a r e n t l y be determined after-
wards. T h i s work suggested a more g e n e r a l concept of a function.
^ j f ( x ) cos i x dx . These d e f i n i t e i n t e g r a l s c o u l d n o t be
of a p p r o x i m a t i n g sums.
A. L. Cauchy (1S23) was t h e person who c l a r i f i e d
f u n c t i o n and he r e s t o r e d i n t e g r a t i o n t o a p r i m a r y i d e a rather
t h a n a secondary operation.
He f i r s t considered t h e concept o f a f u n c t i o n . He
... and t h e o t h e r q u a n t i t i e s , e x p r e s s i b l e by
means o f t h e independent v a r i a b l e , a r e c a l l e d
functions of this variable.
Cauchy n e x t c o n s i d e r e d a s p e c i a l type o f f u n c t i o n ,
w h i c h he named c o n t i n u o u s and which he d e f i n e d as f o l l o w s
([8], op. 19-20) :
Integral (1523) . He a r b i t r a r i l y r e s t r i c t e d h i m s e l f by d e f i n i n g
t i n u o u s f u n c t i o n s o r t h o s e w i t h a f i n i t e number of d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s
follows:
( x - i ) ( i ) ••• + (X - x _ ) f ( x .) . Then
2
x f x
n 1 n
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t Cauchy's p r o o f of the
c o n t i n u i t y of the f u n c t i o n .
Cauchy n e x t extended i n t e g r a t i o n t o a c e r t a i n c l a s s o f
o f the procedure:
.and minima.
tinuities . /
• . . . - . /
F i r s t D i r i c h l e t h i m s e l f attempted t o do t h i s by e x t e n d i n g the
of f u n c t i o n i c ""~ ' f o r t , n e o n l
y accumulation point i s 0.
• . The a c c u m u l a t i o n p o i n t s o f e w i l l d i v i d e
the i n t e r v a l [ a , b,] i n t o a f i n i t e number
:
of p a r t i a l i n t e r v a l s . L e t [ a , £>] be one
of them. The i n t e r v a l [ a + h, S - k ] w i l l
c o n t a i n o n l y a f i n i t e number of p o i n t s of
e and one can c o n s i d e r the Cauchy i n t e g r a l
B-k
j f(,x)dx p r o v i d e d i t e x i s t s . Then
ra+h " ' • • -
3 ,.B-k;
f ( x ) d x = 11m f(x)dx provided the
J
a §^8 J
a+h
23.
T h i s i n t e g r a l a p p a r e n t l y was n o t e x t e n s i v e l y used,
r b
Riemann began by c o n s i d e r i n g what f(x)dx meant
J
a
f i r s t f o r bounded f u n c t i o n s . U n l i k e Cauchy he made no o t h e r
( [ 4 6 ] , p. 239) i s a s f o l l o w s :
of v a l u e s i n (a,b) and l e t 5 ^ = x^ - a , 5 ^ =
x
2 ~ l * '"'* ' ' ' ^n k ~ n - l ' ^
x = x
the sum o r m
S = 6 f ( a + € 6 ) + 6 f ( x + 2 ^ + ••• +
x 1 a 2 1
€
2
5
has no meaning. a
-b
Riemann a l s o defined f(x)dx f o r functions f
a
w h i c h have a s i n g u l a r i t y a t a p o i n t c , . a <_ c <_ b ( [ 4 6 ] , p .24C).
- c-ai r -b
Form t h e i n t e g r a l s S ^
f(x)dx + I f(x)dx
a c + a ',
p
f u n c t i o n s t o i n c l u d e many d i s c o n t i n u o u s ones.
25.
M
1 1 2 2
; . T
M 6 + M 6 + M
n; n 6
m mm 6 + m 6 1 2 2 + m 6 n n
Where 5 ± = x ^ ^ ^ 6 Q - - a , 6 n = b - x ^
If 6 i £ 6 for a l l I , then t h e r e e x i s t s f i n i t e
............ b - p • .
In c o n s i d e r i n g the i n t e g r a l f(x)dx Darboux s t a r t e d
a
w i t h the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c sum.
! £ = 6 f(a+9 6 ) +. 8 f ( x + © 6 )
1 1 1 2 1 2 2 ..+ ^ ( ^ + 9 ^ )
Darboux was a l s o a b l e t o g i v e a c o m p l e t e l y v a l i d p r o o f
t h a t a c o n t i n u o u s f u n c t i o n was i n t e g r a b l e . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o
say f o r c e r t a i n b u t t h i s seems t o be one o f t h e e a r l i e s t p r o o f s
of t h i s r e s u l t . (Heine [ 2 3 ](1S72) had c o n s i d e r e d t h e i d e a o f
u n i f o r m c o n t i n u i t y and had shown t h a t a c o n t i n u o u s f u n c t i o n
on [a,b] i s uniformly continuous. T h i s c o u l d have l e d t o
e a r l i e r proofs of t h i s result) .
D u r i n g t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ap-
p a r e n t l y many i n t e g r a l s were d e v i s e d f o r unbounded f u n c t i o n s
([-+4], p. 236) • These i n t e g r a l s were e x t e n s i o n s o f t h e Riemann
integral. They d i d n o t a c h i e v e l a s t i n g importance b u t have some
historical interest. We w i l l c o n s i d e r one example t o i l l u s t r a t e
the type o f p r o c e d u r e .
ed f u n c t i o n s whose s e t o f s i n g u l a r i t i e s can be e n c l o s e d i n a f i n -
zero.) An o u t l i n e o f h i s procedure ( [ l b ] , p. 2 2 0 ) i s as f o l l o w s :
Let f be the f u n c t i o n and enclose the
s i n g u l a r i t y p o i n t s i n a set E consisting
of a f i n i t e number of i n t e r v a l s of t o t a l length
e .. Let f, be equal to 0 in E and
to f everywhere e l s e and suppose f-, ( x ) d x
exists. I f t h i s i n t e g r a l approaches a finite
l i m i t as e approaches 0 this limit i s
s a i d t o be the i n t e g r a l of f from a to b .
t i o n s .'..•'-';'.
He began by c o n s i d e r i n g a monotone i n c r e a s i n g f u n c t i o n ,
cp d e f i n e d on the p o s i t i v e x - axis with cp(o) = o . The func-
t i o n c o u l d be v i s u a l i z e d as r e p r e s e n t i n g a d i s t r i b u t i o n of mass
w i t h the p o i n t s of d i s c o n t i n u i t y r e p r e s e n t i n g the p o i n t s of
c o n d e n s a t i o n of mass. W i t h t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n an i n c r e a s i n g
f u n c t i o n represents a p h y s i c a l example o f a measure.
n o 1 2 n
Next p i c k n numbers e, , e_, ... .
• 1 2 n sucn
that ' <_ £ x^ . Then form t h e sum
S t i e l t j e s then g e n e r a l i z e d t h i s procedure by c o n s i d e r -
f with respect to cp .
i s t i c p r o p e r t y o f b e i n g n o n - n e g a t i v e and a d d i t i v e .
From a n t i q u i t y u n t i l t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , these
measures were c a l c u l a t e d o n l y f o r very r e g u l a r g e o m e t r i c sets
such as t h e s e t o f p o i n t s under a c o n t i n u o u s curve. The pro-
cedure, as we have noted i n t h e case.of a r e a , was to'approximate
the s e t s from t h e i n s i d e and/or t h e o u t s i d e by a ' f i n i t e number
of simple f i g u r e s . F o r example, Archimedes, i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e
volume o f a p a r a b o l o i d used a p p r o x i m a t i o n s by r e c t i l i n e a r solids,
b o t h from t h e i n s i d e and from t h e o u t s i d e .
P r o b a b l y t o overcome t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s , C. Jordan
[30] ( l o 9 4 ) suggested a more r e f i n e d approach t o t h e problem o f
measures. He f i r s t o f a l l c o n s i d e r e d a p p r o x i m a t i n g a s e t n o t
o n l y from the o u t s i d e b u t a l s o from the i n s i d e , u s i n g i n each
.case a f i n i t e number o f elementary f i g u r e s . He t h e n c a l c u l a t e d
l i m i t s as the s i z e o f the f i g u r e s ; approached zero. He illustrat-
ed h i s p r o c e d u r e by c o n s i d e r i n g a s e t E i n the plane.
...Decompose t h i s p l a n e by p a r a l l e l s t o the
c o o r d i n a t e a x e s , i n t o squares of s i d e s r .
The s e t o f t h o s e squares w h i c h a r e .
i n t e r i o r to E form a domain S i n t e r i o r to
E; The set of those which are i n t e r i o r to E
or w h i c h meet i t s boundary form a new domain
S + S' t o which E i s interior . We can
r e p r e s e n t the' a r e a s o f t h e s e domains by S
and S + S' .
31.
T h i s was p r o b a b l y t h e f i r s t time t h a t , i n o r d e r t o
a c h i e v e t h i s a d d i t i v e p r o p e r t y , t h e measure was r e s t r i c t e d t o a
f a m i l y o f subsets r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g c a l c u l a t e d f o r a l l subsets.
i s t h e r e f o r e n o t measurable.
E. B o r e l ( 1 6 9 6 ) , a p p a r e n t l y ( [ 1 2 ] , p. 3^2) while
s t u d y i n g s e r i e s o f f u n c t i o n s , found t h e need f o r a measure w i t h
the p r o p e r t y t h a t t h e measure o f c o u n t a b l e s e t s was z e r o . To
f u l f i l l t h i s need, he i n t r o d u c e d ( [ 3 ] , PP • 46~r-50) a new p r o -
p e r t y f o r a measure and a new method f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e measure
of c e r t a i n s e t s . The new p r o p e r t y was c o u n t a b l e a d d i t i v e l y , i e .
the measure o f t h e u n i o n o f a c o u n t a b l e number o f d i s j o i n t s e t s
i s e q u a l t o t h e sum o f t h e i r measures. The new method I n v o l v e d
' c o n s i d e r i n g how c e r t a i n s e t s were c o n s t r u c t e d and deducing what
the measure should be. R e s t r i c t i n g h i m s e l f to subsets of the
interval [0,1] B o r e l began by c o n s i d e r i n g an i n t e r v a l w i t h o r
w i t h o u t end p o i n t s . The measure should be i t s 1ength. S i n c e an
open s e t G can be expressed as t h e u n i o n o f a c o u n t a b l e number
of d i s j o i n t i n t e r v a l s Ev, i = 1 , 2 , the measure o f G,m(G),
B o r e l c o n t i n u e d t o c a l c u l a t e t h e measure o f a s e t by
t h i s step by step p r o c e d u r e , u s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g two p r o p e r t i e s :
33.
He c o n s i d e r e d bounded s e t s E f i r s t on t h e r e a l line
and covered E w i t h a c o u n t a b l e number o f i n t e r v a l s . These
intervals formed a s e t E^ . He d e f i n e d t h e measure o f an i n -
t e r v a l as i t s l e n g t h arid d e f i n e d m(E ) 1 as t h e sum o f t h e l e n g t h s
of t h e component i n t e r v a l s . He then d e f i n e d t h e o u t e r measure
of .E, m ( E ) : , as t h e Inf. of, t h e numbers
e m(E^) t a k e n over a l l
p o s s i b l e c o u n t a b l e c o v e r s by i n t e r v a l s . To g e t t h e i n n e r mea-
sure o f E he l e t I r e p r e s e n t an i n t e r v a l c o n t a i n i n g E arid
d e f i n e d t h e i n n e r measure m.(E) by m.(E) = m(l) - m ( I - E ) .
p e r t i e s f o r a measure.
Lebesgue t h e n s t a t e d t h a t t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s could
contented h i m s e l f , however, w i t h c o n s i d e r i n g o n l y d i m e n s i o n
i n t e g r a l of f i s d e f i n e d as the q u a n t i t y
m(E^) -. m(E; ) , and the f u n c t i o n f i s c a l l e d
2
summable. • •
36.
y - a x i s .••;,•
as max (x^- x
j_-lJ approached z e r o c o u l d a l s o be d e f i n e d a s
the common l i m i t as max ( a ^ - a^ "'^). approached zero. Gener-
a l i z i n g t h i s i d e a he a s s o c i a t e d - t h e f o l l o w i n g , sums w i t h a n
a r b i t r a r y bounded f u n c t i o n f and anv s u b d i v i s i o n a = a <
••• ' ' • . ' • • • • • . " °
a
l ^ a
2 •• • < a
n '"' D
o f an i n t e r v a l [a,b ] ' C o n t a i n i n g .the
range:
' ' •• • n . ' ' n-l
a -• S a.m(.e) + £ a m(e. ».)
n n-l
S = ' E a.m(e. ) + E a. ,-,m(e, '.)
where e^ - [x: f (x) •= a., ] ;
V = t X !a
i< < ) < i l } ;
f x a
+
m i s t h e measure on t h e l i n e . .
37.
A (bounded o r unbounded) f u n c t i o n f i s c a l l e d ,
summable i f f o r any a and b t h e s e t ,
. (x: a <.-'• f (x) < b} i s measurable. ([34], p . 256)
:
To d e f i n e , t h e i n t e g r a l he c o n s i d e r e d a subdivision
..,.31 2 < m_.j < m Q < m 1 < m p ... o f t h e y - a x i s , v a r y i n g be-
tween -» and +00 and such t h a t m. - m. , i s bounded, and
1 1 - 1
he. l e t :
.ties. •
A l t h o u g h i t i s a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of the p r o p e r Riemann
example, the f u n c t i o n f ( x ) = — v
f o r r - l <_ x < r r ^ 1,2..
has.an i m p r o p e r Riemann i n t e g r a l but i s not Lebesgue i n t e g r a b l e
.However, u n l i k e a n y . o t h e r i n t e g r a l c o n s i d e r e d before,
i t p o s s e s s e s the f o l l o w i n g .important property, which, i s of p a r a -
mount i n t e r e s t i n a n a l y s i s . ([>'-!-], p. 259)
f o r a w i d e r c l a s s of f u n c t i o n s t h a n t h o s e . c o n s i d e r e d heretofore
39.
measure by any c o m p l e t e l y a d d i t i v e s e t f u n c t i o n . d e f i n e d oh t h e
Lebesgue measurable s e t s .
40.
.. F r e c h e t g e n e r a l i z e d t h i s i d e a by c o n s i d e r i n g any com-
0-field .
S t a r t i n g w i t h any n o n n e g a t l v e f u n c t i o n d e f i n e d on a g i v e n c l a s s
o f s e t s , he determined.an o u t e r measure d e f i n e d on a l l s e t s of
t h a t i s , i t i s a measure. I n the. d e f i n i t i o n o f . t h e i n t e g r a l ,
The i d e a o f t h e i n t e g r a l as a f u n c t i o n a l , specifically
i n t e g r a t i o n and f u n c t i o n a l analysis.
t i n u o u s ; f u n c t i o n a l • S' on C ( l ) , he showed t h e r e e x i s t s a f u n c t i o n
t h e r e b y e s t a b l i s h i n g a fundamental c o n n e c t i o n between l i n e a r
c o n t i n u o u s . f u n c t i o n a l s . and measures .
on a measure by a b s t r a c t i n g t h e e s s e n t i a l ' p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e
Lebesgue i n t e g r a l . . He began by p o s t u l a t i n g a f u n c t i o n a l
d e f i n e d on a c e r t a i n ..class o f f u n c t i o n s P , f o r example t h e
BIBLIOGRAPHY
5. C . B. Boyer: The H i s t o r y o f t h e C a l c u l u s .
New Y o r k : Dover, 1949.
6. F. C a j o r i : A H i s t o r y o f M a t h e m a t i c s . •' .
•New Y o r k : . MacMi.llan, 1931.
9. P. J . D a n i e . l l : A G e n e r a l Form o f the I n t e g r a l .
Ann. o f Math., v o l . 19, 1917-1&,
pp. 279-294.
44.
14. H. Eves: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e H i s t o r y o f
Mathematics. New Y o r k : Rinehart,
1963.
2b. T. H. H i l d e b r a n t : I n t e g r a t i o n i n A b s t r a c t Spaces. ;
35. H.
:
Lebesgue:, L e c b n s Sur L ' I n t e g r a t i o n . Paris:
Gauthier-Villars, 1926.