STUDY & COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT

RETROFITTING TECHNIQUES FOR THE

ENHANCEMENT OF SHEAR BEHAVIOR.

2020

Submitted By

Abu Bakar Malik 16JZCIV0118

Alim Ur Rahman 16JZCIV0106
Mujahid Hussain 16JZCIV0087

Supervised By:
Dr. Sajjad Wali khan

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE

AWARD OF THE DEGREE
OF
BACHELORS OF SCIENCE
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

Department of Civil Engineering

University of Engineering and Technology, Peshawar
Jalozai Campus

I
 APPROVAL CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report submitted by Abu Bakar Malik, Alim Ur
Rahman, and Mujahid Hussain is of sufficient standard to justify its acceptance
by the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering &
Technology, Peshawar.

Supervisor, Chairman,
Dept. of Civil Engineering Dept. of Civil Engineering

Committee Head Committee Member

Dept. of Civil Engineering Dept. of Civil Engineering

II
 ABSTRACT

This treatise represents the outcome of theoretical investigation of the rehabilitation and
enhancement of the structure in shear and the method or a specific retrofitting to be
adopted for a structure which facing the serviceability problem arose from a different
matter or due to its age. For this purpose, we studied just four rehabilitation techniques
which are: Engineered Cementitious composite, Ferrocement Overlay, Carbon Fiber
Reinforced Polymers and Steel Jacketing while considering our aim of strengthening
the structure in shear. Primarily their basic properties, the composition, and the
experimental work done on these techniques. In the results, we prescribe a specific
method to be adopted according to the situation and requirements of the structure in the
light of the intricate reports which is to be presented before the adaptation of any
technique.

III
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First of all, we praise to the “Almighty Allah” for giving us endurance and
patience to cope with all the up and downs throughout the studying period and
theoretical work. We offer our countless salutations upon the “Holy Prophet
Muhammad (peace be upon him)”, the entire source of guidance for humanity
as a whole forever.

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to our advisor Dr. Sajjad Wali
Khan , Associate Professor at Civil Engineering Department UET Peshawar
Jalozai Campus for being available to us every time we needed help, for his
patience, motivation, and immense knowledge. It could not have been possible
for us without a better advisor and mentor for our theoretical work.

Last but not least, we would like to thank our parents for giving us lots of love
and prayers and supporting us financially to carry out all the experimental work
throughout our research work.

Abu Bakar Malik , Alim Ur Rahman and Mujahid Hussain

UET Peshawar, Jalozai Campus.

IV
 ACRONYMS

ACI American Concrete Institute

ASR Alkali Silica Reaction
AR Alkali Proof
CFRP Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers
ECC Engineered Cementitious Composite
EP Epoxy
FBG Fiber Bragg Grating
FCO Ferro Cement Overlay
FRP Fiber Reinforced Polymers
HPERCC High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Composite

MOR Modulus of Rupture

PA Poly Amide

PAN Polyacrylonitrile

PC Poly Carbonate

PEF Polyethylene Fiber

POM Poly oxide methanol

PVA Polyvinyl Alcohol

RC Reinforced Concrete

UP Unsaturated Polyester

V
 TABLE OF CONTENT

APPROVAL CERTIFICATE ................................................................................. II

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................III

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...................................................................................... IV

ACRONYMS ........................................................................................................... V

TABLE OF CONTENT.......................................................................................... VI

List of Figures .......................................................................................................... X

List of Table ............................................................................................................ XI

Chapter 01................................................................................................................. 1

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1

1.1. General ................................................................................................................ 1

1.1.1. Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC) ........................................................ 2

1.1.2. Ferro Cement Overlay ......................................................................................... 2

1.1.3. Steel Jacketing ..................................................................................................... 3

1.1.4. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP) ......................................................... 3

1.2. Problem Statement............................................................................................... 3

1.3. Objectives. .......................................................................................................... 4

1.4. Benefits of the Theoretical study. ........................................................................ 4

1.5. Thesis Chapters ................................................................................................... 5

CHAPTER 02 ........................................................................................................... 6

LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................ 6

2.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 6

2.2. Engineered Cementitious Composite ................................................................... 6

2.2.1. Mechanical properties of ECC ............................................................................. 8

2.2.1.1. Tensile characteristics.......................................................................................... 8

VI
2.2.1.2. Compression characteristics ................................................................................. 9

2.2.1.3. Flexure characteristics ......................................................................................... 9

2.2.1.4. Material ductility ............................................................................................... 10

2.2.1.5. Tight crack width control ................................................................................... 11

2.2.1.6. Spall Resistance................................................................................................. 11

2.2.2. Procedure for Applying ECC to reinforced concrete member ............................. 11

2.2.3. Experimental investigation on ECC ................................................................... 12

2.2.4. Retrofitting / Repair through ECC ..................................................................... 14

2.2.5. Field applications of ECC ...................................................................................... 15

2.3. Ferro Cement overlay ........................................................................................ 17

2.3.1. Properties of Ferro Cement Overlay................................................................... 17

2.3.1.1. Reinforcing Mesh .............................................................................................. 18

2.3.1.2. Ferrocement in Tension ..................................................................................... 19

2.3.1.3. Ferrocement in Compression ............................................................................. 20

2.3.1.4. First Cracking Strength of Ferrocement ............................................................. 20

2.3.2. Experimental Investigations on Ferrocement Reinforced Concrete..................... 21

Beams 21

2.3.3. Constituent Materials for Ferrocement ............................................................... 25

2.3.4. Process of Ferrocement Construction ................................................................. 26

2.4. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers .................................................................... 27

2.4.1. Manufacturing of CFRP .................................................................................... 27

2.4.1.1. Manufacturing of carbon fibers.......................................................................... 27

2.4.1.2. The pultrusion process ....................................................................................... 28

2.4.1.3. The laying procedure ......................................................................................... 31

2.4.1.4. Extrusion ........................................................................................................... 32

2.4.2. Properties of the CFRP ...................................................................................... 32

2.4.2.1. Creeping and relaxation ..................................................................................... 32

VII
 2.4.2.2. Fatigue behaviour .............................................................................................. 32

2.4.2.3. Durability .......................................................................................................... 32

2.4.2.4. Electric and thermal properties, lightning stroke hazard ..................................... 32

2.4.3. Types and applications ...................................................................................... 33

2.4.3.1. Prefabricated CFRP-lamellae ............................................................................. 33

2.4.3.2. CFRP Cable....................................................................................................... 35

2.4.4. CFRP strengthened concrete .............................................................................. 36

2.4.4.1. CFRP textiles .................................................................................................... 36

2.4.4.2. CFRP-foils ........................................................................................................ 36

2.4.4.3. Carbon fiber composites .................................................................................... 37

2.4.5. Experimental Investigations on CFRP ............................................................... 38

2.5. Steel Jacketing ................................................................................................... 41

2.5.1. Behaviour in Plastic-Hinge Region .................................................................... 42

2.5.1.1. Summary of effect of plastic-hinge on retrofit performance ............................... 46

2.5.2. Interface ............................................................................................................ 46

2.5.2.1. Summary of interface effect on retrofit .............................................................. 48

2.5.3. Effect of Cross-Section ...................................................................................... 48

2.5.3.1. Summary of effect of retrofit cross-section performance .................................... 49

2.5.4. Effect of Jacket Connections.............................................................................. 50

2.5.4.1. Summary of effect of jacket-column connection on retrofit................................ 50

2.5.5. Effect of Jacket sizing........................................................................................ 50

2.5.5.1. Summary of jacket sizing effect on retrofit performance .................................... 52

2.5.6. Effect of Loading............................................................................................... 53

2.5.6.1. Summary of loading results on retrofit ............................................................... 53

2.5.7. Experimental Investigations on Steel Jacketing. ................................................. 53

CHAPTER 03 ......................................................................................................... 56

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.............................................................................. 56

VIII
 3.1. Engineered Cementitious Composite ................................................................. 56

3.2. Ferrocement Overlay ......................................................................................... 56

3.3. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer. .................................................................... 57

3.4. Steel Jacketing ................................................................................................... 57

CHAPTER 04 ......................................................................................................... 58

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ..................................................... 58

5. REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 59

IX
 List of Figures
Figure 1 ECC Ingredient ( Hooked steel, Glass, Polypropylene, Polyester) ............................ 7
Figure 2 ECC Fibers.............................................................................................................. 8
Figure 3 Tensile stress strain curve for ECC (Shuxin wang, 2010)......................................... 9
Figure 4 Compressive strength development curve (ECC-M45) (Shuxin wang, 2010) ........... 9
Figure 5 Flexural performance of ECC (Shuxin wang, 2010) .............................................. 10
Figure 6 Failure modes of; (a) Concrete (b) ECC (Tetsushi Kanda, 2003) ........................... 11
Figure 7 Bending Strengthening and Shear Strengthening ................................................... 12
Figure 8 Mitaka Dam near Hiroshima.................................................................................. 15
Figure 9 Mihara Bridge (1km) in Hokkaido, Japan. ............................................................ 16
Figure 10 Glorio Roppongi high-rise apartment building (95 m) in Tokyo. ......................... 16
Figure 11 Different Pattern of Wire Mesh .......................................................................... 19
Figure 12 Hexagonal Wire mesh ......................................................................................... 26
Figure 13 Ferro Cement overlay field work ......................................................................... 26
Figure 14 Single procedures of a pultrusion equipment ....................................................... 29
Figure 15 Comparison of Young's moduli of CFRP-Lamellae and steel (Steel) ................... 31
Figure 16 Shift in a bending crack due to large shear stress [54] .......................................... 34
Figure 17 Tensile strength of the CFRP-lamella for design [50] .......................................... 34
Figure 18 Operating line of prestressed steel and CFRP cable ............................................. 36
Figure 19 Steel jacket retrofit with anchor bolts................................................................... 43
Figure 20 Steel jacket retrofit on circular reinforced concrete columns ............................... 43
Figure 21 Elliptical (a) and octagonal (b) steel jacket retrofit with concrete in fill ............... 44
Figure 22 Steel jackets provided with no stiffeners; steel plate stiffeners; angle stiffeners; and
square tube stiffeners........................................................................................................... 45
Figure 23 Standard steel jacket retrofit of square reinforced concrete columns .................... 45
Figure 24 Steel jacket retrofit on column with one bar ......................................................... 47
Figure 25 Partial and complete steel jackets provided on square and rectangular columns ... 47
Figure 26 Standard steel jacket on circular reinforced concrete columns .............................. 51
Figure 27 Original column; steel cage with 3 battens; steel cage with 6 battens; steel plating.
........................................................................................................................................... 52

X
 List of Table
Table 1 Strength values of CFRP-lamellae with 70% fiber content [48]............................... 30
Table 2 Technical elasticity parameters of CFRP-lamellae with 70% fiber content [48]....... 30
Table 3 Thermal properties of CFRP-lamellae with 60% fiber content [48] ......................... 30
Table 4 Electric resistance of CFRP-lamellae with 60% fiber content [48] .......................... 30
Table 5 Properties of duro plastics and thermoplastics ......................................................... 31
Table 6 Relative equivalent Young's modulus ..................................................................... 35
Table 7 Overview of carbon and glass fiber composite materials ......................................... 37
Table 8 Summary of steel jacket studies and their parameters .............................................. 42

XI
 Chapter 01
INTRODUCTION
1.1. General
Concrete is the most widely used construction material in the world. With the
exponential growth of human population and industrialization, concrete is now used
not only for buildings but also for highways, bridges, underground mass transit
facilities, wastewater treatment systems, and marine structures. Modern structures are
being exposed to more severe environmental and mechanical conditions than before,
and the lack of durability is one of the most serious issues facing reinforced concrete
infrastructures worldwide. The most severe problem that arises in concrete due to it is
brittleness, along with this problem most prominent are shear and flexure as well which
decreases durability and strength. Concrete structures get deteriorated with time and
hence its service life decreases. this deterioration is caused by environmental impacts
because Concrete is porous.
In concrete commonly two types of failure are observable which destroy the particular
element or whole structure of RC building.
i. Shear failure
ii. Bending failure

Today it is a great challenge for all countries to maintain and upgrade their
infrastructure to come up with future demand. Indeed, people from all over the world
want to have better roads, bridges, railway lines, as well as schools and health facilities.
In developing countries like Pakistan, the available resources for infrastructure are
limited and there is a lack of maintenance of the structures. In this case, the issues in
the structures are more serious.
To overcome these problems a lot of research has been done. And different types of
retrofitting are used to upgrade or strengthen the structure. Retrofitting is the process
of the addition of new features to older buildings, bridges, etc. Retrofitting reduces the
vulnerability of damage to an existing structure during a near-future seismic activity.
Retrofitting helps to increase the strength, resistivity, and overall life span of the
structure. Retrofitting have many types, but we have to compare some of the types of
retrofitting which are used commonly in construction to upgrade the structure.

1
 I. Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC).
II. Ferrocement Overlay.
III. Steel jacketing.
IV. Carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP).

1.1.1. Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC)

Engineered cementitious composites (ECCs) belong to a class of short, random, fiber-
reinforced cement-based materials with designed microstructures such that the
composite undergoes pseudo-strain-hardening, instead of softening when the first crack
strain is exceeded. As a result, ECCs are characterized by ultimate tensile strain and
fracture energies, which can be as much as two orders of magnitude higher than
conventional cementitious materials. ECCs can be designed with different fiber types
and can be processed by regular mixing and casting techniques. The unique properties
of ECCs can be exploited in structural applications demanding high ductility and energy
absorption, such as in connections in earthquake-resistant structures, or in applications
demanding crack width control and long term durability such as bridge decks and
pavements [1]

1.1.2. Ferro Cement Overlay

Ferrocement is the first known form of reinforced concrete which was first used two centuries
ago in Italy and France, mainly for the construction of boats. It is made of mortar and steel wire
mesh and usually it is cast in very thin sections, thus making it possible to give any desired
shape. Ferrocement is an interesting and versatile material, which has not been extensively
studied and offers many new areas for research and new applications. It is a composite material,
composed of steel wire mesh and mortar matrix. Different types of meshes can be used to
produce ferrocement sheets, depending on the application requirements. The State-of-the-art
report on ferrocement, from ACI [2] distinguishes ferrocement from conventional concrete,
especially when comparing the behavior in tension and flexure of the two materials. The tensile
and flexural strength of ferrocement is attributed to the wire mesh, as the mortar matrix cracks
at early loading stages. Compression behavior is similar to that of conventional concrete.[3]

2
1.1.3. Steel Jacketing
This method is a kind of reinforcement method of wrapping steel around reinforced
concrete beams and columns. Generally, angle steel is set along the length of the
member or a specific section at the four corners of the area, and the angle steel is
connected into a hole by hoop plate or bolt hoop. When the beam is strengthened with
externally bonded profile steel, angle steel should be attached to the strengthened
positions, or the corners of the beam, when there is a floor, the U-shaped hoop plate or
its additional screw shall pass through the floor, welded with additional strip steel plate,
or embedded in the floor after the glue anchor [4].

1.1.4. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP)

CFRP has significantly increased the shear and flexural capacity of a structural
member. CFRP increases the ductility of the member. CFRP does not show any
yielding or plastic behavior, and they are devoid of any magnetic field and can offer
considerable resistance to electric sparks. CFRP is characterized by the ease of
application since heavy equipment is not needed for rehabilitation hence social effects
are witnessed [5].

1.2. Problem Statement.

Normal concrete is brittle and its tensile strength is very low. The brittleness nature of
concrete makes its application limited and it is considered one of its drawbacks. Due to
which, the durability of normal concrete is very low. When cracks are produced in
normal concrete, it spreads which easily allows water to enter the inside of concrete
which causes corrosion of steel bars resulting in a considerable decrease in the design
life of the concrete as a whole.
To overcome these problems of concrete different types of retrofitting are available and
lots of engineers research different techniques of retrofitting separately. The main aim
of this research is to study the above four retrofitting techniques and clearly state the
best properties of each retrofitting method and refer the best technique of retrofitting
for structure especially for the case of shear strength, which is economical and easily
available in Pakistan.

3
1.3. Objectives.
Due to lack of awareness and inappropriate use of retrofitting each time mostly, we get
not the result, which is needed for the enhancement of shear, so the overall objective of
this theoretical research is:
1) Study and compare different retrofitting techniques regarding their pros
and cons.
2) To select/prefer the one technique according to the situation of the RC
structure for retrofitting and enhancement of shear capacity.

1.4. Benefits of the Theoretical study.

Pakistan is a developing country most of their people living in poor infrastructure due
to poverty and also the less developed infrastructure has been hit by different disasters
like the 2005 earthquake or 2010 flood is the unforgettable simply we mean lots of their
infrastructure needs retrofitting and enhancement but the main hurdle in the way of
retrofitting is that most of the people consider it expensive and a difficult process due
to lack of practice and awareness about different retrofitting, so by analyzing different
techniques theoretically i.e. cost-wise, strength-wise, through their method of
application, availability of the material of the specific method of retrofitting we will be
able to convince the construction industry to adopt that specific type of
technique/techniques in their practice. to strengthen and enhance the RC members for
shear capacity.

4
1.5. Thesis Chapters

Chapter 1: Introduction
It is related to the basic introduction about retrofitting and enhancement of RC
structures for shear capacity, objectives of current theoretical research, and possible
outcomes.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

It includes a detailed literature review of the four retrofitting techniques and its
importance in the local construction industry and provides a review of relevant
literature. This chapter also discusses the previous investigation and testing done on
retrofitting.

Chapter 3: Results & Discussion

It displays the final picture of the theoretical research program, the pros, and cons of
each of the four retrofitting techniques, and its use based on a comparison of their
importance in a suitable structure.

Chapter 4: Conclusions & Recommendations

This chapter consists of conclusions made based on results from chapter 3 and overall
recommendations for future use of each technique in the construction industry.

5
 CHAPTER 02
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Introduction
Besides the experimental work, there is also so much work that has been done by the
experimenter that its revision and understanding requires lots of time. keep that in
minds coming towards our assigned project in which we have to revive four retrofitting
technique names are strengthening of structures through Engineered Cementitious
Composites, Carbon fiber Reinforced Polymer, Ferrocement Overlay, and Steel
Jacketing, regarding their composition, from where these methods have been derived,
already done experimental work on these techniques, its practical application in
different civil engineering projects for rehabilitation and retrofitting of structures. So
let's dig into a deep discussion about these four techniques in this literature chapter.

2.2. Engineered Cementitious Composite

Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC) has been produced for the first time by
Victor Li and Leung in 1992 (Li, 1993). Engineered Cementitious Composite is a type
of fiber reinforced concrete, in which the reinforcement is normally a short hair like
fibers which are known as PVA fibers [6,7]. ECC is basically a mortar based
cementitious composite, which has improved structural properties [6,8,9] such as;
✓ ECC has high ductility.
✓ ECC is Light weight material.
✓ It had High tenacity, high modulus, high tensile, compression and flexural
strengths.
✓ In ECC flat steady cracks develops instead of Griffith cracks in Normal
concrete.
✓ It has Self –healing property.
✓ ECC has good resistance against chemicals (alkaline).
✓ ECC has a property of good adhesion to cement matrix
ECC is normally a mixture of cement, sand, admixture, water and PVA fibers. The
fibers are normally short hair like fibers which are called Poly Vinyl alcohol fibers.
With the development of materials like ECC, a small layer to the tension face of RC
beams will be proved very attractive for increasing the durability of both concrete and
steel reinforcement.
6
It is believed that a small layer (75-100 mm) of ECC will reduce cracking and increase
ultimate load in flexure [10]. According to ACI 318 many fine cracks are preferable to
a few wider cracks for reinforcement protection against corrosion. Similarly, for ECC
the many cracks with very small crack widths are considered one of its superior
characteristics [6,7]. The fibers inside ECC help in bridging the applied forces through
the generated cracks. Cost wise, ECC is expensive to be used on a big scale, so it was
applied only on the bottom surface of the beam to arrest larger cracks and to avoid
spalling of concrete.

Figure 1 ECC Ingredient ( Hooked steel, Glass, Polypropylene, Polyester)

7
 Figure 2 ECC Fibers

2.2.1. Mechanical properties of ECC

Engineered Cementitious Composite is one of the high-class fiber reinforced

cementitious composite. A lot of literature has been reported on ECC based PVA fibers.
ECC is a composite material thoroughly engineered to attain high ductility under
bending and shear loading. With the addition of 2 % PVA fiber content in ECC, one
can get more than 3 % ductility under uniaxial tensile test using micro mechanics based
design [11]. With the addition of this small amount of PVA fibers in ECC brings
significant flexibility in construction works, which includes self- consolidation casting
[13] and short creating [12]. In addition to this, it has also been reported in the literature
that the use of such materials can increase structural safety, durability and sustainability
of infrastructures.

2.2.1.1. Tensile characteristics

High tensile strength of ECC is one of the most important characteristic. The high
tensile strength is represented by uniaxial coupon specimen (Size: 76 x 13 x 305 mm)
by Victor C. Li in uniaxial tension test. The graph in Figure-3 shows that ECC has more
than 5 % stain capacity. On the appearance of first micro crack on the specimen, the
yield point has been reached when the elastic stage ends. Successive increasing in loads
results into strain hardening. This volumetric strain forms a multiple micro cracking
instead a single localized crack in the specimen. Failure of the specimen occurs, when
one of the multiple cracks changes in to fracture plan. After this peak load ECC behaves
like a normal concrete. The high tensile characteristic of ECC helps to improve
structural loads as well as deformation capacity and energy absorption capacity [8].

8
 Figure 3 Tensile stress strain curve for ECC (Shuxin wang, 2010)

2.2.1.2. Compression characteristics

Compressive strength characteristics of ECC are more or less the same as normal
concrete or high strength concrete. Normal range for compressive strength of ECC is
30 MPa to 90 MPa. As coarse aggregate are not present in the ECC, so its elastic
modulus is lower than normal concrete, however, the compressive strain capacity of
ECC is higher than normal concrete and it ranges about 0.45 – 0.65 %. Figure-4 shows
a curve between age and compressive strength development of M45 ECC [8].

Figure 4 Compressive strength development curve (ECC-M45) (Shuxin wang, 2010)

2.2.1.3. Flexure characteristics

Victor C. Li investigated the flexural characteristics of ECC in his experiment. He took

9
the beam specimen of Size: 304.8 x 76.2 x 25.4 mm. He measured the flexural response
of ECC beam specimen by four point bending test. Figure-5 shows the flexural
performance of ECC at 24 hours and at 90 days test. The two curves for 24 hours and
90 days showed 11 and 16 MPa flexural strengths respectively [8]
ECC is also known as bendable concrete, because under flexure the formation of
multiple micro cracking at the base of the beam permitting it to form a large curvature.
The range of MOR value for ECC is 10 to 15 MPa, which can easily be achieved.

Figure 5 Flexural performance of ECC (Shuxin wang, 2010)

2.2.1.4. Material ductility

ECC materials are considered as ultra-high ductile materials. This shows that in ECC
members the failure does not occur through fracture as normal in case of concrete or
FRC. In normal RC structural design, the critical parameter to be considered for
concrete is compressive strength. For this purpose, structural strength (generally,
structural performance) is often supposed to be governed by material strength.
Essentially, higher material strength (usually referred to as compressive strength in the
concrete literature) is supposed to lead to higher structural strength. This perception is
significant only if the material strength property truly governs the failure mode.
However, if tensile fracture failure occurs, high strength material does not necessarily
mean higher structural strength. Rather, a high toughness material, and in the extreme,
a ductile material like ECC, can lead to a higher structural strength. The above-
mentioned statement can be best supported by the experimental observations
[14,15,16].

10
2.2.1.5. Tight crack width control

The cracks produced in R/ECC elements were found to have very small crack widths
because of the bridging effect of the fibers. Normally in ECC crack width produced are
less than 100 μm, this is because ECC members do not depend on steel for crack width
control. The small crack width is found to increase the durability of ECC structural
members [17].

2.2.1.6. Spall Resistance

ECC acts as a good resistant against spalling of concrete. This phenomenon was
investigated by the researchers [18]. A tapered has been used to simulate expansive
forces in ECC and concrete. The results showed that ECC accommodated the expansive
forces by creating the radial micro cracks and sustained up to 30 kN force while
concrete slab took only 7 kN force and deteriorate. Figure shows the failure modes of
both Concrete and ECC.

Figure 6 Failure modes of; (a) Concrete (b) ECC (Tetsushi Kanda, 2003)

2.2.2. Procedure for Applying ECC to reinforced concrete member

The ECC can be applied to beam in the following procedure first of all Chisel both
sides and bottom of each beam then clean and wet the sides and bottom to a standard
condition. apply interface agent to the sides and bottom of the beams. apply ECC onto
the sides and bottom of the beams to the design thickness. then cover the beam with a
polyethylene sheet to prevent the loss of moisture and cure for 28 days at room
temperature.

11
 Figure 7 Bending Strengthening and Shear Strengthening

2.2.3. Experimental investigation on ECC

Guan Wang et al. experimentally investigated that the shear behaviors of reinforced
concrete (RC) beams externally strengthened with engineered cementitious composite
(ECC) layers and strengthening effect was evaluated based on a truss and arch model.
The beams were designed without web reinforcement in the middle part and ECC was
sprayed onto both sides of the beams to the designed thicknesses, which were 20 mm
and 40 mm. A series of four-point bending experiments were conducted and analyzed.
The development of the shear strain in each side of the beams was recorded by strain
rosettes formed with three fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors. The thickness of ECC
layers, reinforcement ratios, and shear span-to-depth ratios were considered and
analyzed. This is an effective way to shear strengthen RC beams with ECC layers. The
ultimate load of the strengthened specimen can be improved by 89% over the control
specimen. Strengthening an RC beam into an under-reinforced beam should be avoided.
The FBG sensors are suitable to measure and monitor the development of shear strain
in the side of the strengthened specimen. Based on the truss and arch model, an
evaluation of the shear strengthening effect was established and the results agree well
with the experimental results.[19]
A design of RC concrete members having ECC layer, which had unique properties to
limit crack width. With the proposed design for RC members, it was concluded by
experiments that crack width under serviced load could be limited to 0.002 inches and
if the RC members is overloaded, crack width could be limited to 0.0076 inches. Under
the service load condition, it was found that ECC layer was able to prevent migration
of aggressive substances into the concrete. Similarly, they also observed that
accelerated corrosion due to longitudinal cracking or spalling can also be minimized
[20].

12
Fukuyama et al (2000) studied the behavior of R/ECC shear elements under reversed
cyclic loading. the hysteretic loops for R/ECC showed much greater stability and
ability to dissipate energy. The R/C specimen suffered extensive bond splitting and
loss of cover, accompanied by large diagonal cracks. In contrast, the damage
experienced by the R/ECC shear element was significantly lower (Figure 24.20). No
bond splitting and cover loss was observed and microcracks continued to carry loads
up to 5% rad deflection angle[21]

Rokugo et al, 2007. The shear capacity of a R/ECC beam can be estimated from a linear
superposition of the contributions of the ECC material and the shear and axial steel
reinforcements due to the compatible deformation of the two materials even after steel
yields. This approach was suggested to be reasonably accurate and conservative
However, numerical analysis combined with experimental data (Kabele and Kanakubo,
2007) suggested that only a fraction of the ECC’s tensile strength and strain capacity
might be utilized in shear element due to possible damage of bridging fibers on sliding
crack surfaces[22]

Rokugo et al, 2005 investigated that the use of ECC for repair of a concrete gravity
earth-retaining wall (18m in width and 5m in height) that had been damaged by alkali
silica reaction (ASR) cracking. The decision to use ECC for the 50-70 mm thick repair
overlay was based on the need to prevent cracks in the substrate concrete from
reflecting onto the repair layer. Such reflection was anticipated had normal concrete
been used in this repair given continued ASR expansion. For demonstration, the wall
was divided into 9 repair blocks with an additional block (block 10) left unrepaired. For
the repaired blocks, two types of ECC, one containing 1.5% hybrid PVA and PE fibers
(blocks 1-4), and another containing 2.1% PVA fibers (blocks 5-8), were applied. In
each block, either welded wire mesh reinforcement, or expanded metal reinforcement,
or no reinforcement was used. For control, a welded wire mesh reinforced repair mortar
was applied to block 9.[23]

Ali Hemmati et al. (2015) investigated the effect of High Performance Fiber Reinforced
Cementitious Composites called HPFRCC in RC beams. The effect was investigated
by applying the layer in lower or upper or both parts of the beam. He also modeled the
specimen in ABAQUS. The conclusion of the study was that the layer of HPFRCC in
13
bottom of the beam section was more effective than using it on the top of the section.
This layer of HPFRCC was found to attain higher ultimate load and mid span deflection
values as compared to RC beams [24].

2.2.4. Retrofitting / Repair through ECC

In the literature, ECC is reported to be a good material for retrofitting and repair of
concrete members. In this regard, Victor C. Li et al., (2000) investigated the effect of
ECC for repair and retrofit of concrete structures. The authors claimed that due to its
damage tolerant behaviour, ECC is the most suitable material for retrofit applications
[25].
A.M. Anwar et al., (2009) prepared about twenty-one plain concrete specimens to
examine the effectiveness of ECC as a repair material for concrete cracked beams. His
conclusion includes that ECC had the ability to bridge the internal forces between the
crack sides due to its high ductility and perfect contact with the substrate concrete
without the use of any adhesives. They also confirmed that as the thickness of ECC
increased, both the section capacity and the ductility of the damaged beam were
enhanced [26].

J. Ayyubi et al. (2015) presents a retrofitting method using a high performance fiber
reinforced cement-based composite (HPFRCC). An experimental investigation has
been performed on three beams having same dimensions. Fist beam which is called
Reference beam is subjected to pure bending until its destruction. Two other beams
were damaged up to 35 % of final load of reference beam. After this damaging, the
beams were retrofitted by using HPFRCC in the created u- type grooves. These beams
were then examined on bending test. It was found that retrofitting can raise the strength,
first crack load and yielding load and the retrofitting also increases the ductility and
energy absorption of beams [27].

14
2.2.5. Field applications of ECC

Field applications of ECC have been found in large scale in developed countries like
USA, Korea and Japan [28,29]. These include;
✓ ECC used in large structures that have a high energy absorption, including
dampers, steel element joints, coupling beams and for hybrid steel connections
e.g. coupling beams were prepared using ECC in 41-story Nabeaure Yokohama
Tower Japan and Glorio Roppongi Residential tower Japan.
✓ ECC was also used in underground structures, highway pavements & bridge
decks e.g. Deck of Mihara Bridge Hokkaido Japan had been poured using ECC
materials. The ECC layer was kept 38 mm and the total EC poured were 800
m3 .
✓ ECC can also be used in general structural repairs and retrofitting e.g. deck
repair of Grove Street Bridge in Michigan 2005 repair of Mikata Dam
Hiroshima Japan 2003 were accomplished using ECC materials.
✓ ECC can be used in mechanical elements of the beam and column combination
as well.
✓ ECC was used as a protective layer for increasing the corrosive resistance of
structures like ECC coating on Hida tunnel Japan.
✓ ECC can be used in precast members like Extruded ECC pipes.

Figure 8 Mitaka Dam near Hiroshima.

15
 Figure 9 Mihara Bridge (1km) in Hokkaido, Japan.

Figure 10 Glorio Roppongi high-rise apartment building (95 m) in Tokyo.

16
2.3. Ferro Cement overlay
Ferrocement is the first known form of reinforced concrete which was first used two
centuries ago in Italy and France, mainly for construction of boats. It is made of mortar
and steel wire mesh and usually it is cast in very thin sections, thus making it possible
to give any desired shape. Typical section thickness for ferrocement is 2-3 cm.
Ferrocement is an interesting and versatile material, which has not been extensively
studied, and offers many new areas for research and new applications. It is a composite
material, composed of steel wire mesh and mortar matrix. Different types of meshes
can be used to produce ferrocement sheets, depending on the application requirements.
The State-of-the-art report on ferrocement, from ACI [30] distinguishes ferrocement
from conventional concrete especially when comparing the behavior in tension and
flexure of the two materials. The tensile and flexural strength of ferrocement are
attributed to the wire mesh, as the mortar matrix cracks at early loading stages.
Compression behavior is similar to that of conventional concrete. Good properties of
this material comprise the cracking behavior, impact behavior and load-deformation
behavior. Due to good distribution of reinforcement, ferrocement can control crack
development, though minor cracks will be present in the matrix, even before loading.
These minor cracks can develop due to inadequate curing or cover thickness. Durability
and fire resistance are not very high, mostly owning to the thin sections in which
ferrocement is casted[31]
The main types of mesh used in ferrocement application are hexagonal mesh, woven
mesh, welded mesh and expanded metal. In general, it can be stated that the properties
of the ferrocement are greatly affected by the type and the orientation of the
reinforcement used. The best performance, for almost all properties is obtained from
the welded mesh, which has two strong directions that are equally reinforced. This type
of mesh is weaker in 45° direction, but still gives better results when compared to
expanded metal (unidirectional mesh), woven or hexagonal mesh.

2.3.1. Properties of Ferro Cement Overlay

Ferrocement, considered to be an extension of reinforced concrete technology, has
relatively better mechanical properties and durability than ordinary reinforced concrete.
Within certain loading limits, it behaves as a homogenous elastic material and these
limits are wider than for normal concrete. The uniform distribution and high surface

17
area to volume ratio of its reinforcement results in better crack arrest mechanism, i.e.
the propagation of cracks are arrested resulting in high tensile strength of the materials
[30]

Many of the properties unique to ferrocement derive from the relatively large amount
of two-way reinforcement made up of relatively small elements with much higher
surface area than conventional reinforcement. In the words of Nervi, who first used the
term ferrocement, its most notable characteristic is "greater elasticity and resistance to
cracking given to the cement mortar by the extreme subdivision and distribution of the
reinforcement". Therefore, the recognition of parameters defining the subdivision and
distribution of the reinforcement is fundamental in understanding many of the
properties of ferrocement.

2.3.1.1. Reinforcing Mesh

One of the essential components of ferrocement is wire mesh. Different types of wire
meshes are available almost everywhere. Common wire meshes have hexagonal or
square opening. Meshes with hexagonal openings are sometimes referred to as chicken
wire mesh or aviary mesh. They are not structurally as efficient as meshes with square
opening because the wires are not always oriented in the directions of the principal
(maximum) stresses. However, they are very flexible and can be used in doubly curved
elements.

Meshes with square opening are available in welded or woven form. Welded-wire mesh
is made of straight wires in both the longitudinal and transverse directions. Thus
welded-mesh thickness is equal to two wire diameters. Woven mesh is made of
longitudinal wires woven around straight transverse wires. Depending on the tightness
of the weave, woven-mesh thickness may be up to three wire diameters. Welded-wire
meshes have a higher modulus and hence higher stiffness than woven meshes; they lead
to smaller crack widths in the initial portion of the load-deformation curve.
Woven-wire meshes are more flexible and easier to work with than welded meshes.
However, welding anneals the wire and reduces its tensile strength[31]

18
 Figure 11 Different Pattern of Wire Mesh

2.3.1.2. Ferrocement in Tension

The tensile characteristics of ferrocement have not yet been fully defined and
standardized. In tension, the load-carrying capacity is essentially independent of
specimen thickness because the matrix cracks well before failure and does not
contribute directly to composite strength. The influence of types, sizes and volumes of
wire meshes on elastic cracking and ultimate behavior of ferro cement in uniaxial
tension have been studied [32]. They observed that the ultimate tensile strength of
ferrocement is the same as that of the mesh alone. The specific surface of the
reinforcement strongly influences the cracking behavior of ferro cement. Some
technical information have been released [33] . but their results seem to be specific to
certain types of mesh reinforcement. For square mesh reinforcements, the load-
elongation behavior of ferrocement in' tension has been characterized in three stages
[32] In the initial stage, the matrix and reinforcement act as a continuum having a
composite elastic modulus approximately equal to that predicted from the volumetric
law of mixtures of the longitudinal reinforcement and the matrix. Naaman and Shah
have shown that a safe lower bound value of composite modulus of elasticity can be
predicted by assuming the volume of mortar unity. Thus, the modulus of elasticity of
ferrocement for uncracked state is determined as,
𝑬𝒇 = 𝑬𝒎 (𝟏 − 𝑽𝒍 ) + 𝑬𝒇𝒔 𝑽𝒍 ≅ 𝑬𝒎 + 𝑬𝒇𝒔 𝑽𝒍
where,

19
𝐸𝑚 =Modulus of elasticity of mortar
𝐸𝑓𝑠 =Modulus of elasticity of wire mesh
𝑉𝑙 =Volume fraction in the loading direction
The second stage of the load-deformation behavior, associated with a fully cracked
matrix, is also linear. Its modulus is somewhat greater than the product of the volume
fraction and the modulus of the longitudinal reinforcement. The mortar and the lateral
reinforcement continue to play an active role after first cracking, either individually or
in combination [30,32] In the third stage, the matrix ceases to play a role and failure
corresponds to the yielding of the reinforcement.

2.3.1.3. Ferrocement in Compression

In this mode, unlike tension, the matrix contributes directly to ferrocement strength in
proportion to its cross-sectional area. Compressive strength of' ferrocement (regardless
of the amount of mesh reinforcement) seems to be much the same as that of mortar
alone [34]. The experimental results showed that under compression the ultimate
compressive strength is lower than that of equivalent pure mortar [30]. The compressive
strength at ultimate condition is assumed to be O.85C where “C” is the ultimate
compressive strength of the mortar. An investigation into the behavior of ferrocement
specimen in direct compression has been discussed by Rao. Conclusions were drawn
with respect to the effect, of percentage of reinforcement and the size of reinforcement
on the behavior of ferro cement. Smaller diameter wire mesh would be preferable to
use as this gives higher elasticity and higher ultimate compressive strengths for the
same percentage of reinforcement, all the other factors remaining essentially the same.
When mesh reinforcement is arranged parallel to the applied load in one plane only, no
improvement in strength is observed [30]. The only forms of reinforcement likely to
result in significant strength gains in compression are square mesh reinforcements [31]
fabricated in closed box or cylindrical arrangements which restrain the matrix, thus
forcing it to adopt a triaxial stress condition with associated higher strength.

2.3.1.4. First Cracking Strength of Ferrocement

The thin first-crack strength or its equivalent appears frequently in literature on the
behavior of ferrocement under tension and flexure, but its use without qualification is
unfortunate because it can be defined in various ways and therefore can mean different

20
things to different people. In a comprehensive discussion of this problem [35], it is
noted that microcracks are inherent in the mortar matrix even before it is loaded, and
that as the microcracks widen, propagate, and progressively join together under load,
they are detected by some means, visual or otherwise, and tanned "first cracks."
However, in the various Polish and Russian studies [35], "first cracking" is defined by
a crack width ranging from 2 x 10,4 in. (0.005 mm) to a value visible to the naked eye,'
1.2-3.3 x 10,3 in. (0.03-0.1 mm). In other studies, first-cracking is defined as the first
deviation from linearity of the load elongation function in tension (900-1500 micro
strain) or the corresponding deviation of the load. deflection curve in flexure [36], also
as a crack width under flexural loading of 0.003 in.(0.075 mm); as the point at which
the matrix at the tension face of flexural specimen reaches a strain equal to the cracking
strain of the unreinforced matrix, or simply as the first visible crack [37]. Therefore, it
is necessary to perform' experimental investigations for accurate prediction of the first
cracking stress of ferrocement in direct tension and in flexure.

Research studies have shown that crack width in reinforced concrete structures can be
reduced by increasing the bond between the reinforcement and the concrete, by
increasing the distribution of the reinforcement and by reducing the thickness of the
cover. All these factors are favor able for ferrocement. Crack width is nearly zero at the
interface between the steel and the mortar and increases from the interface towards the
surface. Therefore, the smaller the distance between the interface and the surface of the
structure, i.e., the cover, the smaller the crack width. Specific surface and volume
fraction of the reinforcement are found to play a significant role in the cracking
behavior of ferrocement and their influences are studied by several researchers and
empirical relationships between these parameters and the first cracking stress are
proposed.

2.3.2. Experimental Investigations on Ferrocement Reinforced Concrete

Beams
Research and development work on ferrocement have progressed at a tremendous pace
during recent years and a variety of structures using innovative design and construction
techniques have been built worldwide. Very little research work has been done to
evaluate the shear strength of ferrocement laminates One of the major reasons of little

21
research has been reported in the literature on behavior of ferrocement in shear is due
to the fact that in shear it is mainly used in thin shell elements where shear stresses are
not a critical design consideration. Most of the applications of ferrocement is in civil
engineering structures where high tensile strength or small crack width is the governing
criteria. Ferrocement panels used for roofing purposes, normally have large span/ depth
ratio in flexure which the shear as a failure criteria.

Anwar et. al [38]. investigated the rehabilitation technique for reinforced concrete structural
beam elements using ferrocement. The technique involved strengthening of the reinforced
concrete beams by application of hexagonal chicken wire mesh and skeletal steel combined by
ordinary plastering[39]. strengthened existing beams in reinforced concrete building structures
by means of shotcrete ferrocement. It was found that the mesh is fully effective and a monolithic
condition of the shotcrete layer and original concrete beam is attained. The wire mesh was
found to act as excellent shear force reinforcement.

Kaushik and Dubey [40] studied the performance of R.C. ferrocement composite beams
through experimental investigation on RC beam cast on ferrocement and distressed beam
rehabilitated by ferrocement jacketing. They reported that the increase in ultimate strength
compared to RC beams was 44% for composite beams and 39% for rehabilitated beams. This
shows that composite beams and rehabilitated beams are capable of performing equally well.
Moreover, the ultimate strength and stiffness of R.C. beam can be significantly increased by
strengthening with precast ferrocement plates in the shear failure zone. Therefore, ferrocement
can satisfactorily be used as the precast part of the composite in which R.C. beam is cast.

In 1998 Afsaruddin and Hoque[38] performed an experimental research work on reinforced

concrete beams with ferrocement overlay in the concrete laboratory. They investigated the
possibility of using ferrocement as a permanent formwork for reinforced concrete beams. A
total of twelve beams were constructed and tested in this investigation. Eight ferrocement beam
formworks were made having different sizes. All of them were filled with reinforced concrete.
Four reinforced concrete beams and eight reinforced concrete beams coated with ferrocement
formwork containing single layer wire mesh were cast to compare the behavior of ferrocement
formwork reinforced concrete beam with the normal reinforced concrete beam. The study
demonstrates that the use of ferrocement a permanent formwork
increases the cracking load and ultimate load of the composite system compared to normal RC
beams. The number of cracks and width of cracks have been found to have reduced
considerably due to the provision of ferrocement layer used as the formwork. From the study it

22
appears that permanent precast ferrocement formwork could become a reliable alternative to
wooden formwork in the construction of reinforced concrete beams.

S.K .Kaushik and V.K .Garg, 1994[41] tested reinforced concrete beams to study the
effectiveness of externally bonded precast ferrocement plates in strengthening beams
showing shear distress. The relative efficacy of the bonding media (C-S mortar, epoxy)
used in bonding the precast F.C Plates to the sides of beams were studied. Ferrocement
was considered attractive for this application due to its thigh tensile strength, low
weight economy in cost, long life of treatment and precise assessment of the additional
strength gained by its use. Cement sand mortar bonding medium was found less
effective than epoxy repaired beams, which showed a 20.5 % increase ultimate strength
over original beams when subjected to identical loading. This specimen showed 25 %
lower deflections than the original beams at the ultimate stage. The studies showed that
the technique can be advantageously used for rehabilitation of RC beams failing in
shear. They had concluded from their studies that Ultimate strength characteristics of
RC beams can be significantly increased with ferrocement laminates, the increase being
3.5 % corresponding to cement sand mortar and its 20.5 % corresponding to Epoxy
bonded specimens. Reduction in deflection was less at working loads strengthened in
shear, however 2 % and 25 % reduction was noted corresponding to beams strengthened
cement sand mortar and Epoxy respectively. In the beams strengthened with
ferrocement crack width got reduced significantly up to 5 5 and 30.8 % corresponding
to cement sand mortar and epoxy respectively.

S.F.A. Rafeeqi , S..H.Lodi and Z.R. Wadalawala, 1998[42] Shear mode of failure in
beams is undesired mainly being a brittle failure . Therefore, an attempt has been made
by these people to explore the potentials of ferrocement in transferring the brittle mode
to ductile mode. Ferrocement wrap and equally spaced strips with one or two layers of
woven square mesh are presented and compared with RC beam designed as shear
deficient (in both). These researchers from their studies had concluded that the
strengthened beam showed a marked improvement in performance at service load,
greatly improved ductility at ultimate with either a ductile shear failure or seemingly a
transition from shear to flexure mode of failure. Moreover, ferrocement wraps are more
effective than ferro cement strips. Another thing of importance deduced is that the
enhancement in load carrying capacity is not substantial, however is present. Service

23
range had been able to increase the stiffness of strengthened beams and reduces the
crack width and deflection in comparison with un-strengthened beam.

M.A.Al-Kubaisy and P.J.Nedwel, 199[43] presents the study on the behaviour and
strength of ferrocement beams under shear . The results of thirty simply supported
beams tested under single concentrated load are presented. The influence of the
following variables ;shear span to depth ratio (a/h), volume fraction of reinforcement (
Vf ), and the strength of mortar (f c’) on crack patterns ,modes of failure and the
cracking shear strength were examined . The results indicated that the cracking shear
strength of ferrocement beams increases as the a/h ratio is decreased and as fc’ and Vf
are increased. An empirical equation is proposed to predict the cracking shear strength.
This equation takes into account the effect of variables covered in this study. The
proposed equation for computing the cracking shear strength is compared with other
test results and also with the ACI Code provisions which are shown to be very
conservative. They had concluded that the mode of shear failure cant only be predicted
on the basis of a/h and Vf alone ,only we can get some guide regarding it further beams
failing in shear mode had more reserve capacity beyond cracking than beams failing in
diagonal mode. The shear force at failure cannot be relied upon to exceeding the
cracking shear. Accordingly the shear force at critical cracking must be considered as
the useful shear capacity of beam, moreover we can say that the cracking shear force
may be predicted by the lower bound line given by equation
V cr / bh =0.1 f c’1/2 + 55.5 Vf .h /Xc
Where Xc = 198 (a/h)/fc’1/2 -14

Callan & Kirwan,1960[44] tested ferrocement specimens reinforced with woven mesh
& skeletal bars in bending at a shear span/depth ratio of 0.4 .The shear strength of
ferrocement elements was equal to about 35 % of their flexural strength over a fairly
wide range of steel contents 288-480 kg/m3

Mansur & Ong, 1987[45] found that the shear strength of ferrocement depends on the
strength of mortar volume fraction & strength of wire mesh. Shear strength of
ferrocement beams with welded wire mesh was found to be more than the shear strength
of ferrocement beams reinforced with woven or hexagonal wire mesh. They
investigated the behavior & strength of ferrocement in transverse shear by conducting

24
flexural tests on beams under two symmetrical point loads. The beams were reinforced
with only welded wire mesh, with the various layers of mesh lumped together in layers
at the top & bottom. Test results indicate that diagonal cracking strength ferrocement
increases as the span to depth ratio is decreased & volume fraction of reinforcement,
strength of mortar & amount of reinforcement near compression face is increased.
Ferrocement beams are susceptible to shear failure at small span to depth ratios when
volume fraction of reinforcement & strength of mortar are relatively high.

Venkata Krishna & Basa Gouda, 1989[46] performed testing of beams with different
volume fractions of reinforcement in transverse shear. I t was found that the shear
strength depends on strength of mortar ,strength of wire mesh , volume fraction & shear
span .Theoretical expressions were developed for predicting the shear strength of first
crack & collapse of ferrocement beams with different types of wire meshes namely
hexagonal ,woven & welded. The correlation between the experimental & predicted
value was quite satisfactory.

Lua & Vanwanrioj, 1988[47] studied the effect of galvanized welded wire mesh as
shear reinforcement when it was used with shotcrete for strengthening of reinforced
concrete beams. Tests results showed that wire mesh acting as reinforcement was fully
effective. The failure mechanism of beams changed from shear failure to flexure when
strengthened with ferrocement layer.

2.3.3. Constituent Materials for Ferrocement

i. Cement

ii. Fine Aggregate

iii. Water

iv. Admixture

v. Mortar Mix

vi. Reinforcing mesh

vii. Skeletal Steel

viii. Coating

25
2.3.4. Process of Ferrocement Construction
The ferrocement overlay can be applied to reinforced member in the following
procedure first of all fabricating the skeletal framing system then applying rods and
meshes. after meshing start plastering of that member. start proper curing of
reinforced member to prevent cracks and to strength the member.

Figure 12 Hexagonal Wire mesh

Figure 13 Ferro Cement overlay field work

26
2.4. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers
Carbon, glass and Aramid laminates count to the category of fiber composite materials
that consist of resin with embedded reinforcement fibers. In composite structural
elements the fibers are loaded mainly in tension, whereas the resin provides form
stability and load transmission between the fibers. Carbon fibers are used as short fibers
(length: a few mm), long fibers (rods or laminae) or as textiles. In Aero spatial and
aeronautical engineering, where high strength and low weight is of crucial importance,
fiber composite materials are utilised already since 40 years. After this first successful
applications there raised interest also in the automotive industry about the new materials
and special products have been developed.
During the last decade finally, structural engineers began to use fiber reinforced
composites for strengthening measures and in very aggressive environments, where
other materials don't exhibit a sufficient resistance [48].

2.4.1. Manufacturing of CFRP

2.4.1.1. Manufacturing of carbon fibers
Carbon fibers are known already since 1879, as Thomas Alva EDISON produced them
from bamboo fibers for his first filament lamp. Nowadays they are manufactured from
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) or pitch fibers by thermal degradation (carbonization). The
PAN fiber
usually is the same product which is used for woven cloths, whereas the pitch fiber is a
waste product from the petrochemical industry and hence the costs are relatively low.
The original PAN-fiber (precxirsor) is stretched 2-3 times after the extrusion process,
washed and stretched again by a factor 15 at 200 - 300°C. In this process several
thousand parallel fibers are involved and a strong orientation of the molecule chains in
longitudinal direction is yielded. The Young's modulus increases from initially 4000
N/mm^2 to 15000 N/mm^2 The subsequent carbonization takes place at temperatures
of about 1600°C whereas during the pyrolysis all non-carbon elements are eliminated.
The resulting yield of carbon fibers amounts about 50% of the PAN fiber. Tensile
strength and Young's modulus increase continuously during the first step of the
carbonization until 900°C. At the end the Young's modulus reaches about 230000
N/mm^2 and the strength more than 4000 N/mm^2. For a further increase of the
Young's modulus of the carbon fiber it is stretched mechanically at 3000°C in argon

27
atmosphere which yields a pronounced band or layer structure with van der Waals
binding in transverse and covalent binding in longitudinal fiber direction. Hence carbon
fibers are sensitive against mechanical actions in transverse direction. The diameter of
the fibers lies between 5 and 8 um and the amount of carbon is 92 – 99.99%.
Three types of fibers are distinguished:
✓ N (normal)
✓ HT (high tenacity)
✓ HM (high modulus) fibers
The highest achievable strength is currently about 7000 N/mm^2 and the highest
modulus about 900000 N/mm^2 [49]. For the production of hybrid fibers there are used
carbon fibers with different Young's moduli and strength. The fibers with a low Young's
modulus but high strain at rupture are prestressed so that the Young's modulus becomes
linear in the laminate. This technique enables the manufacturing of cheap carbon fibers
with low Young's modulus [50].

2.4.1.2. The pultrusion process

Carbon fibers usually are produced and delivered in the form of roving. Nowadays 1-k
until 320-k roving wrapped on coils are available, whereas a 3-k roving for example
consists of 3000 single fibers. CFRP-lamellae are manufactured in the pultrusion
process by pulling many dozens of roving’s through an impregnation bath, forming to
lamellae and subsequent hardening. This method enables the production of quasi-
endless unidirectional reinforced profiles with good mechanical properties in
longitudinal direction, whereas the transversal mechanical performance depends on the
matrix system. The single procedures of a pultrusion equipment are:
• Bringing together the roving’s
• Impregnation with liquid matrix material
• Forming and hardening in a heated form
• Post-hardening in hot air stream
• Pull off with rubber crawler
• Roll up and/or cutting equipment

28
 Figure 14 Single procedures of a pultrusion equipment

The density of the most common fibers is between 1.80 and 1.84 g/cm^3 and of the
epoxy resin matrix exhibits a density between 1.10 and 1.20 g/cm^3. The apparent
density may be calculated with the mixing rule and amounts about 1.60 g/cm^3 .The
tensile strength of an unidirectional layer parallel to the fibers may be calculated with
sufficient accuracy by means of the mixing rule:

𝜎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙,𝑢 = 𝜎𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟,𝑢 ∗ ∅ + 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥,𝑢 ∗ (1 − ∅)

whereas (u) means the fiber content per volume. The elastic properties of an
unidirectional layer can be described by four independent basic elasticity parameters
which are derived from the Young's modulus of the fiber and the matrix and the fiber
content. The so-called technical modulus of elasticity of an unidirectional layer parallel
to the fiber is also calculated with the mixing rule:

𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟, ∗ ∅ + 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 ∗ (1 − ∅)

The transversal and longitudinal Poisson's ratio can be determined in a similar simple
way, Young's modulus transverse to the fibers and the transversal and longitudinal
shear modulus may be solved by continuum mechanics. In the following tables there
are listed the main parameters of a lamella with a fiber content of 60% and 70%
respectively.

29
 Table 1 Strength values of CFRP-lamellae with 70% fiber content [48]

Table 2 Technical elasticity parameters of CFRP-lamellae with 70% fiber content [48]

Table 3 Thermal properties of CFRP-lamellae with 60% fiber content [48]

Table 4 Electric resistance of CFRP-lamellae with 60% fiber content [48]

30
 Figure 15 Comparison of Young's moduli of CFRP-Lamellae and steel (Steel)

2.4.1.3. The laying procedure

The laying procedures are characterized by impregnating the textile with resin or by
superimposing several resin-textile layers. In this way two-dimensional structures are
covered, whereas duro plastics and thermoplastics act as resin. The first cure through a
chemical reaction and the latter liquefy at high temperatures and solidify at low
temperatures. Unsaturated polyester (UP), epoxy (EP) and vinyl ester count to the
category of duro plastics, whereas polyamide (PA), polycarbonat (PC) and
polyoxydemethanol (POM) are thermoplastics. In the following table the principal
differences between duro plastics and thermoplastics are listed.

Table 5 Properties of duro plastics and thermoplastics

As adhesives there are utilised solvent-free two-component structural adhesives on the

31
base of epoxy resin with polyamine hardener and eventually quartz powder. The
hardening takes place through polyaddition where in fact no by-products originate and
almost no shrinkage can be observed From the building physics point of view at least
30% of the surface of the structural element should be water vapor permeable. This
may be achieved by the use of water vapor permeable adhesives on the base of PU- or
acrylate.

2.4.1.4. Extrusion
This process is suitable to produce small prefab units. The resin is mixed with short
fibers and injected in a form, whereas due to the short cycle time mainly thermoplastics
are used.

2.4.2. Properties of the CFRP

2.4.2.1. Creeping and relaxation
Longitudinal creeping and relaxation of unidirectional CFRP lamellae can be neglected
because the stiffness of the lamella is dominated by the carbon fibers. In transversal
direction the lamellae are sensitive like plastics due to the dominant behavior of the
epoxy matrix.

2.4.2.2. Fatigue behaviour

CFRP-lamellae exhibit an excellent fatigue behavior in longitudinal direction. Unlike
steel they are insensitive to friction fatigue which is important for the bridging of cracks
under cyclic actions. In the most cases the fatigue behavior of the base material (timber,
concrete, aluminum, steel) or of the adhesive may be critical.

2.4.2.3. Durability
According to the current experience you may suppose that CFRP products are long term
stable under the chemical environment which is typical for structural engineering. The
epoxy matrix may become critical before the carbon fibers.

2.4.2.4. Electric and thermal properties, lightning stroke hazard

Like the mechanical properties also the electric and thermal properties of CFRP-
lamellae are extremely orthotropic. Also the fiber itself exhibits an anisotropic

32
behavior: in longitudinal
direction heat and electricity are conducted, whereas in transverse direction it behaves
like an insulator. Since CFRP-lamellae don't act as electric isolators in longitudinal
direction, but on the other side they are not good conductor, in case of a lightning stroke
the lamellae could be damaged. The temperature of the fibers may exceed 400°C and
bum the epoxy matrix, so the forces between the fibers cannot be transmitted any more.
In the most cases the lightning stroke hazard does not exist because the lamellae are
protected inside of buildings or bridges (caisson). Should they be applied on masts or
curtains, protection measures have to be performed. [49] In the following list the
advantages and disadvantages of strengthening measures with carbon fibers are listed.
✓ High, controllable tensile strength and stiffness (dependent on fiber type)
✓ High Young's modulus
✓ Creeping in longitudinal direction negligible
✓ Excellent fatigue behaviour
✓ Chemical resistance against acids, alkalis and solvents
✓ Temperature resistant
✓ Corrosion resistant
✓ Low density
✓ Resistant against short- and long-term actions
✓ Antimagnetic
✓ Flexible application (textiles can be formed arbitrarily)
✓ No location of joints at large spans

2.4.3. Types and applications

2.4.3.1. Prefabricated CFRP-lamellae
Lamellae are delivered on rolls with a thickness of 1 - 2 mm, 50 -300 mm width
and 250 m length. Due to their small strain lamellae are suitable to increase the
stiffness of a structural member, whereas textiles are utilized typically to increase
the ductility. In the case of structural rehabilitation, the aim is usually to limit crack
widths and depths by exploiting small strains or by prestressing. The allowable
strain should not exceed 0.6 - 0.8 %, because large cracks would favour the
decoupling of the lamella. [52, 53] In the following figure the decoupling due to
excessive shear loading is shown schematically.

33
 Figure 16 Shift in a bending crack due to large shear stress [54]

M = bending moment
V = shear load
V = shift
w = crack width
W= crit critical crack width (if exceeded, no load transfer is possible)
x = neutral axis
𝑆𝑚 = average crack distance
Beton concrete Bewehrungsstab reinforcement

Figure 17 Tensile strength of the CFRP-lamella for design [50]

34
2.4.3.2. CFRP Cable
CFRP prestressing cables are usable principally like prestressed steel for pretension
with or without adhesion of structural concrete. The main difference consists in the
different operating lines and hence in the different behavior for tensile loading. Steel
exhibits nearly a linear elastic - ideal plastic material behavior, whereas carbon fibers
show a linear elastic behavior until rupture. The consequence is a reduced ductility of
an element which is prestressed with CFRP cables. A higher ductility may be achieved
by the use of additional conventional reinforcement. Connecting CFRP wires with a
diameter of 5 mm to parallel bundles may have future potential. The fiber volume
content of the cable varies between 68 - 72% and a cable with 241 strands reaches a
load capacity of 12000 kN. A CFRP cable with the same load capacity as a steel cable
weighs only 1/8. Especially for large spans, the low weight leads to a larger equivalent
Young's modulus as it can be seen from the following table. [48]

Table 6 Relative equivalent Young's modulus

Already in 1991 on the factory area of BASF in Ludwigshafen there were used 4
additional prestressed bundles each consisting of 19 CFRP-strands for a large
prestressed concrete bridge. Since 1994 at the EMPA in Zuruch reliable prestressing
systems have been developed so that a general application may be suggested. [57,58,59]
According to the following figure the maximum stress of the CFRP-cable is about 2500
N/mm^2 at a strain of 1.6% and the Young's modulus 150000 N/mm^2. The steel
strands exhibit a higher modulus of elasticity and strain (200000 N/mm^2 resp. 5%).

35
 Figure 18 Operating line of prestressed steel and CFRP cable

2.4.4. CFRP strengthened concrete

Fiber concrete will be used for a broad application range in the future. Steel, glass,
hemp and carbon fibers have the advantage of high strength and stiffness and high
resistance against corrosion also in carbonized regions.

2.4.4.1. CFRP textiles

The fibers are braided in both directions, so a bi-directional fiber mesh with a fiber
content of about 10 - 20% originates. Due to the waved arrangement of the fibers
resulting from the weaving process at first they are drawn straight-lined under tensile
forces and hence larger strains arise. There are used glass fibers in both directions or
carbon fibers in one and glass fibers in the other direction. Dependent on surrounding
conditions alkali-proof (AR)
glass or non-treated E-glass is used because uncoated glass is corrosion sensitive in
alkaline medium.

2.4.4.2. CFRP-foils
CFRP-foils are 0.15 - 0.45 mm thin single- or multi-layered foils consisting of
unidirectional arranged and totally stretched carbon fibers with 2-3% glass fibers in
transverse direction for fixing purposes. The content of carbon fibers usually lies
between 20 and 50%. Arrangement of the fibers in the loading direction leads to highest
stiffness and strength. For a load transfer to the steel reinforcement in a RC element
rupture of the tensile zone is necessary. The strain of the foil is here by decisive for the

36
limitation of crack widths and depths. However, a too large strain of the foil may induce
a shift of the shear crack and hence a decoupling of the foil. The strengthening effect
of CFRP-foils depends primarily on the properties of the fibers. The influence of the
resin matrix on the load capacity may be neglected. Hence the theoretical fiber cross
section and not the values of the composite is decisive for the design of C-foils. If the
theoretical fiber thickness is unknown, it can be calculated as the ratio between weight
and density of the carbon fiber:
𝑚𝐶−𝐹𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑟
𝑆= ⁄𝜌𝐶−𝐹𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑟
In the case that the fibers are laminated by hand on building site it is recommendable
to diminish the fiber properties by a factor 1.2, because various influences like damage
of the fibers during rolling or non-optimal arrangement of the fibers may lead to a
reduced load capacity. [55] For lamellae always the total cross-section is decisive
because the fiber content is known more accurately.

2.4.4.3. Carbon fiber composites

Young's modulus and tensile strength of carbon fiber composites may be presumed to
be log-normal distributed with a coefficient of variation of about 5%. [51] Besides the
carbon fibers, the aramid fiber (known imder the brand mark Kevlar) is widely used for
composite materials with low weight and high toughness. Critical is the loss of strength
under ionizing radiation e.g. solar light. [16] In the following tables resp. diagram the
carbon and glass fiber composite materials are summarized and the operating line is
shown.

Table 7 Overview of carbon and glass fiber composite materials

37
2.4.5. Experimental Investigations on CFRP
Ahmed Khalifa et.al tested nine full-scale, two-span, continuous beams with
rectangular cross section for the validation of CFRP as an external strengthening
material. The tested beams were grouped into three series. Three beams, one from each
series, were not strengthened and taken as reference beams, whereas six beams were
strengthened using different schemes. The variables investigated in this study included
the amount of steel shear reinforcement, amount of CFRP, wrapping schemes, and
90/00 ply combination. The experimental results indicated that the contribution of
externally bonded CFRP to the shear capacity of continuous RC beams is significant
and is dependent on the tested variables. In addition, the test results were used to
validate shear design algorithms. The proposed algorithms show good correlation with
the test results and provided conservative estimates [55]

A. Bukhari et.al tested a total of seven, two-span concrete continuous beams with
rectangular cross-sections were tested. The control beam was not strengthened, and the
remaining six were strengthened with different arrangements of CFRP sheets. The
experimental results show that the shear strength of the beams was significantly
increased by the CFRP sheet and that it is beneficial to orientate the FRP at 45 to the
axis of the beam. The shear strength of FRP strengthened beams is usually calculated
by adding individual components of shear resistance from the concrete, steel stirrups
and FRP [56]

I. A. Bukhari et.al presents the results of a series of tests on short span reinforced
concrete beams which were strengthened in shear with various arrangements of
externally bonded carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets. The objective of the
tests was to determine the effect of changing the area and location of the CFRP sheet
within the shear span. A total of fifteen 150 mm × 300 mm × 1,675 mm concrete beams
were tested of which four were un-strengthened control specimens. The remaining 11
beams were strengthened with varying configurations of CFRP sheets. Parameters
varied in the tests included the area of CFRP sheet, its anchorage length and the distance
of the CFRP sheet from the support. The experimental results revealed that the CFRP
is more effective when it is placed close to the supports and even small areas of CFRP
can give significant increases in shear strength. The experimental results were
compared with the three different existing shear prediction models for estimating shear
38
contribution of CFRP sheets. A simple strut-and-tie model is presented which gives
reasonable predictions of shear strength for the beam specimens, which were
strengthened with CFRP over the full depth of the beam. The superposition method of
design is replaced in ECC by the variable angle truss model in which all the shear is
assumed to be resisted by the truss mechanism. A simple regression equation is
proposed for the calculation of effective stress in FRP to be used in ECC.[56]

The results of an experimental investigation are presented in this article for improving
the shear capacity and ductility of reinforced concrete beams by using CFRP strips. The
purpose of this study is to obtain ductile flexural behavior for shear-deficient reinforced
concrete beams. The experimental program consisted of 10T cross-sectioned half scale
simply supported beam specimens, seven of which were constructed with deficient
shear reinforcement and the remaining three without any shear reinforcement. One
beam was used as a reference and nine beams were strengthened using U-shaped CFRP
strips with or without fan type anchorage. Three different CFRP strip spacing such as
sf¼125 mm, 150 mm, and 200mm were used. The effect of anchorages that were used
at the ends of the strips on shear strength and behavior of the strengthened specimens
was investigated. CFRP strips without anchorages improved the shear strength, but no
flexural behavior was observed. specimens failed with brittle shear failure due to
peeling of CFRP strip from RC beam surfaces. specimens with deficient shear
reinforcement that were strengthened with anchored CFRP strips showed improved
shear strength and ductile flexural behavior was observed. Similar behaviors were
observed for specimens even without any shear reinforcement. When the CFRP strip
strains of the specimens with anchorages and without anchorages were compared,
maximum strains at anchored strips were approximately 56% larger than that of without
anchorages.[57]

CFRP sheets can provide increase in strength and stiffness to existing concrete beams
when bonded to the web and tension face. The magnitude of the increase and the mode
of failure are related to the direction of the reinforcing fibers. When the CFRP fibers
were placed perpendicular to cracks in the beam, a large increase in stiffness and
strength was observed and a brittle failure occurred due to concrete rupture as a result
of stress concentration near the ends of the CFRP. This was true whether flexural or
shear cracks in the beam were repaired. When the CFRP fibers were placed obliquely
39
to the cracks in the beam, a smaller increase in strength and stiffness was observed;
however, the mode of failure associated with this off-axis application of CFRP was
more ductile and preceded by warning signs such as snapping sounds or peeling of the
CFRP. The micromechanics of an off axis CFRP failure are an emerging study and
need to be investigated more fully before this phenomenon can be completely
understood. Yet the results of this study show that CFRP may be used to increase the
strength and stiffness of beams without causing catastrophic brittle failures associated
with this strengthening technique, certain combination of fibers and orientations may
provide the ductile yielding properties of steel plate retrofits without the interface
corrosion problems noted in earlier field applications with bonded steel plates.[58]

Chaallal et al (1998) present one of the first models to predict the shear contribution of
FRP, the corresponding formulation is based on the assumption that the composite and
the stirrups have similar behavior. The model assumes that the FRP tensile strength is
reached when the composite is intersected by the shear failure crack if sufficient bond
length is not provided.[59]

40
2.5. Steel Jacketing
Steel jackets are common retrofit method for columns and are used frequently. In their
most basic form, a steel jacket can be comprised of only wrapping steel plates around
a column. Under different scenarios, steel jackets may also include adhesives between
the jacket and the column, concrete or grout to fill in gaps between a larger jacket and
the column, anchor bolts to facilitate the connections, and end stiffeners to move the
plastic-hinge. Some of the primary considerations for these methods are the plastic-
hinge behavior, interface preparation, connections within the jacket, sizing of the
jacket, the cross-section or shape used, and various loading cases, which are shown in
Table 8 below.
Confining reinforced concrete column in steel jackets is one of the effective methods
to improve the earthquake-resistant capacity. As compared with conventional hoops or
spirals, steel jacket has two more remarkable advantages; 1) to easily provide a large
amount of transverse steel, hence strong confinement to the compressed concrete, and
2) to prevent spalling off of the shell concrete. Spalling of the shell concrete may be
considered as the main reason for deterioration of bond and buckling of longitudinal
bars of columns and is hardly prevented by conventional hoops. Because of these
advantages of the steel jacket, confining method utilizing steel jacket has been
increasingly used to retrofit or strengthen the existing reinforced concrete columns
without adequate detailing. This method is referred to as the steel jacket retrofit here
after. The authors have conducted an integrated theoretical and experimental research
on the seismic behavior of steel jacket retrofitted columns since 1985 (Sakino et al.,
1985). This paper is a state-of-the-art report on the steel.

41
 Table 8 Summary of steel jacket studies and their parameters

2.5.1. Behaviour in Plastic-Hinge Region

Plastic-hinge behavior where lateral forces cause structures to rotate near the ends of
columns is an important consideration, particularly under seismic loading. As such,
preventing such behavior is important in retrofitting reinforced concrete columns. To
do this, studies have been completed on how standard jackets, jackets with end
stiffeners or capitals, or additional anchoring can mitigate against plastic-hinge
behavior.

Aboutaha et al. (1996) evaluated using steel plates under lateral loading in the potential
plastic hinge regions of columns with different cross-sections, concrete strengths,
jacket heights, adhesive anchor bolt arrangement, and the vertical spacing of bolts. A
sample cross-section with four anchor bolts is shown in Figure 19. As the spacing of
the bolts decreased, the hysteresis loop pinched resulting in a degradation of lateral
force as drift ratio increased. Despite having the lowest concrete strength, fewest
number of bolts, and largest spacing, the specimen that had a long jacket and additional
angles at the corners performed best. This demonstrates the importance of a longer steel
jacket and having additional confinement. Therefore, smaller jackets can even be

42
retrofitted without anchor bolts. Additionally, the number of anchor bolts was
determined based on the strength of the concrete columns made from higher strength
concrete require less anchor bolts than those made from lower strength.

Figure 19 Steel jacket retrofit with anchor bolts

Chai et al. (1991) tested columns with steel jackets in the plastic hinge region under
lateral loading with a constant axial load. Figure 20 shows the cross-section of the
columns tested with the steel jacket. The main variables tested were provision of lap-
splices or continuous reinforcement, use of a strong or weak footing, partial or full
retrofit. Lapping starter bars in the plastic hinge region proved to fail prematurely; the
use of continuous reinforcement instead, decreases the likely strength degradation after
this point.

Figure 20 Steel jacket retrofit on circular reinforced concrete columns

43
Lin et al. (2010) investigated using octagonal or elliptical steel jackets, as shown in
Figure 21 on rectangular lap-splice deficient reinforced concrete columns under lateral
loading. While both jackets were successful at improving strength and ductility
capacities and preventing non-ductile splice failures, the octagonal greatly prevented
lap-splice failure while enhancing ductility.

Figure 21 Elliptical (a) and octagonal (b) steel jacket retrofit with concrete in fill

In addition to using a steel jacket, Xiao et al. (2003) provided end stiffeners in the
potential plastic hinge regions under lateral cyclic loading. Different types of stiffeners
were evaluated: thick plate, angle, and square pipe, as shown in Figure 22 with the
standard column cross-section shown in Figure 23. All the stiffeners enabled the
column to reach satisfactory ductility, while the column without stiffeners did not reach
a sufficient ductility. Angle stiffeners may be the most viable, since they are more
readily available and are easy to weld. While the thick plate and angle stiffeners yielded,
strain was relatively small throughout the testing process demonstrating the
conservativeness of the design approach.

44
 Figure 22 Steel jackets provided with no stiffeners; steel plate stiffeners; angle
stiffeners; and square tube stiffeners.

Figure 23 Standard steel jacket retrofit of square reinforced concrete columns

Aboutaha et al. (2016) Providing a longer steel jacket and having additional
confinement in the plastic-hinge region can result in higher strength. Smaller jackets
can even be retrofitted without anchor bolts. Columns made from higher strength
concrete require less anchor bolts than those made from lower strength.
Chai et al. (1991) Lapping starter bars in the plastic hinge region failed prematurely.
Providing continuous reinforcement instead decreases the likely strength degradation
after this point.

45
Lin et al. (2010) While both octagonal and elliptical jackets were successful at
improving strength and ductility capacities and preventing non-ductile splice failures,
the octagonal greatly prevented lap-splice failure while enhancing ductility.
Xiao et al. (2003) All the stiffeners enabled the columns to reach satisfactory ductility
versus those without stiffeners. Angle stiffeners may be the most viable, since they are
more readily available and are easy to weld. While the thick plate and angle stiffeners
yielded, strain was relatively small throughout the testing process demonstrating the
conservativeness of the design approach.

2.5.1.1. Summary of effect of plastic-hinge on retrofit performance

Longer steel jackets and additional confinement with anchor bolts can result in higher
column capacity. Continuous reinforcement in the plastic-hinge region is important at
minimizing strength degradation. Using an octagonal jacket instead of an elliptical
jacket can prevent lap-splice failure better and enhance ductility. Stiffeners helped
columns improve ductility. Angle stiffeners may be the most practical due to
availability and constructability.

2.5.2. Interface
Researchers have evaluated how influential providing additional interface preparation
is an column performance. Options evaluated include no preparation, adhesives, and
bolts.
Choi et al. (2008) evaluated how useful adhesives are in steel jackets by testing steel
jackets on circular reinforced concrete columns, such as the one shown in Figure 24,
loaded axially with and without adhesives applied. The main variables were the
strengths, lateral confining pressure, thickness of the jacket, adhesive presence, and
welding quality. Adhesives decreased the compressive strength of the retrofitted
specimens since the adhesive reduced the confining effect, and the jackets already
provided sufficient lateral pressure.

46
 Figure 24 Steel jacket retrofit on column with one bar

Uy et al. (2002) tested the anchorage of steel plates to reinforced concrete square
columns under axial loading by providing bolts or glue and bolts. A variety of different
number of plate options were used, including those shown in Figure 25. Using both
glue and bolts was the most effective and limiting local slip buckling to provide
composite action between the column and the plate. Additionally, the glue and bolt
technique may have applications in slender columns, such as those in elevated water
tanks.

Figure 25 Partial and complete steel jackets provided on square and rectangular
columns

47
Choi et al. (2010) Adhesives decreased the compressive strength of the retrofitted
specimens since it reduced the confining effect and the jackets already provided
sufficient lateral pressure.
Uy (2002) Using both glue and bolts was the most effective at limiting local slip
buckling to provide composite action between the column and the plate. The glue and
bolt technique may have applications in slender columns, such as those in elevated
water tanks.

2.5.2.1. Summary of interface effect on retrofit

Providing adhesives is unnecessary and unfavorable since steel jackets laterally confine
the column effectively. However, using both glue and bolts is effective for columns
with individual plates jacketing the column.

2.5.3. Effect of Cross-Section

For columns without significant space constraints, the column may have flexibility with
the cross-section shape. As such, the optimum column cross-section should be chosen.
Studies have compared a variety of shapes of steel jackets including square, rectangular,
elliptical, circular, or octagonal cross-sections for square or rectangular columns; and
circular or elliptical jackets for circular columns.

Lin et al. (2010) investigated using octagonal or elliptical steel jackets, shown in Figure
19, on rectangular lap-splice deficient reinforced concrete columns under lateral
loading. While both cross-section options were successful at improving strength and
ductility capacities and preventing non-ductile splice failures, the octagonal greatly
prevented lap-splice failure while enhancing ductility. The octagonal steel jacket also
had better energy dissipation and lateral capacity further preventing seismic failures,
although it used a thicker jacket. Additionally, octagonal jackets are more preferable
from a constructability aspect, since they only require 8 bends, while the elliptical
jacket requires continuous bending of the steel plate. In addition to improving strength,
energy dissipation, and other aforementioned factors, octagonal jackets may also be
preferable due to being lower cost and taking up less space than elliptical jackets.

48
Priestley et al. (1994) evaluated elliptical and circular steel jackets on rectangular and
circular reinforced concrete columns, respectively, under lateral loading with a constant
axial load. These cross-sections are shown in Figures 19. Loading, aspect ratios,
reinforcing, jacket thickness, and jacket strength varied between the columns tested.
Rectangular columns with elliptical steel jackets and circular columns with circular
steel jackets increased the elastic stiffness by 64% and 30%, respectively. This
demonstrates how the retrofitted columns will experience higher shear than non-
retrofitted columns. Both were very effective at improving shear strength and flexural
ductility of under-designed columns for shear.

Uy (2002) tested different cross-sections and lengths of rectangular and square RC

columns with steel plates on two or four sides under axial loading with different glue
and bolting options, shown in Figure 25. The tall slender columns experienced the
greatest increase in axial capacity after jacketing by 100%. Nevertheless, the steel
jackets were effective for all columns tested.

Priestley et al. (1994) Rectangular columns with elliptical steel jackets increased the
elastic stiffness by more than double the circular steel jackets. Both were very effective
at improving shear strength and flexural ductility of under-designed columns for shear.

Uy (2002) Tall slender columns experienced the greatest increase in axial capacity after
jacketing by 100%. Nevertheless, the steel jackets were effective for all columns tested.

2.5.3.1. Summary of effect of retrofit cross-section performance

The use of an octagonal instead of an elliptical jacket for rectangular columns prevents
lap-splice failure, enhances ductility, improves energy dissipation and lateral capacity,
is easier to construct, has a lower cost, and takes up less space. Elliptical steel jackets
were twice as effective at increasing elastic stiffness as circular jackets on rectangular
columns. Both improved shear strength and flexural ductility sufficiently. Steel jackets
are more effective at improving axial capacity for tall slender columns.

49
2.5.4. Effect of Jacket Connections
Since steel jackets must be wrapped around a column or attached by some means, the
connection is an important parameter. Researchers compared how welding one or two
sections of a jacket or providing external pressure effect column performance.
Using no grout or adhesive between a steel jacket and the circular reinforced concrete
columns, Choi et al. (2010) evaluated the application of different techniques to confine
the jacket under lateral loading. These options were: providing external pressure on the
steel jacket using hoops, welding along the overlap between the cylindrical plates, and
welding lateral bands across the plates. Improving the installation process and
providing more external pressure may be required for these jackets, since there was not
an increase in the flexural strength of the columns. Welding the strip bands were
sufficient in protecting the weld line from fracture.
Choi et al. (2008) also investigated using a whole steel jacket or two split jackets and
strip bands on axially loaded circular reinforced concrete columns, with the standard
cross-section shown in Figure 24. The main variables were the strengths, lateral
confining pressure, thickness of the jacket, adhesive presence, and welding quality. The
whole jackets were more successful than the split jackets at producing full plastic
deformation.

Choi et al. (2010) Improving the installation process and providing more external
pressure may be required for these jackets, since there was not an increase in the
flexural strength of the columns. Welding the strip bands were sufficient in protecting
the weld line from fracture.

Eunsoo et al. (2008) The whole jackets were more successful than the split jackets at
producing full plastic deformation.

2.5.4.1. Summary of effect of jacket-column connection on retrofit

Whole jackets produce better full plastic deformation than split jackets.

2.5.5. Effect of Jacket sizing

Analyzing the thickness of the jacket is important in designing the jacket to efficiently

50
meet the column’s structural requirements.
Choi et al. (2008) evaluated the use of different steel jacket thicknesses or multiple
jackets on axially loaded circular reinforced concrete columns, as shown in Figure 24.
The main variables were the strengths, lateral confining pressure, thickness of the
jacket, adhesive presence, and welding quality. Jackets with two layers versus one layer
of an equivalent overall thickness behave approximately the same. Additionally, jacket
thickness and peak strength have a nearly linear relationship.

Li et al. (2005) tested reinforced concrete cylinders, like the one shown in Figure 26,
with varying concrete strengths, jacket thicknesses, and type of lateral steel
reinforcement under axial loading. Logically, thicker steel jackets provided more
confinement, increasing the stress of the confined concrete.

Figure 26 Standard steel jacket on circular reinforced concrete columns

Using different steel jacket and cage cross-sections and spacings, Belal et al. (2015)
investigated how steel jackets made from cross sections contribute to the strength of
retrofitted reinforced concrete columns under axial loading. Columns with angles,
channels, and plate cross sections of the same area were used with different sizes and
numbers of batten plates resulting in the same cross-section area as well, as shown in
Figure 27. Steel plates were found to be less effective due to the thinness of the plate,
in relation to using steel cages made from angles or channels.

51
 Figure 27 Original column; steel cage with 3 battens; steel cage with 6 battens; steel
plating.

Choi et al. (2008) Jackets with two layers versus one layer of an equivalent overall
thickness behave approximately the same. Additionally, jacket thickness and peak
strength have a nearly linear relationship.

Li et al. (2005) Logically, thicker steel jackets provided more confinement, increasing
the stress of the confined concrete.

Priestley et al. (1994) The thinner jacket used on the circular columns could not confine
the column sufficiently at large ductility factors, even though all the columns surpassed
the shear requirements.

Belal et al. (2015) Steel plates were less effective due to the thinness of the plate, in
relation to using steel cages made from angles or channels.

2.5.5.1. Summary of jacket sizing effect on retrofit performance

Two jacket layers versus one of equivalent size perform essentially the same, due to the
degree of confinement. Jacket thickness and peak strength have a nearly linear
relationship. Thin steel plates may have problems due to ductility or buckling.

52
2.5.6. Effect of Loading
Evaluating the effect of different loadings on retrofitted columns is important in
simulating realistic loading conditions. Therefore, preloading levels and loading
columns in strong and weak direction were compared to understand the steel jacket’s
success.

Aboutaha et al. (1999) tested laterally loading partial and solid steel jacketed
rectangular RC columns, like those shown in Figure 3.1, in either the weak or strong
direction. The jackets were successful and strengthening the columns previously
inadequate in shear under loading from both the weak and strong directions.

Aboutaha et al. (1999) The jackets were successful at strengthening the columns
previously inadequate in shear under loading from both the weak and strong directions.

2.5.6.1. Summary of loading results on retrofit

The jackets can improve capacity in both strength and weak directions.

2.5.7. Experimental Investigations on Steel Jacketing.

Attaching steel plates to certain external surface of the beams is another popular
strengthening technique. Anchoring or bonding steel plates to reinforced concrete
beams can increase flexural and shear capacity. Furthermore, it can control deflections
and cracking of beams. The efficiency of steel plates is influenced by some factors such
as the dimension of the steel plate, the arrangement of bolts, and bonding method.

Barnes et al. 2001[60] compared the adhesive bonding and bolted external plate
attachment techniques to increase shear capacity of beams. In both techniques steel
plates are attached in the web areas of beams. Bolted plate attachment technique
typically improves the connection between the steel plates and RC beam. Adhesive
plate bonding is also a widely used strengthening technique that enhances the flexural
capacity of beams by using advanced composites, such as GFRP and CFRP to bond the
steel plates.

Barnes et al. 2001[61] strengthened four beams with adhesively bonded steel plates,

53
and three beams with bolted steel plates. Two beams were not strengthened and were
treated as control specimens. The experiments show that when beams are carried high
shear loading and anchorage is sufficient, the use of shear plates can improve
serviceability and ultimate capacity of beams. The thin plates improve shear capacity
very well, although heavy plates and additional strapping can significantly improve
flexural capacity. The ultimate capacity of section depends on the bolting arrangement.
The adhesively bonded plates highly control the surface crack but inadequate surface
area can lead to sudden collapse and interface failure. The efficiency of bonded plates
probably improves when the shear span and depth increase.

Adhikary and Mutusyoshi 2010[61] investigated shear strengthening of RC beams

having internal shear reinforcement. In their experimental program, the five beams with
dimensions 150mm(b)×200mm(h)× 2400mm(l) were tested until failure. Beam was
kept as control beam while remaining four beams were strengthened with steel plates
with different thicknesses. The steel plates were anchored to the beam sides with epoxy
adhesive and anchor bolts. The test results indicate that increasing plate depth and
thickness across the beam section can increase the ultimate shear strength. Test result
show that, the displacement and strains in
beam are reduced when steel plates are used. Use of thicker plates could not increase
the strength proportionally. The best way to achieve the larger shear strength is to use
deeper plates rather than thicker plates.

Su and Sui 2010[62] conducted four point bending tests for five simply supported RC
and bolted side-plated (BSP) specimens. The beams have different bolt-plate
arrangement to cover both under-reinforced and over-reinforced bolt side-plate
conditions but same dimensions. Depth of strengthened strong plate specimens is 150
mm and the depth of strengthened weak plate is 75 mm. The strong and weak bolt
arrangement is valued by degree of shear connection (Pb/Fp,fi) which is the ratio of the
total strength of bolts on a shear span (Pb) and the plate force at ultimate state in full
interaction analysis respectively (Fp,fi). The measured moment-deflection response of
all specimens. The test results imply that the strength of the bolts and plates greatly
influences the two structural performance criteria: post elastic strength enhancement
and displacement ductility. The specimen strengthened by strong bolt arrangement and
weak steel plate had sufficient strength enhancement and ductility. The beam

54
strengthened by strong bolt arrangement and strong steel plate experienced brittle and
undesirable failure. The amount of steel plates should be controlled, while sufficient
bolts should be used to ensure the desirable ductile beam failure. Displacement ductility
of 2.45 and post elastic enhancement of 1.17 gives impending warning prior to failure
of beams for 'strong bolt weak plate'. The cost of strengthening arrangement for 'strong
bolt weak plate' is also reduced since the depth of the plate is half the depth required
for strong plate arrangement. However, lower depth of steel plate is not as effective as
higher depth in enhancing the shear capacity of the beams.

Altin et al. 2005[63] conducted an experiment on strengthening shear deficient beams

with external web bonded steel plates. Altin et al. tested eleven beams. the control
specimen Beam-1 which has greater shear strength than flexural strength, others did
not have enough shear capacity. To strengthen shear deficient beams, steel straps and
plates were bonded to the web of beams along the length of the shear span by using
epoxy resin. All the steel plates had a thickness of 4 mm. Altin et al. tested all the beams
under four-point loading. They loaded the beams to failure and then measured the mid-
point deflection and shear cracks of the specimens .Experimental results show that the
strength, stiffness and ductility of all the types of strengthened beams were improved.
Strengthened beams had similar flexural capacity compared to control beam. Altin et
al. (2009) found that the displacement ductility ratio has inverse proportionality to the
spacing of the steel straps. Increasing the bonding area on the shear span led to a
decrease in development and propagation of shear cracks. “L” type steel straps had the
lowest ductility ratio among all of the specimens. Similarly to bonding steel plates,
bonding the segmented steel plates to the shear span of beams also led to successful
results in preventing shear cracks.

Adhikary and Mutsuyoshi 2006[64] compared effectiveness of various strengthening

methods of RC beams in term of enhancing shear capacity. The two series of specimens
were tested in flexural failure and shear failure. The experimental results indicated that
although strengthening RC beam with epoxy bonding steel plates to the sides of beams
can increase average 72% shear capacity compared to the control beam. The amount of
increase is relatively low compared to the increase RC beams gained through other
strengthening methods. However, the flexural strengthens of beams could not be
increased.

55
 CHAPTER 03
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Engineered Cementitious Composite

After thoroughly and deeply go through on ECC, we can write some discussion on the
properties and uses as well as some of their advantages and disadvantages of using ECC
as a retrofitter and as a rehabilitator for structure for the case of shear capacity. First,
we have to through light on some of their advantages in a row, for example, due to its
micro mechanics' structure it has high flexure capacity obtained through a small layer
of ECC, also it has high ductility both in bending and in shear. It has a more strain
capacity of about 5% greater than normal concrete. It has a compressive strain higher
than normal concrete in the range of 0.45-0.65 %. It controls the cracks and the width
of the crack in the R/ECC element is usually less than 100 µm which leads to high
durability. Good resistance against the spalling of concrete. Also due to the tight nature
of ECC, it has good resistance against corrosion of steel and high energy capacity. But
it is very expansive to use it on a large scale which limits the use of ECC also not
considered in use structure which is severely damaged. Another disadvantage of ECC
is that of low elastic modulus compared to normal concrete because it has no coarse
aggregate.

3.2. Ferrocement Overlay

Although the older rehabilitation technique but get less attention all the time, again in
our literature review we got some of their advantages and disadvantages of using
ferrocement overlay as a retrofitting technique. The advantages of using ferrocement
overlay for retrofitting of structure includes, it has high tensile and flexure strength due
to wire mesh, better mechanical properties, and durable than normal RCC. Also for
certain limits of loading its behavior of taking load is uniform than normal concrete.
Use extensively for repair and especially for distressed reinforced concrete elements,
the wire mesh can increase the shear capacity up to 15% than normal concrete. And can
form a composite with other materials excellently. Again it has also some disadvantages
like its early cracking if cover or curing is not adequate. Low durability and fire
resistance due to its thin section, also for severely damaged structure the use of

56
ferrocement limited because the structure which has large cracks is difficult to
restructure it again using such thin section, also compressive strength of wire mesh is
equal to 0.85 of normal concrete.

3.3. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer.

After extruded from a complex process and having a composite structure, CFRP has
very advantageous in its use in megastructure as well as the rope of CFRP. Easy to
install CFRP in structures without requiring heavy machinery, highly recommended in
creeping, relaxation, excellent fatigue behavior in the longitudinal direction. Durable
in a chemical environment and good corrosion resistive. But on the other hand not
usable in a structure which has large width cracks because of the decoupling of
lamellae, in case of lightning stroke it can be damaged, so to be used in the internal
structure or care should be taken if used in the external structure, low fire-resistant, also
in case of high temperature like behind 400C it doesn’t work because the forces can not
transfer between the fibers

3.4. Steel Jacketing

Steel Jacketing considered being the most reliable retrofitting technique for the
rehabilitation and strengthening of existing structures. In the process of steel jacketing,
a steel jacket tightly bound the concrete for strengthening purpose and for the
rehabilitation of damaged concrete i.e. that damaged concrete which can’t be easily
controlled well and repaired by the other techniques of retrofitting. This method applies
to both beams and columns for the retrofitting purpose. Within this technique, there are
further several methods of application like the application of steel jacketing by the
method of base steel plate or through the method of application of steel plate by epoxy
glue resin. Each method has their advantages and disadvantages like applying a thin
plate of steel can increase the shear capacity well and the heavy plate and additional
strapping can increase the flexure capacity and has better deflection and cracking
control property. Furthermore, steel jacketing can take little space, and strengthen it not
so heavy, but the ultimate section capacity depends on the bolted arrangement and the
adhesives used for the bonding of the plate on the concrete. On the other hand, it has
several drawbacks as well as its difficult maintenance, susceptible to corrosion, and
during installation, it is labor intensive and requires heavy equipment.

57
 CHAPTER 04
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Based on theoretical research, at the start, we identify the problem which most of the
local construction industry faces that there are less practice and lack of awareness for
retrofitting, or in short we identify the gap. Then we pick one part from these problems
which structures also face by selecting the enhancement of the structure in shear only.
So for this purpose, we come across thoroughly the above-retrofitting techniques by
collecting some literature that consists of their basic properties and method of
application. After that, we identify the specific use of each retrofitting technique type
for a particular structure and particular damage. For example, we can use ECC for
structure elements both externally and along with concrete at the time of pouring for
strengthening and enhancement purposes. Also, its method of application was
identified for it is better to use ECC only on the bottom of the beam for the
strengthening of flexure and to be applied on both sides as well on the bottom of the
beam for shear[65]. Similarly Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer, CFRP sheets can be
applied externally for enhancement of structure elements and is more effective when
CFRP strips use in U shape than in diagonal for shear [66]. Also it is not recommended
to be used for large width cracks. The third technique was ferrocement overlay, the
oldest technique practiced as both internally in the structural element and can be applied
externally as well on the structural element for rehabilitation purposes. Again here this
technique depends on the wire mish use for example woven wire sometime most
preferable[31]. Also less preferable for the severely damaged structure which has large
cracks width. Now coming towards the last technique, Steel Jacketing, a well-known
technique to the construction industry which is practiced regularly especially for large
width cracks, so concluding by prescribing a specific retrofitting technique after
analyzing the structure.

58
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