Contents

Experiment #6: Capacitors and Inductors, RC and RL Circuits ......................................................................2

Experiment #7 RC – RL Time Constants...................................................................................................... 12
Experiment #8: Low-Pass and High-Pass Filters ......................................................................................... 15
Experiment #9: RLC Circuits ....................................................................................................................... 20
Experiment #10: Resonance Circuits, Band-Pass and Band-Reject Filters ................................................. 25
APPENDIX A International System of Units ................................................................................................ 34
APPENDIX B Quick References for Devices ................................................................................................ 36
APPENDIX C List of Components ................................................................................................................ 46
Experiment #6: Capacitors and Inductors, RC and RL Circuits

Objective
The objective of this experiment is to understand and analyze circuits that contains capacitors or
inductors which are components that can store energy. The relation between terminal voltage and
terminal current for these components and first order circuits that are composed of resistors and
either capacitors or inductors will be studied. The consept of phasors will be introduced and applied to
first order circuits.

Background
1. Capacitors
The capacitor is one of the three basic passive circuit components (resistor, capacitor, inductor) of any
electronic or electrical circuit. Resistance in a circuit gives rise to ohmic or watt losses, and its current
is in phase with the applied voltage waveform. Inductance or a capacitance gives rise to currents out of
phase with voltage by 90o in AC circuits, and is the cause of transient currents in many circuits. A
capacitor works in electric field. It stores energy when a steady voltage is applied. It gets charged to
the applied voltage and keeps the energy as well as the voltage even after removal of external voltage.
This factor makes handling of capacitors quite dangerous at times, and caution must be exercised
when working with them. A capacitor offers an open circuit to the flow of DC current in steady state.
Current in ideal capacitor leads the voltage by 90o in AC circuits [3].
d
A capacitor can be constructed by using two parallel
conducting plates separated by distance d as shown in
Figure 6.1. Electric charge is stored on the plates, and a - - - + ++
uniform electric field exists between the conducting -q(t) +q(t)
- - - + ++
plates whenever there is a voltage across the capacitor. - - - + ++
The space between the plates is filled with a dielectric - - - + ++
material [5]. Impregnated paper, mica sheets, ceramics,
metal films, or air can be used for a dielectric. The
capacitance value of the paralel plate capacitor is given i(t)
as v(t)

=
Figure 6.1
where;

∶ Dielectric constant of the plates

∶ Surface area of the plates
∶ Distance between the plates i(t) i(t)
+ +
and the unit is Farad (F). Circuit symbols of a capacitor v(t) C v(t) C
are given in figure x. - -
Capacitor voltage v(t) deposits a charge +q(t) on one plate and a
charge –q(t) on the other plate. The charge q(t) is stored by the
capacitor is given as. Figure 6.2
=
2
In general, the capacitor voltage v(t) varies as a function of time. Consequently, q(t), the charge stored
by the capacitor, also varies as a function of time. The variation of the capacitor charge with respect to
time implies a capacitor current, i(t), and is given as:

Voltage v(t) can be obtained in terms of i(t) using:

1
=

1 1 1
= + = +

The power and energy stored in the capacitor are given as:

= =

1
=
2
If the capacitor is connected to the terminals of a resistor, a current flows until all the energy is
dissipated as heat by the resistor. After all the energy dissipates, the current is zero and the voltage
across the capacitor is zero. Voltage and charge on a capacitor cannot change instantaneously which is
summarized by the equation x where t = 0 is called t = 0- and the time immediately after t = 0 is called t
= 0+ [5].

0 = 0

1.1 Capacitor Types

Capacitors are divided into two groups which are fixed and variable capacitors [4].

1.1.1 Fixed Capacitors

a) Paper Capacitors
A paper capacitor is one that uses paper as its dielectric. It
consists of flat thin strips of metal foil conductors, seperated
by the dielectric material. In this capacitor the dielectric used
is waxed paper. Paper capacitors usually range in value from
about 300 picofarads to about 4 microfarads. Normally, the
voltage limit across the plates rarely exceeds 600 volts.

Figure 6.3 Paper capacitor[4]

b) Mica Capacitors
A mica capacitor is made of metal foil plates that are seperated
by sheets of mica, which from the dielectric. Mica is an

3
 excellent dielectric and will withstand higher voltages than
paper without allowing arching between the plates. Common
values of mica capacitors range from approximately 50
picofarads to about 0.02 microfarad. Some typical
typica mica
capacitors are shown in Figure 6.4

6.4 Mica capacitors[4]

Figure 6.4.
c) Ceramic Capacitors
A ceramic capacitor is so named because of the use of ceramic
dielectrics. One type of ceramic capacitor uses a hollow ceramic
cylinder as both the form on which to construct the capacitor
and as the dielectric material. The plates consists of thin films of
o
metal deposited on the ceramic cylinder. Ceramic capacitors
usually range in value between 1 picofarad and 0.01 microfarad
and may be used with voltages as high as 30,000 volts. Typical
capacitors are shown in Figure
igure 6.5 [4].
Figure 6.5 Ceramic
Cera capacitors[4]

d) Electrolytic Capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors are used where a large amount of
capacitance is required. As the name implies, electrolytic
capacitors contain an electrolyte. This electrolyte can be in the
form of either a liquid (wet electrolytic capacitor) or a paste
(dry electrolytic capacitor). Wet electrolytic capacitors are no
longer in popular use due to the care needed to prevent spilling
of the electrolyte. Dry electrolytic capacitors consists of two
t
metal plates between which is placed the electrolyte[4].

Figure 6.6 Electrolytic capacitor[4]

e) Oil Capacitors
Oil capacitors are often used in radio transmitters where high output power is desired. Oil-filled
Oil
capacitors are nothing more than paper capacitors that are immersed in oil [4].
[4]

1.1.2 Variable Capacitors

Variable capacitors are constructed in such manner that their value of capacitance can be varied. A
typical variable capacitor (adjustable capacitor) is the rotor/stator type. It consists of two sets of metal
plates move between the stator plates. Air is the dielectric. As the position of the rotor is changed, the
capacitance value is likewise changed. This is the type capacitor used for tuning most radio receivers
and it is shown in figure
re x. Another type variable (trimmer) capacitor is shown in figure x. It consist of
two plates seperated by a sheet of mica. A screw adjustment is used to change the distance between
the plates, thereby changing the capacitance [4].

4
 Figure 6.7 Rotor-stator type variable capacitor[4] Figure 6.8 Trimmer capacitor[4]

2. Inductors
An inductor is a circuit element that stores enegry in a
magnetic filed. An inductor can be constructed by
winding a coil of wire around a magnetic core as shown
in Figure 6.9 [5]. An ideal inductor is a short circuit path
to a steady DC current. In AC circuits, its current lags
behind the voltage by 90o [3].

Inductors are represented by a parameter called the

inductance which is given below. The unit of
inductance is henry (H).

!"
=
#
" ∶ The number of turns
# ∶ The length of the winding Figure 6.9
∶ Cross sectional area of the core
! ∶ Permeability

The voltage v(t) across the coil and the inductor current i(t) are given as:

1
=

1 1 1
= + = +

The power and energy stored in the inductor are given below:

= =

1
=
2

5
3. First Order Circuits
3.1 Series RC Circuits R C
A circuit that consists of pure resistance connected in
series with pure capacitor is shown in Figure 6.10. VR VC
Voltage drop across the resistor : $% = & ' ( i(t)
Voltage drop across the capacitor : $) = & ' *)

Capacitive reactance : *) = 1/2,- v(t) = Vmsinωt

Figure 6.10

where I and VR, VC are rms values of current drawn and the voltage drops respectively. If the
Kirchhoff’s voltage law is applied to the AC RC circuit, phasor (vector) addition should be realized.
Phasor addition of voltages are given in the equations below:

$. = $
... ...
% + $)

$. = &(
... + &*
.....
)

Phasor diagram, voltage, impedance and power triangle of the RC circuit are given in the Figures 6.11
and 6.12.

O A O VR = IR
VR I A
ɸ ɸ
Vc = IXc
Vc V

B B
Vc V

Figure 6.11 Phasor diagram and voltage triangle

O R = VR/I A O P = VIcosɸ A
ɸ ɸ
Q = VIsinɸ
Z = V/I Xc = Vc/I S = VI

B B

Figure 6.12. Impedance and power triangle

Equations given above are derived in terms of voltage triangle.

$ = /$% + $)

$ = 0 &( + &*) = &0 ( + *)

$ = &1

Impedance : 1 = 0 ( + *)

6
 The current leads the applied voltage by an angle Ф given as:
$% (
cos Ф = =
$ 1
Apparent power, true power and reactive power formulas are given in the equations below:

6 = $&, VA
: = $& cos Ф, W
< = $& sin Ф, VAR

3.2 Parallel RC Circuits

When a circuit consists of pure resistance connected in parallel with pure capacitor, equations given
above are derived in terms of the current triangle,

& = /&% + &)

& = 0 $/( + $/*) = $0 1/( + 1/*)

Impedance :

1 = $/&
The current leads the applied voltage by an angle Ф given as
&%
cos Ф =
&

3.3 Series RL Circuits

A circuit which consists of pure resistance connected in series with pure inductance is shown in Figure
6.13.

Voltage drop across the resistance : $% = & ' (

R L

Voltage drop across the inductance : $@ = & ' *@ VR VL

Inductive reactance : *@ = 2,-# i(t)

v(t) = Vmsinωt
Figure 6.13. Series RL circuit

where I and VR , VL are rms values of current drawn and the voltage drops respectively.

Phasor sum of voltages are given in the following equations.

$. = $
... ...
% + $@

$. = &(
... + &*
.....@

Phasor diagram, voltage, impedance and power triangle of the series RL circuit are given in the figure
below.

7
 VL B
V

V VL = IX L

ɸ ɸ
I O A
O VR VR = IR

Figure 6.14. Phasor diagram and voltage triangle

Z = V/I S = VI
XL = VL/I Q = VIsinɸ

ɸ ɸ
R = VR/I P = VIcosɸ

Figure 6.15 Impedance and power triangle

Equations given below are derived in terms of the voltage triangle.

$ = /$% + $@

$ = 0 &( + &*@ = &0 ( + *@

$ = &1
Impedance :

1= 0 ( + *@

The current lags behind the applied voltage by an angle Ф given in the equation x.
$% (
cos Ф = =
$ 1
Apparent power, true power and reactive power formulas are given in the equations below.

6 = $& VA
: = $& cos Ф W
< = $& sin Ф VAR

3.4 Parallel RL Circuits

When a circuit consists of pure resistance connected in parallel with pure inductor, equations given
above are derived in terms of current triangle,

& = /&% + &@

& = 0 $/( + $/*@ = $0 1/( + 1/*@

The sides of the triangle representing the conductance, susceptance and admittance of the circuit, it is
known as the admittance triangle. The figure 6.16 shows admittance triangles.

8
AB ADB AEB
= +
CB C B CB
G

C
1=
ɸ BL Y BC
A inductive capacitive
Y
C
(=
ɸ
AD G
C
*@ = AE
Figure 6.16 Admittance triangles

G
F=
H
Admittance :
G
Conductance : I =
%
G
Susteptance : J = K
E

F =I +J

The current lags behind the applied voltage by an angle Ф given as.
&%
cos Ф =
&

9
Preliminary Work

i(A)
1. Find and plot the voltage v(t) for a capacitor C = 1/4 F
if the current is as shown in figure x and V(0)=0.
1

t
0 1 2

v(V)
2. If the voltage across the 2mF capacitor is represented
by the signal shown in figure x, find and plot the capacitor current.
10

t(s)
0 1 2

R L
3. Find the expression for the instantaneous values of the
voltages across the resistance (VR), inductance (VL) and
combination (V) if = 414 sin 2,- ,- =
VR VL
i(t)
50NO, ( = 100Ω , = 0.31831 N.
V

4. If voltage and current waveforms of the circuit

given in the figure are = 120 sin 314 and
R C

= 10sin 314 + ,/6 respectively,

a) Calculate the values of the resistance and VR VC
capacitance.
i(t)
b) Draw the waveforms for current, voltage and
phasor diagram.
c) Calculate the power consumed by the circuit.
v(t) = Vmsinωt

10
Procedure R
1. Measure the internal resistance of the 1mH inductor. Set
up the given circuit with R = 270Ω and L = 1mH. Apply a Vs
sinusoidal voltage as input. Adjust Vs = 4Vpp and set the L
frequency as 20kHz. Observe the input voltage and the
voltage across the inductor simultaneously using an
oscilloscope and plot both signals. Find the phase
difference between these signals and comment on the
results.

2. For the same circuit, set the amplitude as Vs = 4Vpp and the frequency as 100Hz, 1KHz, 10kHz,
20kHz, 50kHz, 100kHz and 500kHz. Measure the voltage across R and L using multimeter and
calculate Irms for each frequency value. Comment on the results.

3. Calculate the impedance of the inductor at 20kHz and obtain the phasor diagram using the related
values you measured in the previous step. Calculate the apparent power, true power and reactive
power related to each component in the circuit. R

4. Set up the given circuit with R = 270Ω. Apply a sinusoidal Vs C

voltage as input. Adjust VAB = 4Vpp and set the frequency
as 1kHz. Observe the input voltage and the voltage across
the capacitor simultaneously using an oscilloscope and plot
both signals. Find the phase difference between these
signals and comment on the result.

5. For the same circuit in step 4, set the amplitue as Vpp =4V and frequency as 100Hz, 1KHz, 10kHz,
20kHz, 50kHz, 100kHz and 500kHz. Measure the voltage across R and C using multimeter and
calculate Irms for each frequency value. Comment on the results.

6. Calculate the impedance of the capacitor at 1kHz and obtain the phasor diagram using the related
values you measured in the previous step. Calculate the apparent power, true power and reactive
power related to each component in the circuit.
List of Equipment and Components
Equipment: Function Generator, Oscilloscope, Multimeter

Components: 270Ω resistor, 1mH inductor, 1µF capacitor

References
[1] Boylestad, Introductory Circuit Analysis (Tenth Edition)

[2] James W. Nilsson, Susan A. Riedel, Electric Circuits (Ninth Edition)

[3] R. P. Deshpande, Capacitors: Technology and Trends

[4] United States. Dept. of the Army,Naval Education and Training Program Development Center, Basic Electricity

[5] Richard C. Dorf, James A. Svoboda, Introduction to Electric Circuits

[6] A.V.Bakshi U.A.Bakshi, Circuit Theory

11
Experiment #7 RC – RL Time Constants
Objective
The objective of this experiment is to understand the concept of time constants in simple series R-C
and series R-L circuits; observe the charging and discharging of a capacitor and compare the time
contant values for different capacitance and resistance values.

Background
RC Time Constants

Consider the first order RC circuit given in Figure 7.1

R

Vs C

Figure 7.1 Series R-C circuit

The time it takes a capacitor to charge and discharge is directly proportional to the amount of the
resistance and capacitance. The time constant which is given in the quation below reflects the time
required for a capacitor to charge up to 63.2% of the applied voltage or to discharge down to 36.8%.
Chart of time constants required to charge and discharge the capacitor is given in the Figure 7.2.

=(

Figure 7.2. Chart of time constants for capacitor

12
RL Time Constant:

Consider the first order RL circuit given in Figure 7.3.

R

Vs
L

Figure 7.3 Series R-L circuit

A time constant is the time required for current through a conductor to incease to 63.2% or decrease
to 36.8% of the maximum current. Chart of time constants required to build up or collapse the
magnetic field in an inductor is given in the Figure 7.2 and the expression for the time constant is
given as:

=
(

Figure 7.4 Chart of time constants for inductor

13
Preliminary Work
1. Calculate the time constant for the series R-C circuit in Figure 7.1 for C = 1 µF and R = 470 Ω, 1 kΩ
and 2.2 kΩ.

2. Calculate the time constant for the same circuit for R = 1kΩ and C = 0.470 µF, 1 µF and 2.2 µF.

Procedure
1. Set up the circuit in Figure 7.1 with the component values given in Preliminary Work Q1. Apply a
square wave voltage to the circuit. Adjust the amplitude of the source voltage to 4Vpp and add 2V
offset. Set the frequency to 50Hz. Connect the CH1 of the oscilloscope across the input voltage and
CH2 across the capacitor. Make sure that the common terminals of both channels are at the same
location in the circuit.

a. Observe and plot both waveforms simultaneously for R = 470 Ω, 1 kΩ and 2.2 kΩ cases.

b. Measure the voltage level at t = τ, 2τ, 3τ, 4τ and 5τ and find the percentage of maximum
voltage for each case.

c. Comment on the results based on the time constant values you calculated in the
preliminary work. How does the output change with increasing resistance value?

2. Set up the circuit in Figure 7.1 with the component values given in Preliminary Work Q2. Apply a
square wave voltage to the circuit. Adjust the amplitude of the source voltage to 4Vpp to 4Vpp and
add 2V offset. Set the frequency to 50Hz. Connect the CH1 of the oscilloscope across the input
voltage and CH2 across the capacitor. Make sure that the common terminals of both channels are
at the same location in the circuit.

a. Observe and plot both waveforms simultaneously for C = 0.470 µF, 1 µF and 2.2 µF.

b. Measure the voltage level at t = τ, 2τ, 3τ, 4τ and 5τ and find the percentage of maximum
voltage for each case.

c. Comment on the results based on the time constant values you calculated in the
preliminary work. How does the output change with increasing capacitance value?

List of Equipment and Components

Equipment: Function Generator, Oscilloscope

Components: 470 Ω, 1 kΩ and 2.2 kΩ resistors, 0.470 µF, 1 µF and 2.2 µF capacitors.

14
Experiment #8: Low-Pass and High-Pass Filters
Objective
The objective of this experiment is to understand and analyze two kinds of passive filters, low-pass
filter and high-pass filter. The effect of varying source frequency to the output voltage of these filters
will be studied. The cut-off frequency will be determined.

Background
Basically, an electrical filter is a circuit that is designed to pass signals with desired frequencies and
reject or attenuate others. Such circuits are also called frequency-selective circuits. There are
numerous applications of filters including radio receivers, television receivers, noise reduction systems
and power supply circuits to name just a few.

A filter is a passive filter if it consists of only passive elements R, L and C. It is said to be an active filter
if it consists of active elements (such as transistors and opamps) in addition to passive elements.

The signals passed from the input to the output fall within a band of frequencies called the passband.
Input voltages outside this band have their magnitudes attenuated by the circuit and are thus
effectively prevented from reaching the output terminals of the circuit. Frequencies not in a circuit's
passband are in its stopband. Filters are categorized by the location of the passband.

As shown in Figure 8.1, there are four major types of filters whether passive or active:

1) A low-pass filter (LPF) passes signals at frequencies lower than the cut-off frequency from the input
to the output.

2) A high-pass filter (HPF) passes signals at frequencies higher than the cut-off frequency.

3) A band-pass filter (BPF) passes a source voltage to the output only when the source frequency is
within the band defined by the two cut-off frequencies.

4) A band-reject filter (BRF) (or band-stop filter, BSF) passes a source voltage to the output only when
the source frequency is outside the band defined by the two cut-off frequencies.

Figure 8.1 Ideal magnitude response plots of four major types of filter circuits:
(a) LPF, (b) HPF, (c) BPF, (d) BRF

15
1. Low-Pass Filter
A typical low-pass filter shown in Figure 8.2 is a series RC circuit. The circuit's input is a sinusoidal
voltage source with varying frequency (-, NO). The circuit's output is defined as the voltage across the
capacitor.

Figure 8.2 A series RC low-pass filter

The transfer function N W is a useful analytic tool for finding the frequency response of a circuit. A
frequency response plot shows how a circuit's transfer function changes as the source frequency
changes.

The voltage transfer function for the circuit in Figure 8.2 is

$ W 1⁄ (
N W = X# YZ[ ZY \ = = 8.1
$] W W + 1 ⁄(
The transfer function magnitude is
1⁄ (
|N W |= 8.2
0 + 1⁄ (

At = 2,- = 0 `Y /a, the impedance of the capacitor is infinite and the capacitor acts as an open
circuit. The input and output voltages are thus the same.

As the frequency of the voltage source increases, the impedance of the capacitor decreases relative to
the impedance of the resistor and the source voltage is now divided between the resistor and the
capacitor. The output voltage is thus smaller than the source voltage.

When the frequency of the voltage source is infinite ( = 2,- = ∞), the impedance of the capacitor
is zero and the capacitor acts as a short circuit. The output voltage is thus zero.

Figure 8.3 shows the plot of |N W |, along with the ideal characterictic.

Figure 8.3 Ideal and actual magnitude responses of a low-pass filter

16
The cut-off frequency is the frequency at which the transfer function drops in magnitude to 70.7% of
its maximum value. We can then describe the relationship among the quantities (, and as
follows,
1 1⁄ (
|N W |= 1 = 8.3
√2 0 + 1⁄ (

Solving this equation for , we get

1
= 8.4
(

At the cut-off frequency , the average power delivered by the circuit is one half the maximum
average power. Thus, is also called the half-power frequency. Therefore, in the passband, the
average power delivered to a load is at least 50% of the maximum average power.

The gain of a system is typically measured in decibel (dB). The dB value is a logarithmic measurement
of the ratio of one variable to another of the same type. For a voltage or current gain I, its dB
equivalent is Ief = 20 #XZGg I. At the cut-off frequency, we have

20#XZGg h1⁄√2i = −3 J 8.5

2. High-Pass Filter
A series RC circuit is shown in Figure 8.4. In contrast to its low-pass counterpart in Figure 8.2, the
output voltage here is defined across the resistor, not the capacitor.

Figure 8.4 A series RC high-pass filter

The voltage transfer function for the circuit in Figure 8.4 is

W
N W = 8.6
W + 1 ⁄(
The transfer function magnitude is

|N W |= 8.7
0 + 1⁄ (

At = 2,- = 0, the capacitor behaves like an open circuit, so there is no current flowing in the
resistor. In this case, there is no voltage across the resistor and the circuit filters out the low-frequency
source voltage before it reaches the circuit's output.

As the frequency of the voltage source increases, the impedance of the capacitor decreases relative to
the impedance of the resistor and the source voltage is now divided between the capacitor and the
resistor. The output voltage magnitude thus begins to increase.

17
When the frequency of the voltage source is infinite ( = 2,- = ∞), the capacitor behaves as a short
circuit, and thus there is no voltage across the capacitor. In this case, the input voltage and output
voltage are the same.

Figure 8.5 shows the plot of |N W |, along with the ideal characterictic.

Figure 8.5 Ideal and actual magnitude responses of a high-pass filter

The relationship among the quantities (, and is described as follows,

1
|N W |= 1 = 8.8
√2 0 + 1⁄ (

Solving this equation for , we get

1
= 8.9
(

Notice that the cut-off frequency for the series RC circuit has the value 1⁄( , whether the circuit is
configured as a low-pass filter in Figure 8.2 or as a high-pass filter in Figure 8.4.

Preliminary Work
1. For a series RC low-pass filter, component values are given as ( = 10 lΩ and = 0.01 !m. The
amplitude of the source voltage is 10 $ peak-to-peak.
a) Calculate the cut-off frequency in Hz.
b) Calculate $ in magnitude when the source voltage has frequencies of 0.4, 0.8, 1.2, 1.6, 2, 4, 8
kHz.

2. For a series RC high-pass filter, component values are given as ( = 10 lΩ and = 0.01 !m. The
amplitude of the source voltage is 10 $ peak-to-peak.
a) Calculate the cut-off frequency in Hz.
b) Calculate $ in magnitude when the source voltage has frequencies of 0.4, 0.8, 1.2, 1.6, 2, 4, 8
kHz.

Procedure
1. Using a resistor of 10 lΩ and a capacitor of 0.01 !m, setup the circuit in Figure 8.2.
2. Set $] to 10 $ peak-to-peak at 400 NO sine wave by using the function generator.
3. Use channel 1 of the oscilloscope to visualize $] and channel 2 to visualize $ .
4. Record channel 2 peak-to-peak value.

18
5. Increase the source frequency as stated in Preliminary Work Q1(b). Record the channel 2 peak-to-
peak value each time you increase the frequency. Make sure that $] is maintaining at 10 $ peak-
to-peak each time the frequency is increased.
6. Based on your results, plot $ versus frequency.
7. From the graph, find the cut-off frequency by tracing the frequency where the magnitude of the
output voltage is 70.7% of its maximum value.
8. Compare all your results with the Preliminary Work Q1.
9. Using a resistor of 10 lΩ and a capacitor of 0.01 !m, setup the circuit in Figure 8.4 and repeat the
steps 2-7. Compare all your results with the Preliminary Work Q2.

List of Equipment and Components

Equipment: Function Generator, Oscilloscope

Components: a resistor of 10 kΩ, a capacitor of 0.01 μF

References
[1] James W. Nilsson, Susan A. Riedel, Electric Circuits (Ninth Edition)

[2] Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, Fundamentals of Electric Circuits (Fifth Edition)

19
Experiment #9: RLC Circuits
Objective
The objective of this experiment is to understand and analyze circuits that contain both capacitors and
inductors, which are components that can store energy. The concept of impedance will be introduced
and use of phasor diagrams that were studied for first order circuits will be extented to second order
circuits.

Background
Each element has a unique phase response: for resistors, the voltage is always in phase with the
current, for capacitors the voltage always lags the current by 90 degrees, and for inductors the voltage
always leads the current by 90 degrees. Consequently, a series combination of R, L, and C components
will yield a complex impedance with a phase angle between +90 and -90 degrees. Due to the phase
response, circuit analysis must be carried out using vector (phasor) sums rather than simply relying on
the magnitudes. In phasor domanin, the relation between terminal voltage and terminal current for
basic circuit elements can be expressed using their impedance. These relations are summarized in
Table 9.1.

Table 9.1 Impedance for basic circuit elements

Circuit Element Resistance, (R) Reactance, (X) Impedance, (Z)
Resistor R 0 ZR = R = R ∠ 0 °

Inductor 0 ωL ZL = jωL = ωL ∠+90 °

Capacitor 0 -1 / ωC Zc = 1 / jωC = (1 / ωC) ∠-90 °

1. Series RLC Circuits

Series RLC circuits are classified as second-order circuits because they contain two energy storage
elements, an inductance L and a capacitance C.

The series RLC circuit in Figure 9.1 has a single loop with the instantaneous current flowing through
the loop being the same for each circuit element. Since the inductive and capacitive
reactance’s XL and XC are a function of the supply frequency, the sinusoidal response of a series RLC
circuit will therefore vary with frequency, ƒ. Then the individual voltage drops across each circuit
element of R, L and C element will be “out-of-phase” with each other.

R L C

VR VL VC

İ(t) = Im sin(wt) Vs

Figure 9.1 A series RLC circuit

20
Considering the current as reference:

• The instantaneous voltage across a pure resistor, VR is “in-phase” with the current.
• The instantaneous voltage across a pure inductor, VL “leads” the current by 90o.
• The instantaneous voltage across a pure capacitor, VC “lags” the current by 90o.
• Therefore, VL and VC are 180o “out-of-phase” and in opposition to each other.

The amplitude of the source voltage across all three components in a series RLC circuit is the
combination of the three individual component voltages, VR, VL and VC with the current common to
all three components. The vector diagrams will therefore have the current vector as their reference
with the three voltage vectors being plotted with respect to this reference. This means then that we
cannot simply add together VR, VL and VC to find the supply voltage, VS across all three components as
all three voltage vectors point in different directions with regards to the current vector. Therefore we
will have to find the supply voltage, VS as the Phasor Sum of the three component voltages combined
together as vectors.

VL VL -VC

VS VS

90 ° ø 90 ° ø
90 ° 90 °
VR I VR I

VC

Figure 9.2 Phasor diagrams for series RLC circuits

Using the phasor diagram shown in Figure 9.2 (right), the voltage vectors produce a rectangular
triangle, comprising of hypotenuse VS, horizontal axis VR and vertical axis VL – VC (for VL > VC), and this
is called the Voltage Triangle. To mathematically obtain the value of VS, apply the Pythagoras’s
theorem on this voltage triangle as shown below

Vs = VR + VL − VC Vs = 0VR + VL − VC 9.1

The voltage across each component can also be described mathematically according to the current
flowing through, and the voltage across each element as

VR = I.R sin wt + 0 ° = I.R 9.2

VL = I.XL sin wt + 90 ° = I.jwL 9.3

VC = I.XC sin wt - 90 ° = I / jwC 9.4

By substituting these values into Pythagoras’s equation above for the voltage triangle will give us

VR = I.R, VL = I.XL, VC = I.XC 9.5

21
 Vs = 0 I. R + I. XL − I. XC 9.6

Vs = I. 0R + XL − XC

Vs=I.Z where Z = 0R + XL − XC

The impedance Z of a series RLC circuit depends upon the XL

angular frequency, ω as do XL and XC. If the capacitive
Z2 = R2 + (XL - XC)2
reactance is greater than the inductive reactance, XC > XL then
the overall circuit reactance is capacitive giving a leading phase
angle. Likewise, if the inductive reactance is greater than the XT = XL – XC
ø
capacitive reactance, XL > XC then the overall circuit reactance
is inductive giving the series circuit a lagging phase angle. If the R
two reactance’s are the same and XL = XC then the angular
frequency at which this occurs is called the resonant frequency
XC
and produces the effect of resonance. The impedance triangle
for series RLC circuit is given in Figure 9.3 and the impedance is Figure 9.3 Impedance triangle
expressed as for series RLC circuits

Z = 0R + wL − 1/wC (9.7)

The phase angle, Ø between the source voltage, VS and the current, i is the same as for the angle
between Z and R in the impedance triangle. This phase angle may be positive or negative in value
depending on whether the source voltage leads or lags the circuit current and can be calculated
mathematically from the ohmic values of the impedance triangle as

cosØ = R/Z (9.8)

2. Parallel RLC Circuit
In Figure 9.4, the supply voltage, VS is common to all three components, while the supply
current IS consists of three parts: the current flowing through the resistor, IR, the current flowing
through the inductor, IL and the current through the capacitor, IC. The total current drawn from the
supply will not be the mathematical sum of the three individual branch currents but their vector sum.

IS

IR IL IC
+
Vs R L C
-

Figure 9.4 A parallel RLC circuit

The resulting vector IS is obtained by adding together two of the vectors, IL and IC and then adding this
sum to the remaining vector IR. The resulting angle obtained between V and IS will be the circuits phase
angle as shown in Figure 9.5.

22
 IC

90 ° IR IR

90 °
ø V 90 °
ø V

IS IS

IL IL - IC

Figure 9.5 Phasor diagrams for parallel RLC circuits

Since the voltage across the circuit is common to all three circuit elements, the current through each
branch can be found using Kirchoff’s Current Law, (KCL). Kirchoff’s current law or junction law states
that “the total current entering a junction or node is exactly equal to the current leaving that node”,

Is = IR + IL − IC (9.9)

Is = 0IR + IL − IC

Is = 0 V /R + V/XL − V/XC

where

IR = $/(, IL = V/XL, IC = V/XC

R = $/&( XL = V/IL XC = V/IC

Z = 1/0 1/R + 1/XL − 1/XC

cosØ = R/Z

Preliminary Work
1) For a series RLC circuit, component values are given as R = 1 kΩ, L = 1 mH and C = 1 !F. The
frequency of the voltage supply is given as 160 Hz and the amplitude is given as 10 V peak-to-peak.

a) Calculate the impedance (Z).

b) Calculate is(t).
c) Calculate voltage for each component.
d) Plot the phasor diagrams and calculate the phase angle between source voltage and current.

2) For a parallel RLC circuit, component values are given as R = 1 kΩ, L = 1 mH and C = 22 nF. The
frequency of the voltage supply is given as 10 kHz and the amplitude is given as 10 V peak-to-peak.

a) Calculate the impedance (Z).

b) Calculate the currents for all components.
c) Plot the phasor diagrams and calculate the phase angle between source voltage and total
current.

23
Procedure
1) For given circuit in Preliminary Work Q1,
a) Measure the current using multimeter and compare your result with Preliminary Work Q1(b).
b) Measure the voltage for all components using multimeter and compare your results with
Preliminary Work Q1(c).
c) Measure the phase difference between source voltage and current using oscilloscope and
compare your result with Preliminary Work Q1(d).
d) Change the frequency between 100 Hz - 200 kHz and observe the effect of frequency on the
resistor voltage.
2) For given circuit in Preliminary Work Q2, measure the current for each component using
multimeter and compare your results with Preliminary Work Q2(b).

List of Equipment and Components

Equipment: Function Generator, Oscilloscope, Digital Multimeter

Components: a resistor of 1 kΩ, an inductor of 1 mH, capacitors of 1 !F and 22 nF

24
Experiment #10: Resonance Circuits, Band-Pass and Band-Reject
Filters
Objective
The objective of this experiment is to examine some of circuits constructed using resistors, capacitors
and inductors for inputs with different frequency values and understand the concept of resonance
using series and parallel resonance circuits. One other objective is to analyze band-pass and band-
reject filter circuits.

Background
In previous experiments, we observed that in a circuit which contains only inductive component, the
voltage leads current by 90o but in a circuit containing only capacitance, the voltage lags behind the
current by 90o. Thus, the phase angle between the inductive and capacitive voltages is 180o and the
two voltages oppose each other. In circuits where inductors and capacitors are used together, the two
more or less oppose each other. If the inductive effect is greater than the capacitive effect, then the
circuit will act like an inductor in overall and the voltage will lead the current. On the other hand, if the
capacitive effect is greater than the inductive effect, the circuit will behave like a capacitor and the
voltage will lag behind the current. If, however, the inductive effect of the coil is exactly equal to the
capacitive effect of the capacitor, the two effect will cancel each other out and the voltage and current
will be in phase. Such a circuit is called a resonance circuit and the phenomenon is called resonance.
There are two types of resonant circuits which are series resonant circuits and parallel resonant
circuits. These resonant circuits are useful for constructing band-pass and band-reject filters.

1. Series Resonance Circuits

A pure inductance or coil (without resistance) is not
obtainable in practice. Any coil will have some resistance
depending upon the size of the wire used. Even the
capacitance and the connecting leads in an LC circuit will
have resistance [1]. So, any resonant LC circuit is actually
an RLC resonant circuit which is shown in Figure 10.1.
The impedance of the circuit is Figure 10.1 Series resonant circuit
1 = 0( + *@ − *) (10.1)

If the circuit is resonant to the frequency of the applied voltage $• , then XL = XC and the impedance of
the circuit 1 = √( + 0 = (. The voltage across L and C are equal and opposite in phase and they
cancel out leaving only the resistance R in the circuit [1].

The circuit is resistive and the current I is given as below

$• $•
&= = 10.2
1 (
The resonant frequency can be determined in terms of the inductance and capacitance by examining
the defining equation for resonance, XL = XC .
1 1 1
*@ = *) → • = →• = → •• =
• √
1
-• = 10.3
2,√
25
A certain combination of L and C resonates at a particular frequency when the capacitive reactance
becomes equal to the inductive reactance. At this frequency, the impedance of the circuit is minimum
and the current flowing is the maximum. When the frequency is lower than the frequency of
resonance, the capacitive reactance is greater than the inductive reactance. The circuit will then
behave like a capacitive circuit with current leading voltage. If the frequency of the applied voltage is
higher than the resonant frequency, the inductive reactance is greater than the capacitive reactance
and the circuit behaves like a coil and the voltage will lead the current. In either case, the impedance
of the circuit will be minimum only at resonance. It will be higher both above and below the resonant
frequency. Accordingly, the current is maximum at resonant frequency and is less at frequencies
higher and lower than the resonant frequency. The variation of impedance with frequency and the
variation of current with frequency is shown in Figure 10.2. Such curves are called resonance curves
[1].

Figure 10.2 Resonance curves of series resonant circuit

2. Parallel Resonance Circuits

The same voltage appears across both L and C in a
parallel resonant circuit which is shown in Figure 10.3.
The parallel resonant frequency formula is the same as
the formula of the series resonant frequency,
G
•‚ = 10.4
√@)
G
-‚ =
Figure 10.3 Parallel resonant circuit
ƒ√@)

The current of the circuit is

& = /&% + &@ − &) (10.5)

At resonance, inductive and capacitive branch currents are equal (IL = IC) and are 180o out of phase so,
the current of the circuit is

& = /&% + 0 = &%

The admittance of a parallel circuit is

26
 1 1
F = I + J@ + J) → F = + + W• 10.6
( W•
1 1
F= + + W2,-
( W2,-

The variation of impedance with frequency and the variation of current with frequency is shown in
Figure 10.4. The behaviour of a parallel resonant circuit is exactly opposite to that of a series resonant
circuit. Whereas the impedance of a series resonant circuit is minimum at resonance and the line
current high, the impedance of a parallel resonant circuit is maximum at resonance and the line
current minimum [1].

Figure 10.4 Resonance curves of parallel resonant circuit

3. Band-Pass Filters
A band-pass filter passes a band of frequencies ( G < < ) centered on , the resonant (or
center) frequency. The series RLC resonant circuit provides a band-pass filter when the output is taken
off the resistor as shown in Figure 10.5. The parallel RLC resonant circuit in Figure 10.6 is also a band-
pass filter circuit.

Figure 10.5 A series RLC band-pass filter

Figure 10.6 A parallel RLC band-pass filter

The transfer function magnitude versus frequency plot for a band-pass filter circuit is given in Figure
10.7.

27
 Figure 10.7 Ideal and actual magnitude responses of a band-pass filter

The band-pass filters have two cut-off frequencies, G and , which identify the passband. Recall
that the cut-off frequency is the frequency at which the transfer function drops in magnitude to 70.7%
of its maximum value, …NhW G, i… = 1⁄√2.

The resonant frequency is the geometric center of the passband, that is, = 0 G . The
magnitude of the transfer function is a maximum at the resonant frequency.

There are two other important parameters that characterize a band-pass filter. The first parameter is
the bandwidth, †, which is the width of the passband. It is defined as the difference between the two
cut-off frequencies. Because > G,

†= − G (10.7)

The second parameter is the quality factor, <, which is the ratio of the resonant frequency to the
bandwidth,

<= 10.8
†
The quality factor describes the shape of the magnitude plot, independent of frequency. As illustrated
in Figure 10.8, the higher the value of <, the more selective the circuit is but the smaller the
bandwidth. The selectivity of an RLC circuit is the ability of the circuit to respond to a certain frequency
and discriminate against all other frequencies. If the band of frequencies to be selected or rejected is
narrow, the quality factor of the resonant circuit must be high. If the band of frequencies is wide, the
quality factor must be low.

Table 10.1 presents a summary of the characteristics of the series and parallel band-pass filters.

28
 Figure 10.8 Relationship between bandwidth and quality factor

Table 10.1 Summary of the characteristics of band-pass filters

Series RLC Band-Pass Filter Parallel RLC Band-Pass Filter

( 1
(Figure 10.5) (Figure 10.6)
ˆ ‰W ˆ( ‰ W
N W = $ X ⁄$ ( 1 1 1
Transfer Function,
W +ˆ ‰W + W + ˆ( ‰ W +
( 1
(
/ˆ 1 − (
Transfer Function Magnitude,
|N W | ‰ +ˆ ‰ /ˆ 1 − 1
‰ + ˆ( ‰

1 1
Š Š
Resonant (Center) Frequency,

( ( 1 1 1 1
∓ + Š + ∓ + Š +
Cut-off Frequencies,
G, 2 2 2( 2(
Bandwidth, ( 1
† (

(
Š Š
Quality Factor,
< (

4. Band-Reject Filters
A band-reject filter passes source voltages outside the band between the two cut-off frequencies to
the output (passband), and attenuates source voltages before they reach the output at frequencies
between the two cut-off frequencies (stopband). Band-pass filters and band-reject filters thus perform
complementary functions in the frequency domain.

Figure 10.9 shows a series RLC resonant circuit. Although the circuit components and connections are
identical to those in the series RLC band-pass filter in Figure 10.5, the circuit in Figure 10.9 has an
important difference: the output voltage is now defined across the inductor-capacitor pair.

29
 R

+
Vi L
AC Vo
C
-

Figure 10.9 A series RLC band-reject filter

Another configuration that produces a band-reject filter is a parallel RLC resonant circuit as shown in
Figure 10.10.

Figure 10.10 A parallel RLC band-reject filter

The transfer function magnitude versus frequency plot for a band-reject filter circuit is given in Figure
10.11.

Figure 10.11 Ideal and actual magnitude responses of a band-reject filter

Band-reject filters are characterized by the same parameters as band-pass filters: the two cut-off
frequencies, the resonant frequency, the bandwidth and the quality factor.

Table 10.2 gives a summary of the characteristics of the series and parallel band-reject filters.

30
Table 10.2 Summary of the characteristics of band-reject filters
Series RLC Band-Reject Filter Parallel RLC Band-Reject Filter

1 1
(Figure 10.9) (Figure 10.10)
W + W +
N W = $ X ⁄$ ( 1 1 1
Transfer Function,
W +ˆ ‰W + W + ˆ ‰W +
(
1 1
Œ − Œ Œ − Œ

/ˆ 1 − (
Transfer Function Magnitude,
|N W | ‰ +ˆ ‰ /ˆ 1 − 1
‰ +ˆ ‰
(

1 1
Š Š
Resonant (Center) Frequency,

( ( 1 1 1 1
∓ + Š + ∓ + Š +
Cut-off Frequencies,
G, 2 2 2( 2(
Bandwidth, ( 1
† (
(
Š Š
Quality Factor,
< (

Preliminary Work
1) For the series RLC circuit in Figure 10.1, if $• = 50∠0° •$, ( = 10 Ω and *@ = 30 Ω,

a) Find the value of *) for resonance.

b) Determine the total impedance of the circuit at resonance.
c) Find the magnitude of the current I at resonance.
d) Calculate the voltages $% , $@ and $) at resonance. How are $@ and $) related? How does $%
compare to the applied voltage $• ?

2) For the parallel RLC circuit in Figure 10.3, if & = 2∠0° • , ( = 2 lΩ, = 10 nF and = 0.1 •N,

a) Determine the resonant frequency -‚ .

b) Find the voltage $ at resonance.
c) Determine the currents &@ and &) at resonance.

3) For the parallel RLC band-pass filter in Figure 10.6, if ( = 1 lΩ, = 0.22 μF and = 120 μN,
calculate the values of , G , , † and <. How can you increase the bandwidth (†) of this circuit?
4) For the series RLC band-reject filter in Figure 10.9, if ( = 1 lΩ, = 0.01 μF and = 1 •N,
calculate the values of , G , , † and <. How can you decrease the bandwidth (†) of this circuit?

Procedure
1) Using a resistor of 1 lΩ, a capacitor of 0.22 μF and an inductor of 120 μN, setup the circuit in
Figure 10.12.

31
 Figure 10.12

a) Set $] to 10 $ peak-to-peak at 10 lNO sine wave by using the function generator.

b) Connect the oscilloscope probes as shown in the figure.
c) Increase the source frequency and observe the input and output voltages. Make sure that $] is
maintaining at 10 $ peak-to-peak each time the frequency is increased:
i. Find the resonant frequency at which the magnitude of the output voltage is
maximum, and the input and output voltages are in phase. Compare your result with
the Preliminary Work Q3. Record the frequency and magnitude values.
ii. Find the lower and upper cut-off frequencies at which the magnitude of the output
voltage is 70.7% of its maximum value. Compare your results with the Preliminary
Work Q3. Record the frequency and magnitude values.
iii. Record the magnitude of the output voltage for three different frequencies smaller
than the lower cut-off frequency.
iv. Record the magnitude of the output voltage for three different frequencies larger than
the upper cut-off frequency.
d) Based on your results in c.i-iv, plot $ versus frequency.

2) Using a resistor of 1 lΩ, a capacitor of 0.01 μF and an inductor of 1 •N, setup the circuit in Figure
10.13.

Figure 10.13

a) Set $] to 10 $ peak-to-peak at 4 lNO sine wave by using the function generator.

b) Connect the oscilloscope probes as shown in the figure.
c) Increase the source frequency and observe the input and output voltages. Make sure that $] is
maintaining at 10 $ peak-to-peak each time the frequency is increased:
i. Find the resonant frequency at which the magnitude of the output voltage is
minimum. Compare your result with the Preliminary Work Q4. Record the frequency
and magnitude values.
ii. Find the lower and upper cut-off frequencies at which the magnitude of the output
voltage is 70.7% of its maximum value. Compare your results with the Preliminary
Work Q4. Record the frequency and magnitude values.
32
 iii.Record the magnitude of the output voltage for three different frequencies smaller
than the lower cut-off frequency.
iv. Record the magnitude of the output voltage for three different frequencies larger than
the upper cut-off frequency.
d) Based on your results in c.i-iv, plot $ versus frequency.

List of Equipment and Components

Equipment: Function generator, Oscilloscope

Components: a resistor of 1 kΩ, capacitors of 0.22 μF and 0.01 μF, inductors of 120 μH and 1 mH

References
[1] Sharma, Basic Radio & Television, 2/E

[2] Boylestad, Introductory Circuit Analysis (Tenth Edition)

[3] James W. Nilsson, Susan A. Riedel, Electric Circuits (Ninth Edition)

[4] Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N. O. Sadiku, Fundamentals of Electric Circuits (Fifth Edition)

33
APPENDIX A International System of Units
The Interational System of Units (SI) is used by most engineering thoughout the world and will be used
in this course as well [1].

The SI units are based on seven defined quantities: length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic
temparature, amount of substance and luminous intensity. These quantities are listed in Table A.1
together with the basic unit and symbol.
Table A.1 The International System of Units (SI)

Quantity Basic Unit Symbol

Length meter m
Mass kilogram Kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature degree kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity Candela cd

Defined quantities are combined to form derived units. Some of these quantities, such as force, power,
electric charge etc. are given in Table A.2

Table A.2 Derived units in SI

Quantity Basic Unit Symbol

Frequency hertz (Hz) s-1
Force newton (N) kg ∙ m/s2
Energy or Work joule (J) N∙m
Power watt (W) J/s
Electric charge coulomb (C) A∙s
Electric potential volt (V) J/C
Electric resistance ohm (Ω) V/A
Electric conductance siemens (S) A/V
Electric capacitance farad (F) C/V
Magnetic flux weber (Wb) V∙s
Inductance henry (H) Wb/A

In many cases, the SI unit is either too smal or too large to use conveniently. Standard prefixes
corresponding to powers of 10, are listed in Table A.3.

34
Table A.2 Standardized Prefixes to Signify Power of 10

Prefix Symbol Power

atto a 10-18
femto f 10-15
pico p 10-12
nano n 10-9
micro μ 10-6
milli m 10-3
centi c 10-2
deci d 10-1
deka da 10
hecto h 102
kilo k 103
mega M 106
giga G 109
tera T 1012

35
APPENDIX B Quick References for Devices
In this section, specific directions for four basic devices available in our laboratories are given. These
devices are:

1. KEYSIGHT E3631A Triple Output Dc Power Supply

2. KEYSIGHT 34450A 5½ Digit Multimeter
3. KEYSIGHT Trueform Series 33500B Waveform Generator
4. KEYSIGHT MSOX2002A Mixed Signal Oscilloscope

If other devices are available in your laboratory, please refer to their own manuals.

KEYSIGHT E3631A Triple Output DC Power Supply

Figure-1: E3631A Front Panel

Table-1: Key Features

Select the output voltage and current of any one supply (+6V,
1. Meter and Adjust SelectionKeys +25V, or -25V output) to display and allow knob adjustment of
that supply.

2. Tracking enable / disable Key Enables / disables the track mode of ±25V supplies.

Shows the voltage and current limit values and allows knob
3. Display limit Key
adjustment for setting limit values.

Recalls a previously stored operating state from location “1”, “2”,

4. Recall Operating State Key
or “3”.

Store Operating State / Local Stores an operating state in location “1”, “2”, or “3” / or returns
5.
Key1 the power supply to local mode from remote interface mode.

36
 Displays error codes generated during operations, self-test and
6. Error / Calibrate Key2 calibration / or enables calibration mode (the power supply must
be unsecured before performing calibration).

Configures the power supply for remote interfaces / or secure and

7. I/O Configuration / Secure Key3
unsecure the power supply for calibration.

8. Output On/Off Key Enables or disables all three power supply outputs.

Increases or decreases the value of the blinking digit by turning

9. Control Knob
clockwise or counter clockwise.

10. Resolution Selection Keys Move the flashing digit to the right or left.

Voltage/Current Adjust Selection

11. Selects the knob function to voltage control or current control.
Key

Display Annunciators:

Figure-2: Display of E3631A

Table-2: Feature of Annunciators

1. Adrs Power supply is addressed to listen or talk over a remote interface.

2. Rmt Power supply is in remote interface mode

3. +6V Displays the output voltage and current for +6V supply

4. +25V Displays the output voltage and current for +25V supply

5. -25V Displays the output voltage and current for -25V supply

6. CAL Power supply is in calibration mode

7. Track The outputs of +25V and -25V supplies are in track mode.

8. Limit Shows the voltage and current limit value of a selected supply.

9. ERROR Hardware or remote interface command errors are detected and also the error bit has

37
 not been cleared.

10. OFF The three outputs of the power supply are disabled.

11. Unreg The displayed output is unregulated (output is neither CV nor CC).

12. CV The displayed output is in constant-voltage mode.

13. CC The displayed output is in constant-current mode

References:

1. KEYSIGHT E3631A Triple Output DC Power Supply User’s Guide

KEYSIGHT 34450A 5½ Digit Multimeter

Figure-2 : 34450A Front Panel

Table-1: Key Features

1. Display Shows annunciators on it.

2. Power ON/OFF Switch Press to turn ON or turn OFF the multimeter.

Pressing a measurement function key changes the current key

3. Measurement Functions
operation, brings up the relevant symbol on the display.

Press to access math functions menu and press shift- math to access
4. Math Operations
limit function.

State Store/Recall, Utility

5. Press to access store/recall menu
Menu

Press to access data logging menu and press shift – data log to access
6. Data Log, View
view menu.

38
 Auto range and Manual •Press to adjust range
7.
range • Press to adjust values

Resolution, Measurement • Press to adjust the measurement speed and resolution

8.
Speed • Press to navigate menus

9. SHIFT and Local Key Press to enable access to a button’s alternate function.

Press to enable the secondary display Press shift- 2nd to disable

10. Secondary Display Key
secondary display.

11. Input Terminals Connect probes to suitable terminals, to measure desired value.

References:
1. Keysight 34450A 5½ Digit Multimeter User’s Guide

KEYSIGHT Trueform Series 33500B Waveform Generator

Figure-1: Front Panel Figure-2: Display

39
Front Panel Number Entry
You can enter numbers from the front panel in two ways:

Use the knob and cursor keys to modify the number. Rotate
the knob to change a digit (clockwise increases). The arrows
1. Knob
below the knob move the cursor.

Use the keypad to enter numbers and the softkey to select

units. The [+/-] key changes the number's sign.
2. Keypad

Set Output Frequency

The default frequency is 1 kHz. You can change the frequency, and you can specify frequency in units of period
instead of Hz.

To change frequency with the

knob:

To change frequency with numeric

keypad:

40
Finishing by selecting frequency
units:

To change the units to period

instead of frequency:

Set Output Amplitude

The instrument's default function is a 1 kHz, 100 mVpp sine wave (into a 50 Ω termination).
The following steps change the amplitude to 50 mVpp.

1. Press [Parameters] >

Amplitude.

Using the numeric keypad,

enter the number 50.

41
2. Select the desired units.

Press the softkey that

corresponds to the desired
units.

References:
1. Agilent Technologies Trueform Series Waveform Generator Operating and Service Guide

42
KEYSIGHT MSOX2002A Mixed Signal Oscilloscope: 70 MHz, 2 Analog Plus 8 Digital Channels

Figure : MSOX2002A Front Panel

Table-1: Key Features

1. Power Switch Press once to switch power on; press again to switch power off.

These keys change based upon the menus shown on the display directly above
the keys.
2. Softkeys
The Back/Up key moves up in the softkey menu hierarchy.

3. [Intensity] Key Press the key and turn the Entry knob to adjust waveform intensity.

4. Entry Knob The Entry knob is used to select items from menus and to change values.

• [Utility] key — Press this key to access the Utility Menu.

• [Quick Action] key — Press this key to perform the selected

quick action: measure all snapshot, print, save, recall, freeze

5. Tools Keys display.

• [Analyze] key — Press this key to access analysis features.

• [Wave Gen] key — Press this key to access waveform

43
 generator functions.

6. Trigger Controls These controls determine how the oscilloscope triggers to capture data.

• Horizontal scale knob — : Turn the knob in the

7. Horizontal Horizontal section to adjust the time/div (sweep speed) setting.

Controls • Horizontal position knob to pan through the waveform

data horizontally.

When the [Run/Stop] key is green, the oscilloscope is running, that is, acquiring
data when trigger conditions are met. To stop acquiring data, press [Run/Stop].
8. Run Control

keys

9. [Default Setup] key Press this key to restore the oscilloscope's default settings

When you press the [AutoScale] key, the oscilloscope will turn the active
channels on and scale them to display the input signals.
10. [Auto Scale]

key

• [Math] key: Provides access to math (add, subtract, etc.)

waveform functions.

11. Additional • [Ref] key: Provides access to reference waveform functions.

Waveform Controls • [Digital] key: Press this key to turn the digital channels on

or off.

• [Serial] key: This key is used to enable serial decode.

12. Measure [Meas] key: Press this key to access a set of predefined

controls measurements.

44
 The [Acquire] key lets you select Normal, Peak Detect, Averaging, or High
Resolution acquisition modes.
13. Waveform Keys
The [Display] key lets you access the display menu.

14. File Keys Press the [Save/Recall] key to save or recall a waveform or setup.

15. Help Key Opens the Help Menu where you can display overview help topics and select the
Language.

•Use the big knobs to change the vertical sensitivity (gain) of

16. Vertical each analog channel.

Controls •Use the little knobs to change a channel's vertical position on

the display.

17. Analog Channel Analog input channels of oscilloscope are here.

Inputs

References:
1. Keysight 34450A 5½ Digit Multimeter User’s Guide

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APPENDIX C List of Components

Resistors

Ω 1, 2.2, 3.9, 4.7, 5.1, 5.6, 6.8, 10, 15, 18, 22, 27, 30, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, 75, 82, 100, 120, 150,
180, 200, 230, 270, 300, 320, 390, 560, 620, 680, 750, 820

kΩ 1, 1.5, 1.8, 2.2, 2.7, 3.3, 3.9, 4.7, 5.1, 6.2, 6.8, 13, 30, 33, 39, 47, 56, 62, 68, 82, 100, 150, 160,
180, 220, 270, 330, 360, 390, 560, 670

MΩ 1.2, 2.2, 2.7, 3.3

Capacitors

Inductors

Potantiometers

IC Components

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