Ethylene Oxide Production

Ethylene oxide production
Ethylene oxide production
Introduction
There are numerous unit activities like reaction, heat exchange, and separation that are combined
in process design. The design and performance of virtual plants are simulated during the
development of novel manufacturing processes. Designing an efficient ethylene oxide (EO)
manufacturing method is the goal of this research.
Ethylene oxidation produces EO, a significant petrochemical byproduct. It may be turned into
ethylene glycol, ethanolamine, and other chemicals, and is used as a raw ingredient in the
production of textiles and detergents. In Japan, EO is produced at a rate of approximately 9,000
t/y1. Ethylene oxidation causes side reactions throughout the manufacturing process:
C2H4 + O2 → 2 C2H4O (1)
C2H4 + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 2H2O (2)
C2H4O + 5 O2 → 4 CO2 + 4 H2O (3)
The primary process that results in EO is one in which silver catalysts are required (Ag2O).
Carbon dioxide and water are produced as a result of chemical reactions. Heat reaction of +1323
kJ/mole at 523 K, the EO process has a danger of exploding. Reactor inlet compositions and
conversions are thus restricted2. This causes the reactor to behave nonlinearly and complexly,
recycling unreacted gas. For the sake of this design, we'll assume that just three reactions will
occur throughout the EO manufacturing process.
It's taken a lot of hard work to increase the efficiency of EO manufacturing. Zhou et al. utilized a
reactor model to optimize design factors such as ethylene, oxygen, and carbon dioxide input
compositions, reactor temperature, and ethylene dichloride quantity. As an example, consider
intake composition and gas flow while recycling EO using a support vector machine and a
genetic algorithm. They tested the findings on a real plant using the optimized design factors and
found an increase in the rate at which EO was produced as well as a catalyst improvement. EO
1
recycling to simulate and validate operations in steady-state, dynamic, and startup states. Inlet
composition, temperature, and pressure start-up profiles were adjusted to expedite plant startup.
Artificial neural networks are being utilized to deactivate the catalyst in order to determine the
optimal amount of ethylene dichloride to employ in the process of deactivation. This research
investigated an industrial ethylene oxide reactor utilizing integrated reaction kinetics, reactor
modelling, and a catalyst deactivation model, and the results were compared to those obtained
from an actual industrial facility producing the same product. It is necessary to utilize a Custom
Modeler in combination with the software to optimize different design variables such as reactor
temperature and intake compositions, among others. As well as representing the EO process
itself, interactions between reaction concepts were shown together with the fundamental physical
and chemical principles that underpin it. The reduction in operating costs, as well as a decrease
in carbon dioxide emissions In order to improve the performance of distillation columns for the
removal of carbon dioxide, many variables were considered, including temperature, pressure,
and duration of operation.
A reactor and a distillation column have typically had their design factors adjusted for their
performance. This means that the interactions between units are not taken into account, and the
optimal values for the various types of design variables that result from these techniques are not
always correct.
We present an approach to process optimization that takes into account the interactions between
the units. There are a huge number of design variables that must be optimized in parallel for all
units, thus optimizing just one of them will not work. Variables X, such as equipment and
operating circumstances, have a total of 23 parameters in the EO process's design phase. The
total number of possible combinations would be 1023 if each X had ten possibilities,
necessitating an enormous number of simulations. As a result, we offer a Bayesian optimization-
based process design approach in which X values satisfying multiple objective variable Y target
values, such as yield, are sought. After then, a limited number of simulations will be used to fine-
tune X. By modelling an EO plant, we can assess the efficacy of the suggested approach.
Methods
2
The target EO procedure is first explained in detail. Following a description of the design of
experiments and the adaptive design of experiments, the process for merging these
methodologies is explored in more detail.
Ethylene Oxide (EO) process
The process flow diagram (PFD) for the proposed EO process is shown in Figure 1. In this
particular instance, the products are 99.5 weight percent EO and a 10.0 mole percent aqueous EO
solution (see figure). EO reactions are thought to be catalyzed by silver when oxygen is present,
according to current thinking. With the help of a catalyst and operating at high temperatures and
pressures, the elements ethylene and oxygen are supplied into a plug-flow reactor (R1), where
the elements are converted into ethylene oxide (EO). Following the manufacture of EO, the EO
is absorbed by the water in the absorption column, which is then recycled (T1). As previously
mentioned, the large number of exothermic reactions in the reactor creates a risk of explosion; as
a consequence, conversions and reactor input compositions are limited as a result of this. Prior to
reintroduction into the reactor, the unreacted gases are purged with raw materials such as argon
or ethane, and the carbon dioxide by-product is removed. Once ethylene oxide has been absorbed
in water (T2), it is extracted from water (T3), where it undergoes rectifying treatment in a
distillation column (T3), where it is transformed back to ethylene oxide (T4).
Design of experiments
A DoE was created in order to minimize the amount of simulations or experiments performed. It
is a technique for selecting which candidates among experimental candidates should be tested on
initially. In this case, we use the D-optimal design13 in the DoE, which may pick a small number
of relevant X values from a vast number of possible choices. It is thus feasible to choose the X
3
candidates who are most likely to build a decent regression model using just the data from the X
candidates themselves.
Cost estimation for the proposed
Ethylene oxide plant
Total Cost Fabricated Equipment and Process Machinery AED226,075,697.10
Cost of Spares AED45,215,139.42

Initial Catalyst Charge AED996,000.00
Cost for Computers and software AED10,000,000.00
Total Bare Module Investment AED282,286,836.52
Site Preparation AED13,564,541.83

Service Facilities AED11,303,784.85
Allocated costs for Utilities:
Steam AED17,425,359.24
Electricity AED2,901,362.08
Cooling Water AED983,933.72
Process Water AED29,829.74
Refrigeration AED5,840,528.22
Total Allocated Costs for Utilities and Related Facilities AED27,181,013.01
Direct Permanent Investment AED334,336,176.21
Cost of Contingencies and Contractors Fees AED117,017,661.67
Total Depreciable Capital AED451,353,837.88
Land AED9,027,076.76
Initial Royalty Fee AED9,027,076.76
Cost for Start-up AED45,135,383.79
Site Factor - Gulf Coast 1
Total Permanent Investment AED514,543,375.19
Working Capital:
Cash Reserves - 1 Month AED6,524,789.08
Inventories for Products - 1 Week AED5,769,230.77
Accounts Receivable AED25,000,000.00
Accounts Payable AED7,399,371.31
Total Working Capital AED44,693,391.16
4
Total Capital Investment AED559,236,766.35
Utilities
Name Fluid Rate Rate Cost Cost per Hour Cost Units Total Yearly Cost for 2021
Units
Electricity 162.355 KW AED AED9.74 AED/H AED81,826.92
0.06
Cooling Water 507175 GAL/H AED AED38.04 AED/H AED319,520.25
Water 0.08
Process Water 22525 GAL AED AED16.89 AED AED16.89
Water Start 0.75
Up
Process Water 22.525 GAL/H AED AED0.02 AED/H AED141.91
Water 0.75
Refrigerant - Refrigerant 261.3359 KLB/H AED AED9.26 AED/H AED77,747.43
Propane 0.07
Freon 12 0.10
Steam Steam 108.3391 KLB/H AED AED448.52 AED/H AED3,767,600.54
@100PSI 4.14
@165PSI 4.96
@400PSI 6.41
Dirty Water
Removal
Electricity 898.235 KW AED AED53.89 AED/H AED452,710.44

0.06
Cooling Water 712617 GAL/H AED AED53.45 AED/H AED448,948.71
Water 0.08
Propane 0.07
Freon 12 0.10
Steam Steam 4.60524 KLB/H AED AED/1000lbs AED19.07 AED/H AED160,151.83
@100PSI 4.14
Electricity 80.668 KW AED AED/KW-H AED4.84 AED/H AED40,656.67

0.06
Cooling Water 292277 GAL/H AED AED/1000ga AED21.92 AED/H AED184,134.51
Water 0.08 l
Steam Steam 20.71821 KLB/H AED AED/1000lbs AED132.80 AED/H AED1,115,551.30
@400PSI 6.41
Total Utility Costs (CE adjusted) AED12,435,933.93
5
Total Capital Investment


Steam AED15,782,076.20
Electricity AED574,989.42
Process Water AED29,829.74
Refrigeration AED5,614,720.23
Land AED8,065,255.77
Working Capital:
Cash Reserves - 1 Month AED5,622,937.27
6
Name Rate Rate Cost Units Cost per Cost Total Yearly Cost
Units Hour Units
Electricity 162.35 KW AED0.0 AED/KW-H AED9.74 AED/ AED81,826.92
5 6 H
Cooling 507175 GAL/ AED0.0 AED/1000g AED38.04 AED/ AED319,520.25
Water H 8 al H
Process 22525 GAL AED0.7 AED/1000g AED16.89 AED AED16.89
Water 5 al
Start Up
Process 22.525 GAL/ AED0.7 AED/1000g AED0.02 AED/ AED141.91
Water H 5 al H
Refrigera 261.335 KLB/ AED0.0 AED/Ton-H AED9.26 AED/ AED77,747.43
nt - 9 H 7 H
Propane
Mechanical department services AED538,095.56

Employee relations department AED1,322,818.25
Business services AED1,659,127.97
Total Annual Operating Overhead, O AED5,111,907.80
Property Taxes & Total Property Taxes & Insurance AED8,065,255.77

Insurance
Total Fixed Costs AED67,475,247.22
Total Variable Costs and Total Variable Revenues

Name Cost Unit lbs/yr Total Cost
Raw Materials Ethylene AED0.46 AED/lb 150494400 AED69,227,424.00
Oxygen AED0.05 AED/lb 123916800 AED6,195,840.00
CO2 Removal AED0.31 AED/barrel 679603.428 AED210,677.06
solvents/MEA EO
Cost of Raw Materials AED75,633,941.06
General Selling/Transfer expense 3%
Expenses
Direct Research 4.8%
Allocated Research 0.5%
Administrative Expenses 2%
Management incentive 1.25%
7
compensation
Total General Expenses as a 12% AED18,315,990.00

function of Revenues
Total Variable Costs AED93,949,931.06

Total Variable Revenues AED152,633,250.00


Steam AED760,410.65
Electricity AED2,378,411.66
Process Water AED0.00
Refrigeration AED225,808.00
Land AED1,140,360.54
Working Capital:
Cash Reserves - 1 Month AED869,214.77
8
Total Capital MACRS Depreciation Total Fixed Total Variable Acrylic Acid
Investment depreciatio Costs Costs Costs Revenues
n
AED107,005,039.0
0
0.2 - - - AED133,386,302.7
AED11,403,605.4 AED10,430,577.2 AED98,650,238.65 0
4 3
0.32 - - - AED274,775,783.5
AED18,245,768.7 AED10,743,494.5 AED203,219,491.6 6
0 5 2
0.192 - - - AED283,019,057.0
AED10,947,461.2 AED11,065,799.3 AED209,316,076.3 7
2 9 7
0.1152 - - - AED291,509,628.7
AED6,568,476.73 AED11,397,773.3 AED215,595,558.6 8
7 6
0.1152 - - - AED300,254,917.6
AED6,568,476.73 AED11,739,706.5 AED222,063,425.4 4
7 2
0.0576 - - - AED309,262,565.1
AED3,284,238.37 AED12,091,897.7 AED228,725,328.1 7
7 9
- - AED318,540,442.1
AED12,454,654.7 AED235,587,088.0 3
0 3
- - AED328,096,655.3
AED12,828,294.3 AED242,654,700.6 9
4 7
- - AED337,939,555.0
AED13,213,143.1 AED249,934,341.6 5
7 9
- - AED348,077,741.7
AED13,609,537.4 AED257,432,371.9 1
6 4
- - AED358,520,073.9
AED14,017,823.5 AED265,155,343.1 6
9 0
- - AED369,275,676.1
AED14,438,358.3 AED273,110,003.3 8
0 9
9
- - AED380,353,946.4
AED14,871,509.0 AED281,303,303.5 6
4 0
- - AED391,764,564.8
AED15,317,654.3 AED289,742,402.6 6
2 0
- - AED403,517,501.8
AED15,777,183.9 AED298,434,674.6 0
5 8
- - AED415,623,026.8
AED16,250,499.4 AED307,387,714.9 5
6 2
- - AED428,091,717.6
AED16,738,014.4 AED316,609,346.3 6
5 7
- - AED440,934,469.1
AED17,240,154.8 AED326,107,626.7 9
8 6
- - AED454,162,503.2
AED17,757,359.5 AED335,890,855.5 7
3 6
- - AED467,787,378.3
AED18,290,080.3 AED345,967,581.2 6
1 3
- - AED481,820,999.7
AED18,838,782.7 AED356,346,608.6 1
2 6
- - AED496,275,629.7
AED19,403,946.2 AED367,037,006.9 1
0 2
- - AED511,163,898.6
AED19,986,064.5 AED378,048,117.1 0
9 3
As a result of the bond's short length and acute angle, the C-C connection is weak. EO is very
reactive due to the ease with which its highly stretched ring may be opened.
As a very reactive chemical intermediate that may be used for a variety of purposes, the high
flammability, reactivity, explosive vapor decomposability, and poisonous character of EO are all
due to this property. Managing the usage of EO requires knowledge of its characteristics.
Solubility of Ethylene Oxide Gas
At 72–74°F (22–23°C), EO gas was found to be soluble in a variety of chemicals when tested by
Chaigneau at atmospheric pressure. Water, alcohols, hydrocarbons, oils, chloro compounds,
esters, and waxes are examples of these substances.
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Solubility of Gases in Ethylene Oxide
Nitrogen, argon, methane, and ethane have increasing solubility in liquid EO. As the temperature
rises, the solubility increases as well. At various EO temperatures, the Henry's Law Constants
apply to these gases.
Reactive and Combustive Properties

It's critical to know EO's reactivity and combustion characteristics if you want to properly utilize
it. It has happened that serious accidents have occurred during the ethylene oxide processing,
storage, and transport.
Combustion/Flammability
EO is a highly combustible and ionizing substance that should be handled with caution. The fire
and explosive properties of this substance are depending on the specific system in question.
Mixtures of EO and air have the following properties.
 EO air mixes have a lower flammable limit of 2.6 percent, according to the data [20].
 EO may disintegrate rapidly and produce considerable heat when exposed to air or
oxygen, therefore the maximum flammable limit is usually stated to be 100%.
 EO-air combinations have a flammability range of 2.6–100%.
Flammability of Ethylene Oxide and Water Mixtures
Fires in these liquid mixes may be difficult to put out until the EO is diluted to a specific level
due to the mixture's flash properties. Water-to-EO dilution ratios volume of 100 to 1 may be
needed in confined systems like sewers to create a combination whose vapor does not sustain
burning. Water/EO mixes of less than 22 to 1 volume in open systems, such as surrounding an
air spill, may produce enough vapors to sustain combustion in open systems.
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Ignition Energy and Static Electricity
Static electricity charges cannot build in metal containers with correctly joined and grounded
interior components while using liquid EO, which is an electrically conductive fluid (see NFPA
77 Static Electricity Guide). As a result, unless there are isolated interior regions where a charge
may build, bottom filling is seldom required. Using an uncoated grounded metal device in
contact with the enclosed liquid at all times enables efficient grounding of the liquid in
containers with non-conductive linings, such as glass or plastic. Pure EO vapor has a minimum
ignition energy (MIE) of approximately 1000 mJ under normal circumstances and without air.
As temperatures and pressures rise, the minimum EO ignition energy falls, but a static energy
discharge is considerably smaller than the MIE and poses no real threat when liquids are stored
and handled normally. In the absence of oxygen, EO liquid released into the vapor space of a
correctly fitted storage tank will not be sufficient to ignite the vapor.
The MIE of EO at normal circumstances and with air present is between 10,000 and 100,000 mJ,
slightly over the lower flammable limit (2.6 mol percent), and around 1000 mJ above the higher
flammable limit 100 mol percent.
Hazards of Ethylene Oxide
In both EO manufacturing and EO consumption plants, EO has been engaged in events that have
resulted in significant plant damage and fatalities. Significant transportation mishaps have also
included EO. Historical events provide valuable insight into the dangers of EO for anybody
using it. The following are some EO-related events that may help you better grasp the dangers of
this technology. Future plant design and process development for operations, maintenance,
training, and emergency response should benefit from lessons gained from events like this.
Contamination Incidents
Commercial goods are frequently made by reacting EO with other compounds in a lab setting.
Contamination is a major risk while dealing with EO due to its strong reactivity with other
compounds and the high exothermic nature of the reactions that occur.
Waste materials or other chemicals, including water, may cause to uncontrolled reactions that
produce significant quantities of heat if pure EO is present. Over pressing and rupturing an EO-
containing vessel may be caused by the interaction of EO with impurities or by the
polymerization of EO. The EO-containing vessel usually ruptures in a contamination event
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before all of the EO has reacted. Because of the rapid loss of pressure when the vessel ruptures,
an EO vapor cloud forms. Contamination situations using EO are sometimes referred to as
"igniting a fire." The following is a typical description of such a sequence of events: In the event
that the inside of an electrostatic discharge (PE discharge) container becomes contaminated, it
may cause an electrostatic discharge (PE discharge) reaction, which can result in an electrostatic
discharge (PE discharge). EO vapor cloud explosions were to blame for the majority of the
damage in many of the contamination events and EO decomposition episodes described in the
following sections.
When the EO vapor cloud ignited, it wreaked havoc on the buildings within a 500-foot arc. A
700- to 1,000-foot radius around the explosion Centre was affected by the implosion. Within a
1,000-foot radius of the explosion Centre, many windows were shattered and a few buildings
sustained minor structural damage. Despite being 35 miles distant, the explosion was audible as
well as leaving shock waves up to three miles in the air. One person was killed, three others were
seriously injured, and another 18 people were injured.
According to the EO manufacturer's research, ammonia had re-entered the EO storage tank from
the EO transfer line. This is how ammonia made its way into an EO vessel: via a series of check
valves, as well as a positive displacement pump (and a relief valve)
Ethylene Oxide Railcar Contamination with Bentonite Clay
A contractor cleaned and returned a railcar to an EO producer's facility. To keep the vehicle from
rusting, the contractor used betonies clay, a drying agent. When the train arrived at the factory,
the EO manufacturer did not remove the clay since he was ignorant of its purpose. The railcar
dome caught fire while it was being loaded with EO. By reacting with EO, the betonies clay
ignited and released the burning gas via the railcar's safety relief valve, setting off the train's
emergency brakes. The fire was put out with water, but it kept re-igniting. Dry chemical
extinguishers were used to put out the fire.
Contamination of Railcar with Ammonia
A client received an EO train from a European EO manufacturer. Because of an EO Vapor Cloud
Explosion, the railcar was delivered to the incorrect facility; this is 300 feet away from the
explosion's Centre. The Remains of a Railcar, Figure 5.6 Ethylene Oxide Railcar Damage
Remains on Other Railcars the railcar explosion factory believed anhydrous ammonia was in the
13
vehicle when it exploded. It was decided to dump the EO into a container filled with anhydrous
ammonia. The ammonia tank's pressure was far greater than the EO railcar's. A minor quantity of
ammonia re-entered the EO railcar after a check valve leak occurred during the effort to unload
it. Workers at the factory realized that the automobile had been sent by mistake, therefore
unloading was halted and the vehicle carrying polluted EO was transferred to a facility 300
kilometers (180 miles) away. In the middle of the night, a train detonated on a rail siding near the
plant's perimeter. It blew up a nearby warehouse, causing significant damage within a 300-meter
radius and shattering glass up to five kilometers distant.
Ethylene stream information
Ethylene oxide is most often handled as a liquid under pressure, but it may also be handled in an
ambient environment as a gas, which has a disagreeable, ether-like odor. It is not recommended
for use in food processing. At 10 degrees Celsius (50 degrees Fahrenheit), it transforms into a
clear, colorless liquid. It's a perfectly miscible material when combined with water and organic
solvents. The flammability and explosiveness of ethylene oxide are very high, since it is a highly
flammable and volatile chemical.
Overview of production and use
When platinum catalysis the direct oxidation of ethylene, ethylene oxide (EO) is created. As a
consequence of a side reaction, carbon dioxide, water, and minuscule quantities of acetaldehyde
and formaldehyde are generated. A number of restrictions apply to EO as a transportable product
due to safety concerns. There is a potential that volatile compounds, including EO, may be
discharged from waste treatment, storage, and handling facilities at some point in the future.
Emissions from ethylene oxide production
It is possible for ethylene oxide to pollute the environment in three different ways: during the
manufacturing process, as a raw ingredient in other processes, and as a fumigant. EO is made
and the many emission variables that go along with it. The use of EO as a feedstock in
manufacturing operations and as a fumigant.
Process Description with stream
Because it was no longer economically viable, this method was phased out in the United States.
In 1983, air oxidation generated 60% of the total quantity of EO produced in the US, while
oxygen oxidation produced 40%. A low aldehyde concentration of fewer than 10 parts per
14
million (ppm) is used to make ethyl oxide (EO). The capacity of EO manufacturing plants in the
United States ranges from 50 to 600 Gg/yr.
In the first main reactor, ethylene is combined with compressed air (Streams 1 and 2), and the
combined stream enters a recycling ethylene stream (Stream 3). The weight ratio of air to
ethylene in the feed is typically 10:1. Over a silver catalyst packed in tubes, the reaction takes
occur, with the reaction's heat being dispersed by a heat transfer fluid jacket. At a temperature
range of 220° to 280°C, the reaction is kept under pressure of 1 to 3 MPa (10-20 atm). In order to
increase the catalyst's activity, promoters such alkali metals or alkali earth metals may be added
to the mix. The addition of catalyst inhibitors like halides may be used to reduce ethylene's
conversion to carbon dioxide without interfering with the main process. Formaldehyde and
acetaldehyde are produced in tiny quantities together with carbon dioxide, the primary by-
product.
The oxidation process suffers from the loss of 25-30% of the ethylene to carbon dioxide and
water in Reaction 2. 13 times as much heat energy is also released in Reaction 2 as in Reaction 1.
Using a new catalyst on a frequent basis and carefully monitoring the surface temperature of the
old one can help keep Reaction 2 under control. This will keep ethylene's conversion rate from
reaching more than 30% on each catalyst pass. Small quantities of acetaldehyde (less than 1% of
the EO product) and formaldehyde are also produced during these reactions. 6 The aldehyde
concentration of EO is currently less than 10 ppm for some applications.
To treat organic and aqueous spills from the EO plant and recover glycol from its contents, the
plant often has an attached glycol plant. The integration of the two facilities reduces the amount
of EO required for fiber grade glycol synthesis by drying and purifying it. This saves both capital
and utility costs. Purge absorber works similarly to primary absorber in that effluent discharged
from the secondary reactor (Stream 6) is taken into a purge reactor (Purge Stream 6). It's mixed
with the other VOCs from the absorbers (Stream 9) and supplied to the desorbed, where the EO
and other dissolved inputs are reduced under decreased pressure to make the desorbed solution.
In certain facilities, crude EO is delivered straight to a glycol plant without going through the
whole refining process.
Oxygen Oxidation
15
The difference in oxygen content between the air oxidation and oxygen oxidation processes (20
mole percent vs. 98 mole percent) accounts for almost all of the differences between the two
processes.
When ethylene and oxygen (Streams 1 and 2) are fed into the reactor under conditions similar to
the air oxidation process, it is the same as the air oxidation process. This waste water (Stream 4)
is sent to the absorber, where it is dissolved in water together with the EO product and other
pollutants including carbon dioxide and hydrocarbons. When gas escapes from the top of the
absorber, most of it is cooled and recycled back into the system as ethylene (Stream 3).
The main process vent is responsible for purging the recycling gas stream of gaseous
contaminants from the oxygen supply, such as argon, that have accumulated in it (Vent A). In
addition, since oxygen feed has much less contaminants than air feed, the purge stream may be
significantly smaller and there is no need for a purge reactor system. Unreacted ethylene may be
recycled nearly entirely if the conditions are right.
Air Oxidation
The main process vent is the larger of the air oxidation plant's two EO process emission sources
(Vent A). Air feed nitrogen and unreacted oxygen may be detected in the vented gases, together
with ethane and unexacting ethylene from the ethylene feed, as well as product EO and by-
product carbon dioxide (CO2). In the manufacturing process, reactor settings, absorber
conditions, ethylene purity, and the number of purge stages employed all influence the vent
stream's chemical composition to a great extent.
Consequently, the air feed and ethylene feed rates are kept constant during start-up, and the
primary process vent's emission rate is about the same during start-up and normal operation.
Process disturbances, on the other hand, may result in a significant rise in emissions. The rate at
which ethylene is fed is decreased when an upset occurs in order to minimize the quantity of
VOC released into the vent stream.
Given that EO is fully soluble in water, it is possible for the purge absorber to be 99.9 percent or
more successful at removing it. In order to achieve this, the EO concentration of the primary
process vent stream (Vent A) is very low. The amount of ethane and ethylene present, on the
other hand, is adequate for combustion. It is currently standard practice to burn this stream in a
16
thermal or catalytic oxidizer, although it was formerly customary practice to exhaust it to the
atmosphere..
Fugitive Emissions
It is pump seals, compressors, valves, flanges, pressure relief devices and sample connections
that cause escapee EO emissions in either the air or the oxygen oxidation process. Emission
factors may be applied to the number of pumps seals, valves, and flanges in an average EO
production plant, and these totals can be adjusted to represent the EO concentration in each
stream, to estimate fugitive emissions.
Waste Ponds
Emissions from emergency holding ponds, on the other hand, are possible sources of EO
emissions. The pond is being utilized to store an emergency twentyfold dilution of EO, which is
being used to reduce the danger of explosions during shutdowns in one case, according to the
report. It is conceivable that up to 5,000 to 10,000 pounds of EO may need to be disposed of all
at once in order to meet regulatory requirements. In any case, according to the company, the EO
will be turned into ethylene glycol, and it is considering the use of catalysts to speed up the
conversion process. These ponds are thought to release a significant amount of essential oils into
the environment; however, it is not known exactly how widespread the use of this method is now
in the industry.
Other Secondary Emissions
Wastewater streams from a variety of processes may include some EO, although at very low
concentrations in most cases. Bio-oxidation is a popular treatment method for these streams. The
majority of producers indicate that EO emissions from this source are low or nonexistent. One
manufacturer reported a single EO unit effluent stream with an EO concentration of 280 parts per
million (ppm), of which it is predicted that 75%, or about 92 kg/day, is stripped into the
atmosphere.
Storage and Loading Losses
It is common practice to store product EO under nitrogen at temperatures of about 10°C (50°F)
in order to maintain its gaseous form at ambient temperatures. Certain plants may be able to
retain EO when subjected to high pressures and temperatures typical of their environment.
According to conventional knowledge, losses from storage tanks are solely generated by
17
displacement during the filling process of the tanks. It is usually carried in train tank cars that
contain between 38,000 and 76,000 liters (10,000 and 20,000 gallon) of liquid and are loaded
straight from plant storage tanks if it is not utilized in a captive environment. The transfer is
typically carried out at a nitrogen pressure of about 50 psi. 20 When displaced vapors from
filling tank cars and storage tanks are returned to the process, most facilities either recycle or
purify them before to burning or flaring the resultant trash. 8 In order to extract the essential oils
from the vapors, the liquid effluent from the scrubber must be sent to the desorbed as soon as it is
collected. According to current expectations, EO emissions from storage and loading will be
practically non-existent if any of the two control methods is implemented. A single factory, on
the other hand, recorded EO emissions from storage and loading of 39 Mg/yr (86 × 103 lb/yr).
Despite the fact that there was no explanation given for the high emission rate, the business uses
a caustic scrubber to keep emissions under control.
Conclusion
Air pollution control and oxygen oxidation facilities have the following EO emission factors: EO
and its derivatives are often produced concurrently to guarantee that all variables properly reflect
the EO production. Fugitive emission source counts include components utilized in derivative
synthesis and explosives production, for example (albeit many fewer components in EO service
will be present in derivative production processes). Process vent emissions may also be seen as a
reflection of the recycling of specific vents from derived facilities and the return of the original
equipment manufacturer to those facilities. Vents, fugitive components, and derivative
manufacturing storage all contribute relatively little to overall EO emissions when compared to
other sources. There is less oxygen oxidation process vent (Vent A) volume than similar air
oxidation process vent, but it contains roughly the same mole percent of EO (which ranges from
around 0.01 percent in volume) as the air oxidation process. Argon and nitrogen from the oxygen
feed are present in the exhaust stream, but there is also ethane from the ethylene feed to contend
with. Starting a process without knowing the oxygen feed composition will have no effect on the
composition or amount of the stream, which are closely related to the purity of the oxygen feed.
The high ethylene concentration of the process exhaust stream is often disposed of using a boiler
or incinerator (Vent A).
18
You may increase the quantity of oxygen that can be tolerated by using methane. Because
methane, which is inert throughout the oxidation process, lowers the flammability limitations of
the incoming gas, the reactor's feed rates are more flexible today. 997 percent of Vent B's CO2 is
CO2, and the rest is water. At this point, we don't know what's in the EO. CO2 may be recovered
from the exhaust stream by processing or selling it. According to one manufacturer, 6 percent of
the total time spent operating the stream is spent on startup, malfunction, and maintenance. If the
stream is sold, there will be only an intermittent flow. If the stream is vented to the atmosphere,
emissions may be reduced using a carbonate flasher and a vent condenser. The stream is put to
another use by one of the companies (not specified in reference). Thermal oxidation or
incineration are the two options for getting rid of the VOCs once they've been collected.
In the stripper vent stream (Vent C), there is sufficient ethylene for boiler or flare combustion. If
this gas is introduced to the reactor, methane will be released into the atmosphere. In modern
systems, compression and recycling of the exhaust stream are becoming increasingly
commonplace. A quick scan of the data reveals that there is no EO content in this stream.
You can burn the exhaust stream from a resumption tower invert to get rid of the invert's inverts.
An absorber can be used to clean this stream before it is returned to the EO purification tower
and any remaining inert is removed.
Closed cooling cycles are now used by the vast majority of EO producers to cool recirculated
effluent from EO stripper columns. Cooling towers, on the other hand, are sometimes used as a
last resort. Cooling is completed when the water evaporates due to the interaction between it and
the air. Emission rates decrease in direct proportion to the efficiency of EO removal in the
stripper column.
References
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Res. 1998, 36, 893–908. [CrossRef]
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practices. Int. J. Qual. and Reliab. Manag. 2006, 23, 647–669. [CrossRef]
3. Kallunki, J.P.; Silvola, H. The effect of organizational Life-cycle stage on the use of
Activity-Based Costing. Manag. Account. Res. 2008, 19, 62–79. [CrossRef]
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Audit. J. 2008, 23, 240–261. [CrossRef]
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based costing and business size. Inform. Sci. 2003, 1, 865–882.
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21

Ethylene Oxide Production

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Ethylene Oxide Production

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Ethylene oxide production

Ethylene oxide production

Cost of Spares AED45,215,139.42

Site Preparation AED13,564,541.83

Direct Permanent Investment AED334,336,176.21

Cost of Contingencies and Contractors Fees AED117,017,661.67

Total Depreciable Capital AED451,353,837.88

Electricity 898.235 KW AED AED53.89 AED/H AED452,710.44

Electricity 80.668 KW AED AED/KW-H AED4.84 AED/H AED40,656.67

Total Utility Costs (CE adjusted) AED12,435,933.93

Cost of Spares AED40,495,791.35

Site Preparation AED12,148,737.41

Direct Permanent Investment AED298,713,176.79

Cost of Contingencies and Contractors Fees AED104,549,611.88

Total Depreciable Capital AED403,262,788.67

Total Capital Investment AED487,300,037.08

Mechanical department services AED538,095.56

Total Annual Operating Overhead, O AED5,111,907.80

Property Taxes & Total Property Taxes & Insurance AED8,065,255.77

Total Fixed Costs AED67,475,247.22

Total Variable Costs and Total Variable Revenues

Total General Expenses as a 12% AED18,315,990.00

Total Variable Costs AED93,949,931.06

Total Cost Fabricated Equipment and Process Machinery AED20,828,257.19

Cost of Spares AED4,165,651.44

Site Preparation AED1,249,695.43

Direct Permanent Investment AED42,235,575.69

Cost of Contingencies and Contractors Fees AED14,782,451.49

Total Depreciable Capital AED57,018,027.18

Total Capital Investment AED107,005,039.00

Reactive and Combustive Properties

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