Major Risk factors in Residential fire

Human behavior is the leading cause of residential fire. A high proportion of all fires

that occur in residential structures are directly or indirectly attributable to human

activities (Tridata and NFDC 1998, 3). Cooking, heating, and arson are the three leading

causes of residential fire.

Causes of Residential Fire are the following:

 Cooking fire is the leading cause of home structure fires and associated civilian

injuries. In 2005, U.S. fire departments responded to 146, 400 home structural fires that

involved cooking equipment. These fires caused about 480 civilian fire deaths, 4, 690
civilian fire injuries and $876 million in direct property damage (Hall 2008, i). Furthermore,
most of cooking equipment fires are caused by human error not equipment malfunction (Ahrens
et al. 2007, 10).

Statistical data reveal two interesting gender and age patterns in cooking fire incidents.
Despite the fact that females conduct most cooking activities, more than half of the people killed
and almost half of those injured in reported cooking fires were male (Ahrens et al. 2007, 1).
People between ages 25 and 44 accounted for the greatest risk experiencing a cooking fire, older
adults and very young children accounted for the greatest risk of dying from a cooking fire
(Ahrens et al. 2007, 17).

 Children playing with fires were responsible for greater fire loss in the U.S. than any
other fire cause. The number of fires caused by children playing with fire declined after
1994 for two reasons: the child-resistant lighter standard and public fire safety education.

compared the child-playing fire rate pre and post-standard and found that in the
poststandard study, 48% of cigarette lighter fires were started by children younger than
age 5,

compared with 71% in the pre-standard study. Smith, et al.(2002, 195) estimated that the

children-resistant lighter standard prevented $566.8 million in 1998.

 Public education is another factor reducing children-playing with fires. Public fire safety
education programs have focused attention on child supervision and other steps that
reduce the child-playing fire problem (Hall and NFPA 2005, 2). Fire education, however,
has less effect in poor and rural locations (Fahy & Miller 1989, 36).
 Smoking –The U.S. fire department responded to an estimated 82,400 smoking-material
fires in 2005. These fires caused 800 civilian deaths, 1,660 civilian injuries and $575
million in direct property damage.
 Heating is second only to cooking as the leading cause of residential building fires. The
loss due to heating equipment is considerable. In 2005, heating fires accounted for about
670 civilian deaths, 1,550 civilian injuries, and $909 million in direct property damage
(Hall and NFPA 2008, 1). In the late 1970s and early 1980s, a surge in the use of space
 heaters and wood heating make heating equipment as the leading cause of residential
fires. This surge was stimulated, in large part, by environmental concerns and energy
shortages.

The causes of heating equipment fires vary. Fixed and portable space heaters accounted for
32 percent of reported 2005 U.S. home heating fires, and chimneys and chimney connectors
accounted for the largest share of fire incidents (36% in 2005). According to Hall (2007, 6),
space heaters resulted in far more fires and losses than central heating devices. Hall (2007, 6)
also found that space heaters have about 7 times higher risk of causing fires, 36 times higher risk
of causing civilian deaths, 12 times higher risk of causing civilian injuries, and 8 times higher
risk of causing direct property damage than central heating devices.

The five major residential fire causes mentioned above accounted for 60.6 percent of all
residential fires in 2005. These fire causes are important because they account for the largest
proportion of residential fire associated with human behavior, but also because the patterns
hiding behind these causes help researchers understand the larger picture regarding residential
fires.

Three independent variables – residential population density, poverty rate, and the square of the
ratio of employees to the residential population in a tract are significant and strongly positively
associated with the total number of fire calls.

o Class 3 fires originate outside the structure without human intervention.

o Class 2 fires originate inside the residential structure without direct human intervention
(e.g. electrical short circuits).
o Class 1 fires originate inside the residential structure and are caused by human behaviors
(e.g. arson, children playing with fires).

The factors that impact class 3 fires are the physical and natural environment. The factors that
impact class 2 fires causes are building condition, household economic status, household
demography, and household social system. According to Jennings (1996, 123-125), class 2 fires
are the most difficult to influence in the short term. Three of the factors impacting class 2 fires
also impact class 1 fires. These factors are: household economic status, household
demography, and household social system.
According to Jennings‟ model (1996, 122) and other empirical studies, the factors that impact
residential fire rate are the following:

o Population characteristics ( household economic status, household demography, and

social/household system),
o Building characteristics (such as age, ownership of structural, vacancy rate, crowdedness,
average rent, etc ), and
o The environment (climate).

Conceptual Model of Fire Initiation and Fire Loss

Jennings (1996, 122)

Natural Environment:

Fireplaces, wood stoves, and portable heater, lower temperatures increase the likelihood of fires
because people used more heating devices stay warm.), population characteristics, and building
characteristics.

POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS:

Household economic status, household demography, and household social systems reflect the
population characteristics that impact the likelihood of residential fires. These three population
factors impact both class three (fires originating inside the structure without human intervention)
and class one (fires originating inside the residential structure because of human behaviors)
residential fires (Jennings 1996, 122). children playing with fires also can be attributed to a lack
of parental supervision. Schaenman, et al. (1977, 57) have demonstrated that the percentage of
children under 18 living with both parents is strongly negatively related to the fire rate. Tridata
and NFDC (1997, 18) also found that single parent households face higher fire risk because
children have less supervision.

Another social/household system factor that impacts the residential fire rate is education
level. Schaenman, et al., (1977, 57) found that education level is negatively associated with the
residential fire rate. Fahy and Miller (1989, 36) explained that people with less education were
more likely to lack discretionary income to purchase smoke detectors and other code-compliant
electrical equipments, because those people were less likely to understand the importance of fire
safety equipment.

Two demographic factors influence the risk for fires –

o The household size and

o The age of the residents.

Some empirical studies have found that crowdedness is positively associated with the residential
fire rate.

According to Jennings (1996, 125), the number of residents in a household can increase the rate
of the degradation of household equipment, leading to a higher chance of fire occurring.
Furthermore, the increasing number of residents means more human activities and social
interaction inside the buildings, which also increases the risk for certain types of fires, such as
cooking fires.

The second demographic factor that influencing residential fire rates is resident‟s age. Some
researchers have found that resident‟s age is associated with the residential fire rate .The number
of elderly persons also influences the fire risk. Tridata and NFDC (1997, 21) stated that elderly
persons experience more fires than other age groups due to the decline of their physical or mental
capabilities.
Household economic factors also affect residential fire causes. Many empirical studies have
found that poverty rate is positively associated with the residential fire rate.

Rural poverty poses different residential fire problems. Clark (1982, 40-41, 105-106) pointed out
some unique fire problems in rural areas.

 Rural areas were more likely to fail to enforce fire codes during building design,
construction, and use.
 Rural fire service usually responses to a fire more slowly than urban fire service,
because they are more isolated and often rely on volunteer firefighters.
 Rural areas frequently do not have architects who thoroughly understand building
codes.
 Many architects in rural areas use lightweight and combustible materials because they are
cheap without considering the fire safety implications.
 Rural governments often do not have staff to administer building contracts.
 The insurance industry appears to be more interested in the protection of property
than in the safety of people occupying the buildings.
 Rural home owners and property managers have limited knowledge about fire safety.

Fahy and Miller (1989, 29-35) concluded that there are four reasons why poverty increases fire
risk. First, in poor areas, the building conditions are worse than other areas. The buildings in
these areas often lack adequate maintenance, have no indoor plumbing and running water and
central heating system, and the vacancy rate is high. Second, poor people have almost no
financial resources needed to invest in fire safety equipment, such as, smoke detectors.

Third, many poor people do not budget to purchase code-compliant electrical equipment
because they are under educated. Fourth, low income urban areas are more likely to have high
crime rates, which increases the fire risk from arson.

Building Characteristics:
Building age: older buildings with old electrical systems might be unable to handle the burden of
the additional electrical devices.

Owner occupied units seem to have lower fire risks than renter- occupied units. Owner occupied
units are better maintained.

Some empirical studies have demonstrated that the vacancy rate is positively associated with the
residential fire rate.the frequency of severe fires in abandoned buildings is four times higher than
others (Sternlieb and Burchell 1973, 28). the homeless often use abandoned buildings as their
shelter, which causes fire risk due to unsafe cooking, heating devices, careless smoking and
children-playing with fire (Northon 1989, 33).

Parental presence was defined as the percentage of population under 18 living with both parents.
Undereducation was defined as the percent of population over 25 without high school degrees.
The presence of children and old people was defined as the sum of the percent of the population
younger than 6yrs old and the percent of the population 64yrs old.
Major Risk Factors in Commercial buildings Fire

Throughout history, protecting commercial structures from fire has been important.Fire poses
risk in terms of safety to occupants, building integrity, business interruption and the economic
health of a community. Consequently, reduction in the risk of fire for commercial buildings has
been a significant goal for society, achieved through a better understanding of all the factors that
contribute to fire risk.

Designing and building structures in compliance with building and fire code requirements, and
insurance industry guidelines, contributes to the reduction of fire losses.

Many factors responsible for major fire, includes the following:

 lack of adequate fire divisions,

 untrained fire brigades,
 poor water supplies,
 inadequate fire-fighting equipment, and
 improper storage of combustible materials and hazardous products.

The physical risk evaluation criteria are based on four main factors:

 construction class;
 occupancy type;
 level of protection; and,
 degree and type of external exposures.

Construction Class

Construction classes are intended to divide structures into categories of differing resistance to
fire.

The following six basic construction classifications are used by the insurance industry.

1) Fire Resistive (Construction Class 1) – buildings in which the structural members including
walls, floors and roof are constructed of masonry materials or of fire-resistive materials or
assemblies (floors and exterior walls rated not less than two hours, roof rated not less than one
hour);

2) Masonry Noncombustible (Construction Class 2) – buildings with walls of masonry or of

fire-resistive materials or assemblies (rated not less than one hour), and floors and roof of
noncombustible materials with noncombustible supports;
3) Noncombustible (Construction Class 3) – buildings with walls, floors and roof of
noncombustible materials supported by noncombustible supports;

4) Masonry (Construction Class 4) – buildings with walls of masonry or fire-resistive materials

or assemblies (rated not less than one hour), and with combustible floors and roof. Includes joist
(or ordinary construction)and heavy timber construction;

5) Masonry Veneer (Construction Class 5) – buildings with walls of combustible construction

veneered on the outside with masonry materials not less than 100 mm (4 in.) in thickness, and
with combustible floor and roof; and

6) Frame (Construction Class 6) – buildings with walls, floors and roof of combustible
construction except as provided for under Class 5 above or buildings with exterior walls of a
noncombustible construction with combustible floors and roof.

Occupancy Type

The main use or occupancy of a structure, represented by its ‘occupancy type’,also significantly
influences the level of fire risk within a property. For variousbuildings, differences occur in the
activities taking place, types of materials used and stored, quantity of storage needed, number of
occupants present and the equipment and building services required to fulfil the function of a
property. All these attributes of an occupancy type can introduce fire hazards and may increase
the necessity for additional fire protection measures in a commercial building.

The NBCC divides all non-residential buildings into five major occupancy types:

 Assembly (Group A),

 Care or Detention (Group B),
 Business and Personal Services(Group D),
 Mercantile (Group E), and
 Industrial (Group F).

Some of these types are then sub-divided based on levels of hazard. For example, Industrial is
divided into low (Group F3), medium (Group F2) and high hazard (Group F1)
occupancies.‘Occupancy factors’ take into consideration the contents of a structure, the method
and volume of storage, and the use of the premises to determine any manufacturing or process
hazards, as well as the contribution of building services such as heating, plumbing, electrical and
air conditioning.

Sixteen individual major classes of occupancy are used, which are based on the main activities
that take place in a structure. Some examples of the major classes are warehousing, retail stores,
hotels and resorts, entertainment, and business and professional services. Many of these classes
are then sub-divided by specific use and size. The categories of occupancy classification in this
system are referred to as the IBC ‘Industry Codes’.

Level of Protection

In this context, ‘level of protection’ refers to the degree of fire protection provided by active fire-
protection systems and services, both on a property and provided by the community in which the
property is found. In assigning ‘protection factors’, insurers assess both ‘public’ protection, such
as fire department capabilities, fire hydrant distribution and available water supply, and ‘private’
protection, such as fire extinguishers, automatic sprinklers, and fire alarm systems, provided
inside a building. The levels of reliability of these and other fire-protection systems and services
can significantly affect the overall level of fire protection provided to a structure.

Degree and Type of External Exposure

Fire protection of commercial structures can also be affected by exposure to risk of fire from
beyond the boundaries of a given property. ‘External exposure factors’ used by the insurance
industry typically reflect any additional hazards introduced by communicating, adjoining or
surrounding properties. Reducing the external exposures of a property can lower the applicable
premium rate because of the reduced risk of fire loss. The percentage of openings, exterior wall
construction and cladding type are regulated by the NBCC based on distance between buildings
or distance to property lines (i.e. ‘limiting distance’). This is primarily intended to avoid major
conflagrations and significant property loss from fire spread between adjoining buildings or
structures.

Other Considerations
Some of the features considered can be: building height, vertical openings (e.g. stairs and shafts),
building area (i.e. ‘effective undivided floor area’), roof surfaces, concealed spaces, interior
construction or finishes, exterior finishes, and building condition (e.g. damage or deficiencies).
Good design and maintenance of a building, using basic fire prevention principles and fire
protection measures,can result in the reduction or elimination of such charges.

FIRE PROTECTION FACTORS

Municipal Protection Class Rating System

The adequacy and reliability of public fire-protection systems and services have a significant
impact on minimizing the fire risk for commercial properties. survey assesses the adequacy and
reliability of public fire-protection programs, including the main aspects of fire department
operations, training and administration; water supplies for firefighting; emergency
communication systems; and fire-prevention programs.

These municipal surveys are used to determine a final ‘municipal protection class’ for each
community: a Class 1 rating represents the highest level of protection, while a Class 10 rating
represents no protection.

Water Supply for Fire-Fighting

Various guidelines and references exist for calculating adequate water supply for fire-fighting,
often called the ‘needed fire flow’ which results in onerous or uneconomical requirements for the
water supply, especially in those areas where a built-up infrastructure does not exist. These
changes may eventually reduce the likelihood of fire disaster in many commercial buildings:

 Automatic sprinklers should be the standard level of protection in highrise buildings.

 Requirements for the installation of automatic sprinklers are justified by concerns about
firefighter safety and public protection effectiveness, as well as traditional measures such
as life safety and property conservation.
 Code assumptions about fire department standpipe tactics proved invalid.
 The requirements and procedures for design, installation, inspection, testing, and
maintenance of standpipes and pressure reducing valves must be examined carefully.
  Inconsistencies between code assumptions and firefighting tactics must be addressed.
 Pre-fire planning is an essential fire department function.
 Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) and training programs for fires in highrise
buildings should reflect the installed protection and highrise fire behavior.
 Safety-oriented strategies should dominate command decisions when multiple systems
failures become evident.
 Fire code enforcement programs require the active participation of the fire department.
 Code provisions should be adopted requiring highrise building owners to retain trained
personnel to manage fire protection and life safety code compliance and assist fire
department personnel during emergencies.
 Occupants and central station operators must always treat automatic fire alarms as though
they were actual fires, especially in highrise buildings.
 Incomplete fire detection can create a false sense of security.
 Nationally recognized elevator code requirements for manual control of elevators during
fire emergencies work.
 The ignition source provided by oil-soaked rags is a long recognized hazard that
continues to be a problem.
 Building security personnel should be vigilant for fire safety as well as security threats,
especially while construction demolition, alteration, or repair activities are underway.
 Emergency electrical systems must be truly independent or redundant.
 The regulations governing fire-resistance ratings for highrise structural components
should be re-evaluated.
 Inspections must be conducted during and after construction to verify that penetrations in
fire-resistance rated assemblies are properly protected.
 Features to limit exterior vertical fire spread must be incorporated in the design of
highrise Buildings.

Major Risk factors in Hospital fire

Fires in institutions occur frequently and are the cause of a considerable number of
casualties. Although major hospital fires are rare their potential for disaster is substantial,
consequently,much time, money and effort go into preventing them. Preventive
architectural design,fire drills, staff education and protocols for disaster
planning are common in hospitals.

Eighty-nine percent of medical facility fires occur in hospitals, and 10% occur in clinics.
Fires most often originate in the kitchen (20%); additionally, 11% begin in patient rooms,
and 9% in laundry rooms. This pattern resembles the pattern seen in residential structure
fires, which is not surprising given that hospitals have characteristics similar to
residential structures. For example, both hospitals and residential structures are occupied
24/7 and must support the activities of daily life (e.g., cooking, laundry).

CASUALTIES

Medical facility fires tend to be more injurious than other categories of fires, but
generally cause less damage. This pattern is likely because, although medical facility
fires tend to be small, their smoke is deadly. For civilian casualties (both injuries and
fatalities), the majority (66%) suffered from smoke inhalation; 44% percent of these
casualties were attempting fire control at the time of their injury. Overall, about half of
casualties were either intimately involved with the ignition of the fire or in the same
room; 40% were on the same floor as the fire.
Causes:
 Smoking:
While smoking is not permitted on many hospital campuses, that doesn't stop
people from lighting up every once in a while, as an Orlando hospital experienced
earlier this fall. So much so, in fact, that it is the eighth leading cause of hospital
fires.
 Electronic, office and entertainment equipment-turning off your computer
equipment before leaving work can help in reducing fire events. Electronic, office
or entertainment equipment caused 30 hospital fires between 2003 and 2006,
 including a 2006 fire that occured when a malfunctioning computer monitor
ignited in the O.R. at a Connecticut hospital.

Source:(http://www.fiercehealthcare.com/slideshows/top-8-causes-hospital-fires)

 Medical equipment-Perhaps surprisingly, medical equipment is not higher on

this list, given that oxygen and radiological equipment have ability to do major
damage.
Medical equipment accounted for 30 fires in the U.S. between 2003 and 2006. In
one case, an hours-old newborn in Minnesota suffered second- and third-degree
burns after his oxygen hood ignited.And in Missouri, a fire broke out when a
cauterizing pen ignited sterile drapes during surgery.
Source:(http://www.fiercehealthcare.com/slideshows/top-8-causes-hospital-fires)

 Clothes washers and dryers

About 4 percent of hospital fires (60 firest total) are caused by washers and dryers
-- usually due to misuse or neglect.
Case in point: A fire at one Florida hospital was traced back to several oily mops
that ignited after a worker placed them in a clothes dryer, the NFPA reports.
And in Canada, a hospital suffered fire damage in 2007 due to a buildup of lint on
the ceiling above the laundry department.

Source:(http://www.fiercehealthcare.com/slideshows/top-8-causes-hospital-fires)
  Heating equipment-Heating equipment, such as chimneys, flues, boilers and
incinerators, also accounted for 4 percent of hospital fires between 2003 and
2006.
A New Hampshire hospital quickly extinguished a fire that broke after its boiler
malfunctioned. Luckily, firefighters contained the fire and used fans to vent
smoke from the hospital.

Source:(http://www.fiercehealthcare.com/slideshows/top-8-causes-hospital-fires)

 Electrical distribution and lighting equipment-Seven percent of hospital fires

(110 total) were attributed to electrical distribution and lighting equipment,
including wiring, transformers, circuit breakers, outlets, light fixtures, lamps and
power cords.
In one case, an arc in the electric panel in the basement of a Florida hospital killed one worker
and injured two others, the NFPA reports.
In another, a fire broke out at an Iowa hospital after several spools of wiring -- each weighing
well over 100 lbs. -- were placed on top of an electrical cord. The weight caused damage to the
cord that led to arcing, according to the NFPA.
 Source:(http://www.fiercehealthcare.com/slideshows/top-8-causes-hospital-fires)

 Contained trash or rubbish-Contained trash or debris is the second leading cause of hospital
fires, accounting for 9 percent of all hospital fires between 2003 and 2006 (150 fires total).
In May, fire ignited in a Dumpster outside of an Arizona hospital. The flames traveled up the
side of the hospital through a construction trash disposal chute that led to a fourth floor
construction project.

Source:(http://www.fiercehealthcare.com/slideshows/top-8-causes-hospital-fires)

 Cooking equipment-No cause of hospital fires has been more prominent in recent years than
cooking equipment. Roughly 52 percent of all hospital fires between 2003 and 2006 (830 fires
total) were caused by cooking equipment, such as microwaves, ovens, deep fat fryers and gas
grills.
In one case, cardboard boxes that were stored near an electric stove in a physical therapy room
were ignited when a staff member accidentally brushed up against the stove and turned it
on. Rougly $100,000 of damage resulted, though no injuries were sustained, the NFPA reports.
Source:(http://www.fiercehealthcare.com/slideshows/top-8-causes-hospital-fires)