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fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TIM.2020.3026024, IEEE
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A Novel Calibration Method using Six Positions
for MEMS Triaxial Accelerometer
Tongxu Xu, Xiang Xu, Dacheng Xu, and Heming Zhao, Member, IEEE
Abstract—With the increase in the application of micro-
electromechanical system (MEMS) accelerometers, their
accurate calibration is increasingly essential to reduce the
application error. Aiming at the high accuracy calibration
requirements of scale factor, bias, and nonorthogonalities, we
propose a novel calibration method to obtain highly accurate
parameters, especially in the scenario without turntable. First,
a twelve-parameter model of accelerometer output data is used
for analysis. The static data characteristics of the six specified
positions of the accelerometer were then analyzed. Finally,
based on these characteristics, a novel calibration method
performed using an iterated parameter correction process is
proposed. Repeatable simulations under different biases show
that the calibration accuracy of the proposed method is not
affected by the bias value to be calibrated, and that the
calibration results have consistent accuracy. The estimation
error of bias and relative error of scale factor are less than 0.5
mg and 0.05%, respectively, and the accuracy of the non-
orthogonal elements of the calibration matrix S and K are 0.003
and 0.006, respectively. In addition, the calibration results of
the laboratory MEMS accelerometer and the triaxial
accelerometer in ADIS16488 demonstrate the effectiveness of
the proposed method.
Index Terms—Triaxial accelerometer, calibration, in-field
calibration, six positions, parameter correction
I. INTRODUCTION
With the development of micro electro mechanical
systems (MEMS), MEMS accelerometers with the
characteristics of small volume and low price have been
widely used. Its applications range from the traditional
automotive airbag system, hard disk detection, motion
analysis [1-3], unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) navigation
[4,5], pedestrian navigation, and indoor positioning [4-7].
Recently, the navigation and positioning of mobile machines
(or mobile terminals) [5], especially integrated navigation
technology based on MEMS accelerometers, gyroscopes,
and information from the global navigation satellite system
(GNSS), has become a research hotspot. In integrated
navigation, the error of the accelerometer affects the
positioning accuracy. Because the MEMS accelerometer is
usually not calibrated accurately [8,11], high-precision
calibration of its parameters is very important to reduce the
application error.
The traditional high-precision calibration method of
MEMS accelerometers is time-consuming and requires an
expensive three-axis turntable [4,10]. Therefore, for low and
medium accuracy triaxial accelerometers, a high-precision
This work was supported in part by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China under Grant 61803278, in part by the National
Equipment Pre-research Foundation of China (61405170207,
61405170308), in part by the Foundation of Key Laboratory of Micro-
Inertial Instrument and Advanced Navigation Technology, Ministry of
Education, China, Ministry of Education, China (SEU-MIAN-
201802).(Corresponding author: Heming Zhao.)
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calibration method without a turntable [4,11] is required to
reduce cost and calibration time. The calibration method of
a triaxial accelerometer without a turntable is also called in-
field calibration [10,12]. The research on in-field calibration
technology of MEMS triaxial accelerometer can be
summarized into three research routes: the least square
method based on reference vector [13,14] or recursive least
square method [15], Kalman filter calibration method based
on the navigation error equation [9], and parameter
optimization solutions (referred to as the nonlinear
optimization calibration method herein) based on the
equality of the accelerometer vector norm and gravity value
[1-3, 16-18]. The classical least square calibration method
uses six position data, and an accurate horizontal platform
[13]. However, it is difficult to construct a platform that is
absolutely horizontal in actual placement. Moreover, [13]
does not consider the influence of six position data on the
accuracy of non-diagonal elements of the calibration matrix,
and does not discuss the consistency of the accuracy of the
calibration results. When using the calibration method based
on the Kalman filter, the calibration of non-diagonal
elements of the calibration matrix is missing [8]; this method
can only obtain some of parameters of the MEMS triaxial
accelerometer.
In the nonlinear optimization calibration method,
although intelligent algorithms, such as genetic algorithms
[17] and particle swarm optimization calibration methods
[16,18], can be used to calibrate the accelerometer
parameters. However, if the initial parameters, such as the
initial population of the genetic algorithm (GA) or particle
number of particle swarm optimization (PSO), are not
selected properly, it can easily lead to the local optimal
solution. Although, the unscented Kalman filter (UKF)
calibration method [9] and iterative least square method
based on the linearization approach [11] can be used to
obtain the scale factor and bias with high accuracy, the non-
diagonal elements of the calibration matrix cannot be
obtained by them. The ellipsoid fitting method based on the
Kaiser window filter requires a three-axis turntable to rotate
the accelerometer, so that more position data distributed on
the ellipsoid can be obtained [19]. The descent methods for
searching triaxial accelerometer parameters have been
studied by many researchers, and the model of the
calibration matrix of these methods usually contains an
upper [12] and a lower [2-4,6] triangle calibration matrixes.
T. Xu is with the School of Electronic and Information Engineering,
Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China (e-mail:
xutongxumail@163.com).
H. Zhao, D. Xu, and X. Xu are with the School of Electronic and
Information Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China (e-
mail: hmzhao@suda.edu.cn; e-mail: xudacheng@suda.edu.cn; e-mail:
hsianghsu@163.com).
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When calibrating using these models, the Newton method where V s represents the vector formed by the output
and Levenberg–Marquart method are usually used to search data of the triaxial accelerometer on the coordinate system
for parameters. However, these methods require an
appropriate initial parameter. If the initial parameters are too s ; S F is a diagonal matrix (its elements S Fx , S Fy , S Fz on
far from the true value, it is easy to obtain the local optimal the diagonal are the scale factors of the three axes of the
solution that is not useful. In addition, these methods need to triaxial accelerometer); fb represents the vector on the
collect a large number of different position data, which
increases the calibration time [11]. coordinate system b ;  represents the vector of the
s

The major contribution of this paper can be described as three-axis bias on the coordinate system s , and has the
follows. We proposed a novel calibration method with high same dimension as f ; and  v is the result of multiplying
b
accuracy and less data collection aiming to solve the problem
of in-field calibration of MEMS triaxial accelerometers with the bias and scale factor of each axis on the coordinate
high accuracy. So that the application error of the system s . The transformation matrix from the coordinate
accelerometer can be reduced, like long term navigation system b to the coordinate system s as:
error [20]. In this method, a cube frame with a low price and  cos( xy ) cos( xz ) sin( xz )  cos( xz )sin( xy ) 
high precision is used as the transposition tool. After   (2)
collecting the six-position data of the triaxial accelerometer, Ab    cos( yx )sin( yz ) cos( yx ) cos( yz )
s
sin( yx ) 
the bias of each sensor axis and the calibration matrix with 9  sin( zy )  cos( zy )sin( zx ) cos( zx ) cos( zy ) 

parameters are obtained using the proposed calibration
method. The proposed calibration method has a high where  xy and  xz represent the rotation angle of the x-
precision and does not require expensive equipment, making axis of the coordinate system b around the Y-axis and Z-
it suitable for in-field calibration.
axis, respectively, so as to obtain the X-axis of the coordinate
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows.
Section 2 introduces the calibration model of the triaxial system s ;  yz and  yx indicating the rotation angle of
accelerometer, including the nine-parameter model for the Y-axis of the coordinate system b around the Z-axis
comparison and the twelve parameters model of the and X-axis, respectively, to obtain the Y-axis of the
proposed calibration method. In Section 3, the calibration
method based on the six-position data and the specific steps coordinate system s ;  zx and  zy represent the rotation
of the calibration algorithm are introduced. In Section 4, the angle of the Z-axis of the coordinate system b around the
calibration experiments using the simulation and actual X-axis and Y-axis, respectively, so as to obtain the Z-axis of
MEMS accelerometer are carried out. In section 5, discuss the coordinate system s (detailed analysis is presented in the
the accuracy and uncertainty of the proposed method, and
appendix). Since the orthogonal system b is an imaginary
compare with calibration methods published in recent years.
In Section 6, the study is summarized. coordinate system, it is not unique; therefore, the
transformation matrix is not unique. In the nonlinear
II. CALIBRATION MODELS OF THE TRIAXIAL optimization calibration method, the common
ACCELEROMETER transformation matrix from the coordinate system b to the
Because of the manufacturing process and other factors, coordinate system s includes a upper [12] and lower [2-4]
s
the three sensitive axes of the triaxial accelerometer are not triangle matrixes. When A b is the lower triangular matrix,
perfectly orthogonal to each other [4,12]; that is, the the sensor data model is as follows:
coordinate system of the sensitive axes of the triaxial
accelerometer is non-orthogonal. Herein, the non-orthogonal V s  S F AbL
s
f bL  v (3)
coordinate system is denoted as the s -coordinate system. In  1 0 0 
navigation and other applications, the data from the triaxial   (4)
A    sin( yz )
s
bL cos( yz ) 0 
accelerometer should be converted to the orthogonal
 sin( zy )  cos( zy )sin( zx ) cos( zx ) cos( zy ) 
coordinate system as much as possible to reduce the  
application error. This orthogonal coordinate system is where bL represents the coordinate system
denoted as the b -coordinate system, and the transformation bL
corresponding to the lower triangle model, f represents
matrix that converts the coordinate system b to the s
s the vector of the coordinate system bL , and A bL represents
coordinate system s is denoted as A b .
The actual measured data of the triaxial accelerometer is the transformation matrix from the coordinate system bL
the sensitive acceleration on the coordinate system s . to the coordinate system s .
Therefore, the scale factor that converts the electrical signal For the general orthogonal coordinate system (that is,
into acceleration and bias acts on the coordinate system s . when the matrix is neither an upper nor lower triangle
matrix), the transformation model of the output data from the
Thus, the output data model of the triaxial accelerometer can
be obtained using the following equation (After averaging coordinate system s to coordinate system b can be
the static sensor data, the effect of noise can be ignored written as
compared to bias.): f b  (Abs )1 ((S F )1 V s  s )
V s  S F ( Abs f b   s )  S  f b  v , (1)
 (S F Abs )1 (V s  S F  s )

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 Ka  (V s v ) . (5) B. Calibration principle

When the transformation matrix is a lower triangle, the Based on the six positions shown in Fig. 1, when the
transformation model is given by position of the triaxial accelerometer is changed, the
transformation relationship between the h-coordinate system
f bL  K  (Vs v ) . (6) and the p-coordinate system is fixed, which is recorded as
Here, Chp , and the transformation relationship between the b-
 K11 0 0  coordinate system and the p-coordinate system is variable,
K   K 21 K 22 0  . (7) with the transformation matrix recorded as C p . The output
b

 K31 K32 K 33  of the triaxial accelerometer at each position of the six

positions can be expressed as (After averaging the static data,
In this study, the calibration method based on the lower
the effect of noise can be ignored)
triangle model is used for comparison; (1) is used as the
calibration model. In the next section, the new calibration V s  S F A bs Cbp Chp  g h   v (8)
method of the MEMS triaxial accelerometer is introduced in
where g  [0, 0, g L ]
h T
detail.
and gL is the gravity value
related to the local latitude L. For the six positions in Fig. 1,
III. PROPOSED CALIBRATION METHOD AT SIX POSITIONS the vectors formed by the output data of the triaxial
A. Six positions of triaxial accelerometer accelerometer are recorded as Vxu , Vxd , Vyu , Vyd ,
In the calibration, the triaxial accelerometer is placed on Vzu , and Vzd , respectively. These vectors can be calculated
the cube frame, which can be considered as the coordinate
using (8), and the expressions of the new six vectors can be
system b . By flipping the cube frame, different positions obtained. The obtained expressions are as follows:
were obtained. In the calibration algorithm proposed below,
the six positions shown in Fig. 1 are used.
 S Fx cos(  ) cos( xy ) cos( xz ) 
Vxu  Vxd  
Vx1   g L   S Fy cos(  ) cos( yx )sin( yz )  , (9)
2
 S Fz cos(  )sin( zy ) 
 
  vx  g L S Fx sin(  )sin( xz ) 
Vxu  Vxd  v 
Vx 2    y  g L S Fy sin(  ) cos( yx ) cos( yz )  , (10)
2
  vz  g L S Fz sin(  ) cos( zy )sin( zx ) 
 
 S Fx cos(  )sin( xz ) 
Vyu  Vyd  
Vy1   g L  S Fy cos(  ) cos( yx ) cos( yz )  , (11)
2
  S Fz cos(  ) cos( zy )sin( zx ) 
 
 vx  g L S Fx sin(  )cos( xy )cos( xz ) 
Vyu  Vyd  v 
Vy 2     y  g L S Fy sin(  )cos( yx )sin( yz )  , (12)
2
  vz  g L S Fz sin(  )sin( zy ) 
 
  S Fx cos(  )cos( xz )sin( xy ) 
Vzu  Vzd  
Vz1   gL  S Fy cos(  )sin( yx )  , (13)
2
Fig. 1 Six positions diagram of triaxial accelerometer on the platform.  S Fz cos(  )cos( zy )cos( zx ) 
 
In Fig. 1, the blue cuboid can be considered as a cube
  vx  g L S Fx sin(  )sin( xz ) 
frame for fixing the sensor. The h-coordinate system in Fig. Vzu  Vzd  v 
1 is a horizontal coordinate system, and its three orthogonal Vz 2    y  g L S Fy sin(  )cos( yx )cos( yz )  . (14)
2
axes are Xh, Yh, and Zh. Accordingly, the p-coordinate   vz  g L S Fz sin(  )cos( zy )sin( zx ) 
system is the platform coordinate system, that is, the plane  
used to place the cube frame. The common platform is not Based on the characteristics of the new six vector
absolute level, especially when the platform placed in the expressions of Vx1 , Vx 2 , Vy1 , Vy 2 , Vz1 , and Vz 2 , a
field calibration situation. Therefore, there is an angle  novel calibration method for a triaxial accelerometer at six
between it and the h-coordinate system. It should be noted positions, termed as parameter-correction calibration
that the above six positions have a common feature, that is, method herein, can be obtained. Let us take the parameters
one side of the cube frame should theoretically coincide with of the YS axis as an example to explain the proposed method.
the Yp axis of the platform coordinate system. From vectors Vy1 and Vy 2 , the rough estimation of the

scale factor and  y can be obtained.

v

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SFy  Vy1 (2) / g L ，  y  Vy 2 (2)

v
(15) Vy1 (2)
SFy  , (20)
Similarly, the rough scale factors ( S Fx and S Fz ) and g L cos(  ) cos( yx ) cos( yz )
biases (  x , and  z ) of XS and ZS axes, respectively, can Vz1 (3)
v v
S Fz  , (21)
also be obtained. The estimation of the angle  yx can then
g L cos(  ) cos( zx ) cos( zy )

be obtained from the vector Vz1 through the following

vx  Vx 2 (1)  g L S Fx sin(  )sin( xz ) , (22)

equation:   Vy 2 (2)  g L S Fy sin(  ) cos( yx ) sin( yz ) (23)

v
y

 yx  arcsin(
Vz1 (2)
). (16)
 vz  Vz 2 (3)  g L S Fz sin(  ) cos( zy ) sin( zx ) . (24)
S Fy g L Step 3: Calculate the estimated value of the angles  yx ,
Based on the expression characteristics of the vector Vx1 ,  zy , and  xz based on the following equations:
estimation of the angle  yz can be obtained as follows: Vz1 (2)
 yx  arcsin( ), (25)
V (2)
 yz  arcsin( x1 ) . (17) g L S Fy cos(  )
 S Fy g L
Vx1 (3)
 zy  arcsin( ), (26)
Finally, based on the vector Vx 2 , estimation of the angle g L S Fz cos(  )
 can be obtained. Vy1 (1)
Vx 2 (2)   v  xz  arcsin( ), (27)
  arcsin( y
) (18) g L S Fx cos(  )
S Fy g L cos( yx ) cos( yz ) Step 4: Calculate the estimated value of the angles  xy ,
A rough estimation of the relevant parameters of the Ys
axis is then obtained. Similarly, following the above process,  yz , and  zx based on the following equations:
a rough estimation of the related parameters of the Xs and Zs Vz1 (1)
axes can also be obtained. Subsequently, a more accurate  xy  arcsin( ), (28)
calibration parameters of the triaxial accelerometer can be  g L S Fx cos(  ) cos( xz )
obtained by modifying the parameters with the rough Vx1 (2)
estimates. In the next subsection, the calibration steps of the  yz  arcsin( ), (29)
novel calibration method are described in detail.  g L S Fy cos(  ) cos( yx )
C. Calibration steps of parameter-correction method Vy1 (3)
 zx  arcsin( ). (30)
In short, the calibration method can be divided into two  g L S Fz cos(  ) cos( zy )
steps: the first step is to estimate the rough calibration
parameters, and the second step is to use the rough Step 5: Calculate the estimated angle  using (31) and
calibration parameters to improve the calibration results and (32).
obtain more accurate calibration parameters. Before Vx 2 (2)   vy Vy 2 (1)   vx
calibration, it is necessary to obtain the data of the sensor. sv  
g L S Fy cos( yx ) cos( yz )  g L S Fx cos( xy ) cos( xz )
The output data of the triaxial accelerometer at each of the
six positions should be collected for at least 5 s with a Vz 2 (2)   vy
 , (31)
sampling frequency greater than 100 Hz and, the noisy data g L S Fy cos( yx ) cos( yz )
at each position must be averaged. This is performed to
reduce the impact of random noise and to obtain the six   arcsin(sv / 3) . (32)
vectors, Vxd , Vyu , Vyd , Vzu , and Vzd . The following Step 6: If num = 1, return to step 2 to continue parameter
estimation, and num = num + 1; if num > 1, let num = num +
calibration procedure can be used to obtain the calibration 1, and turn to step 7.
parameters: Step 7: Calculate the absolute value of the difference
Step 1: Based on (9)–(14), to obtain the six new vectors,
initialize the parameters between X1 and X2 , that is, er  X 2  X1 . The
   xz   xy   yx   yz   zx   zy  0 and set the maximum component value of the vector er is recorded as
6
count variable num = 1. e0 . If e0  10 , the required parameters are considered to
Step 2: Calculate the scale factors and biases of the be obtained. Subsequently, calculate the transformation
triaxial accelerometer based on the following equations: s
matrix A b based on (2), and stop parameter estimation; if
Vx1 (1)
S Fx  , (19) e0  106 , return to step 2, and continue to estimate
g L cos(  ) cos( xy ) cos( xz )
parameters.
The afore-described calibration method is an iterative
parameter-correction calibration method. Compared with the

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nonlinear optimization method, it does not need to calculate is set to 0.33 mg. The transformation matrix A b ,
s
S , and
the Jacobian matrix of the cost function with respect to the
variable, so the proposed method requires less calculation. the lower triangular matrix K are set as
 0.99668 0.04272 0.06925
Abs   0.03047 0.99831 0.04944  ,
IV. SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTS
(34)
In this section, calibration simulations between the
proposed method and two auto-calibration methods are  0.08194 0.06772 0.99433 
presented in detail. In the actual sensor calibration, the
proposed method is also compared with the quasi-Newton  1.00675 0.04315 0.06995
method.
S   0.03078 1.00839 0.04994  , (35)
A. Simulation
 0.08277 0.06841 1.00437 
The transformation matrix of the comparison method
selects the lower triangle model [6] to ensure the uniqueness  0.99 0 0 
of the transformation from the s-coordinate system to the bL- 
K   0.01555 0.99012 0  . (36)
coordinate system. The quasi-Newton method and method in
[12] are used for searching parameters for comparison, and  0.01530 0.01555 0.99024
the following equation is selected as the cost function [3].
N
In the simulation, the proposed calibration method uses (1)
1
 ( K (V
2
G (K ,  )  v
i
s
  )  gL )
v 2 2
(33) as the calibration model, while the quasi-Newton method
N i 1
and method in [12] use (6) as the calibration model. Since
where N = 6. the real calibration parameters are known in the simulation,
s the relative error and error of the calibration parameters are
The vector Vi represents the average sensor data for given in the simulation results. The relative error of the
each position. To fully simulate the actual situation of diagonal element of the calibration matrix K in (1) and the
triaxial accelerometer calibration, two types of errors must diagonal element of the calibration matrix S in (6) are
be introduced. One is the manufacturing error of the cube
frame, that is, the error angle between the adjacent faces of compared, that is, K11 , K22 , and K33 are compared with
the cube caused by the actual manufacturing process. The S11 , S22 , and S33 , respectively. To make the calibration
other is the parallel error, that is, the angle between the edge
results of different models comparable, the relative errors of
of the cube frame and the Yp axis of the platform coordinate
system, where the cube frame is placed (angle  shown in
the diagonal elements of the calibration matrix are compared.
The calibration results are shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 2). Considering the accuracy of the low-cost cube frame,
the vertical error range is set to [0.2 ,0.2 ] . When
placing the cube frame, the parallel error is larger than the
vertical error owing to the artificial placement. In the
simulation, the parallel error range was set to
 [3 ,3 ] .
Zh
Zp
Zb
Yp Yh (a)

h
Yb
X X b

Xp
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of placement error of triaxial accelerometer.

In the simulation, the true value of the scale factor of the

triaxial accelerometer was set to 1.0101, and the initial scale
factor was set to one when the quasi-Newton method was
applied to search parameters. In this case, the relative error
of the scale factor is approximately -0.99%. During the
simulation, the bias takes twenty values in the range of 0-25 (b)
mg. For each bias, 100 sets of repetitive six-position data
were generated, with a total of 2000 data sets of simulation
data. In the static state, the standard deviation of sensor noise

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(c)
Fig. 3 Calculation results of diagonal element of calibration matrix S and K.
(a) Relative errors of K11 and S11. (b) Relative errors of K22 and S22. (c)
Relative errors of K33 and S33.
From the simulation results, when the bias is less than 10
mg, the accuracy of K11 , K22 , K33 obtained by quasi-
Newton method is close to S11 , S22 , S33 , respectively. When
the bias is greater than 10 mg, the accuracy worsens. The
parameters K11 , K22 , and K33 obtained by the method in
[12] have poor accuracy. The calibration accuracy of the
diagonal elements of the calibration matrix S is almost
constant when the bias is varied. Next, the calibration
accuracy of the lower triangular elements of the matrices S
and K is compared. The calibration results of the lower
triangular elements of the calibration matrix S are given in
Fig. 4.
(a)
(b)
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(c)
(d)
Fig. 4 Calibration results of non-diagonal elements of calibration matrix. (a)
Error of K21 and S21. (b) Error of K31 and S31. (c) Error of K32 and S32. (d)
Errors of S12, S13, and S23.
From Figs. 4 (a), (b), and (c), it can be seen that the
calibration accuracy of the lower triangular elements of the
calibration matrix K obtained by the quasi-Newton
method changes with the change in the bias, and there is no
consistent accuracy. From the range of calibration error,
when the true value of the lower triangle element is 0.015,
the reliability of the lower triangle element calibrated by the
quasi-Newton method is not high. The accuracy of the lower
triangle elements of K obtained by the method in [12] is
still poor. The calibration matrix K and S calibrated by
the proposed method have high accuracy, and its lower and
upper triangle elements are mostly unaffected by the change
in the bias.
Fig. 5 shows the calibration results of bias. It can be seen
from the figure that the calibration results of the proposed
method are still consistent, and bias error is less than 0.5 mg.
However, the bias calibration results obtained by the quasi-
Newton method are affected by the true value of the bias,
and the error of the calibration results increases with the
increase in the bias. When the true value of the bias changes
in the range of 0-25 mg, the absolute value of the bias error
obtained by quasi-newton method can reach 2 mg. The
accuracy of bias calibrated by method in [12] is poor.
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(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 5 Bias estimation error of triaxial accelerometer. (a) X bias estimation
results. (b) Y bias estimation results. (c) Z-bias estimation results.
To sum up the simulation results, the parameters of the
triaxial accelerometer calibrated by the quasi-Newton
method are affected by the bias to be calibrated, and the
calibration error tends to increase with an increase in the bias.
The calibration accuracy of the method in [12] is poor when
using six-position data. The calibration results of the
proposed method have the same accuracy and are mostly
unaffected by the bias to be calibrated. In addition, the
accuracy of the non-diagonal elements of the matrix S and
K calibrated by the proposed method is high, while that of
the matrix K calibrated by quasi-Newton is poor. This
shows that, when using six-position data, the calibration
result and adaptability of the proposed method is better than
the quasi-Newton method and the method in [12].
B. Calibration of actual triaxial accelerometer
The triaxial accelerometer in the actual calibration is
encapsulated in a metal shell, as shown in Fig. 6. In order to
obtain the static data at the six positions, the cube frame on
which the sensor is fixed is used. The cube frame, made of
nylon, is made using 3D printing technology. The parallel
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accuracy of the cube frame is approximately 0.1°, and the
vertical accuracy is approximately 0.2°. When placing the
cube frame, the Yp axis in Fig. 1 is approximately given by
the gradienter. When collecting data, the temperature is kept
constant at 33.2±0.5 C . The photo taken during data
collection is shown in Fig. 6 (a), and the static data collected
at the six positions are shown in Fig. 6 (b).
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6 Sensor data of laboratory triaxial accelerometer at six positions. (a)
Sensor and calibration test photograph. (b) Six-position data curves.
When collecting data, the triaxial accelerometer data in
ADIS16488 is also collected. In order to compare the
repeatability and accuracy of the calibration algorithm, nine
sets of six-position data were obtained for calibration.
According to the comparison results in the simulation, the
method in [12] has poor calibration accuracy when using six-
position data. Therefore, the actual sensor calibration will
not be compared with it. The Quasi-Newton and proposed
methods are used to calibrate each data set to obtain the
calibration parameters. Considering that the parameters
obtained by the proposed method can convert the sensor data
to the b-coordinate system, it is inconvenient to compare it
with the parameters obtained by the quasi-Newton method.
Therefore, the calibration matrix S obtained by the
proposed method is converted into the calibration matrix
K , so that it is comparable with the calibration matrix
obtained by the quasi-Newton method. Thereafter, the mean
and standard deviation of the nine groups of calibration
parameters are calculated. The results are shown in Tables I
and II. In Tables I and II, SD represents the standard
deviation, the units of  x ,  y , and  z are m/s2, and the
v v v
elements of matrices K and S are unitless.
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TABLE I
CALIBRATION RESULTS OF LABORATORY TRIAXIAL ACCELEROMETER
Quasi-newton method Proposed method

Parameter Mean SD Parameter Mean SD Parameter Mean SD

 v
x -0.11185 0.5×10-3  v
x -0.11987 0.6×10-3  v
x -0.11987 0.6×10-3
 v
y 0.09247 1.0×10-3  v
y 0.09841 1×10-3  v
y 0.09841 1×10-3
 v
z 0.18764 1.9×10-3  v
z 0.19551 1.9×10-3  v
z 0.19551 1.9×10-3
-5 -5
K11 0.99838 5.9×10 K11 0.99979 2.8×10 S11 0.99999 2.6×10-5
K22 0.99243 9.7×10-5 K22 0.99560 8.7×10-5 S22 1.00459 8.8×10-5
K33 1.00070 10×10-5 K33 1.00120 10×10-5 S33 0.99880 10×10-5
K21 0.04480 0.5×10-3 K21 -0.01838 0.04×10-3 S21 0.00177 0.04×10-3
K31 0.03698 0.5×10-3 K31 -0.00691 0.2×10-3 S31 -0.00505 0.6×10-3
K32 -0.05745 0.5×10-3 K32 0.00738 0.3×10-3 S32 -0.00832 0.3×10-3
S12 0.01670 0.01×10-3
S13 0.01195 0.6×10-3
S23 0.00085 0.08×10-3

TABLE II
CALIBRATION RESULTS OF TRIAXIAL ACCELEROMETER IN ADIS16488
Quasi-newton method Proposed method

Parameter Mean SD Parameter Mean SD Parameter Mean SD

 v
x 0.07611 2.4×10-3  v
x 0.07702 2.4×10-3  v
x 0.07702 2.4×10-3
 v
y -0.03071 1.2×10 -3  v
y -0.03171 1.2×10 -3  v
y -0.03171 1.2×10-3
 vz 0.05201 0.8×10-3  vz 0.05223 0.8×10-3  vz 0.05223 0.8×10-3
K11 1.00052 15×10-5 K11 1.00060 10×10-5 S11 0.99936 15×10-5
K22 1.00065 4.4×10-5 K22 1.00072 4.4×10-5 S22 0.99926 4.4×10-5
K33 1.00071 3.9×10-5 K33 1.00066 4.0×10-5 S33 0.99930 3.9×10-5
K21 -0.00687 0.1×10-3 K21 0.00200 0.04×10-3 S21 0.00502 0.05×10-3
K31 -0.00760 0.2×10-3 K31 0.00310 0.2×10-3 S31 -0.00731 0.6×10-3
K32 -0.00263 0.1×10-3 K32 -0.00064 0.3×10-3 S32 -0.00159 0.4×10-3
S12 -0.00701 0.04×10-3
S13 0.00422 0.5×10-3
S23 0.00226 0.2×10-3

Tables I and II indicate that the standard deviations of the

bias obtained by the two methods are similar; however, the
mean values are different. The difference in bias can reach
0.8 mg, which is consistent with the simulation results in Fig.
5. In order to test the accuracy of the above calibration
parameters, the test data were collected. Considering the
application of the triaxial accelerometer, the Z-axis is facing
up in most cases. Therefore, the static data of multiple
positions with the Z-axis facing up are collected. The curve
and vector norm of the collected data are shown in Fig. 7.

(a)

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(b)
Fig. 7 Curves of test data. (a) Laboratory MEMS accelerometer data. (b)
Data norm of triaxial accelerometer.
Fig. 7 (a) shows the curve of test data 1, which is the data
of the triaxial accelerometer in the laboratory. In the Fig. 7
(a), the changes in the X-axis and Y-axis data reflect
different positions in which the cube frame is placed. The
data of the triaxial accelerometer in ADIS16488 are test data
2, and its curve is similar to test data 1. Fig. 7 (b) shows the
norm of the two triaxial accelerometers. Using the
parameters in Tables I and II, test data 1 and 2 are converted
to b-coordinate system and bL-coordinate system,
respectively. The norm value of the converted data is then
calculated, and the results are shown in Fig. 8. In the figure,
the CSYS represents the coordinate system.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8. Vector norm after test data conversion. (a) Laboratory MEMS
accelerometer data norm. (b) Accelerometer data norm in ADIS 16488.
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From Fig. 8 (a), it can be seen that, after test data 1 are
converted by the parameters obtained by the quasi-Newton
method, the norm curve deviates from the gravity value. In
contrast, for the parameters obtained by the proposed
method, regardless of whether test data 1 is converted to the
b-coordinate system or the bL-coordinate system, the norm
curve is stable and fluctuates around the gravity value.
The test results of the triaxial accelerometer in
ADIS16488 in Fig. 8 (b) show that the calibration results of
the different algorithms are not significantly different. This
result is reasonable, because according to the data sheet, the
typical inter-axis misalignment angle range of the triaxial
accelerometer in ADIS16488 is ±0.035°. Consequently, the
effect of the small-angle inter-axis misalignment angle on
the scale factor and bias can be ignored. Therefore, when the
misalignment angle between the axes is small, the
parameters obtained by the proposed method in this study
and the Quasi-Newton method are both available.
Note that, when the simulation parameter K21 = -0.1555 in
(36), the misalignment angle between axes is 0.9°. The K21
= -0.01838 obtained by the proposed method in Table 1 is
similar to the simulation parameters. Combining the
simulation results with the converting results of test data 1,
it can be concluded that, when the misalignment angle
between the axis is large, the accuracy of the parameters
obtained by the quasi-Newton method is less than that
obtained by the proposed method. Among the parameters,
the lower triangular element of the calibration matrix K is
more accurate than the quasi-Newton method. In addition,
the accuracy of the parameters obtained by the proposed
method is stable and not affected by the value of the bias to
be calibrated.
V. DISCUSSION
In the previous section, simulation and experiment proved
the effectiveness of the method proposed in this paper. The
parameters obtained by the method in this paper have high
accuracy and consistency. In actual sensor calibration, there
are two main reasons affect the accuracy of the proposed
method. One is the vertical accuracy of the adjacent sides of
the cube frame, and the other is that the sides of the cube
frame do not exactly coincide with the Y p axis when the
frame is placed artificially.
If the cube frame is made of metal material and made by
a special process, the vertical accuracy of its adjacent sides
can be less than 0.08 degrees (the accuracy of the cube frame
in the manuscript is 0.2 degrees). Then, the calibration
accuracy of the method proposed in this article can be further
improved. For example, the error of K21 becomes half of the
original.
Although the limit accuracy may not be reached, the
calibration accuracy of the proposed method has been very
high when flipping the cube frame artificially (the accuracy
is similar to that of the quasi-Newton method using 24
positions). The accuracy comparison between the method of
this paper and the calibration methods published in recent
years are listed in Table III.
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TABLE III
THE ACCURACY COMPARISION WITH CALIBRATION METHODS PUBLISHED IN RECENT YEARS
Methods Positions |Relative error| of |Error| of |Error| of Main factors
K11, K22, K33 K21, K31, K32 v ,  , v affecting accuracy
v
x y z

Method in [11] 6 Usually ≤0.1% Usually ≤3 mg Misalignment angle

between the axes.
Proposed method 6 ≤0.05% ≤0.006 ≤0.5 mg Cube frame accuracy
Quasi-Newton 6 Not consistent Not consistent Not consistent Initial parameters,
Method 24 ≤0.05% ≤0.006 ≤0.5 mg number of positions.
6 Poor Poor Poor Initial parameters,
Method in [12]
24 ≤0.05% ≤0.006 ≤0.5 mg number of positions.
6 Poor Poor Poor Initial parameters,
GA method
24 Not consistent Not consistent ≤0.5 mg number of positions.

and around the Z axis in the second step. In addition, the

transformation matrix form b-coordinate system to sx-
VI. CONCLUSION coordinate system are denoted in (37) as Cb . The rotation
sx

Herein, we propose a novel calibration method for MEMS

triaxial accelerometer as a solution for the calibration angles  xy and  xz are also shown in Fig. 9.
scenario of the MEMS triaxial accelerometer without a
turntable or other precision equipment. The proposed Zb
method estimates the angle between each axis of the triaxial
accelerometer and the axis of the reference b-coordinate Zs
system, and obtains the parameters that convert the sensor  zx
data of s-coordinate system to the b- or bL-coordinate system.  zy Ys
In order to verify the effectiveness and consistency of the  yx Yb
proposed method, twenty bias values were simulated and  xy
100 repeatability calibrations were performed at each bias.  xz  yz
The simulation results show that the parameters obtained by
the proposed method have the same accuracy: the bias error Orthogonal coordinate
Xb Xs system sx
is less than 0.5 mg, the relative error of the diagonal elements
Fig. 9. Schematic diagram of coordinate system transformation.
of the calibration matrix S is less than 0.05%, and the
accuracy of the non-diagonal elements of S is 0.003, and  cos( xz ) sin( xz ) 0  cos( xy ) 0  sin( xy ) 
 
the accuracy of the triangular elements of calibration matrix C    sin( xz ) cos( xz ) 0    0
sx
b 1 0 
K is 0.006. The simulation results show that the calibration
accuracy of the quasi-Newton method are not consistent
 0 0 1   sin( xy ) 0 cos( xy ) 
when using six positions data, and the calibration error tends  cos( xy ) cos( xz ) sin( xz )  cos( xz ) sin( xy ) 
to increase with an increase in the bias, and the accuracy of  
   cos( xy ) sin( xz ) cos( xz ) sin( xy ) sin( xz )  (37)
the lower triangular elements of calibration matrix K is poor.
 sin( xy ) 0 cos( xy ) 
This indicates that the proposed method is more accurate  
when using six position data for calibration. Similarly, according to the right-hand rotation order, the
The calibration results of the MEMS triaxial orthogonal coordinate systems associated with the Ys and the
accelerometer in the laboratory and ADIS16488 show that Zs axes can be obtained. The transformation matrices
the proposed method is effective. The proposed method not between these orthogonal coordinate systems and the b-
only has higher calibration accuracy but also requires less coordinate system can also be obtained.
static position data, which saves calibration time and has  cos( yz ) sin( yz ) 0 
practical value. However, as the proposed method calibrates   (38)
Cbsy    cos( yx ) sin( yz ) cos( yx ) cos( yz ) sin( yx ) 
the parameters of the triaxial accelerometer at approximately
 sin( yx ) sin( yz )  cos( yz ) sin( yx ) cos( yx ) 
constant temperature, the changes in the parameters with  
temperature are of interest in future studies. The effect of cos( zy ) sin( zy ) sin( zx )  cos( zx ) sin( zy ) 
temperature on the lower triangular elements of the   (39)
C  0
sz
b cos( zx ) sin( zx ) 
calibration matrix K in MEMS accelerometers with large
 sin( zy )  cos( zy ) sin( zx ) cos( zx ) cos( zy ) 
axis misalignment angles is a relevant topic of research.  
Therefore, the Xs axis measurement value of the triaxial
APPENDIX: NON-ORTHOGONAL TRANSFORMATION accelerometer is
Fig. 9 shows the transformation diagram from the (R sx ) x  cos( xy ) cos( xz ) sin( xz )  cos( xz )sin( xy )   R b . (40)
orthogonal coordinate system (b-coordinate system) to the Similarly, the values of the Ys axis and Zs axis of the
non-orthogonal sensor coordinate system (s-coordinate triaxial accelerometer can be obtained.
system). In the s-coordinate system, the Xs axis can be
(R sy ) y    cos( yx )sin( yz ) cos( yz ) cos( yx ) sin( yx )   R b (41)
 
obtained by a two-step rotation in which the X axis of the b-
coordinate system rotated around the Y-axis in the first step, (R ) z  sin( zy )  cos( zy ) sin( zx ) cos( zx ) cos( zy )   R b (42)
sz

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11
Thus, the transformation relationship from the b- [20] P. Cheiney, L. Fouche and S. Templier, “ Navigation-Compatible
Hybrid Quantum Accelerometer Using a Kalman Filter,” Phys. Rev.
coordinate system to the nonorthogonal s-coordinate system
Appl., vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 1-13, 2018.
can be obtained.
 cos( xy ) cos( xz ) sin( xz )  cos( xz ) sin( xy )  Tongxu Xu was born in Huaian,
 
A bs    cos( yx ) sin( yz ) cos( yx ) cos( yz ) sin( yx ) 
Jiangsu, in 1991. He received his M.S.
  degree from Sichuan University of
 sin( zy )  cos( zy ) sin( zx ) cos( zx ) cos( zy ) 
Science & Engineering, Zigong, China,
(43) in 2018. He is currently pursuing a Ph.D.
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vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 96-105, Jan. 2014. systems from the University of
[11] Y. Lin, G. Ying and W. S. Steven, "An Efficient Autocalibration Electronic Science and Technology,
Method for Triaxial Accelerometer," IEEE T. Instrum. Meas., vol. 66, Sichuan, China, in 1992.
no.9, pp. 2380-2390, Sep. 2017.
He was a Visiting Scholar at Twente
[12] Q. Umar and G. Farid, "An Algorithm for the In-Field Calibration of
a MEMS IMU," IEEE Sens. J., vol. 17, no. 22, pp. 7479-7486, Nov. University, Enschede, The Netherlands, and the National
2017. University of Singapore, Singapore. He is currently a
[13] Y. L., C. L. and J. W., "A Practical and Lowcost Calibration Method Professor with the Department of Electronics and
for MIMU," in Proc. IEEE In. Conf. Control Sci. Syst. Eng. (ICCSSE), Information, Soochow University, Suzhou, China. His
2017, pp. 359-363.
research interests include vibration energy harvester signal
[14] V. A. V., M. A. P., I. B. N., H. P., and C. L., "Expanded Calibration of
the MEMS Inertial Sensors," in Proc. IEEE First Ukraine Conference processing and MEMS inertial sensor circuit designing and
on Electrical and Computer Engineering (UKRCON), 2017, pp. 675- measurement technology.
679.
[15] C. Zaoyi, L. Huaijian, D. Xiaojing, and Y. Junlaing, "Research on the Heming Zhao received the M.S.
Calibration Method of MEMS Accelerometer Based on Recursive degree in Soochow University in 1982.
Least Squares," in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Mechatron. Autom.(ICMA),
Aug. 2018, pp. 533-538.
From 1984 to 1985, he studied in
[16] D. Suraj, K. Rahul, K. Vipan, N. J. R. Alex, and P. Shashi, "Adaptive Tsinghua University, and from 1988 to
Parameter based Particle Swarm Optimisation for Accelerometer 1990.
Calibration," in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Power Electron., Intell. Control He was a visiting scientist in
Energy Syst.(ICPEICES), 2016, pp. 1-5. Technical University of Munich,
[17] C. Xiaole, L. Chunliang, S. Guangyi, and J. Yufeng, "A New
Calibration Method for MEMS Accelerometers with Genetic
German. Since 1982, he works at
Algorithm," in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Real-Time Comput. Soochow University, from 1995 to 1997, he was a director
Robot.(RCAR), Jul. 2017, pp. 240-245. at the Department of Electrical Engineering, and now he is a
[18] K. Saurabh, R. Elizabeth, K. Vinod, and P. Shashi, "Accelerometer to doctoral tutor and a dean at the College of Electronic
Accelerometer Calibration using Particle Swarm Optimization," in Information. He is a member of IEEE and a senior member
Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Recent Trends Electron., Inf. Commun.
of Chinese Electronic Institute, and he is a member of the
Technol.(RTEICT), May. 2017, pp. 1502-1506.
[19] C. Shiwei, C. Lingguo, D. Yidong, C. Senchun, and Z. Baihai, editorial boards of Signal Processing. At present, his
"Calibration of MEMS Accelerometer Using Kaiser Filter and the research interests include speech signal processing and
Ellipsoid Fitting Method," in Proc. 37th Chinese Control Conference intelligent computing.
(CCC), Jul. 2018, pp. 4679-4684.

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