Global Latin America Into The Twenty-First Century (Global Square) by Matthew C. Gutmann, Jeffrey Lesser

Global Latin America
into the twenty-first century
edited by
MATTHEW GUTmANN
JEffREY LESSER
universityofcaliforniapress
Edited by
Matthew Gutmann, Brown University
Jeffrey Lesser, Emory University
°E G±OBA± ²qUARE SERIES FEATURES EDITED VO±UmES FOCUSED ON HOW

REgIONS AND COUNTRIES INTERACT WITH THE REST OF THE CONTEmPORARY
WOR±D. ³ACH VO±UmE ANA±YzES THE TENSIONS, INEqUA±ITIES,
CHA±±ENgES, AND ACHIEVEmENTS INHERENT IN g±OBA± RE±ATIONSHIPS.
´RAWINg ON WORk BY jOURNA±ISTS, ARTISTS, AND ACADEmICS FROm A
RANgE OF DISCIP±INES—FROm THE HUmANITIES TO THE SCIENCES, FROm
PUB±IC HEA±TH TO ±ITERATURE—°E G±OBA± ²qUARE SHOWCASES ESSAYS
ON THE HISTORIES, CU±TURES, AND SOCIETIES OF COUNTRIES AND REgIONS
AS THEY DEVE±OP IN CONjUNCTION WITH AND CONTRADICTION TO OTHER
gEOgRAPHIC CENTERS.
³ACH VO±UmE IN °E G±OBA± ²qUARE SERIES AImS TO ESCAPE
SImP±ISTIC TRUISmS ABOUT g±OBA± VI±±AgES AND TO PROVIDE ExAmP±ES
AND ANA±YSIS OF THE mAgNITUDE, mESSINESS, AND COmP±ExITY OF
CONNECTIONS. µNCHORINg EACH BOOk IN A PARTICU±AR REgION OR
COUNTRY, CONTRIBUTORS PROVOkE READERS TO ExAmINE THE g±OBA± AND
±OCA± ImP±ICATIONS OF ECONOmIC AND PO±ITICA± TRANSFORmATIONS.
1. Global Latin America: Into the Twenty-First Century,
EDITED BY MATTHEW GUTmANN AND JEffREY LESSER
into the twenty-first century
edited by
MATTHEW GUTmANN
JEffREY LESSER
universityofcaliforniapress
¶NIVERSITY OF ·A±IFORNIA ¸RESS, ONE OF THE mOST DISTINgUISHED UNIVERSITY
PRESSES IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES, ENRICHES ±IVES AROUND THE WOR±D BY ADVANCINg
SCHO±ARSHIP IN THE HUmANITIES, SOCIA± SCIENCES, AND NATURA± SCIENCES. ¹TS
ACTIVITIES ARE SUPPORTED BY THE ¶· ¸RESS ºOUNDATION AND BY PHI±ANTHROPIC
CONTRIBUTIONS FROm INDIVIDUA±S AND INSTITUTIONS. ºOR mORE INFORmATION, VISIT
WWW.UCPRESS.EDU.
¶NIVERSITY OF ·A±IFORNIA ¸RESS

»Ak±AND, ·A±IFORNIA
© 2016 BY °E ¼EgENTS OF THE ¶NIVERSITY OF ·A±IFORNIA
LIBRARY OF ·ONgRESS ·ATA±OgINg-IN-¸UB±ICATION ÁTA
½AmES: GUTmANN, MATTHEW ·., 1953- EDITOR. | LESSER, JEff, EDITOR.

¾IT±E: G±OBA± LATIN µmERICA : INTO THE TWENTY-fiRST CENTURY / EDITED BY
MATTHEW GUTmANN AND JEffREY LESSER.
ÉSCRIPTION: »Ak±AND, ·A±IFORNIA : ¶NIVERSITY OF ·A±IFORNIA ¸RESS, [2016] |
“2016 | ²ERIES: G±OBA± SqUARE ; 1 | ¹NC±UDES BIB±IOgRAPHICA± REFERENCES
AND INDEx.
¹DENTIfiERS: lccn 2016009428 (PRINT) | lccn 2016011042 (EBOOk) | isbn
9780520277724 (C±OTH : A±k. PAPER) | isbn 9780520277731 (PBk. : A±k.
PAPER) | isbn 9780520965942 (EBOOk)
²UBjECTS: lcsh: LATIN µmERICA—ºOREIgN RE±ATIONS. | ¼EgIONA±ISm—LATIN
µmERICA. | G±OBA±IzATION—LATIN µmERICA. | LATIN µmERICA—²OCIA±
CONDITIONS.
·±ASSIfiCATION: L·· f1415 .¿565 2016 (PRINT) | lcc f1415 (EBOOk) | ddc
327.8—DC23
L· RECORD AVAI±AB±E AT HTTP://±CCN.±OC.gOV/2016009428
MANUFACTURED IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES OF µmERICA
25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
¹N kEEPINg WITH A COmmITmENT TO SUPPORT ENVIRONmENTA±±Y RESPONSIB±E AND

SUSTAINAB±E PRINTINg PRACTICES, ¶· ¸RESS HAS PRINTED THIS BOOk ON ½ATURES
½ATURA±, A fiBER THAT CONTAINS 30% POST-CONSUmER WASTE AND mEETS THE
mINImUm REqUIREmENTS OF ansi/niso Z39.48–1992 (r 1997) (Permanence of
Paper).
To our global children, Maya, Liliana, Lianna,
Jonathan, Aron, and Gabriel
contents
LIST OF ºIgURES xIII
¹NTRODUCINg the ¿lobal sQuare booK series xV

Matthew Gutmann and Jeffrey Lesser
µCkNOW±EDgmENTS xVII
·HASINg ·HE: ¹NTRODUCTION TO Global Latin America 1

Jeffrey Lesser and Matthew Gutmann
ÀÁ ÂÃ ÄÅ Æ:
the lati n a Çer ica n past
i n the ¿loba l pr esent
¹NTRODUCTION 15
1 • LOOkINg AT THE ¸AST AND THE ºUTURE WITHOUT ºEAR: µN ¹NTERVIEW
WITH ¼ICARDO LAgOS 19
Matthew Gutmann
2 • °E ·ONVERSION OF ºRANCIS: °E ºIRST LATIN µmERICAN ¸OPE
AND THE ÈOmEN ÉE ½EEDS 37
Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Jennifer Scheper Hughes
3 • ºIDE± ·ASTRO: °E ºIRST ²UPERDE±EgATE 58
Greg Grandin
¸OEm: “·RUCES DE FRONTERAS / ÊORDER ·ROSSINgS” 67
Renato Rosaldo
4 • ºROm ¹±±USTRATINg ¸ROB±EmS TO »ffERINg ²O±UTIONS: LATIN µmERICA
AS A G±OBA± ²OURCE OF ²OCIA± ¹NNOVATION 72
Gabriel Hetland and Peter Evans
MANgA: “·HE GUEVARA” 89
Kiyoshi Konno and Chie Shimano
pa rt t wo:
ton¿ues a n d feet
¹NTRODUCTION 93
5 • ÊORgES’S LIBRARY: LATIN µmERICA, LANgUAgE, AND THE ÈOR±D 97
Paja Faudree and Daniel Suslak
6 • LOVE, ¸ROTEST, ÁNCE, ¼EmIx 114
Michelle Bigenho
¸OEm: “LO PROHIBIDO” 129
Renato Rosaldo
7 • ÊREAkINg THE MACHINE: ²OUTH µmERICAN Fútbol 131
Brenda Elsey
8 • ¼OY ·HOI, ¼ICARDO ËáRATE, AND ¸ACIfiC ºUSION ·UISINE IN
LOS µNgE±ES 146
Sarah Portnoy and Jeffrey M. Pilcher
pa rt thr ee:
science, tech nolo¿y, a n d hea lth
¹NTRODUCTION 163
9 • °E ¼ISE OF ÊRAzI±’S G±OBA±±Y ·ONNECTED µmAzON
²OYBEAN µgRICU±TURE 167
Christopher Neill and Marcia N. Macedo
10 • ·ONSTRUCTINg ¸ARA±±E±S: ÊRAzI±IAN ³xPERTS IN
MOzAmBIqUE 187
Wendy Wolford and Ryan Nehring
¸OEm: “¸ERFECTO º±ORES” 205
Renato Rosaldo
11 • µ LONg ²TRANgE ¾RIP: LATIN µmERICA’S ·ONTRIBUTION TO
ÈOR±D ´RUg ·U±TURE 207
Paul Gootenberg
pa rt fou r :
coÇ Çu n ities
¹NTRODUCTION 221
¹NTRODUCTION TO ¼IgOBERTA MENCHú ¾Um 225
12 • ½OBE± LECTURE 227
Rigoberta Menchú Tum
13 • ²Ex ÈORkER µCTIVISm AND LABOR 240
Denise Brennan
¸OEm: “µjUSTES FAmI±IARES / ºAmI±Y µDjUSTmENTS” 253
Renato Rosaldo
14 • LATIN µmERICAN ¾RAVE±: °E »THER ²IDE OF ¾OURISm
³NCOUNTERS 256
Florence E. Babb
15 • ÊRAzI± ·IRC±ES THE G±OBE 271
Ruben George Oliven
pa rt fi v e:
a rt Çov es the wor ld
¹NTRODUCTION 287
16 • °E LATIN µmERICAN ½OVE± AS ¹NTERNATIONA±
MERCHANDISE 291
Ilan Stavans
17 • ¾RAVE±INg ME±ODRAmA: TelenoVelas AND ³xPORTINg ²OUTHERN
MORA±ITIES; OR, ÉOW ·AN ²OmETHINg ²O ÊAD ²TI±± ÊE
²O GOOD? 302
O. Hugo Benavides
¸OEm: “LOS INVISIB±ES / ¹NVISIBI±ITY” 315
Renato Rosaldo
18 • °E GIR± FROm ²HINjUkU: ÉOW A JAPANESE ÊRAzI±IAN ÍVA ÌEEPS ÊOSSA
½OVA µ±IVE IN ·HINA 316
Fabiano Maisonnave
19 • “MORE THAN A ½ATIONA±ITY”: µN ¹NTERVIEW WITH GAE± GARCíA ÊERNA±
ABOUT LATIN µmERICAN ·INEmA AND THE ÈOR±D 326
Alma Guillermoprieto
µBOUT THE ³DITORS AND ·ONTRIBUTORS 339

¹NDEx 345
list of fi¿ur es
0.1. ·ARTOON OF ·HE GUEVARA FROm COffEE SHOP IN »AxACA, MExICO 2

0.2. ¸A±ESTINIANS WEARINg ·HE GUEVARA ¾-SHIRTS 3
0.3. “É±INEATIO FRETI MAgE±±ANICI” (¸±AN OF THE ²TRAIT OF MAgE±±AN) 7
1.1. ¸RESIDENT LAgOS ON TE±EVISION IN 1988 27
1.2. ·HE GUEVARA ImAgE ON THE CAP OF A mAN IN ²HANgHAI, 2013 30
2.1. ·OUNCI± ºATHERS, ²ECOND ÍATICAN ·OUNCI±, 1962 39
2.2. ¸OPE ºRANCIS DRINkS mATE OffERED BY A PI±gRIm IN ²T. ¸ETER’S ²qUARE 48
4.1. ¸ARTICIPATORY ÊUDgET µSSEmB±Y, ·ECI±IO ËUBI±±AgA ¸ARISH, ¾ORRES,
LARA, ÍENEzUE±A, 2009 76
4.2. ¸ARTICIPATORY ÍAgNOSIS, NEIgHBORHOOD OF LA GUzmANA, ·ARORA,
¾ORRES, LARA, ÍENEzUE±A, JUNE 2008 76
7.1. µ NEWSPAPER FEATURINg THE WOmEN FOOTBA±± P±AYERS OF ¾EAm ¾A±CA,
·HI±E, IN THE EAR±Y 1900S 134
7.2. µFRO-¶RUgUAYAN STAR JOSé µNDRADE BEHIND A BAR DURINg THE 1928
»±YmPICS IN µmSTERDAm 136
7.3. LUIS ²UAREz, ½EYmAR JR., AND LIONE± MESSI P±AYINg FOR ÊARCE±ONA º·.
144
8.1. ÌOgI TRUCk, LOS µNgE±ES 147
9.1A. µERIA± VIEW OF MATO GROSSO SOYBEAN fiE±D 168
9.1B. ¾RUCkS WAITINg TO BE ±OADED WITH SOYBEANS TO BE TRANSPORTED
TO PORT 168
9.1C. ²OYBEAN fiE±D AﬅER HARVEST 169
9.1D. ¼AIN OVER A MATO GROSSO SOYBEAN fiE±D 169
xIII
9.2. MAP INDICATINg THE ±OCATION OF MATO GROSSO STATE, ÊRAzI± 170
9.3. MATO GROSSO’S INTERNATIONA± SOYBEAN ExPORTS, 1997–2013 171
9.4A. ²OYBEAN CROP±ANDS IN MATO GROSSO, ÊRAzI±, 2001 179
9.4B. ²OYBEAN CROP±ANDS IN MATO GROSSO, ÊRAzI±, 2013
10.1A. ²TRUCTURINg PROjECTS IN µFRICA 193
10.1B. ²TRUCTURINg PROjECTS IN µFRICA
13.1. ²Ex WORkERS IN ½ITERóI, ¼IO DE JANEIRO, PROTEST PO±ICE HARASSmENT
AND I±±EgA± ARREST OF THEIR CO±±EAgUES IN FRONT OF CITY HA±± ON
µPRI± 16, 2014 242
14.1. ¹TEmS FOR SA±E IN A ÉAVANA TOURIST mARkET 257
14.2. ÁNCER PERFORmINg AT THE ¾ROPICANA NIgHTC±UB IN ÉAVANA 260
14.3. ²E±±INg TO TOURISTS BOARDINg A TRAIN TO MACHU ¸ICCHU 261
14.4. ¾OURISTS IN LImA, ¸ERU 267
15.1. ¸OSITIVIST TEmP±E IN ¸ORTO µ±EgRE, ÊRAzI± 272
15.2. ÊRAzI±IAN µmERICAN ·O±ONIzATION ²OCIETY ADVERTISEmENT IN
Crisis, MARCH 1921 275
17.1. °E ACTRESS ¾AíS µRAújO, WHO RECEIVED THE »RDEm DO ¼IO ÊRANCO,
POSES FOR PHOTOgRAPHERS WITH THEN ÊRAzI±IAN ¸RESIDENT LUIz ¹NáCIO
LU±A DA ²I±VA AND ºIRST LADY MARISA LETíCIA 311
18.1. JAPANESE ÊRAzI±IAN SINgER LISA »NO DURINg A 2011 mUSIC
FESTIVA± IN ÊEIjINg 324
xIV • list of fi¿u r es

introducin¿ the ¿loba l sÎua r e
booK ser ies
Matthew Gutmann and Jeffrey Lesser
Global Latin America IS THE fiRST VO±UmE IN THE ¶NIVERSITY OF ·A±IFORNIA

¸RESS’S Global ²Îuare ÊooK ²eries. »VER NINE VO±UmES, ¾he Global
²Îuare WI±± FOCUS ON HOW REgIONS AND COUNTRIES INTERACT WITH THE CONTEm-
PORARY WOR±D. °E CHAPTERS IN EACH BOOk WI±± DRAW ON SPECIA±ISTS IN VARIOUS
AREAS: FROm ACADEmIA TO jOURNA±ISm, FROm ENVIRONmENTA± SCIENCES TO PUB±IC
HEA±TH. °E HISTORIES, CU±TURES, AND SOCIETIES OF PARTICU±AR COUNTRIES AND
REgIONS ARE FAR FROm flAT AS THEY DEVE±OP IN CONjUNCTION WITH AND CONTRADIC-
TION TO OTHER gEOgRAPHIC CENTERS.
¼EADERS WI±± SEE HOW COUNTRIES THAT gAIN DOmINANCE IN THE WOR±D A±WAYS
DO SO IN RE±ATION TO BROADER, NON-NATIONA± HISTORICA± CHARACTERISTICS, RESOURCES,
AmBITIONS, AND OPPORTUNITIES. ½O mAjOR REgION OR COUNTRY IS ISO±ATED, AND THE
WAYS IN WHICH ÊRAzI± OR ¾URkEY OR ²OUTH µFRICA IS TIED TO THE g±OBE ARE NOT
IDENTICA±, BY DESIgN OR ExECUTION. °E STANDINg OF A COUNTRY OR REgION VIS-à-VIS
ITS g±OBA± PARTNERS AND COmPETITORS, ITS AmBITIONS AND ANxIETIES, NEEDS TO BE
DOCUmENTED AND ANA±YzED IN EACH CASE.
ÊY ±OOkINg AT PARTICU±AR REgIONS AND COUNTRIES, WE HOPE THAT READERS WI±±
BE PROVOkED TO ExAmINE THE g±OBA± AND ±OCA± ImP±ICATIONS OF ECONOmIC AND
PO±ITICA± TRANSFORmATIONS. µS THE GROUP OF 20 (G20) mAjOR ECONOmIES IN THE
WOR±D REP±ACES THE GROUP OF 8 (G8) AS REPRESENTATIVE OF CONTEmPORARY WOR±D
±EADERSHIP, ¾he Global ²Îuare ÊooK ²eries ANTICIPATES A WOR±D WHERE
THE FOUR ±ARgEST ECONOmIES IN THE WOR±D WI±± SOON BE ·HINA, THE ¶NITED ²TATES,
¹NDIA, AND ÊRAzI±.
xV
°ESE SHIﬅS IN ECONOmIC DOmINANCE WI±± HAVE ImP±ICATIONS WE±± BEYOND
THOSE CURRENT±Y ImAgINED. Global ²Îuare BOOkS SEEk TO CAPTURE THE
DYNAmIC AND COmP±Ex gEOgRAPHIES AND CU±TURA± PO±ITICS DEVE±OPINg FROm ONE
REgION OUT AROUND THE REST OF THE WOR±D. °E WOR±D AS OUR gRANDPARENTS kNEW
IT IS BEINg TURNED UPSIDE DOWN, AND NEW CENTERS OF POWER AND INflUENCE ARE
INCREASINg±Y FOUND IN NEW ±OCATIONS WITHIN OUR Global ²Îuare.
xVI • Ï n t roduci n¿ th e Ðloba l ÑÎua r e ÒooK Ñer i es

acK now led¿Çents
µS EDITORS, WE WOU±D ±IkE TO ExTEND OUR gRATITUDE TO THE CONTRIBUTORS OF

ESSAYS, INTERVIEWS, mANgA, AND POEmS TO THIS BOOk. °EY ACCEPTED OUR REqUEST
TO WRITE FROm LATIN µmERICA out AND TO ADDRESS THEmSE±VES TO A BROAD PUB±IC,
SOmETHINg ACADEmICS TOO OﬅEN fiND AN INSURmOUNTAB±E CHA±±ENgE. ÈE kNOW
READERS WI±± APPRECIATE THESE CREATIVE INTERVENTIONS AS mUCH AS WE DO.
²EVERA± PEOP±E WERE INTEgRA± TO THE PROjECT, INC±UDINg OUR ¸H´ STUDENTS
WHO WORkED AS PROjECT ASSISTANTS: ²USAN ³±±ISON AND ÊRYAN MOOREfiE±D AT
ÊROWN ¶NIVERSITY WERE ESSENTIA± IN HE±PINg TO PREPARE THE BOOk IN ITS EAR±IER
STAgES; AND µNDREW ÊRITT AT ³mORY ¶NIVERSITY RESEARCHED AND DRAﬅED THE
PART INTRODUCTIONS AND HE±PED US PREPARE THE fiNA± mANUSCRIPT. °ANkS AS
WE±± TO ÊROWN ¶NIVERSITY STUDENTS ÓE±ENA ÊIDE FOR TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANS±A-
TION AND LAUREN ¸APA±IA FOR TRANS±ATION; AND TO ³mORY ¶NIVERSITY ¸H´ STU-
DENT ²UmA ¹kEUCHI FOR TRANS±ATION. ÈE APPRECIATE THE PARTICIPATION OF mANY
CHAPTER AUTHORS IN A WORkSHOP ON THIS VO±UmE, AS WE±± AS TWO OUTSIDE COm-
mENTATORS, ÓROTHY ÉODgSON AND ¼ICHARD LOCkE.
¶NIVERSITY OF ·A±IFORNIA ¸RESS ³xECUTIVE ³DITOR ½AOmI ²CHNEIDER WAS
INSTRUmENTA± IN BRINgINg ABOUT THIS BOOk AND THE ¿lobal sÎuare SERIES; WE
ARE DE±IgHTED THAT Global Latin America IS THE fiRST IN THE SERIES THAT WE WI±± EDIT
WITH HER gUIDANCE. ½AOmI’S ASSISTANT, ÈI±± ÍINCENT, WAS A mODE± OF EffiCIENCY
AND gRACE, AND COPY EDITOR ²HEI±A ÊERg ±ENT A PERFECT±Y BA±ANCED RED PEN. °IS
BOOk HAS BEEN ImPROVED BY THE COmmENTS OF OUTSIDE REVIEWERS, INC±UDINg
MIgUE± ·ENTENO AND ÌRIS LANE AND OTHERS WHO REmAINED ANONYmOUS.
»UR THANkS FOR FUNDINg gENEROUS±Y PROVIDED BY THE ÈATSON ¹NSTITUTE FOR
¹NTERNATIONA± AND ¸UB±IC µffAIRS AT ÊROWN ¶NIVERSITY, THE ²AmUE± ·AND±ER
ÓBBS ·HAIR AT ³mORY ¶NIVERSITY, AND THE ¶NIVERSITY OF ·A±IFORNIA ¸RESS.
°ESE RESOURCES mADE PREPARINg THE BOOk FOR PUB±ICATION mUCH EASIER.
xVII
²PECIA± THANkS TO ·ATHY AND ³±IANA, WHOSE DE±IgHT IN OUR BOOk TOgETHER
HAS mADE THIS PROjECT A±± THE SWEETER.
ºINA±±Y, WE DEDICATE THIS BOOk TO OUR CHI±DREN, WHO, WE FEE± FORTUNATE, ARE
PRACTICA±±Y COUSINS, TOO. ÊETWEEN THEm, MAYA, LI±IANA, LIANNA, JONATHAN,
µRON, AND GABRIE± HAVE A±READY ±IVED mANY YEARS IN ÊRAzI±, ³CUADOR, ¹RE±AND,
¹SRAE±, ¹TA±Y, ÌENYA, MExICO, ¸ARAgUAY, AND ²PAIN, AS WE±± AS THE ¶NITED ²TATES.
¾OgETHER THEY REPRESENT THE INTENSE AND ExTENSIVE ENgAgEmENT OF LATIN
µmERICA WITH THE REST OF THE WOR±D, jUST AS CO±±ECTIVE±Y THEY EmBODY THE
COUNT±ESS INTERCONNECTIONS THAT WE HAVE TRIED TO gATHER IN THE PAgES OF Global
Latin America.
xVIII • acK now led¿Ç en ts

Chasing Che
introduction to ±²³´µ² ²µ¶·¸ µ¹º»·¼µ
Jeffrey Lesser and Matthew Gutmann
°E PUzz±E THAT INSPIRED Global Latin America WAS, ÈHY DID WE fiND ·HE
GUEVARA’S ImAgE EVERYWHERE WE WENT IN THE WOR±D? ÈHY WAS A LATIN
µmERICAN REVO±UTIONARY OF THE 1950S AND 1960S SO POPU±AR AmONg SO mANY
PEOP±E AROUND THE g±OBE IN 2016? ÈHY WAS ·HE EASI±Y THE mOST FAmOUS LATIN
µmERICAN OUTSIDE THE REgION? ²URE, ImAgES OF THE BEARDED FACE AND BERET WERE
OﬅEN DEVOID OF DEEP mEANINg, BUT THERE WAS HIS ImAgE, AND WE WANTED TO
mAkE SENSE OF IT. ¾RYINg TO UNDERSTAND g±OBA± ·HE ±ED US TO THE ±ARgER mEAN-
INgS OF g±OBA± LATIN µmERICA.
JEff THOUgHT ·HE WAS FO±±OWINg HIm IN A HIPSTER COffEEHOUSE IN »AxACA
·ITY, MExICO, SHOUTINg THE S±OgAN, “·AFé PARA TODOS.” MATT REA±IzED THAT HE
WAS FO±±OWINg ·HE WHEN HE INTERVIEWED ËHU ÈENBIN, A PROFESSIONA± mATCH-
mAkER WHO EACH WEEkEND WORkS THE CROWDS OF PARENTS IN ²HANgHAI’S ¸EOP±E’S
¸ARk ±OOkINg FOR A mATE FOR THEIR DAUgHTER OR SON. ÈHEN MATT ASkED MR. ËHU
WHY HE WORE ·HE ON HIS CAP (SEE figURE 1.2), HE ±AUgHED AND SAID HE THOUgHT
IT ±OOkED gOOD ON HIm. ÈHO kNEW THAT ·HE WOU±D BECOmE A BEACON OF SARTO-
RIA± SP±ENDOR AmONg MExICAN BARISTAS AND ·HINESE mATCHmAkERS?
JEff AND MATT TOgETHER FO±±OWED ·HE TO YET ANOTHER PART OF THE WOR±D, TO
¸A±ESTINE, WHERE WE SAW mANY YOUNg mEN P±AYINg SOCCER IN THEIR ·HE ¾-SHIRTS
IN ¼AmA±±AH AND E±SEWHERE ON THE ÈEST ÊANk. ÈE±± kNOWN AmONg REBE±±IOUS
YOUTH WHEN HE WAS A±IVE, ·HE GUEVARA BECAmE TRU±Y FAmOUS AﬅER HE DIED.
³RNESTO (·HE) GUEVARA WAS BORN IN µRgENTINA IN 1928 AND P±AYED A ±EADINg
RO±E IN THE 1959 ·UBAN ¼EVO±UTION. ÉE TRIED TO ±AUNCH ANOTHER REVO±UTION IN
THE ·ONgO IN 1965, BEFORE HE WAS kI±±ED BY ·¹µ-BACkED TROOPS IN LA ÉIgUERA,
ÊO±IVIA, IN 1967. µ FORmER mEDICA± STUDENT IN µRgENTINA, ·HE mAY BE kNOWN
TO SOmE READERS FOR A FAmOUS ROAD TRIP ImmORTA±IzED IN THE mOVIE °e
Motorcycle Diaries. °AT fi±m STARS THE mAN WHO mIgHT BE THE mOST g±OBA±±Y
1
Ôi¿ure 0.1. ·ARTOON OF ·HE GUEVARA FROm A COffEE
SHOP IN »AxACA, MExICO.
FAmOUS LATIN µmERICAN IN 2016, GAE± GARCíA ÊERNA±, INTERVIEWED BY THE

jOURNA±IST µ±mA GUI±±ERmOPRIETO IN THE fiNA± CHAPTER OF THIS BOOk.
¾ODAY, ³RNESTO GUEVARA HAS BECOmE ·HE, THE GUERRI±±A ºIgHTER µCTION
ºIgURE; ·HE, THE ¾ARgET OF ·APITA±IST ·ONSPIRACY; ·HE, THE ÉIPSTER ÉUNk;
AND ·HE, THE ¶±TImATE ¼EBE± WITH A ·AUSE AND ·HAmPION OF THE ¶NDERDOg.
Global Latin America THUS TOOk SHAPE AS WE ASkED OURSE±VES, ÈHAT IS IT ABOUT
·HE THAT ±ED HIm TO TAkE ROOT ANYWHERE, EVEN WHI±E REPRESENTINg SOmETHINg
DIffERENT A±mOST EVERYWHERE? ÈHAT A±±OWED A SINg±E ImAgE TO BE fi±±ED WITH
DIffERENT mEANINgS? ·HASINg THE VAgABOND REBE± ·HE REmINDED US OF LATIN
µmERICA’S ENORmOUS ImPACT ON THE g±OBE IN WAYS PO±ITICA±, SOCIA±, ECONOmIC,
AND CU±TURA±.
¹NTERACTIONS BETWEEN PEOP±ES, ECONOmIES, AND CU±TURES FROm DIffERENT
PARTS OF THE WOR±D ARE NOTHINg NEW. G±OBA± mIgRATIONS, ExCHANgES, AND
COmmUNICATIONS HAVE BEEN TAkINg P±ACE SINCE HUmANS EmERgED FROm µFRICA
2 • i n t roduct ion to ±²³´ µ ² ² µ¶ · ¸ µ ¹ º » ·¼ µ

fi¿ure 0.2. ¸A±ESTINIANS WEARINg ·HE GUEVARA ¾-SHIRTS.
·REDIT: ¸ICTURE TAkEN BY JUSTIN MC¹NTOSH, µUgUST 2004. °IS fi±E IS ±ICENSED UNDER THE
·REATIVE ·OmmONS µTTRIBUTION 2.0 GENERIC ±ICENSE. HTTPS://COmmONS.WIkImEDIA.ORg/WIkI
/ºI±E:¸A±ESTINIANS_WEARINg_·HE_GUEVARA_TSHIRTS.jPg
mI±±ENNIA AgO. µS THE MExICAN ANTHROPO±OgIST LOURDES µRIzPE HAS NOTED,

“ÈE HUmANS ARE THE mOST WANDERINg SPECIES ON EARTH.” ¹N THE TWENTY-fiRST
CENTURY, LATIN µmERICA IS A CENTRA± P±AYER IN EVERY kIND OF g±OBA± INTERACTION
AND A±± mANNER OF TENSIONS BETWEEN g±OBA± AND ±OCA± ECONOmIES, POPU±ATIONS,
AND PO±ITICS.
¼³¸q½º¾¶, ¼³²³¸·µ²·¾¹, µ¸¿ ¼À»·¾¶·µ¸·¶Y
ÈE ARE OﬅEN mORE FAmI±IAR WITH THE ImPACT OF THE WOR±D on LATIN µmERICA
THAN WITH THE ImPACT OF LATIN µmERICA ON THE WOR±D. °E THREE ·’S—
·ONqUEST, ·O±ONIA±ISm, AND ·HRISTIANITY—PROVIDE A TORTURED, IF BETTER-
kNOWN STORY, ABOUT HOW SOmE PARTS OF THE WOR±D HAVE ExERCISED CONTRO± OVER
OTHER PARTS. ÈHEN ·O±UmBUS “DISCOVERED” THE ½EW ÈOR±D IN THE ±ATE 1400S
AND THE ²PANISH AND ¸ORTUgUESE ·ONqUEST OF THE µmERICAS BEgAN, INDIgENOUS
PEOP±ES A±± OVER THE CONTINENT BEgAN ±IVINg UNDER CO±ONIA± RU±E. °EY HAD TO
CONTEND WITH STRANgE ±ANgUAgES, RE±IgIONS, AND DISEASES.
i n t roduct ion to ±²³´ µ ² ² µ¶ · ¸ µ ¹ º » ·¼ µ • 3

ÉmOgRAPHERS ESTImATE THAT, DEPENDINg ON THE REgION, WITHIN DECADES OF
·O±UmBUS’S ARRIVA±, AS mANY AS 90 PERCENT OF THE INDIgENOUS PEOP±ES DIED AS
A RESU±T OF VIO±ENCE AND SmA±±POx AND OTHER DISEASES. MI±±IONS OF INHABITANTS
±IVINg ON THE VAST ±ANDS THAT ±ATER CAmE TO BE CA±±ED Latin µmERICA CEASED TO
ExIST (OR WERE NEVER BORN), AND WITH THEIR DEmISE THE mEmORIES OF THEIR HIS-
TORIES AND CU±TURES OﬅEN DISAPPEARED. °E ·HRISTIANIzATION OF THE µmERICAS
RESU±TED IN THE OﬅEN-FORCED CONVERSION OF mOST INDIgENOUS PEOP±ES AND THE
mI±±IONS OF µFRICANS BROUgHT TO THE REgION AS S±AVES. ½EW±Y ImPOSED BRUTA±
WORkINg CONDITIONS TRANSFORmED THE ±IVES OF THE CONqUERED AND ENS±AVED
SUBjECTS. °IS WAS THE SITUATION FOR HUNDREDS OF YEARS, FROm THE EAR±Y 1500S
UNTI± THE WAVE OF INDEPENDENCE mOVEmENTS THAT BEgAN IN ÉAITI IN 1803 AND
PICkED UP STEAm ACROSS THE CONTINENT IN THE NExT DECADES. ÓET EVEN INDEPEND-
ENCE DID NOT END THE THREE ·’S—AS NEW POWERS, FROm µSIA, THE MIDD±E ³AST,
AND ½ORTH µmERICA, HAVE CONTINUED TO SEEk TO DOmINATE THE REgION.
LATIN µmERICANS HAVE A±WAYS BEEN INTERTWINED IN WHO±±Y UNEVEN g±OBA±
RE±ATIONSHIPS THAT HAVE ENCOmPASSED EVERY ASPECT OF THEIR ±IVES. µS TEACHERS
ABOUT LATIN µmERICA, MATT AND JEff kNOW A gREAT DEA± ABOUT THE INflUENCE OF
³UROPE AND THE ¶NITED ²TATES ON LATIN µmERICA, AND IN OUR C±ASSES WE OﬅEN
FOCUS ON THE AmBITION OF OUTSIDERS TO ExP±OIT WHAT THE ¶RUgUAYAN jOURNA±IST
³DUARDO GA±EANO FAmOUS±Y CA±±ED “THE OPEN VEINS OF LATIN µmERICA.” GO±D,
BANANAS, OI±, ±ABOR, AND mORE gO±D HAVE fi±±ED THE COffERS OF mANY A FOREIgN
COmPANY AT THE ExPENSE OF THE PEOP±ES RESIDINg BETWEEN WHAT IS TODAY THE
¶.². ²OUTHWEST AND ¸ATAgONIA NORTH OF µNTARCTICA.
µ±THOUgH THE SIgNIfiCANCE OF LATIN µmERICA FOR THE REST OF THE WOR±D IS NOT
NEW OR SUDDEN, IT IS EVER mORE APPARENT. °E ImPACT THAT LATIN µmERICA HAS
HAD IN THE OTHER DIRECTION, EVEN THOUgH UNmISTAkAB±E, HAS NEVER BEEN AS FAmI±-
IAR A NARRATIVE. °IS VO±UmE, ±IkE THE OTHERS IN THE Global ²Îuare SERIES,
SEEkS TO REmIND US THAT REgIONS ARE NOT jUST VICTImS BUT A±SO g±OBA± P±AYERS.
LATIN µmERICA IN 2016 IS HOmE TO EmERgINg g±OBA± POWERS. ¹N 2016, EVEN
DESPITE mASSIVE DOWNTURNS ECONOmICA±±Y, ÊRAzI± HAD THE SEVENTH ±ARgEST ECON-
OmY IN THE WOR±D AND MExICO WAS POISED TO BREAk INTO THE TOP TEN. LATIN
µmERICA IS TIgHT±Y BOUND TO REgIONS FROm µSIA TO µFRICA, FROm THE MIDD±E ³AST
TO ³UROPE, THROUgH COmmERCE AND TRADE, mIgRATION, AND THE ARTS. ¹N PO±ITICA±
AND ECONOmIC TERmS, µRgENTINA, ÊRAzI±, AND MExICO ARE WOR±D ±EADERS, PART OF
THE GROUP OF 20 (G20) COUNTRIES THAT HAVE gREAT±Y ExPANDED mEmBERSHIP
BEYOND THE O±D gEOPO±ITICA± ±EADERSHIP OF ³UROPE, JAPAN, AND THE ¶NITED ²TATES.
¹N ¼EA±PO±ITIk, LATIN µmERICAN ±EADERS FROm µRgENTINA’S ·AR±OS MENEm
TO ÊRAzI±’S LUIz ¹NáCIO LU±A DA ²I±VA TO ÍENEzUE±A’S ÉUgO ·HáVEz HAVE

PROPOSED THAT THEY ARE UNIqUE±Y AB±E TO HE±P TO RESO±VE g±OBA± PROB±EmS, FROm
CONflICTS IN THE MIDD±E ³AST TO ENERgY TO C±ImATE CHANgE TO PARTICIPATORY
DEmOCRACY. ÉEAVY mANUFACTURINg IN LATIN µmERICA IS RESHAPINg g±OBA± AUTO,
WEAPONS, AND AIRP±ANE INDUSTRIES. ³NVIRONmENTA± mEASURES IN THE ENORmOUS
µmAzON REgION, POSITIVE AND NEgATIVE, ARE CENTRA± TO g±OBA± DISCUSSIONS OF
C±ImATE CHANgE. ¾RUTH COmmISSIONS FORmED TO DOCUmENT THE ABUSES OF PAST
DICTATORSHIPS IN LATIN µmERICA HAVE BECOmE VITA± REFERENCE POINTS FOR SImI±AR
EffORTS FROm ²OUTH µFRICA TO ¼WANDA TO ·AmBODIA.
¸OWER HAS A±SO mOVED IN OTHER, NEW DIRECTIONS. ·HINA HAS BEgUN TO P±AY A
±ARgER RO±E ECONOmICA±±Y AND fiNANCIA±±Y IN LATIN µmERICA AND THE ¶NITED ²TATES
A REDUCED ONE. ¾RADE BETWEEN ·HINA AND LATIN µmERICA WENT FROm AROUND $12
BI±±ION IN 2000 TO $289 BI±±ION IN 2013. ¾RADE BETWEEN THE ¶NITED ²TATES AND
LATIN µmERICA, IN COmPARISON, WENT FROm $380 BI±±ION IN 2000 TO $850 BI±±ION
IN 2014. °IS IS ImPORTANT IN ITS OWN RIgHT, AND IT IS A±SO A gOOD INDICATION OF
THE SWAY OF LATIN µmERICA IN ·HINA TODAY, AS SHOWN IN CHAPTERS IN THIS BOOk
ON THE ARTS (MAISONNAVE) AND THE ENVIRONmENT (½EI±± AND MACEDO).
¾ODAY LATIN µmERICA IS A mODE±, IN WAYS gOOD AND BAD, IN PUB±IC HEA±TH. ºOR
ExAmP±E, WHEN ÊRAzI±’S gOVERNmENT TURNED THE TAB±ES ON THE g±OBA± PHARmACEU-
TICA± INDUSTRY AND REFUSED TO PAY WHAT THE COmPANIES WANTED TO CHARgE FOR É¹Í
ANTIRETROVIRA± THERAPIES, THE REST OF THE WOR±D NOT ON±Y TOOk NOTE, BUT mANY
FO±±OWED SUIT. ÊRAzI±’S STEPS TOWARD THE PREVENTION AND TREATmENT OF SICk±E CE±±
ANEmIA ARE CREATINg NEW g±OBA± PROTOTYPES. MEDICINES fiRST DEVE±OPED BY INDIg-
ENOUS HEA±ERS FROm THE µNDES AND MESOAmERICA, ONCE mOCkED AS BACkWARD
AND UNSCIENTIfiC, ARE NOW INTENSIVE±Y STUDIED BY PHARmACEUTICA± CORPORATIONS.
Global Latin America IS FOR STUDENTS, BUSINESS ±EADERS, PO±ICY mAkERS, AND
g±OBA± TRAVE±ERS INTERESTED IN BETTER UNDERSTANDINg LATIN µmERICA’S DEEP
ENTANg±EmENTS WITH AND INflUENCE ON OUR INTERDEPENDENT WOR±D. ·HAPTERS BY
ACADEmICS, PO±ITICIANS, ACTIVISTS, jOURNA±ISTS, SCIENTISTS, AND ARTISTS SHINE ±IgHT
ON LATIN µmERICAN HISTORY, SOCIETY, AND CU±TURE. ºOR THOSE WHO WANT TO
APPRECIATE THE DIVERSITY AND g±OBA± RE±EVANCE OF LATIN µmERICA IN THE TWENTY-
fiRST CENTURY, THIS VO±UmE CO±±ECTS SOmE OF THE TOP SCHO±ARSHIP AND SOCIA±
ANA±YSIS ABOUT g±OBA± LATIN µmERICA TODAY AND HISTORICA±±Y.
¶Àº Á³»²¿ ·¾ not Â²µ¶
°E AUTHORS AND EDITORS OF Global Latin America DO NOT SUBSCRIBE TO A

SE±F-SERVINg VIEW POPU±AR IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES THAT ARgUES THAT FACTORS ±IkE

INFORmATION TECHNO±OgIES AND RAPID TRANSPORTATION HAVE FOR THE fiRST TImE IN
THE HISTORY OF HUmANITY “flATTENED” THE g±OBA± ±ANDSCAPE. ÈE DO NOT SEE
“ImPACT” AS THE END OF UNEqUA± INTERNATIONA± RE±ATIONSHIPS OR AS THE CREATION
OF NEW ±EVE± P±AYINg fiE±DS ON WHICH YOUNg AND g±OBA±IzED ENTREPRENEURS COm-
PETE SImP±Y ON SOmE OBjECTIVE NOTION OF mERIT.
°E NAIVE “THE WOR±D IS flAT AND A FREE mARkETP±ACE” POSITION, mOST FAmOUS±Y
ARgUED BY THE New Ãork Times CO±UmNIST °OmAS ºRIEDmAN, IS SEDUCTIVE FOR
mANY REASONS. ÊASED ON THE ExPANSION OF THE gROSS NUmBERS OF THE mIDD±E
C±ASS IN P±ACES ±IkE ¹NDIA, ÌOREA, MExICO, AND ÊRAzI±, mANY WANT TO BE±IEVE
THAT WE ARE HEADED AWAY FROm RAmPANT g±OBA± INEqUA±ITIES AND TOWARD A
FUTURE THAT IS mORE PROSPEROUS, EqUITAB±E, AND jUST. ÓET THE º±AT ÈOR±DERS ARE
TOO SANgUINE ABOUT PERSISTENT AND gROWINg POVERTY AND DISPARITIES OF A±±
kINDS. ÈIDENINg FAU±T ±INES IN THE TWENTY-fiRST CENTURY REPRESENT mORE jAggED
SOCIA± ±IVES AND AN EVER fiERCER SCRAmB±E FOR RESOURCES, INC±UDINg BASIC NATURA±
RESOURCES ±IkE WATER, THAT mANY IN ³UROPE AND THE ¶NITED ²TATES mIgHT HAVE
SWORN WERE g±OBA±±Y ABUNDANT.
º±AT ÈOR±DERS mIgHT POINT TO OUR STORY OF ·HE AS EVIDENCE OF A NEW WOR±D
ORDER, OF HOW ONE ImAgE, OﬅEN mISSINg ITS HISTORICA± mEANINg, IS REP±ICATED IN
SO mANY P±ACES AND IN SO mANY WAYS. ²EE? ²INCE A±± SORTS OF PEOP±E ENDORSE
·HE, WE mUST A±± BE THE SAmE. ¹T IS A NICE PIE-IN-THE-SkY STORY OF ONE BIg HAPPY
g±OBA± mIDD±E C±ASS, WITH THE ¹NTERNET AND ±APTOPS AND CE±± PHONES ±INkINg
HUmANITY AROUND THE g±OBE. ÊUT SImP±ISTIC TRUISmS ABOUT UPWARD±Y mOBI±E
g±OBA± VI±±AgES AND HEARTFE±T SENTImENTS THAT WISH gAPINg INEqUA±ITIES WERE NO
±ONgER CHARACTERISTIC OF THE WOR±D DO NOT STAND UP TO THE mAgNITUDE AND
mESSINESS OF ACTUA± g±OBA± CONNECTIONS. ·HE’S ImAgE, THEN, IS NOT EVIDENCE OF
A gENERA±IzED, flATTENED WOR±D BUT OF A mORE SPECIfiC WOR±D THAT WE ARE CA±±INg
G±OBA± LATIN µmERICA.
°E CHAPTERS IN Global Latin America PRESENT A NUANCED AND gROUNDED
ASSESSmENT BY SHOWINg THAT PEOP±E OﬅEN UNDERSTAND THE g±OBA±IzED WOR±D IN
±OCA± WAYS. ¹NDEED, THEY OﬅEN ENgAgE IN g±OBA± ACTIVITY WITHOUT PERCEIVINg IT
AS SUCH BECAUSE THEY HAVE TAkEN SOmETHINg AS SImP±E AS A SmART PHONE AND
CHANgED ITS SIgNIfiCANCE, FOR ExAmP±E, FROm A COmmUNICATIONS TOO± TO A BANk.
³ACH CHAPTER IS PACkED WITH CONCRETE ExAmP±ES SHOWINg WIDENINg fiSSURES
AND THE EmERgINg SOCIA± STRUgg±ES THAT CHA±±ENgE THEm.
Global Latin America ±ISTENS TO THE VOICES OF CITIzENS ON THE gROUND AND
THOSE WHO HAVE gOVERNED, PEOP±E WHO ARE COUNTRY SPECIA±ISTS AND REgIONA±
gENERA±ISTS, ANTHROPO±OgISTS, BIO±OgISTS, POETS, AND OTHER CRITICA±±Y ENgAgED
OBSERVERS OF EmERgINg g±OBA± TRENDS. ¼EADERS WI±± SEE THAT EVEN WITH A SEEm-

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INg±Y EN±ARgED mIDD±E C±ASS, LATIN µmERICA HAS BEEN FAR FROm flATTENED.
¹NDEED, THE REgION HAS AS mANY PEAkS AS IT DID HISTORICA±±Y, AS THE DIVIDE
BETWEEN HAVES AND HAVE-NOTS CONTINUES TO ExPAND. MOST OF A±±, Global Latin
America SHOWS A NEW APPRECIATION FOR THE CONTENTION THAT LATIN µmERICANS
AND LATIN µmERICAN NATIONS HAVE AS mUCH ImPACT ON THE REST OF THE WOR±D AS
THE OTHER WAY AROUND, AND THAT LATIN µmERICA’S g±OBA± CONNECTIONS ARE CREAT-
INg ±OCA± FUTURES EVERYWHERE ON EARTH.
ÁÀµ¶’¾ ·¸¾·¿º ¿lobal latin aÇericaÕ
°E fiRST PART OF THE BOOk, “°E LATIN µmERICAN ¸AST IN THE G±OBA± ¸RESENT,”
BEgINS WITH AN ORIgINA± INTERVIEW WITH ·HI±EAN FORmER PRESIDENT ¼ICARDO
LAgOS AS HE CONTEmP±ATES THE RE±ATION BETWEEN PAST AND PRESENT IN LATIN
µmERICA. µS mANY READERS WI±± kNOW, A 1973 mI±ITARY COUP D’éTAT IN ·HI±E
±ED BY µUgUSTO ¸INOCHET WAS BACkED BY THE ¶.². gOVERNmENT OF ¼ICHARD
½IxON. »N 11 ²EPTEmBER OF THAT YEAR, THE DEmOCRATICA±±Y E±ECTED gOVERNmENT
OF ²A±VADOR µ±±ENDE WAS OVERTHROWN AND THE COUNTRY P±UNgED INTO YEARS
OF BRUTA± DICTATORSHIP. MORE THAN ANY OTHER INDIVIDUA±, ¼ICARDO LAgOS
REPRESENTED THE OPPOSITION TO THE ¸INOCHET DICTATORSHIP, NEVER mORE THAN
WHEN ON NATIONA± TE±EVISION IN 1988 HE POINTED HIS fiNgER AT THE TE±EVISION
CAmERA AND DENOUNCED THE “TORTURES, mURDERS, AND HUmAN RIgHTS VIO±ATIONS”
OF THE DICTATORSHIP. (µ PHOTOgRAPH OF THIS FAmOUS fiNgER IS REPRODUCED IN
CHAPTER 1.)
¹N HIS INTERVIEW WITH MATTHEW GUTmANN, ¸RESIDENT LAgOS CONSIDERS THE
HISTORY OF CO±ONIA±ISm IN LATIN µmERICA, THE REgION’S CONTEmPORARY RE±ATION-
SHIPS WITH µFRICA, AND THE ExPORT OF g±OBA± LATIN µmERICAN DEmOCRACY AND
SOCIA± CHANgE NOT ON±Y TO OTHER PARTS OF THE G±OBA± ²OUTH BUT A±SO TO ³UROPE
AND THE ¶NITED ²TATES. ÉE ARgUES THAT THESE FACTORS WERE ESSENTIA± IN CREATINg
A VIBRANT LATIN µmERICA WHOSE VOICE IN THE WOR±D IS UNmISTAkAB±E AND POWER-
FU±. LIkE OTHER CHAPTERS IN THE VO±UmE, THE INTERVIEW WITH ¸RESIDENT LAgOS
HIgH±IgHTS A CONTEmPORARY APPRECIATION FOR mU±TICU±TURA±ISm AS A POSITIVE
SOCIA±, ECONOmIC, AND CU±TURA± CHARACTERISTIC THAT A±±OWS mANY LATIN
µmERICANS TO SEE THEmSE±VES AS ESPECIA±±Y AB±E TO INTEgRATE WITH DIVERSE POPU-
±ATIONS ACROSS THE g±OBE. °E PRESIDENT’S IDEA ABOUT HETEROgENEITY, WHAT THE
MExICAN PHI±OSOPHER AND PO±ITICIAN JOSé ÍASCONCE±OS CA±±ED “THE COSmIC RACE”
IN 1925, IS AN ExAmP±E OF THE POSITIVE INTERPRETATION OF RACIA± AND ETHNIC mIx-
INg. ÓET mIxINg (BOTH REA± AND ImAgINED) HAS BEEN ANYTHINg BUT SmOOTH OR

PROB±Em-FREE. ³VEN SO, IT IS OﬅEN USED AS A COUNTERExAmP±E OF THE CU±TURA± AND
SOCIA± UNIFORmITY AND CONFORmITY PREACHED AND PRACTICED E±SEWHERE.
¸ERHAPS NO LATIN µmERICAN IN 2016 STANDS OUT mORE THAN THE µRgENTINE
POPE ºRANCIS, WHOm THE ANTHROPO±OgIST ½ANCY ²CHEPER-ÉUgHES mET IN 2015.
µ CHAPTER WRITTEN WITH THE HISTORIAN OF RE±IgION JENNIFER ²CHEPER ÉUgHES
DRAWS OUT THE ImPACT OF THE fiRST LATIN µmERICAN (AND G±OBA± ²OUTH) POPE,
INC±UDINg THE PAST AND FUTURE RO±E OF WOmEN IN THE ·ATHO±IC ·HURCH. µT THE
SAmE TImE, THEY DE±VE INTO THE ImPACT OF µRgENTINA’S ÍRTY ÈAR ON ¸OPE
ºRANCIS AND BY DIRECT ExTENSION ON THE WOR±D IN THE TWENTY-fiRST CENTURY.
¹N “ºIDE± ·ASTRO: °E ºIRST ²UPERDE±EgATE,” THE HISTORIAN GREg GRANDIN
UPDATES A PROVOCATIVE PIECE HE WROTE ORIgINA±±Y FOR ¾OmÍSPATCH.COm, IN
WHICH THE OUTSIzED ImPACT OF AN IS±AND NOT TOO FAR FROm MIAmI IS SHOWN TO
BE AS ±ONg-±IVED AS IT IS IRkSOmE TO THOSE PRESIDINg IN THE HA±±S OF ÈASHINgTON,
´·. ºOR mORE THAN fiﬅY YEARS, ·UBA HAS figURED mORE PROmINENT±Y IN ¶.².
PO±ITICS THAN A±mOST ANY OTHER NATION, AND ºIDE± ·ASTRO ExCE±±ED AT INflUENC-
INg (EVEN IF OﬅEN NEgATIVE±Y) mORE ¶.². PO±ICY DECISIONS THAN A±mOST ANY
OTHER ±EADER IN THE WOR±D.
¹NTERSPERSED THROUgHOUT THE VO±UmE ARE POEmS BY THE SCHO±AR-POET ¼ENATO
¼OSA±DO, WHOSE WORk REmINDS US THAT THIS PARTICU±AR ART FORm HAS HAD A g±O-
BA± ImPACT, BRI±±IANT±Y ExEmP±IfiED BY THE ·HI±EAN POET-DIP±OmATS ¸AB±O
½ERUDA (1904–73) AND GABRIE±A MISTRA± (1889–1957) AND THE MExICAN POET-
DIP±OmAT »CTAVIO ¸Az (1914–89). ¼EmARkAB±E FOR THEIR ENgAgEmENT IN PO±ITICS
AS WE±± AS ±ETTERS (HOW mANY DIP±OmATS FROm THE ¶NITED ²TATES ARE FAmOUS FOR
THEIR POETRY?), EACH OF THE THREE A±SO WON THE ½OBE± ¸RIzE IN LITERATURE. (²EE
¹±AN ²TAVANS’S CHAPTER FOR mORE ON LATIN µmERICAN ±ITERATURE, PO±ITICS, AND
THE WOR±D STAgE.) ¹N HIS fiRST POEm, “·RUCES DE FRONTERAS / ÊORDER ·ROSSINgS,”
FOR ExAmP±E, ¼OSA±DO TRACES HOW MExICANS CROSS BORDERS THAT EAR±IER IN HIS-
TORY CROSSED THEm, DRAWINg ON POPU±AR ImAgERY AND PERSONA± ACCOUNTS, BOTH
COmIC AND TRAgIC. ¹N ±ATER POEmS IN THIS VO±UmE, HE CAPTURES AND UN±EASHES
THE I±±EgA±, THE PROFANE, AND THE CONfiDENTIA± SECRETS OF g±OBA± LATIN µmERICA.
°E SOCIO±OgISTS GABRIE± ÉET±AND AND ¸ETER ³VANS NExT DESCRIBE HOW DEm-
OCRATIC PRACTICES DEVE±OPED fiRST IN ÊRAzI± ARE TODAY ImP±EmENTED IN CITIES FAR
OUTSIDE LATIN µmERICA. °IS IS NOTEWORTHY IN ITS OWN RIgHT, ESPECIA±±Y gIVEN
THE HABIT OF PO±ITICIANS AND PO±ICY WONkS IN ÈESTERN ³UROPE AND ½ORTH
µmERICA TO PREACH ABOUT DEmOCRACY EVEN WHEN THEY DO NOT PRACTICE IT.
ÉET±AND AND ³VANS OVERTURN THIS C±AIm AND DEmONSTRATE WHY THE WOR±D IS
±EARNINg FROm LATIN µmERICA WHEN IT COmES TO CITIzEN RIgHTS AND PARTICIPA-
TION IN gOVERNANCE AND PO±ITICA± DECISION mAkINg.

ÈE COmE BACk TO ·HE GUEVARA AT THE END OF THIS PART WITH AN ExCERPT FROm
THE ORIgINA± JAPANESE BIOgRAPHY OF ·HE THAT USES mANgA, A TRANSNATIONA±
gRAPHIC STY±E THAT EmERgED FROm JAPAN. ÌIYOSHI ÌONNO AND ·HIE ²HImANO
I±±USTRATE HOW ImAgES EBB AND flOW AROUND A LATIN µmERICAN gUERRI±±A figHTER
WHOSE BIOgRAPHY IS FAR ±ESS RECOgNIzAB±E THAN HIS FACE AND gRIN.
Tongues and Feet

¸ART 2, “¾ONgUES AND ºEET,” BEgINS WITH AN ExP±ORATION OF ±ANgUAgES BY THE
SOCIO±INgUISTS ¸AjA ºAUDREE AND ÁNIE± ²US±Ak. MOST READERS WI±± kNOW THAT
WHEN THE ¸ORTUgUESE AND ²PANISH INVADED AND OCCUPIED WHAT BECAmE LATIN
µmERICA, THEY BROUgHT AND ImPOSED THEIR OWN ±ANgUAgES. °IS IS WHY
¸ORTUgUESE IS TODAY THE ±ANgUAgE OF ÊRAzI± AND ²PANISH IS USED IN mOST OF
THE OTHER NINETEEN COUNTRIES OF THE REgION. ÈHI±E IT mIgHT APPEAR THAT
±ANgUAgE USE HAS BEEN A ONE-WAY PROCESS FOR CENTURIES, ºAUDREE AND ²US±Ak
SHOW THE ImPACT OF Brazilian ¸ORTUgUESE AND Latin American ²PANISH ON
¸ORTUgA±, ²PAIN, AND THE REST OF THE WOR±D AND HOW INDIgENOUS ±ANgUAgES
FROm LATIN µmERICA HAVE A±SO INflUENCED AND SHAPED OTHER ±ANgUAgES ACROSS
THE g±OBE.
¹N THE fiRST OF TWO CHAPTERS ON THE RECEPTION OF LATIN µmERICAN mUSIC IN
OTHER PARTS OF THE WOR±D, THE ANTHROPO±OgIST MICHE±±E ÊIgENHO REVEA±S,
THROUgH “±OVE, PROTEST, DANCE, AND REmIx,” WHY ExOTICISm AND NOSTA±gIA ARE
PART OF THE APPEA± OF LATIN µmERICAN mUSIC FOR WOR±D AUDIENCES. ²O, TOO, THE
PO±ITICS OF CONTEmPORARY SOCIA± mOVEmENTS AND mORE ±ONg AgO SOUNDS CONjUR-
INg UP DAYS OF S±AVERY AND CO±ONIA±ISm.
¶NDOUBTED±Y THE mOST g±OBA± OF SPORTS, fútbol/futebol/SOCCER WAS, AS
DESCRIBED IN THE CHAPTER BY THE HISTORIAN ÊRENDA ³±SEY, “CREATED IN ³Ng±AND
BUT PERFECTED IN ²OUTH µmERICA.” °E mUTUA± INflUENCE OF ONE PART OF THE
WOR±D ON ANOTHER, IN TERmS OF P±AYER ROSTERS AND STY±E OF P±AY, HAS BEEN CIRCUI-
TOUS: AﬅER A CENTURY OF INTERNATIONA± mATCHES IT IS OﬅEN HARD TO TRACE WHO
STARTED WHAT CHANgE IN THE gAmE AND WHERE. ÈHAT ³±SEY DOES SHOW IS HOW
LATIN µmERICA HAS TRANSFORmED THE RACIA±, gENDERED, AND C±ASS CHARACTER OF
g±OBA± FOOTBA±±.
»F A±± THE THINgS THAT THOSE IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES mIgHT TAkE FOR gRANTED,
FOOD FROm “²OUTH OF THE ÊORDER” SURE±Y RANkS HIgH. °E ±ITERARY CRITIC ²ARAH
¸ORTNOY AND THE HISTORIAN JEffREY ¸I±CHER TAkE US INTO THE WOR±D OF THE RAW
AND THE COOkED, SENSORY mATERIA± THAT CONSIDERS HOW MExICO, ¸ERU, AND
ÌOREA COmE TOgETHER IN THE FOOD TRUCk mOVEmENT OF LOS µNgE±ES AND WHAT

THIS mEANS FOR g±OBA± LATIN µmERICA. ¾ACOS, FOR ExAmP±E, HAVE BECOmE A
STAP±E IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES, ¹TA±Y, ÊRAzI±, AND ·HINA, AND LATIN µmERICAN
CUISINE HAS ON±Y jUST BEgUN TO ±EAVE ITS mARk ON TASTE WOR±DWIDE.
Science, Technology, and Health

¹N PART 3, THE WOR±D IS TURNED ON ITS HEAD AS THE ENVIRONmENTA± BIO±OgISTS
·HRISTOPHER ½EI±± AND MARCIA MACEDO DISCUSS HOW NATURA± RESOURCES ±IkE
SOYBEANS HAVE BECOmE A DE FACTO TWENTY-fiRST-CENTURY ±EgA± CURRENCY. µND
THAT CURRENCY IN A SENSE IS NONE OTHER THAN WATER: WHAT ÊRAzI± HAS IN ABUN-
DANCE AND ·HINA SO BAD±Y ±ACkS HAS mADE SOYBEANS A TRANSPACIfiC TRADE STAP±E.
µND, OF COURSE, THE AmOUNT OF ÊRAzI±IAN SOYBEANS SO±D TO OTHERS g±OBA±±Y
DEPENDS ON HOW mUCH WATER THERE IS, WHICH IS DEPENDENT ON HOW mANY
µmAzONIAN FORESTS REmAIN IN THE FUTURE.
¹F ANYONE THINkS THAT THE EffECT OF LATIN µmERICA ON THE REST OF THE WOR±D
REFERS PRImARI±Y TO ITS ImPACT ON THE ¶NITED ²TATES AND ³UROPE, THE SOCIO±O-
gISTS ÈENDY ÈO±FORD AND ¼YAN ½EHRINg gIVE US AN ImPORTANT ExAmP±E OF
DEVE±OPmENT PROjECTS SHARED BETWEEN LATIN µmERICA AND MOzAmBIqUE.
¶SINg INSIgHTS g±EANED FROm THEIR STUDY OF ²OUTH-²OUTH FOREIgN ASSISTANCE
PROjECTS, WE ±EARN OF LATIN µmERICAN ExPERTS AND THE TRANSFER OF TECHNICA±
kNOW±EDgE TO THIS ¸ORTUgUESE-SPEAkINg µFRICAN COUNTRY.
ºEW READERS WI±± FAI± TO RECOgNIzE LATIN µmERICA AS THE ORIgIN OF mUCH OF
THE WOR±D’S I±±EgA± DRUg TRADE, FROm COCAINE TO CANNABIS. ÊUT DRUgS’ LATIN
µmERICAN ORIgINS NEED TO BE qUESTIONED. °E HISTORIAN ¸AU± GOOTENBERg
PROVIDES AN INSIDER’S g±ImPSE INTO HOW STREET DRUgS AND I±±ICIT ECONOmIC TIES
AROUND THE g±OBE HAVE CREATED A DEmAND THAT LATIN µmERICA HAS FU±fi±±ED OVER
THE PAST SEVERA± DECADES. µS DRUg REFORmS SPREAD g±OBA±±Y, WE WOU±D DO WE±±
TO ±EARN mORE ABOUT THIS PART OF THE HISTORY OF g±OBA± LATIN µmERICA.
Communities
¸ART 4 SHOWCASES LATIN µmERICAN mODE±S OF BE±ONgINg THAT ARE NOT ExC±USIVE±Y
NATIONA± OR ETHNICA±±Y BASED. ºOR ExAmP±E, THE CHI±DREN OF INDIgENOUS ·ENTRA±
µmERICAN mIgRANTS TO THE ¶NITED ²TATES OﬅEN ±EARN ²PANISH AS A ±OCA± ±AN-
gUAgE IN P±ACES ±IkE µT±ANTA AND ÉOUSTON. °E ±OW COST OF COmmUNICATIONS
HAS mEANT THAT FAmI±IES ONCE PERmANENT±Y SEPARATED BY mIgRATION NOW HAVE
DAI±Y SPOkEN AND VISUA± CONNECTIONS “BACk HOmE,” CREATINg NEW COmmUNITIES
IN WHICH ACTIONS ARE ExPRESSED WITHOUT DIRECT FACE-TO-FACE ExPERIENCE. ÈHO

WOU±D HAVE THOUgHT IN 1975 THAT mIgRANTS FROm ·ENTRA± µmERICA WOU±D
²kYPE BACk TO THEIR VI±±AgES OF BIRTH TO PARTICIPATE IN ±OCA± DECISIONS ABOUT
ROAD REPAIRS AND WHO SHOU±D BE E±ECTED mAYOR? µT THE SAmE TImE, NEW CON-
figURATIONS OF EVERYTHINg FROm SExUA±ITY TO RE±IgION mOVE BACk AND FORTH
ACROSS SPACE.
½OBE± ¸EACE ¸RIzE ±AUREATE ¼IgOBERTA MENCHú ADDRESSES WHAT INDIgENOUS
PEOP±ES IN THE µmERICAS HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO kNOW±EDgE AND WE±±-BEINg IN THE
WOR±D OVERA±±. ºAR FROm ACCEPTINg THE ±ABE± OF VICTIm, MENCHú SHOWS IN HER
AWARD SPEECH HOW SOCIA± mOVEmENTS AmONg NATIVE PEOP±ES IN LATIN µmERICA
HAVE RESPONDED TO CENTURIES OF CO±ONIA±ISm, RACISm, AND ImPOVERISHmENT
WITH DETERmINED SOCIA± mOVEmENTS DEmANDINg RIgHTS AND COmmUNITY CON-
TRO±. ²HE A±SO SPE±±S OUT C±EAR±Y THE ENORmOUS CONTRIBUTIONS OF INDIgENOUS
PEOP±ES TO HUmAN UNDERSTANDINg, FROm THE zERO VA±UE IN mATHEmATICS TO THE
CREATION OF gREAT WORkS OF ENgINEERINg AND ART.
¹N THE FO±±OWINg TWO CHAPTERS, ANTHROPO±OgISTS ±OOk AT TWO DISTINCT YET
INTERRE±ATED POPU±ATIONS AND SOCIA± RE±ATIONSHIPS. ÉNISE ÊRENNAN ExP±ORES
HOW PEOP±E AROUND THE WOR±D HAVE ±OOkED TO LATIN µmERICAN SEx WORkER
ORgANIzINg AS A mODE± FOR ±ABOR EffORTS IN THEIR OWN COUNTRIES. ºROm ±INkS TO
NONgOVERNmENTA± SOCIA± SUPPORT ORgANIzATIONS TO PUB±IC HEA±TH INSTITUTIONS
ACROSS THE CONTINENT, SEx WORkERS IN LATIN µmERICA HAVE DEmONSTRATED HOW
THROUgH kNOW±EDgE AND ACTIVISm THEIR RIgHTS AND WE±±-BEINg CAN BE WON AND
ExPANDED.
½ExT, º±ORENCE ÊABB ExAmINES HOW TOURISTS ±OOk TO LATIN µmERICA FOR
THEIR PERSONA± EDIfiCATION AND AmUSEmENT, INC±UDINg BUT OF COURSE NOT ±Im-
ITED TO SEx WORkERS. ºOR mANY READERS OF Global Latin America, TOURISm mAY
BE THE mEANS OF CONNECTINg WITH THE REgION, AND IT IS OﬅEN AS TOURISTS THAT
THEY SEE THE INflUENCE OF THEIR HOmE±ANDS ON LATIN µmERICA RATHER THAN VICE
VERSA. »NE WAY ÊABB REVERSES OUR ORIENTATION IS TO ±OOk C±OSE±Y AT PRECONCEP-
TIONS ABOUT LATIN µmERICA AND HOW THESE mAY REflECT AS mUCH ABOUT WHERE
PEOP±E COmE FROm AS WHERE THEY VISIT.
¹N A WHIR±WIND TOUR OF HIS OWN, ONE OF ÊRAzI±’S ±EADINg INTE±±ECTUA±S, ¼UBEN
»±IVEN, PROVIDES A kEEN SENSE OF THE mU±TIP±E mEANINgS OF g±OBA± AND ±OCA±
COmmUNITIES FROm A LATIN µmERICA–OUTWARD PERSPECTIVE. ¼ACE, ECONOmICS,
RE±IgION, AND INEqUA±ITIES OF A±± kINDS PROVIDE THE BACkDROP FOR THIS CHAPTER
THAT SITUATES ÊRAzI±, AND BY ExTENSION A±± OF LATIN µmERICA, IN A DYNAmIC g±O-
BA± CONTExT, FU±± OF ASPIRATIONS AND CHA±±ENgES. »±IVEN HE±PS US TO UNDERSTAND
WHY IT IS WORTH PAYINg ATTENTION TO LATIN µmERICA AS THE TENOR AND SCOPE OF
PROTEST AND DEmANDS FOR INC±USION ARE SHARED g±OBA±±Y.

Art Moves the World
°E ImPACT OF LATIN µmERICA ON g±OBA± ART CAN BE SEEN IN EVERYTHINg FROm
mUSIC TO gRAffiTI TO PHOTOgRAPHY. °IS VO±UmE, HOWEVER, FOCUSES ON FAmI±IAR
AND ±ESS ExPECTED ARENAS. °E fiNA± PART OF Global Latin America SHOWS HOW
FAR THE ImAgE OF LATIN µmERICAN CU±TURE HAS CHANgED FROm ·ARmEN
MIRANDA–±IkE WOmEN DANCINg WITH TROPICA± FRUIT ON THEIR HEADS. µ±THOUgH
WE STI±± SEE STEREOTYPED NARCO DRUg ±ORDS ON TE±EVISION AND IN THE mOVIES,
WHERE LATIN µmERICAN CU±TURE BEgINS AND ENDS IS NO ±ONgER NEAR±Y SO C±EAR AS
IT ONCE mIgHT HAVE BEEN.
°E ±ITERARY SCHO±AR ¹±AN ²TAVANS ANA±YzES LATIN µmERICAN ±ITERATURE’S
“BOOm HEARD ROUND THE WOR±D” BY DETAI±INg THE mU±TIP±E PERSONA± AND AES-
THETIC CONNECTIONS BETWEEN ±EgENDARY LATIN µmERICAN AUTHORS—GABRIE±
GARCíA MáRqUEz, MARIO ÍARgAS L±OSA, ·AR±OS ºUENTES—IN ³UROPE AND IN
VIRTUA±±Y EVERY CORNER OF THE ±ITERARY WOR±D. ÓET ²TAVANS WORRIES THAT THE VERY
WOR±D±INESS OF LATIN µmERICAN AUTHORS mIgHT BE SmOOTHINg TOO mANY OF
LATIN µmERICA’S WRINk±ES OUT OF THE REgION’S fiCTION, SOmETHINg HE CA±±S “THE
DRAWBACk OF INTERNATIONA±IzATION.”
ÈITHOUT A DOUBT, mORE PEOP±E IN mORE P±ACES AROUND THE WOR±D HAVE
±EARNED WHAT THEY kNOW ABOUT LATIN µmERICA FROm telenovelas, THE REgION’S
HYPERPOPU±AR AND INflUENTIA± “SOAP OPERAS.” Telenovelas ARE NOT ExACT±Y THE
SAmE AS THE SOAPS IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES—THEY ±AST FOR mONTHS AND NOT DEC-
ADES; THEY ARE SHOWN AT NIgHT, NOT DURINg THE DAY, AND AS A CONSEqUENCE, THEY
ARE WATCHED BY mEN AS WE±± AS WOmEN. »RIgINA±±Y FROm ³CUADOR, THE SOCIA±
SCIENTIST ÉUgO ÊENAVIDES INVESTIgATES THE HUgE g±OBA± mARkET IN telenovelas
IN ±OCA±ES AS FAR flUNg AS µFRICA AND THE MIDD±E ³AST. ÈHY THEY ARE SO WE±±
±IkED SImI±AR±Y REVEA±S AS mUCH ABOUT g±OBA± VIEWERS AS ABOUT LATIN µmERICA.
½ExT, THE ÊRAzI±IAN jOURNA±IST ºABIANO MAISONNAVE ExP±ORES THE BOSSA
NOVA SINgER LISA »NO’S POPU±ARITY IN ·HINA. ²INgINg THE ARCHETYPICA±
ÊRAzI±IAN mUSIC FROm A BYgONE ERA, »NO IS IN FACT BETTER kNOWN IN ³AST µSIA
THAN SHE IS IN HER NATIVE ÊRAzI±. µND THAT IS THE POINT: LATIN µmERICAN mUSIC
gOES THROUgH A g±OBA± mETAmORPHOSIS SO THAT ·HINESE AUDIENCES COmE TO
BE±IEVE A ÊRAzI±IAN mUSICIAN IS FROm JAPAN, SINgINg IN A FOREIgN ±ANgUAgE (IN
THIS CASE ¸ORTUgUESE) THAT COU±D BE ³Ng±ISH AS WE±± AS ANYTHINg E±SE. µND THE
mUSICA± VOYAgE ±INgERS ON.
ÈE C±OSE WITH AN ORIgINA± INTERVIEW BY THE RENOWNED MExICAN jOURNA±IST
µ±mA GUI±±ERmOPRIETO WITH THE MExICAN mOVIE STAR GAE± GARCíA ÊERNA±.
ºROm Amores Perros TO Ã tu mamá también AND °e Motorcycle Diaries TO THE

JON ²TEWART–DIRECTED Rosewater, GARCíA ÊERNA± HAS CHANgED HOW PEOP±E
AROUND THE WOR±D SEE LATIN µmERICA, AND THIS CHAPTER CHANgES HOW WE UNDER-
STAND THE INflUENCE OF CINEmATIC g±OBA± LATIN µmERICA. ¹DEA±ISTIC, REBE±±IOUS,
gENIA±, AND A±WAYS ENTERTAININg, THIS MExICAN ACTOR IS, ±IkE LATIN µmERICA,
ROOTED IN BUT DEfiNED BY FAR mORE THAN NATIONA±ITY.
°E CENTRA± PREmISE OF Global Latin America THEN IS qUITE SImP±E: °OSE
IN THE REST OF THE WOR±D HAVE mUCH TO ±EARN FROm LATIN µmERICA. ¼EADERS
FROm THE ¶NITED ²TATES AND ³UROPE mAY fiND THAT THE AUTHORS OF THIS VO±UmE
PRESENT mUCH mORE SOPHISTICATED ANSWERS TO PRESSINg CHA±±ENgES THAN THOSE
THAT COmE FROm ÈASHINgTON, ¸ARIS, LONDON, AND ÊER±IN. µS EDITORS, WE HOPE
THAT THESE CHAPTERS WI±± ±EAD YOU TO SHARE OUR APPRECIATION OF HOW DIffERENT±Y
THINgS CAN AND SHOU±D ±OOk WHEN VIEWED FROm LATIN µmERICA OUT TOWARD THE
REST OF THE g±OBE.

ÀÁ Â Ã Ä Å Æ
The Latin American Past in the Global

Present
introduction
Öany of us thinK of TImE AS mOVINg IN A ±INEAR DIRECTION FROm A before

IN THE PAST TO A now IN THE PRESENT AND TOWARD A then IN THE FUTURE. ¹mAgINE
THE NEAT SImP±ICITY OF A TImE line: FROm ±Eﬅ TO RIgHT, FROm PAST TO PRESENT. °E
TIT±E OF THIS PART CHA±±ENgES THE ±INEAR TRAjECTORY FROm A REgIONA±±Y SPECIfiC,
LATIN µmERICAN then TO A REgIONA±±Y UNINHIBITED, g±OBA± now. ¹N LATIN
µmERICA, AS E±SEWHERE, THE SHAPE OF TImE AND THE BORDERS BETWEEN A HISTORICA±
PAST AND A CONTEmPORARY PRESENT ARE NOT NECESSARI±Y AS THEY fiRST SEEm. ÈITH
TONES RANgINg FROm THE POETIC TO THE PRESIDENTIA±, THESE CHAPTERS INTRODUCE US
TO g±OBA± LATIN µmERICA AND THE B±URRY BOUNDARIES BETWEEN PAST AND PRESENT
AND BETWEEN HERE AND THERE. ¹N THE PROCESS, THEY OffER A REFRESHED AND REFRESH-
INg mAP OF g±OBA±±Y ExTENDED NETWORkS AND g±OBA±IzED INTERDEPENDENCIES
WITH LATIN µmERICA AT THE CENTER.
·OINED IN 1930, THE TERm globalization HAS COmE INTO COmmON USE ON±Y OVER
THE PAST THIRTY YEARS. MANY DESCRIBE THE PRO±IFERATION OF INSTITUTIONS AND INDI-
VIDUA±S OPERATINg ON A TRANSNATIONA± SCA±E AS UNEqUIVOCA±±Y NEW AND UNPRECE-
DENTED. ÓET g±OBA± CONNECTIONS, AS THE ±ONg HISTORY OF A g±OBA±±Y CONNECTED
LATIN µmERICA SHOWS, ARE NOT PRODUCTS OF THE RECENT PAST. MANY CHAPTERS IN THIS
VO±UmE SITUATE LATIN µmERICA AT THE CROSSROADS OF CENTURIES OF TRANSOCEANIC
g±OBA± ±INkS. °AT HISTORY INC±UDES THE REgION’S PIVOTA± RO±E IN THE DEVE±OPmENT
OF mODERN SOCIA±, PO±ITICA±, AND ECONOmIC FORmS OF WOR±D HISTORICA± ImPORTANCE.
¾RY THINkINg ABOUT THE TRAjECTORIES OF EmPIRE, S±AVERY, AND CAPITA±ISm without
LATIN µmERICA. ½ONETHE±ESS, Global Latin America IS NOT A HISTORY TExTBOOk
NARRATINg THE O±D IF UNDENIAB±Y SIgNIfiCANT HISTORY OF THE REgION.
“°E LATIN µmERICAN ¸AST IN THE G±OBA± ¸RESENT” BEgINS AT THE END, SO TO
SPEAk, WITH CONTEmPORARY DEVE±OPmENTS THAT ORIgINATED WITHIN LATIN
µmERICA BUT HAVE mADE A SP±ASH E±SEWHERE. ¹N PARTICU±AR, THESE CHAPTERS ±Iﬅ
UP REgIONWIDE SOCIOPO±ITICA± INNOVATIONS FROm THE SCA±E OF g±OBA± INSTITUTIONS
AND NATIONA± gOVERNmENTS TO EVERYDAY ±IFE. ²OmE OBSERVERS mAY BA±k AT THIS
PROPOSITION; RE±ATIVE±Y RECENT HISTORIES OF DIRTY WARS AND DICTATORSHIPS mIgHT
SUggEST THAT LATIN µmERICA HAS ±ITT±E SUCCESS IN gOVERNANCE IN THE TWENTY-fiRST
CENTURY. µ NUmBER OF AUTHORS HERE INVERT THAT THINkINg, OffERINg ExAmP±ES
THAT COmPE± READERS TO RECkON WITH THE INSTRUCTIVE gOOD THAT HAS EmERgED
(AND CONTINUES TO DEVE±OP) OUT OF CONflICT AND HARDSHIP.
µS A fiTTINg OPENINg TO Global Latin America, THIS PART INTRODUCES US TO
ExAmP±ES OF g±OBA±±Y PIONEERINg ACTIVITY. ÈE HEAR FROm ¼ICARDO LAgOS, ·HI±E’S
PRESIDENT FROm 2000 TO 2006, WHO SAT FOR A CONVERSATION WITH THE ANTHRO-
PO±OgIST MATTHEW GUTmANN IN 2014. ¸RESIDENT LAgOS gIVES INSIgHTS ON FAR-
REACHINg TOPICS, FROm C±ImATE CHANgE TO mestizaje. ²PECIA±ISTS WI±± RE±ISH
LAgOS’S INSIDER COmmENTARY, INC±UDINg SNIPPETS FROm ONE-ON-ONE CONVERSA-
TIONS WITH OTHER g±OBA± PO±ITICA± AND INTE±±ECTUA± ±EADERS.
°E SOCIO±OgISTS GABRIE± ÉET±AND AND ¸ETER ³VANS COmP±EmENT LAgOS’S
ASSESSmENT OF THE CHA±±ENgES AND OPPORTUNITIES FACINg THE REgION WITH FOUR
CASE STUDIES OF REgIONA± SOCIA± INNOVATION. ½EWCOmERS TO LATIN µmERICA WI±±
±EARN mUCH FROm THESE NARRATIVES ABOUT NOVE± FORmS OF ±OCA± DEmOCRATIC
ENgAgEmENT, RESPONSES TO ENVIRONmENTA± DEgRADATION, AND PATTERNS OF RURA±
mOBI±IzATION. ¾OgETHER, LAgOS, ÉET±AND, AND ³VANS HE±P TO COUNTER ENDURINg
STEREOTYPES OF LATIN µmERICA AS A P±ACE mIRED IN THE PAST. °EY SHOW, FOR
INSTANCE, THAT THE PASSAgE OF TImE HAS NOT ±Eﬅ mEmORIES OF DIRTY WAR AND
DICTATORSHIP FROm THE 1960S AND 1970S BURIED IN OB±IVION. ÊY RECkONINg WITH
THOSE HISTORIES, LATIN µmERICA’S TRANSITIONS TO DEmOCRACY HAVE BECOmE mEAN-
INgFU± REFERENTS FOR PROjECTS OF INCREASED PO±ITICA± PARTICIPATION, RECONCI±IA-
TION, AND ACCOUNTABI±ITY WOR±DWIDE.
¼EADERS OF THIS PART WI±± ENCOUNTER TOWERINg AND ICONIC figURES FROm g±O-
BA± LATIN µmERICA’S PAST AND PRESENT. °E ANTHROPO±OgIST ½ANCY ²CHEPER-
ÉUgHES AND THE HISTORIAN JENNIFER ²CHEPER ÉUgHES PROfi±E THE fiRST LATIN
µmERICAN POPE, ºRANCIS, BORN JORgE MARIO ÊERgOg±IO IN ÊUENOS µIRES IN 1936.
¹N ADDITION TO COmPE±±INg, fiRSTHAND ACCOUNTS OF THE DEVE±OPmENT OF ±IBERA-
TION THEO±OgY IN LATIN µmERICA, ²CHEPER-ÉUgHES AND ²CHEPER ÉUgHES DE±IVER
AN ImPASSIONED P±EA FOR THE PONTIff TO CONTINUE REmAkINg THE ·ATHO±IC
·HURCH IN A RE±ATIVE±Y mORE RADICA± ImAgE. °EN THERE IS ºIDE± ·ASTRO, SUBjECT
OF THE HISTORIAN GREg GRANDIN’S CHAPTER, WHICH TRACES ON A TImE ±INE THE RO±ES
OF ·UBA AND ·UBAN µmERICAN ExI±ES IN ¶.². PRESIDENTIA± PO±ITICS. °OUgH
RECENT EffORTS HAVE ±ED TO A FURTHER DEFROSTINg OF THE TIES BETWEEN THE ¶NITED
16 • pa rt on e
²TATES AND ·UBA (CURRENT±Y UNDER THE ±EADERSHIP OF ºIDE± ·ASTRO’S BROTHER
¼Aú±), GRANDIN’S PIECE REmINDS US THAT ¶.². PO±ITICIANS HAVE ±ONg FOUND WAYS
TO mOBI±IzE VERSIONS OF ·ASTRO TO SUIT THEIR OWN ENDS.
ÉPICTINg THE mOST RECOgNIzAB±E SYmBO± OF g±OBA± LATIN µmERICA, THE
AUTHORS AND I±±USTRATORS ÌIYOSHI ÌONNO AND ·HIE ²HImANO SHOW HOW
³RNESTO “·HE” GUEVARA HAS BECOmE AN ICON FOR REBE±±ION ACROSS SPECTRUmS OF
gEOgRAPHY AND IDEO±OgY, FROm MARxIST REVO±UTIONARIES figHTINg g±OBA± CAPITA±-
ISm TO DISgRUNT±ED ADO±ESCENTS DEFYINg HEAVY-HANDED PARENTS.
·OmBININg FRESH IDEAS WITH UNFAmI±IAR NARRATIVES, THESE CHAPTERS SPUR US
TO ±OOk AT TImE AND HISTORY THROUgH THE ±ENSES OF THE LATIN µmERICAN PAST
AND THE g±OBA± PRESENT. ÈE ARE OB±IgED TO CHA±±ENgE SImP±E VECTORS BETWEEN
THE PAST AND THE PRESENT AND THE CERTAINTY OF A SEEmINg±Y mORE mODERN AND
BETTER FUTURE jUST DOWN THE ±INE. ÈE fiND PRECEDENT FOR SUCH A±TERNATIVE WAYS
OF THINkINg IN THE CYC±ICA± COSmO±OgY OF THE MExICA µzTEC ³mPIRE, WHICH
ROSE AND FE±± IN mODERN-DAY MExICO IN THE CENTURY BEFORE THE ³UROPEANS
ARRIVED IN ¾ENOCHTIT±AN (TODAY’S MExICO ·ITY) IN 1521. ÈE fiND THAT SAmE
CYC±ICA± TImE AS WE READ AND REREAD THE ½OBE± ¸RIzE–WINNINg ·O±OmBIAN
AUTHOR GABRIE± GARCíA MáRqUEz’S One Hundred Ãears of Solitude, WHICH
TRACES THE POROSITY OF TImE OVER SEVEN gENERATIONS OF THE ÊUENDíA FAmI±Y. ºOR
THOSE FAmI±IAR WITH AND NEW TO LATIN µmERICA A±IkE, “°E LATIN µmERICAN
¸AST IN THE G±OBA± ¸RESENT” ENCOURAgES ExPANSIVE THINkINg ABOUT THE PASSAgE
OF TImE AND THE BORDERS THAT SERVE BOTH TO SEPARATE AND TO CONNECT before,
now, AND then.
°is and all part introductions were written by Andrew Britt.
Ï n t roduct ion • 17
one
Looking at the Past and the Future

without Fear
an interview with ricardo la¿os
Matthew Gutmann
How has Latin America had a significant impact around the world, economi-
cally, politically, culturally?×
Ricardo Lagos: °E mOST ImPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS OF LATIN µmERICA TO
THE WOR±D HAVE NOT NECESSARI±Y BEEN IN THE SOCIA± SCIENCES BUT INSTEAD IN
±ITERATURE, IN PAINTINg, IN mUSIC, PERHAPS EVEN IN THE kITCHEN. ºROm
MExICAN TACOS DISTRIBUTED THROUgHOUT THE ¶NITED ²TATES TO THE mOST
SOPHISTICATED, CONTEmPORARY ¸ERUVIAN CUISINE, RIgHT? ÈHAT ¹ mEAN IS THAT,
AS ·AR±OS ºUENTES ±IkED TO SAY AND MARIO ÍARgAS L±OSA Ø SAYS, TOO, THE INTE±-
±ECTUA± AND CU±TURA± WOR±DS HAVE P±AYED A ±ARgER RO±E IN mAkINg LATIN
µmERICA WHAT IT IS THAN ITS PO±ITICIANS HAVE.
ÉOWEVER, ¹ WOU±D SAY THAT, DESPITE THIS, LATIN µmERICA HAS UNDERgONE A
±EARNINg PROCESS. µND WE HAVE ±EARNED, fiRST, THAT mANY OF THE THEORIES
TAUgHT ABROAD HAVE TO PASS THROUgH THE SIEVE OF OUR OWN REA±ITY. ÊEgINNINg
WITH JOHN MAYNARD ÌEYNES’S General °eory of Employment, Interest and
Money (1936)—ÌEYNES CA±±ED HIS THEORY “gENERA±,” A±THOUgH IT WAS ON±Y
gENERA± FOR COUNTRIES ±IkE THOSE IN WHICH ÌEYNES ±IVED AND NOT FOR THE REST
OF THE WOR±D. ²ECOND, IN mANY CASES WHEN THESE THEORIES PASS THROUgH THE
SIEVE OF OUR OWN REA±ITY THEY BECOmE, INSTEAD OF A gENERA± THEORY, ONE THAT IS
PARTICU±AR TO THE DEVE±OPED WOR±D. ¹T HAS BEEN HARD FOR US TO UNDERSTAND
THIS BECAUSE, IN mANY INSTANCES, WE WANT TO mECHANICA±±Y APP±Y IDEAS FROm
THE SOCIA± SCIENCES. ¹F ONE TRIES TO mECHANICA±±Y APP±Y MAx ÈEBER, WE fiND
THAT ÈEBER WAS THINkINg ABOUT A GERmAN REA±ITY THAT IS VERY DIffERENT FROm
OUR OWN.
19
latin aÇerican lessons: political econoÇies
°en what can the rest of the world learn Äom the process that Latin America
has gone through in understanding and applying external theories?
ºROm THE ECONOmIC PERSPECTIVE, TWO INTERESTINg PHENOmENA OCCURRED.
ºIRST, THE PHENOmENON OF THE TRANSITION FROm DICTATORSHIPS TO DEmOCRACIES,
A±THOUgH EVEN IN DEmOCRACY WE HAVE ±EARNED THAT IF THERE AREN’T SENSIB±E
mACROECONOmIC PO±ICIES IN P±ACE, THEN THE ECONOmY WI±± gIVE US A HARD TImE.
¹ HAVE A±WAYS SAID THAT THE mOST ImPORTANT THINg ABOUT µ±FONSíN [¼Aú±
µ±FONSíN, PRESIDENT OF µRgENTINA, 1983–89]—WHO WAS UNDOUBTED±Y ONE OF
THE mOST RESPECTED DEmOCRATS BECAUSE HE WAS AB±E REESTAB±ISH DEmOCRACY IN
µRgENTINAÙ—IS THAT HIS gOVERNmENT SUffERED FROm POOR ECONOmIC mANAgE-
mENT, WHICH OB±IgED HIm TO END HIS PRESIDENCY SIx mONTHS EAR±Y. °E RESU±T
WAS THAT WE BEgAN TO TAkE mACROECONOmICS mUCH mORE SERIOUS±Y. µND IF
YOU THINk ABOUT IT CAREFU±±Y, A±THOUgH THE ÈASHINgTON ·ONSENSUSÚ WAS IN
FASHION AT THE TImE, WE A±SO ±EARNED THAT THE ÈASHINgTON ·ONSENSUS ON±Y
mENTIONED US IN RE±ATION TO THE “TRICk±E DOWN” EffECT AND THE NEED FOR PUB-
±IC PO±ICIES. ¹T WAS ONE THINg TO ImP±EmENT SO±ID mACROECONOmIC PO±ICIES,
BUT IT WAS A±SO ImPORTANT TO UNDERSTAND THAT THE ÈASHINgTON ·ONSENSUS
WAS NOT USEFU± IN HE±PINg US ImPROVE THE SOCIA± SITUATION OF OUR PEOP±E.
°AT SAID, IT IS A±SO ImPORTANT TO NOTE THAT BECAUSE WE HAD THE ¾EqUI±A
·RISIS,Û THE CURRENCY DEPRECIATION CRISIS IN ÊRAzI±, THE CURRENCY DEPRECIATION
CRISIS IN µRgENTINA AﬅER ·AR±OS MENEm [PRESIDENT, 1989–99]—EACH OF THESE
CRISES CAUSED A REgIONA± CRISIS—AND WE HAD SO mANY CRISES THAT WE ±EARNED
THE ImPORTANCE OF HAVINg AN EffECTIVE fiNANCIA± SYSTEm. ¸ERHAPS THIS
ExP±AINS WHY OUR fiNANCIA± SYSTEmS WERE AB±E TO RESIST THE 2008 fiNANCIA±
CRISIS. ¹ DON’T kNOW IF THIS mEANS THAT WE WERE AB±E TO TEACH THE WOR±D SOmE-
THINg, IT’S jUST TO SAY THAT WE HAD ±EARNED FROm PREVIOUS CRISES HOW TO ExE-
CUTE THE NECESSARY TASkS IN THE NEW ONE.
µND TODAY WE CAN SAY THAT WE DIDN’T CAUSE THIS CRISIS. ÈE CAN DEC±ARE OUR-
SE±VES INNOCENT OF THIS, THE BIggEST OF A±± THE CRISES. µ±SO, AS A RESU±T OF PREVI-
OUS CRISES—AND THIS IS AN ADVERTISEmENT—WE ±EARNED HOW TO ImP±EmENT
COUNTERCYC±ICA± PO±ICIES. ÈE ±EARNED THAT IF WE LATIN µmERICANS HAVE TO
DEPEND ON SOYA PRICES, PETRO± PRICES, COPPER PRICES, AND OTHER COmmODITIES
WHOSE PRICES flUCTUATE gREAT±Y, THERE WAS A±SO ANOTHER POSSIBI±ITY. °E POS-
SIBI±ITY TO HAVE THE SO-CA±±ED STRUCTURA± SURP±US BUDgET. ÊY THIS ¹ mEAN THAT
THE fiSCA± BUDgET SHOU±D USE STRUCTURA± DETERmINANTS OF INCOmE, ±IkE TAxES,
AS A FRACTION OF POTENTIA± G´¸ [gROSS DOmESTIC PRODUCT] ESTAB±ISHED BY AN
INDEPENDENT TECHNICA± COmmITTEE. °ESE PO±ICIES mEAN THAT WHEN COm-
20 • ch a p t er on e
mODITY PRICES ARE ±OW, WE SPEND AS THOUgH THE COST WERE THE ±ONg-TERm COST,
WHICH IS mUCH HIgHER. ÉOWEVER, WHEN THE PRICE IS VERY HIgH WE SPEND ±ESS
BECAUSE THE ±ONg-TERm PRICE IS ±OWER.
¹N ·HI±E, WE APP±IED THESE PO±ICIES IN 2000, 2001, AND 2002, WHEN THE PRICE
OF COPPER WAS ON±Y 60 CENTS PER POUND BUT WE USED THE PRICE OF 89 CENTS.
ÈHEN THIS SAmE POUND OF COPPER REACHED A PRICE OF $3.00, WE COU±D SPEND
AS THOUgH IT COST $1.19, BOTH ESTAB±ISHED BY THE ·OmmITTEE. µND WHY Am
¹ TE±±INg YOU THIS? ÊECAUSE WHEN THE 2008 CRISIS CAmE A±ONg, THE ·HI±EAN
gOVERNmENT HAD SAVINgS OF ABOUT 40, 50 PERCENT OF OUR YEAR±Y G´¸, AND
WE COU±D THEREFORE ImP±EmENT COUNTERCYC±ICA± PO±ICIES AND SPEND mORE.
ÈE SPENT 4 PERCENT OF G´¸ SUPPORTINg THE NEEDIEST SECTORS, SImP±Y WITH-
DRAWINg FROm OUR SAVINgS; WE DIDN’T HAVE TO ASk FOR fiNANCIA± SUPPORT FROm
ANYWHERE E±SE.
And these savings were not the result of the Chicago Boys Ý either?
¼IgHT, BECAUSE IT WASN’T THE ·HICAgO ÊOYS WHO ImP±EmENTED THEm. ²O, WE
HAVE TO TA±k ABOUT THE ·HICAgO ÊOYS, WHO DOmINATED THE SCENE ESPECIA±±Y
DURINg THE DICTATORSHIP [1973–90] WHEN IT WAS RE±ATIVE±Y EASY TO jUSTIFY THEIR
PO±ICIES. ÈHEN YOU ExP±AIN THEIR PO±ICIES, WHEN YOU DECIDE TO OPEN YOUR
ECONOmY AS WE DID IN ·HI±E, FOR ExAmP±E, AND YOU gO FROm 170,000 TExTI±E
WORkERS TO 30,000, WE±± THAT HAS AN ENORmOUS ImPACT FROm THE PERSPECTIVE
OF EmP±OYmENT, AND ONE THAT HAPPENS IN ±ESS THAN A YEAR, IN THE 1980S. ²O, ¹
WOU±D SAY THAT OUR PO±ICIES WERE PART ÈASHINgTON ·ONSENSUS AND PART OF
THE REESTAB±ISHmENT OF DEmOCRACY, WHICH IS WHEN WE REA±IzED THAT mANY
ASPECTS OF THE ÈASHINgTON ·ONSENSUS WERE jUST COmmON SENSE. ÉOWEVER,
THERE WERE ASSUmPTIONS THAT WERE NOT COmmON SENSE AND DID NOT WORk.
ºOR ExAmP±E, EVEN IF THE TRICk±E-DOWN EffECT ExISTED, IT WAS IN THE VERY ±ONg
TERm AND WAS THEREFORE NOT COmPATIB±E WITH OUR ImmEDIATE PROB±EmS. ½OW,
WHAT WE DID ±EARN WAS HOW TO CREATE WE±±-TARgETED SOCIA± PO±ICIES, A±THOUgH
IN THOSE YEARS THE ¹NTERNATIONA± MONETARY ºUND AND THE ÈOR±D ÊANk DID
NOT ±IkE THESE WORDS. ¹N 1990, AS mINISTER OF EDUCATION, ¹ REA±IzED THAT IN THE
mAjORITY OF SCHOO±S A±ONg THE COAST THERE WERE ON±Y gIR±S OR VERY FEW BOYS
ABOVE THE AgE OF FOURTEEN, BECAUSE THE BOYS WENT TO WORk WITH THEIR FATHERS
IN THE BOATS. ÉOWEVER, IN OTHER PARTS OF ·HI±E, SUCH AS THE ÍA±±E ·ENTRA±, ¹
ENCOUNTERED SCHOO±S WHERE THERE WERE ON±Y BOYS BECAUSE A±± THE gIR±S OVER
fiﬅEEN WENT WITH THEIR mOTHERS TO HARVEST FRUIT.
°ERE WASN’T ANYWHERE FOR THEm TO WORk. ²O, BASED ON THESE ExPERIENCES, ¹
SAID, “ÈHY DON’T WE CREATE A PROgRAm FOR PEOP±E WHO ARE ExTREmE±Y POOR?
ÈE WI±± OffER A gRANT THAT WI±± A±±OW PARENTS TO SUPPORT THEmSE±VES A BIT
Á n Ï n t erv i ew w i th Â ic a r do Ü a¿os • 21
BETTER SO THAT CHI±DREN WON’T HAVE TO gO fiSHINg WITH THEIR FATHERS OR HAR-
VESTINg WITH THEIR mOTHERS.” °IS ExPERIENCE—“gRANT” IS A BIg WORD FOR SUCH
A SmA±± AmOUNT OF mONEY, BUT IT WAS ENOUgH TO INCENTIVIzE PARENTS TO kEEP
THEIR CHI±DREN IN SCHOO±. LATER, IN 1993, ·ARDOSO [ºERNANDO ÉENRIqUE
·ARDOSO, PRESIDENT OF ÊRAzI±, 1995–2003] NAmED ¸AU±O ¼ENATO DE ²OUzA AS
HIS mINISTER OF EDUCATION, AND ¸AU±O ¼ENATO ASkED mE, “ÈHAT CAN ¹ ±EARN
FROm ·HI±E?” µND ¹ TO±D HIm ABOUT THIS ExPERIENCE. °AT WAS THE ORIgIN OF
ÊRAzI±’S ÊO±SA ³SCO±A PROgRAm. ÊO±SA ³SCO±A THEN SPREAD TO OTHER COUNTRIES.
µNOTHER ExAmP±E IS WHEN WE DECIDED THAT TO ADDRESS THE ISSUE OF ExTREmE
POVERTY WE WOU±D CREATE A PROgRAm CA±±ED ·HI±E ²O±IDARIO, WHERE WE WOU±D
WORk WITH THE POOR TO TEACH THEm THEIR RIgHTS. °ROUgH THIS ExPERIENCE WE
DISCOVERED THAT IT IS ONE THINg TO SAY THAT WE ARE gOINg TO CREATE ±AWS TO
PROTECT THE RIgHTS OF THE POOR AND qUITE ANOTHER THAT THE POOR UNDERSTAND
THAT THERE ARE ±AWS THAT WORk IN THEIR FAVOR.
Has this been a model outside of Latin America as well?
·HI±E ²O±IDARIO? ¹ WOU±D SAY YES, THROUgH THE ÈOR±D ÊANk, WHICH DECIDED
TO DISSEmINATE THE mODE±. ¹T IS FUNNY: THE ÈOR±D ÊANk TO±D mE THEY WANTED
TO CE±EBRATE, IN qUOTATION mARkS, THE TEN-YEAR ANNIVERSARY OF ·HI±E ²O±IDARIO
AT A ±ARgE FORUm THAT DID TAkE P±ACE AT THE ÈOR±D ÊANk. ²ImP±Y BECAUSE THEY
UNDERSTOOD THAT IT HAD BEEN A REA±±Y WORTHWHI±E PROgRAm. ½OW, WHY HAD IT
BEEN WORTHWHI±E? ÈHEN YOU ARE PRESIDENT AND YOU ISSUE AN INVITATION TO THE
PRESIDENTIA± PA±ACE, EVERYONE COmES. µND THERE WERE PEOP±E FROm THE ¼IgHT,
FROm THE LEﬅ, AND ¹ SAID, “GENT±EmEN, WE kNOW WHO THE POOR ARE IN ·HI±E,
WE kNOW WHERE THEY ±IVE, SO WHAT DO WE DO TO END POVERTY?” ²OmE SAID,
“²END THEm A CHECk,” OTHERS SAID, “²END THEm SOCIA± WORkERS,” AND IT WAS A
BIg DEBATE. ¹N THE END, ¹ DECIDED THAT SENDINg A CHECk WOU±D BE INSU±TINg TO
PEOP±E’S DIgNITY; IT WASN’T jUST ABOUT C±IENTE±ISm, IT WAS ABOUT PEOP±E’S DIg-
NITY, SO WE CHOSE THE SOCIA± WORkERS. ÈE CHOSE A DIffERENT WAY OF WORkINg.
°E RESU±T: A SOCIA± WORkER WOU±D VISIT EACH FAmI±Y AND TE±± THEm, “¹’m HERE
TO TEACH YOU WHAT RIgHTS YOU HAVE AS A RESU±T OF YOUR SOCIA± SITUATION.” µS A
WOmAN ONCE TO±D mE, “¹ NEVER kNEW THAT, AS A RESU±T OF mY POVERTY, ¹ HAD
CERTAIN RIgHTS. ¹ DIDN’T DARE gO TO THE mUNICIPA±ITY AND SAY, “ÉE±P mE, ¹’m
POOR.” ²O, ¹ THINk THAT ONE COU±D SAY THAT FROm THE ECONOmIC AND SOCIA±
PERSPECTIVES, WE HAVE ±EARNED A ±OT.
»F COURSE, THERE WAS A±SO THE fiNANCIA± CRISIS AND THE G7 THAT ·HIRAC
[JACqUES ·HIRAC, ºRENCH PRESIDENT, 1995–2007] TImID±Y WANTED TO TURN INTO
THE G14, SO HE WOU±D INVITE THE Ê¼¹·S, ÊRAzI±, ¹NDIA, AND ·HINA. ÈE±±, IT
BECAmE THE G20 AﬅER THE 2008 CRISIS. ¹ STI±± fiND IT PICTURESqUE THAT IT WAS
¸RESIDENT [GEORgE È.] ÊUSH WHO fiRST CA±±ED THE G20 TOgETHER IN
ÈASHINgTON, ´.·. ¹ DON'T THINk THAT THERE WAS ANYTHINg FURTHER FROm HIS
mIND BEFORE THE CRISIS THAN THE NOTION OF HAVINg A G20 RU±E THE WOR±D. ÊUT
THE DEPTHS OF THE CRISIS NECESSITATED A mUCH WIDER WOR±D.
What about the role of Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico representing the other
Latin American countries? Do you think this has been special in the G20 or not?
ÓES AND NO, YES AND NO. ¹ THINk THAT IN mANY CASES, WE HAVE HAD TO CONTRIB-
UTE TO CRITICISmS OF THE ÈASHINgTON ·ONSENSUS, BECAUSE AﬅER THE CRISES THE
ISSUE WAS THE NEED TO REVIVE THE WOR±D ECONOmY. °E 2009 G20 IN LONDON
WAS VERY gOOD WHEN, IN HA±F AN HOUR, THE gROUP AgREED THAT THE
¹NTERNATIONA± MONETARY ºUND, WHICH HAD CAPITA± WORTH $250 BI±±ION,
SHOU±D BECOmE $750 BI±±ION INSTEAD. ÊECAUSE NOW THE DEVE±OPED COUNTRIES
NEEDED THE ºUND TO SAVE ³UROPE. ¼IgHT? ²OmETHINg THAT HAD BEEN ImPOS-
SIB±E TO ACHIEVE DURINg THE PAST TWENTY YEARS—THAT TO ARRIVE AT THE $750
BI±±ION, THE ²PECIA± ´RAWINg ¼IgHTS [SUPP±EmENTARY FOREIgN ExCHANgE
RESERVE ASSETS mANAgED BY THE ¹Mº] WOU±D BE $250 BI±±ION. ·HINA SUPP±IED
$50 BI±±ION OF THESE FUNDS BECAUSE ·HINA IS INTERESTED IN SPECIA± RIgHTS THAT
mAY EVENTUA±±Y A±±OW IT TO BECOmE THE INTERNATIONA± CURRENCY OF THE FUTURE,
INSTEAD OF THE DO±±AR.
°E 2009 G20 WAS DECISIVE BECAUSE SImI±AR PO±ICIES ExISTED BETWEEN THE
¶NITED ²TATES AND ³UROPE TO REVIVE THE ECONOmY. ÊUT IT WAS IN ¸ITTSBURgH
IN 2010 WHEN THOSE PO±ICIES WERE DEVE±OPED. »BAmA WAS STI±± SAYINg, AS HE
DOES TODAY, A±THOUgH PERHAPS A BIT mORE TImID±Y, THAT WE NEEDED TO REACTI-
VATE THE ECONOmY AND MERkE± [µNgE±A MERkE±, GERmAN CHANCE±±OR,
2005– ] WAS SAYINg THAT THE PROB±Em WAS INflATION AND AUSTERITY WAS THE
ANSWER. µND THIS PROVOkED THE END, ¹ THINk, OF A COmmON PO±ITICS IN THE
G20 AND IT ±OST ITS RE±EVANCE, ITS ABI±ITY TO FACE THE CRISIS. µND IT WAS THEN,
UNFORTUNATE±Y, THAT LATIN µmERICA, DESPITE BEINg IN FAVOR OF »BAmA’S PO±I-
CIES—IT DIDN’T ExPRESS THIS VIEWPOINT WITH A SINg±E VOICE, WITH ENOUgH FORCE.
¹F YOU PUSH mE A ±ITT±E BIT, ¹ WOU±D SAY THAT WE HAVEN’T REA±±Y TAkEN FU±±
ADVANTAgE OF OUR POSITION IN THE G20 WHERE, IF WE HAVE THREE COUNTRIES, WE
TECHNICA±±Y mAkE UP 15 PERCENT OF THE gROUP.
deÇocracy and deÇocratic Çodels
Politically, we obviously talk a lot about Latin America when we speak about
democracy, about democratic models. Many political analysts who study Latin
America suggest that it is an example for the rest of the world, including in the
sense of showing how to end dictatorships and arrive at a democracy, to achieve
real democratic participation. What do you think?
¹ THINk TWO THINgS. »NE, THE WAYS IN WHICH WE mOVED FROm DICTATORIA±
SYSTEmS TO DEmOCRACY WORkED WE±± IN SOmE CASES, BUT IT IS CERTAIN±Y A S±OW
PROCESS. ¹F WE TAkE THE CASE OF ·HI±E, ¹ mEAN, THE CONTExT IN WHICH THESE
CHANgES HAPPEN ARE VERY DIffERENT. ¹ ±IkED TO SAY TO mY ²PANISH FRIENDS,
“ÓOU WAITED UNTI± ºRANCOÞ HAD DIED.” ÈE ACHIEVED THE TRANSITION WHI±E OUR
ºRANCO WAS STI±± A±IVE AND COmmANDER IN CHIEF OF THE ARmY. ²O IT WAS A ±ITT±E
DIffERENT, RIgHT? ÊUT, THAT SAID, EACH CONTExT IS DIffERENT. ¹N µRgENTINA, THE
CONTExT WAS DIffERENT BECAUSE THE TRANSITION HAPPENED IN THE CONTExT OF THE
ImP±OSION RESU±TINg FROm THE ºA±k±AND ¹S±ANDS DISASTER.ß ¹N OUR CASE, THE
TRANSITION HAPPENED BASED ON ¸INOCHET’S CONSTITUTION BECAUSE IT CA±±ED FOR A
P±EBISCITE,â AND WE THUS DEFEATED HIm IN A P±EBISCITE INC±UDED IN HIS OWN
CONSTITUTION. ·HI±E IS DIffERENT.
¾ODAY IN ·HI±E, THE mAN WHO WAS THE HEAD OF ¸INOCHET’S SECRET PO±ICE HAS
BEEN SENTENCED TO FOUR HUNDRED YEARS IN jAI±, AND HE’S STI±± IN PRISON. ¹N
OTHER WORDS, THERE IS A±SO SOmETHINg TO SHOW. °E COmmISSIONS CREATED BY
µY±WIN [¸ATRICIO µY±WIN, PRESIDENT OF ·HI±E, 1990–94], THE ¼ETTIg ¼EPORT,
PUB±ISHED BY THE ½ATIONA± ·OmmISSION FOR ¾RUTH AND ¼ECONCI±IATION, WE±±,
THOSE WHO WORkED ON THAT ±ATER WENT TO WORk WITH MANDE±A [½E±SON
MANDE±A, PRESIDENT OF ²OUTH µFRICA, 1994–99]. µY±WIN’S COmmISSION WAS
fiRST. ÊUT WHAT THE ²OUTH µFRICANS DID WAS SOmETHINg THAT WASN’T DONE IN
·HI±E, THAT IF YOU ADmITTED TO YOUR CRImES, YOU gAINED AUTOmATIC AmNESTY.
°AT’S AN ImPORTANT POINT. ¹F ¹ gO AND ¹ ADmIT THAT THERE WAS TORTURE, THAT
YOU TORTURED, THAT ¹ TORTURED, THEY CAN’T INCRImINATE mE. ²O, FOR ADmITTINg
THE TRUTH, YOU gAINED AmNESTY. ¹T WASN’T ±IkE THAT IN THE ·HI±EAN CASE
BECAUSE THE COURTS COU±D SENTENCE YOU.
ÚRINg mY PRESIDENCY, WE APPOINTED A PRESIDENTIA± COmmISSION ON PO±ITICA±
PRISONERS AND TORTURE—IT IS ImPORTANT TO NOTE THAT VERY FEW COUNTRIES IN
THE WOR±D HAVE DONE INVESTIgATIONS INTO PO±ITICA± PRISON AND TORTURE. °ERE
ARE COmmISSIONS ON PO±ITICA± kI±±INgS, ON THE DETAINED-DISAPPEARED, BUT
THERE ARE SO mANY PEOP±E WHO WERE ImPRISONED AND TORTURED. ¹T’S HARD. ¹T
OPENS WOUNDS. ÉOW DO ¹ DO IT? ÈHAT WE DECIDED TO DO WAS SAY THAT THE
COmmISSION WOU±D ESTAB±ISH THE TRUTH ABOUT WHAT HAD HAPPENED, BUT IT
WOU±DN’T BRINg PEOP±E TO jUSTICE. ¹T’S ONE THINg TO ESTAB±ISH THE TRUTH AND
SAY, YES, YOU WERE TORTURED AND WE mUST THEREFORE REmOVE YOUR CRImINA±
RECORD ON ¹NTERPO± BECAUSE YOU WERE IN PRISON NOT AS A CRImINA± BUT BECAUSE
YOU WERE PO±ITICA±±Y PERSECUTED BY THE DICTATORSHIP. ÍERY WE±±. ½OW, IF
YOU WANT jUSTICE IN REgARD TO WHAT YOU TESTIfiED ABOUT BEFORE THE COmmIS-
SION, YOU HAVE TO gO TO AND TESTIFY IN COURT, AND THE COURT HAS THE POWER
TO BRINg THE TORTURER TO jUSTICE IF NECESSARY. Ó YOU UNDERSTAND THE DISTINC-
TION?
°IS DISTINCTION A±±OWED US TO CREATE A REPORT ON PO±ITICA± PRISON AND
TORTURE, WHICH IS A FORm OF TEACHINg. ½OW, READINg THE DOCUmENT, READINg
THE REPORT, IT’S A TRIP THROUgH HE±±. °ERE ARE DETAI±S ABOUT THE P±ACES WHERE
PEOP±E WERE DETAINED, AND THESE P±ACES ARE C±ASSIfiED ACCORDINg TO THE kINDS
OF TORTURE THAT TOOk P±ACE IN THEm, BECAUSE THERE WERE DIffERENT kINDS OF
TORTURE IN EACH P±ACE. ÊUT, IN THIS SENSE, ¹ THINk THAT THE DEmOCRATIC
mODE±S THAT EmERgE ARE A±SO DIffERENT. ¾ODAY ¹ WOU±D SAY THAT IT IS IN A
COUNTRY ±IkE ÊRAzI± WHERE YOU HAVE THE mOST DEmOCRACY AND THE ±EAST
DEmOCRACY, WHEN YOU CHOOSE A UNION ±EADER AS YOUR PRESIDENT. ¹ DON’T THINk
THAT ANYBODY THOUgHT THAT, fiﬅEEN YEARS AﬅER DEmOCRACY WAS ESTAB±ISHED,
LU±A [LUIz ¹NáCIO LU±A DA ²I±VA, 2003–11] WOU±D BE THE PRESIDENT OF ÊRAzI±,
OR Í±mA [Í±mA ¼OUSSEff, 2011– ], A WOmAN AND FORmER mI±ITANT OF A
gUERRI±±A gROUP. »R THAT YOU WOU±D HAVE IN ·HI±E, SIxTEEN YEARS AﬅER
µY±WIN, THAT IS, AﬅER THE TRANSITION, A WOmAN E±ECTED TWICE AS THE PRESIDENT
OF ·HI±E.
µND kEEP IN mIND THAT IN ·HI±E THERE WASN’T SERIOUS DEBATE AROUND THE IDEA
THAT A WOmAN COU±D BE PRESIDENT. ¹ THINk WHY IT HAPPENED IS BECAUSE THERE
WERE TWO WOmEN WHO WERE IN THE BEST POSITION TO SUCCEED mE. ÊOTH HAD
BEEN mEmBERS OF mY CABINET.
In Latin America there have been many women presidents. Not in the United
States yet.
½OT YET.
And why would that be?
ÊECAUSE THEY CHOSE A B±ACk mAN fiRST, AN µFRICAN µmERICAN. ¹ THINk THAT
THE 2008 E±ECTIONS WERE gOINg TO BE A fiRST BECAUSE IT WAS EITHER gOINg
TO BE AN µFRICAN µmERICAN OR A WOmAN. ²O, THERE WAS AN ImPORTANT
STEP. ½OW, ¹ THINk THAT IN LATIN µmERICA A FEW OF THESE WOmEN SUCH
AS ³VITA ¸ERóN [1919–52] IN HER TImE, THEN ¹SABE±ITA ¸ERóN [1974–76],
BOTH WERE WIVES OF ¸RESIDENT ¸ERóN. °E WIVES OF FORmER PRESIDENTS.
»NE COU±D SAY SOmETHINg SImI±AR, mORE RESPECTFU±±Y, ABOUT ·RISTINA
ºERNáNDEz DE ÌIRCHNER [PRESIDENT OF µRgENTINA, 2007– ]. ÊUT ¹ THINk
THAT, IN ANY CASE, LATIN µmERICA HAS BEEN AB±E TO ADVANCE mORE qUICk±Y
IN THIS SENSE.
Another generation, no?
µNOTHER gENERATION, A gENERATION FOR WHICH THE COUP WAS WHAT WAS IN HIS-
TORY BOOkS. µND THEY WERE SHOCkED TO SEE WHAT THEY SAW, THE mOVIE No×ã
AND A±± OF THOSE STORIES. ²O, THE qUESTION THAT ONE POSES IS, IN WHAT mOmENT
DO COUNTRIES FEE± mATURE ENOUgH OR STRONg ENOUgH TO ±OOk AT THE PAST WITH-
OUT FEAR, NOT TO HIDE ANYTHINg UNDER THE CARPET? °E ²PANISH ARE ON±Y
RECENT±Y DARINg TO ±OOk INTO WHAT HAPPENED DURINg THE ·IVI± ÈAR. °ESE
DAYS YOU CAN’T TRAVE± THE WOR±D WITHOUT DEmOCRATIC CREDENTIA±S, WITHOUT THE
CREDENTIA±S TO SAY, “¹N mY COUNTRY WE HAVE A DEmOCRACY, ¹’m A PRODUCT OF
DEmOCRACY, ¹ WAS E±ECTED PRESIDENT, ¹ DIDN’T FORCE mY WAY INTO POWER.” µND
¹ THINk THAT THIS IS AN ImPORTANT STEP FORWARD. ½OW, HOW ARE THINgS gOINg
TO PROgRESS IN THE FUTURE? ¹T’S HARD, IT’S HARD. ÈHY? ÊECAUSE THESE NEW gEN-
ERATIONS AREN’T SCARED BECAUSE THEY DIDN’T ±IVE THROUgH THE FEAR OF THE DICTA-
TORSHIP AND, THEREFORE, THEY DEmAND A ±OT mORE. ¹T’S A DIffERENT WAY OF
APPROACHINg THINgS.
LOOk, THE COUP D’éTAT HAPPENED IN 1973, AND 20 YEARS AﬅER THE COUP, IN
1993 WITH µY±WIN AS PRESIDENT, VERY FEW IN THE mEDIA DARED TO SHOW OR WRITE
ABOUT THE PAST. µND 25 YEARS AﬅER, IN 1998, THE mEDIA WERE STI±± CAREFU± TO
PRESENT THE REA± PICTURE. µﬅER 30 YEARS (2003), ¹ THOUgHT THAT WE HAD TO DO
SOmETHINg TO REmEmBER WHAT HAPPENED IN THE ¸A±ACE AND WE OPENED THE
DOOR OF LA MONEDA,×× THROUgH WHICH THEY HAD CARRIED OUT µ±±ENDE’S BODY,
AND IN SPITE OF THAT FACT, THE mEDIA SHOWED A ±ITT±E BIT mORE OF THE 1973
EVENTS. ÊUT 40 YEARS AﬅER THE COUP: AN ExP±OSION ON ¾Í, SUDDEN±Y THERE
WERE telenoVelas, radioteatros, THERE WAS EVERYTHINg. µND THEY SHOWED
ImAgES THAT ·HI±EANS HAD NEVER SEEN ON PUB±IC ¾Í BEFORE. ÈHY DID
·HI±EAN SOCIETY, 40 YEARS AﬅER THE COUP, DARE TO ±OOk AT THE COUP THROUgH
DIffERENT EYES?
the faÇous fin¿er: “was that ·¶ Õ”
¹’VE TO±D THIS STORY A FEW TImES. ¹ WAS WITH mY gRANDCHI±DREN AT AN asado, A
BARBECUE, AND SUDDEN±Y ONE OF THEm SAYS TO mE, “ÉEY, GRANDPA, WHAT IS THIS
STORY ABOUT THE fiNgER AND ¸INOCHET?” ÈE±±, ¹’m A ±ITT±E TIRED OF THE STORY, AND
SO ¹ TO±D THEm, “¹T’S ON ÓOU¾UBE.” µND THEY SAID, “»H, ON ÓOU¾UBE, ±ET’S gO
WATCH IT ON ÓOU¾UBE!” °EY WERE ExCITED TO WATCH THE VIDEO.
ÊUT THEN YOU COU±D SEE THE DISAPPOINTmENT IN THEIR FACES WHEN THEY ±OOkED
AT mE AND SAID, “GRANDPA, WAS THAT it? GETTINg ANNOYED WITH SOmEONE
ON ¾Í ISN’T ANYTHINg SPECIA±. ³VERYONE gETS ANNOYED ON ¾Í.” ·AN YOU
fi¿ure 1.1. ÚRINg A TE±EVISION APPEARANCE IN 1988, ¸RESIDENT
LAgOS TOOk THE RISk OF POINTINg HIS fiNgER IN ACCUSATION AgAINST
THE ·HI±EAN DICTATOR µUgUSTO ¸INOCHET. ¹NTERNET REPRODUCTION
FROm ¾Í BROADCAST.
BE±IEVE THAT’S WHAT THEY TO±D mE? ÊUT IT’S THE CONTExT×Ø THAT CHANgES A±±
THE mEANINg.
Do you think that there is something to learn Äom Latin America in
regard to the practice of democracy, about genuine and not only formal
participation?
ÈE±±, THAT’S A REA±±Y ImPORTANT TOPIC. ¾WO THINgS. »NE, IN mANY OF OUR
COUNTRIES WE’VE A±READY BEEN AB±E TO ESTAB±ISH STATE fiNANCIA± SUPPORT FOR
CANDIDATES IN E±ECTIONS. µND, AS A RESU±T, THEY PASSED ±AWS ABOUT THIS, AND
¹ REmEmBER VERY C±EAR±Y WHEN ¹ ASkED A DEPUTY FROm THE ±OWER HOUSE OF
·ONgRESS HOW mUCH WAS SPENT IN THE ±AST E±ECTION. ÉE TO±D mE, AND ¹ THEN
qUESTIONED HIm, IF HE COU±D REA±±Y RUN WITH SO ±ITT±E mONEY. “ÓES, IT WAS
ENOUgH,” HE SAID. “¹ DIDN’T NEED TO RAISE ANY ExTRA mONEY.” µND IN THE ±AST
PRESIDENTIA± E±ECTIONS, FOR ExAmP±E, THIS WORkED AND IT WORkED RE±ATIVE±Y
WE±±. °ERE IS PRIVATE mONEY, BUT THERE’S mORE THAN THAT, TOO.
°E SUBjECT OF PARTICIPATION IS PERHAPS mORE DIffiCU±T. ÈHY? ÊECAUSE YOU
HAVE A RISINg mIDD±E C±ASS. ¹F YOU gO AROUND THE WOR±D SAYINg PROUD±Y THAT
YOU E±ImINATED POVERTY, OR THAT POVERTY HAS DECREASED SIgNIfiCANT±Y, WE±±,
THOSE WHO RAISED THEmSE±VES OUT OF POVERTY CONSIDER THEmSE±VES mIDD±E
C±ASS AND THEY HAVE OTHER DEmANDS, OTHER NEEDS. µND THEY THUS DEmAND
PARTICIPATION. ²O, IF YOU gO AROUND THE WOR±D SAYINg, “LOOk HERE, TODAY OF
THE STUDENTS IN HIgHER EDUCATION OR HIgH SCHOO±, SEVEN OUT OF TEN ARE fiRST
gENERATION.” ÈE±±, THOSE SEVEN HAVE COmPUTERS AND THE REST OF IT, THEY HAVE A
DIffERENT SET OF DEmANDS FROm THOSE THAT THERE WERE TWENTY YEARS AgO. ÉOW
DO WE SATISFY THESE DEmANDS? ÉOW DO YOU fiND A CIVI±IzED WAY TO RESO±VE
THESE DEmANDS SO THAT IT IS NOT NECESSARY TO gO TO THE ¸±AzA TO PROTEST?
ÊECAUSE, UNTI± NOW, THE ON±Y WAY TO mAkE DEmANDS WAS TO gO THE ¸±AzA TO
PROTEST.
What about the student moVement?
ÈHAT HAPPENED IN ·HI±E WAS SHOCkINg, ESPECIA±±Y BECAUSE OF THE FORCE
THAT THE mOVEmENT HAD. µND THIS FORCE WAS DUE TO TWO FACTORS. ºIRST, IT WAS
mORE A mOVEmENT OF THE mIDD±E C±ASSES THAN THE WORkINg C±ASSES. °E
mAjORITY OF PROTESTS DIDN’T INVO±VE THE VERY POOR, BECAUSE THEY WERE ENTIT±ED
TO FE±±OWSHIPS THAT PAID THEIR TUITION. µND SECOND, WHEN IT OCCURRED TO THE
STUDENTS ONE WEEkEND TO SAY, “ÈE ARE gOINg TO mARCH THIS WEEkEND SO THAT
OUR PARENTS CAN COmE WITH US TO OUR PROTEST.” ÈE±±, IT ENDED UP BEINg A HUgE
CIVIC PARTY BECAUSE THE PARENTS WENT, OF COURSE, AND THEY BROUgHT THE BABIES
BECAUSE THERE WASN’T ANYONE TO ±EAVE THEm WITH, AND OTHERS CAmE WITH THEIR
gRANDmOTHERS. µND YOU WERE THERE, AND YOU SAW PEOP±E IN jEANS, IN UNI-
FORmS, IN EVERYTHINg. ÊUT YOU A±SO SAW PEOP±E WITH DIffERENT DEmANDS.
²O THE qUESTION WAS, WHAT DEmANDS ARE gOINg TO ARISE? ¹S IT gOINg TO BE
POSSIB±E TO SAY, ±OOk, IF A ±AW PASSES IN ¸AR±IAmENT, ¹ WANT US, THE PEOP±E WHO
ARE THE OWNERS OF POPU±AR SOVEREIgNTY, TO BE AB±E TO REVOkE THE ±AW BECAUSE
WE DON’T ±IkE IT? ¹N A FEW WE±±-ESTAB±ISHED DEmOCRACIES, IF YOU CAN gATHER A
SIgNIfiCANT NUmBER OF SIgNATURES ON A PETITION YOU CAN DEmAND A BINDINg
P±EBISCITE AND REVOkE THE ±AW. ÈOW. ÈOW. ¹ WANT TO SEE THE ±EgIS±ATION OF A
CONgRESS THAT kNOWS THAT THE PEOP±E CAN REVOkE THE ±AWS IT PASSES. ÈOW. ¹N
¸ERU, FOR ExAmP±E, OR IN ÍENEzUE±A’S CONSTITUTION, HA±FWAY THROUgH YOUR
PRESIDENCY, IN ¸ERU HA±FWAY THROUgH YOUR TERm AS mAYOR, THE PEOP±E CAN
DEmAND A REVOCATION OF YOUR mANDATE. ½OW, THE WAY ONE gOVERNS BECOmES
COmP±ETE±Y DIffERENT. ÊECAUSE EACH PO±ITICA± REFORm HAS AN ImPACT ON THE
WAY YOU gOVERN.
¹F ¹ kNOW ¹ WAS E±ECTED PRESIDENT FOR SIx YEARS AND THAT THREE YEARS INTO mY
TERm THE PEOP±E CAN REVOkE mY PRESIDENCY, WE±±, ¹’±± WAIT TO PASS CONTENTIOUS
REFORmS UNTI± AﬅER THE THREE YEARS. ¹N OTHER WORDS, gOVERNANCE TAkES ON A
DIffERENT FORm, RIgHT? ¹T’S NOT FREE. ÓOU CAN’T jUST COmE A±ONg AND mAkE A
DECISION—IT SOUNDS REA±±Y DEmOCRATIC THAT HA±FWAY THROUgH YOUR PRESI-
DENCY YOU CAN HAVE YOUR POWER REVOkED. ÊUT IT HAS PO±ITICA± CONSEqUENCES.
¹T’S gOINg TO ±EAD TO A DIffERENT WAY OF gOVERNINg.
¸RESIDENT ¸EñA ½IETO [³NRIqUE ¸EñA ½IETO, MExICO, 2012– ] TO±D mE,
“ÓOU HAVE TO PASS A±± THE REFORmS IN YOUR fiRST YEAR BECAUSE IN THE NExT
fiVE YOU HAVE TO ImP±EmENT THEm. »THERWISE, YOU’RE A FAI±URE.” µND
HE’S TRIED, NO? ¾O PASS REFORmS VERY qUICk±Y. ²O, YOU REA±IzE THAT IT’S A
COmP±ICATED TOPIC. »Ì. ÈHAT IS PARTICIPATION gOINg TO ±OOk ±IkE? ÈHICH
PO±ITICA± INSTITUTIONS WI±± EmERgE? µND LATIN µmERICA HAS OffERED A FEW,
NO? ÈE±±, ÉUgO ·HáVEz’S [PRESIDENT OF ÍENEzUE±A, 1999–2013] CONSTITUTION
IN ÍENEzUE±A ESTAB±ISHED THAT HA±FWAY THROUgH YOUR PRESIDENCY YOU CAN—
AND ¹ THINk THAT NOW, mANY OF THE PROTESTERS AND WHATNOT, THEY ARE
THINkINg mORE ABOUT REVOkINg MADURO’S [½ICO±áS MADURO, PRESIDENT
OF ÍENEzUE±A, 2013– ] mANDATE AﬅER THREE YEARS THAN ACTUA±±Y gOINg TO
VOTE NOW.
May we talk more about how all of this might be meaningful for the rest of the
world?
¹ THINk THAT IF THERE ARE THESE kINDS OF INSTITUTIONS IN THE REST OF THE WOR±D,
LATIN µmERICA WI±± HAVE SOmETHINg TO ExPORT. ½OTE THAT THE ¸¾ [ÈORkERS’
¸ARTY] IN ÊRAzI± INTRODUCED PARTICIPATORY BUDgETINg AT THE mUNICIPA± ±EVE±
±ONg BEFORE THE ¸¾ WON THE PRESIDENCY WITH LU±A. °IS WAS A±READY A TRADE-
mARk OF THE ¸¾ IN THE mUNICIPA±ITIES THAT THEY CONTRO±±ED, ±IkE ¸ORTO
µ±EgRE. ²O THEY ASkED BUSINESSmEN, “µREN’T YOU SCARED OF LU±A?” MANY OF
THEm SAID, “½O, BECAUSE NOW ¹ HAVE PARTICIPATION IN ±OCA± gOVERNmENT WHEN
BEFORE NOBODY ASkED mE ANYTHINg.”
½OW, THIS ±ITT±E mACHINE, THE ¹NTERNET, A±SO A±±OWS FACE-TO-FACE, NO? ¹N
²ANTIAgO, ON THE WEBSITE OF mY FOUNDATION WE HAVE A THINg CA±±ED THE
äUINTO ¸ODER. »BVIOUS±Y, THIS IS BECAUSE THE PRESS IS THE ºOURTH ³STATE, SO
THE ¹NTERNET IS THE ºIﬅH ³STATE. ÈE±±, IN THE äUINTO ¸ODER, THERE WAS, FOR
ExAmP±E, A DISCUSSION THAT CYC±ISTS—WHERE THERE AREN’T BIkE ±ANES, THEY CAN
RIDE ON THE SIDEWA±k, RIgHT? “ÈE±±,” ONE mAYOR SAID, “NO, THEY CAN’T RIDE ON
THE SIDEWA±k BECAUSE THERE ARE PEOP±E WA±kINg ON SIDEWA±kS.” µND THERE WAS
A DEBATE. µND THEN THE CYC±ISTS SAID, “½ExT ²ATURDAY, WE ARE A±± gOINg TO RIDE
OUR BIkES TO gO PROTEST TO THE gOVERNOR.” ÈE±±, TO EVERYONE’S SURPRISE OVER
ONE THOUSAND CYC±ISTS ARRIVED AT HIS OffiCE. ¹ DON’T NEED TO ADD THAT THE DEPU-
TIES qUICk±Y SENT A BI±± TO RESO±VE THE PROB±Em.
¹T’S ONE THINg FOR PEOP±E TO BE ANNOYED AND TA±kINg ON SOCIA± mEDIA,
ON ¾WITTER. ÊUT IT’S ANOTHER WHEN YOU SAY THINgS FACE-TO-FACE. ÈHEN
PEOP±E SAID, “ÈHY DON’T WE PROTEST ON OUR BICYC±ES?,” AND OTHERS SAW
THE PHYSICA± mAgNITUDE OF THE PROTEST, WE±±, THERE WAS A CHANgE. ¹N OTHER
fi¿ure 1.2. ·HE GUEVARA ImAgE ON THE CAP OF A mAN IN
²HANgHAI, 2013. ¸HOTO BY MATTHEW GUTmANN.
WORDS, ¹ THINk THIS IS AN ExAmP±E WHERE PERHAPS IN LATIN µmERICA, AS

A RESU±T OF HAVINg ARRIVED ±ATER TO THE DISCUSSION ABOUT TRANSITIONS FROm
DICTATORSHIPS TO DEmOCRACY, WE HAVE BEEN AB±E TO kEEP AN OPEN mIND
AND kEEP ADVANCINg TOWARD gREATER PARTICIPATION. ¹ WOU±D SAY THAT THIS IS
AN AREA IN WHICH LATIN µmERICA IS RATHER ADVANCED, IN REgARD TO CIVI±
PARTICIPATION.
che
I’m looking for a photograph to ask you a very different kind of Question. I took
this photo in Shanghai last fall, and it prompts me to ask you why Che’s image,
his symbol, is so widely seen all over the world?
ÊECAUSE ·HE EmBODIED REBE±±ION. LOTS OF PEOP±E EmBODY REBE±±ION AND,
PRECISE±Y BECAUSE HE WAS A REBE±, HE WAS SUCCESSFU±, BUT A±SO A PRACTITIONER
WHO WAS PRESIDENT OF THE ·ENTRA± ÊANk OF ·UBA.
°at’s a part of his story many people don’t know about.
ÊUT PEOP±E DO kNOW THAT HE WAS UP THERE WITH ºIDE± AT THE PINNAC±E OF
POWER. µND THEY DO kNOW THAT ONCE HE ARRIVED AT THE PINNAC±E OF POWER HE
SAID, “¹’VE COmP±ETED mY TASk IN ·UBA, NOW ¹’m gOINg TO THE ²IERRA MAESTRA,
TO ANOTHER ²IERRA MAESTRA, TO PARTICIPATE IN THE REVO±UTION IN µFRICA.” ²O, HE
WENT TO µFRICA, AND THEN TO OTHER P±ACES, AND HE ENDED IN ÊO±IVIA; WE A±±
kNOW HOW HIS STORY ENDED. °OSE OF US WHO ARE O±DER kNOW WHERE WE WERE
WHEN ÌENNEDY WAS ASSASSINATED; WE A±SO kNOW WHERE WE WERE WHEN WE
HEARD OF ·HE’S DEATH IN ÊO±IVIA. ¹ WAS C±ImBINg A STAIRCASE AS THE RECENT±Y
APPOINTED DIRECTOR OF THE ²CHOO± OF ¸O±ITICA± ²CIENCE, AND THE PRESIDENT OF
THE STUDENTS TO±D mE, “°EY kI±±ED ·HE IN ÊO±IVIA!” ¹ COU±DN’T BE±IEVE IT.
Ï THINk THAT ABOVE AND BEYOND THE PHOTO, THE ICON, IS ANOTHER THEmE. °AT
FAmOUS PHOTO. °ERE ARE ±OTS OF STORIES ABOUT THE PHOTO, HOW IT HAPPENED,
WHY IS HE IN IT? °E PHOTO IS ABOUT UTOPIA, REBE±±ION, AND THE NEED TO TAkE
RISkS. ¹T’S C±EAR±Y NOT ON±Y ABOUT WHAT HAPPENED TO HIm BECAUSE WHEN HE
ENDS UP AS AN ImAgE ON ¾-SHIRTS AROUND THE WOR±D, IT’S NOT jUST THE PHOTO-
gRAPH. ¹T’S ·HE’S HISTORY. ·HE THE ROmANTIC. ¹T’S THE ROmANCE OF IT.
Does that apply to Latin America more generally?
°ERE ARE ±OTS OF ROmANTIC PARTS. °INk ABOUT WHAT THE REST OF THE WOR±D
THOUgHT OF ºIDE± ·ASTRO’S REVO±UTION AT THE END OF THE 1950S, BEgINNINg OF
THE 1960S. °E ·UBAN ¼EVO±UTION C±EAR±Y CAPTURED THE WOR±D’S ImAgINATION.
µﬅERWARD, IT TOOk DIffERENT DIRECTIONS, OTHER PATHS.
Well, if you are a revolutionary you have to die young.

¹T’S gOOD THAT HE kNEW TO DIE AT THE AgE OF THIRTY-THREE.
¹º¾¶·ZµÅº
What can we learn Äom Latin America about E± mESTIzAjE?

»H, HOW INTERESTINg. ÊUT IS THERE ON±Y ONE LATIN µmERICA IN THIS SENSE? »R
ARE THERE VARIOUS? ÈAS mestizaje IN ÊRAzI±, BETWEEN WHITES AND B±ACkS, THE
SAmE AS IN OTHER PARTS OF LATIN µmERICA, mestizaje OF THE ¹NDIANS AND THE
²PANISH? ¹’VE A±WAYS NOTICED THE DRASTIC DIffERENCE BETWEEN THE INDIgENOUS
POPU±ATION AND THE WHITE POPU±ATION IN ¸ERU, FOR ExAmP±E. ¹T’S THE SAmE IN
OUR COUNTRY AS WE±±. ÊUT NOT WITH AS mUCH FORCE. µND ¹ THINk THAT THIS IS
BECAUSE A±± THOSE WHO CONSIDER THEmSE±VES WHITE, OR HAVE ²PANISH ±AST
NAmES, kNOW THAT THEY HAVE SOmE MAPUCHE B±OOD. µS ·AR±OS ºUENTES SAID,
WE ARE A±± ImmIgRANTS IN LATIN µmERICA BECAUSE THE fiRST ImmIgRANTS
ARRIVED THROUgH THE ÊERINg ²TRAIT. µND NOW THEY ARE SAYINg THAT THERE WERE
OTHERS WHO CAmE FROm THE ²OUTH, NO? °ROUgH µNTARCTICA. »THERWISE IT
WOU±D BE HARD TO ExP±AIN HOW HUmAN BEINgS WERE IN ¸UERTO MONTT 14,000
YEARS BEFORE ·HRIST. °EY SAY IT WOU±D HAVE TAkEN ±ONgER TO ARRIVE IN ¸UERTO
MONTT THROUgH THE ÊERINg ²TRAIT, AND THEY’VE STARTED TO UNCOVER EVIDENCE
THAT µNTARCTICA WAS ATTACHED TO ²OUTH µmERICA AND THEY THEREFORE ARRIVED
FROm THERE ON AN ICE BRIDgE.
ÈE DO kNOW THAT THESE PEOP±E ARRIVED 15,000 YEARS AgO, AND THEY OBVIOUS±Y
DIDN’T HAVE PASSPORTS, BUT THEY ARRIVED, AND THEN THE ²PANISH CAmE ±ATER.
µND THEN THE µFRO-µmERICANS ARRIVED AS S±AVES, 400 TO 350 YEARS AgO. µND
THAT’S WHEN THE mIxINg STARTED, AND IT WAS RE±ATED TO HOW PEOP±E ADAPTED
THEmSE±VES. °EN THERE’S THAT FAmOUS SCENE WHEN THE ²PANISH CONqUERORS
SAY TO µTAHUA±PA, “°IS IS THE ÊIB±E. GOD SPEAkS IN THIS BOOk.” µND THE gUY
gRABS IT, PUTS IT TO HIS EAR AND SAYS, “¹ CAN’T HEAR ANYTHINg.” ¹T’S DRAmATIC, THIS
C±ASH OF TWO CU±TURES, THEY WERE SO STUNNED. °AT’S HOW THE TWO CAmE
TOgETHER.
ÉERE IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES, THE CO±ONIA±ISTS DIDN’T COmE TO CONqUER OR TO
EVANgE±IzE. °EY ARRIVED SImP±Y TO HAVE THE RIgHT TO A RE±IgION, A RIgHT
THEY DIDN’T HAVE IN THEIR COUNTRY. µND THEREFORE THERE WAS NO INTEREST IN
EVANgE±IzINg THE NATIVES. ÉERE THE NATIVES RAN AWAY. µND THEY WERE A±SO
mASSACRED.
µND IT IS A mestizaje THAT IS A±SO ABOUT THE ²PANISH THAT YOU SPEAk. °AT’S
WHY THE ¼EA± µCADEmIA ³SPAñO±A ACCEPTS argentinismos, chilenismos, AND
THE REST OF IT. ÊUT THERE IS ON±Y ONE ±ANgUAgE. ¹T IS DIffERENT IN ¸ORTUgUESE.
MANY BOOkS THAT ARE PUB±ISHED IN ¸ORTUgUESE ARE TRANS±ATED INTO
“ÊRAzI±IAN.” °AT IS, THE ±ANgUAgE SPOkEN IN ÊRAzI± TODAY IS DIffERENT FROm
THAT SPOkEN IN ¸ORTUgA±. °EY ARE DIffERENT BOOkS. ÊUT IN THE ²PANISH CASE,
THE ²PANISH IS THE SAmE. µND WHAT IS LATIN µmERICA FOR THE REST OF THE
WOR±D? ÈE SPEAk THROUgH THE ARTS OF OUR POETS, NOVE±ISTS, mUSICIANS, AND
PAINTERS.
cliÇate chan¿e
Climate change is a challenge that you have dedicated many years to, and it’s a
topic that is immensely important in the world. I want to know whether there
are green paradigms in Latin America Äom which we can learn in other parts
of the world?
¹ THINk THAT THE fiRST LATIN µmERICAN ISSUE HAS TO DO WITH SOmETHINg PAR-
TICU±AR TO LATIN µmERICA, WHICH IS DEFORESTATION. ¹ mEAN, OF THE TOTA± g±OBA±
EmISSIONS 20 PERCENT IS FROm DEFORESTATION, BUT IN LATIN µmERICA 49 PER-
CENT OF TOTA± EmISSIONS COmE FROm DEFORESTATION. µND ¹’m gOINg TO TE±± YOU
SOmETHINg THAT IS EVEN mORE UNBE±IEVAB±E. µ±± OF THE CARBON EmISSIONS
PRODUCED BY THE ÊRAzI±IAN ECONOmY, THAT IS, ITS G´¸, ARE 800,000 TONS OF
CARBON DIOxIDE. ÉFORESTATION ACCOUNTS FOR 1,000,000 TONS. °AT IS, DEFOR-
ESTATION IN ÊRAzI± CONTRIBUTES mORE TO CARBON DIOxIDE EmISSIONS THAN THE
EmISSIONS PRODUCED BY THE ÊRAzI±IAN ECONOmY. ¹T’S UNBE±IEVAB±E. ÈHAT ¹ DO
THINk IS THAT LATIN µmERICA COU±D TAkE A BIg STEP TO BECOmE A SORT OF SOﬅ
POWER TO THE REST OF THE WOR±D, TO SAY, “LOOk, ¹’VE REDUCED DEFORESTATION.”
ÈHY? ÊECAUSE REDUCINg DEFORESTATION mEANS THAT, ESPECIA±±Y IN THE
ÊRAzI±IAN CASE, DEFORESTATION HAS BEEN UNDERTAkEN mOST±Y TO CREATE SPACE FOR
AgRICU±TURE OR BIg HYDROE±ECTRIC DAmS OR mININg. »F COURSE, ÊRAzI±’S ±EADER-
SHIP IS FUNDAmENTA± BECAUSE OF THE THEmE OF THE µmAzON. ¹T’S TRUE THAT TEN
²OUTH µmERICAN COUNTRIES POSSESS A PART OF THE µmAzON, BUT THE µmAzON’S
TRUE NUmBER ONE IS ÊRAzI±. ÊRAzI± IS THE STAR, RIgHT? °ERE IS C±EAR±Y A NETWORk
OF µmAzONIAN COUNTRIES, BUT THE STAR IS ÊRAzI±.
½OW, ON THE OTHER HAND, LATIN µmERICA AS A WHO±E C±EAR±Y HAS TO P±AY A RO±E
IN THE ISSUE OF C±ImATE CHANgE. ¹ THINk THAT IN ORDER TO ADVANCE, LATIN
µmERICA A±SO HAS TO STOP PRETENDINg THAT COUNTRIES THAT AREN’T THE mOST
DEVE±OPED HAVE THE RIgHT TO kEEP EmITTINg WHATEVER WE ±IkE BECAUSE ¹ THINk
THAT IN THE FUTURE THIS WON’T BE VERY FEASIB±E. °AT IS, WE ARE A±± gOINg TO
NEED TO CONTRIBUTE, ESPECIA±±Y A CONTINENT THAT IS ECONOmICA±±Y SUCCESSFU±,
FOR WHICH THINgS ARE gOINg WE±±. °E qUESTION OF THE TWENTY-fi RST CENTURY IS
gOINg TO BE, “¾E±± mE: HOW mUCH DO YOU PO±±UTE? ÓOU gO AROUND THE WOR±D
PROUD±Y SAYINg, ‘LOOk, ¹’VE gOT A PER CAPITA OF $15,000, AND AT THIS RATE, ¹’±±
SOON ACHIEVE $20,000 PER CITIzEN.’ ÈHAT ARE YOUR gREENHOUSE gAS EmISSIONS
PER CAPITA?” °AT IS gOINg TO BE THE mARk OF YOUR CIVI±ITY OR INCIVI±ITY.
And has Latin America been a pioneer in any way with regard
to climate change?
¹ THINk THAT IN TERmS OF TECHNO±OgICA± INNOVATION, LATIN µmERICA HASN’T
CONTRIBUTED mUCH. °ERE HAVE BEEN SOmE PROCESSES OF ADAPTATION IN LATIN
µmERICA, ADAPTATION TO NATURA± PHENOmENA THAT AREN’T NECESSARI±Y RE±ATED TO
C±ImATE CHANgE. ½OW, WI±± THERE BE A PROCESS OF ADAPTATION TO C±ImATE
CHANgE OR ON±Y RE±IEF EffORTS? °E ·ARIBBEAN COUNTRIES OBVIOUS±Y HAVE A ±OT
TO SAY ON THAT TOPIC BECAUSE FOR THEm RE±IEF EffORTS ARE REA±±Y ImPORTANT,
RIgHT? ÊUT ¹ A±SO THINk THAT COUNTRIES ±IkE THE ¶NITED ²TATES ARE gOINg TO
HAVE TO START UNDERTAkINg mORE RE±IEF EffORTS. ²OmEONE TO±D mE THAT
ÉURRICANE ²ANDY HAD A BIggER ImPACT IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES THAN ONE THOU-
SAND C±ImATE CHANgE CONFERENCES. ¹T CAUSED PEOP±E TO SAY, “¹T ±OOkS ±IkE THIS
C±ImATE CHANgE mIgHT ACTUA±±Y BE SERIOUS,” RIgHT?
ÈE’±± SEE IF ANY OF THIS mEANS ANYTHINg.
latin aÇerica’s cultural wealth
Let’s return to Latin America’s literature, paintings, language, music, and

TE±ENOVE±AS. What has Latin America’s impact been? A few days ago Gabriel
García MárQuez died [17 April 2014], which makes it all the more poignant
to try to understand these Questions.
¹ THINk THAT IS TRUE. ¹ THINk IT’S TRUE THAT THERE IS gREAT WEA±TH IN LATIN
µmERICA AND THAT THIS WEA±TH HAS BEEN ExPORTED, ±IkE ·HE, FOR ExAmP±E.
°IS WEA±TH, AND PERHAPS ·HE HAS TO DO WITH THIS AS WE±±, IS PART OF A ROmAN-
TIC CU±TURE. °E ROmANCE OF THE mAN WHO SE±±S BARS OF ICE, OR mIRRORS, WHAT-
EVER THE CASE mAY BE. µRTISANS AND A±± THAT. ¹ THINk THAT LATIN µmERICA HAS A
gREAT WEA±TH IN THAT SENSE.
¹ DON’T THINk GARCíA MáRqUEz INVENTED mAgICA± REA±ISm [SEE ²TAVANS THIS
VO±UmE]. ¹NSTEAD, HE WAS A mAgICIAN BECAUSE OF HIS ABI±ITY TO WRITE ABOUT
REA±ITY. ¹T’S A DIffERENT THINg. ÊECAUSE HE ImAgINED THE THINgS HE ImAgINED.
LET mE TE±± YOU A STORY ABOUT A DINNER THAT WE HAD. GARCíA MáRqUEz TO±D US
THAT HE HAD A FRIEND WHO READ HIS WORkS BEFORE THEY WERE PUB±ISHED, AND
WHEN HE fiNISHED THE NOVE± °e General in His Labyrinth, ABOUT ²ImóN
ÊO±íVAR, HIS FRIEND SAYS, “ÉEY, PEOP±E ARE gOINg TO SAY YOU ARE ±YINg BECAUSE
YOU SAY THAT THE gENERA±, A±ONE, ABANDONED BY EVERYONE, ISN’T AB±E TO S±EEP, SO
AﬅER HIS mEA± HE gOES FOR A STRO±±, AND HE IS WA±kINg A±ONg, AWAITINg THE NExT
DAY WHEN HE WI±± BE AB±E TO TRAVE± TO THE ·ARIBBEAN BY BOAT A±ONg THE
MAgDA±ENA ¼IVER, WHEN HE SEES A FU±± mOON RISINg BETWEEN THE TREES. ÈHO
TO±D YOU, GABO [AffECTIONATE NICkNAmE FOR GARCíA MáRqUEz], THAT THERE WAS
A FU±± mOON THAT NIgHT?”
“¹ jUST CAmE UP WITH IT,” GARCíA MáRqUEz REP±IES. “ÈHO IS gOINg TO REFUTE
THAT THERE WAS A FU±± mOON?” “ÍD YOU kNOW THAT THERE WAS A FU±± mOON THAT
NIgHT?” “½O, NO, ¹ DIDN’T,” HE RESPONDS. “ÊUT THE WOR±D kNOWS WHETHER THERE
WAS A FU±± mOON OR NOT.” “ÈHO kNOWS THAT?” “°E ¼OYA± »BSERVATORY OF
GREENWICH, IN THE ¶NITED ÌINgDOm. ÈRITE TO THEm.” ²O, GARCíA MáRqUEz
TO±D US THAT HE WROTE TO THE ¼OYA± »BSERVATORY TO ASk WHETHER ON THAT DAY
IN 1831 THERE HAD BEEN A FU±± mOON. µND IN THOSE DAYS, ONE SENT ±ETTERS, AND
THE ANSWER TOOk TImE. ÈAITINg FOR THE POSTmAN TO ARRIVE, HE SAID THAT HE
WAS ±IkE A gROOm AWAITINg HIS BRIDE. ÉE WOU±D APPROACH THE WINDOW EVERY
TImE HE SAW THE POSTmAN TO SEE WHETHER THERE WAS A ±ETTER FOR HIm. ÊUT IT
WAS ON±Y E±ECTRIC BI±±S AND THAT kIND OF THINg. µﬅER ABOUT FORTY DAYS, HE
RECEIVED AN ENVE±OPE: “¼OYA± »BSERVATORY OF GREENWICH.” ÉE DIDN’T DARE
OPEN IT, BUT fiNA±±Y HE DID. °ERE HAD BEEN A FU±± mOON THAT NIgHT!
¸ERHAPS WE LATIN µmERICANS ARE, FOR SOmE REASON, RICHER IN THIS SENSE OF
ROmANTIC CU±TURE AND IN REgARD TO THE OTHER THINgS WE TA±kED ABOUT EAR±IER.
notes
1. °IS INTERVIEW WITH ¸RESIDENT LAgOS WAS CONDUCTED ON 21 µPRI± 2014, IN

¸ROVIDENCE, ¼HODE ¹S±AND, BY MATTHEW GUTmANN. °E CONVERSATION WAS TRANSCRIBED
AND TRANS±ATED BY ÓE±ENA ÊIDE AND EDITED BY MATTHEW GUTmANN AND ¼ICARDO LAgOS.
2. ·AR±OS ºUENTES (1928–2012) WAS AN ESSAYIST AND NOVE±IST FROm MExICO WHO WAS
PART OF THE boom gENERATION OF LATIN µmERICAN AUTHORS IN THE 1960S AND 1970S. °E
¸ERUVIAN MARIO ÍARgAS L±OSA (1936– ) A±SO OCCUPIED A kEY RO±E IN THE boom gENERA-
TION AND WAS RECOgNIzED FOR HIS fiCTION AND NONfiCTION WITH THE ½OBE± ¸RIzE IN
LITERATURE IN 2010.
3. µ±FONSíN WON THE PRESIDENCY IN 1983 AS A mEmBER OF THE ¼ADICA± ¸ARTY, BECOm-
INg THE COUNTRY’S fiRST DEmOCRATICA±±Y E±ECTED mAjORITY PRESIDENT IN NEAR±Y FORTY
YEARS. ÉIS ADmINISTRATION TOOk POWER FROm A BRUTA± mI±ITARY jUNTA THAT RE±INqUISHED
ITS gRIP IN THE FACE OF A DEVASTATED ECONOmY, mI±ITARY DEFEAT IN THE ºA±k±AND,
OR MA±VINAS, ¹S±ANDS, AND mOUNTINg POPU±AR OPPOSITION. µ±FONSíN P±AYED A
CENTRA± RO±E IN THE OPPOSITION mOVEmENT, HE±PINg TO FOUND IN 1977 THE ¸ERmANENT
µSSEmB±Y FOR ÉUmAN ¼IgHTS. µS PRESIDENT HE ESTAB±ISHED THE ½ATIONA± ·OmmISSION
ON THE ÍSAPPEARANCE OF ¸ERSONS TO INVESTIgATE CRImES UNDER THE mI±ITARY
DICTATORSHIP.
4. °E ÈASHINgTON ·ONSENSUS ORIgINATED AS A SET OF TEN PO±ICY PRESCRIPTIONS
OffERED BY THE ³Ng±ISH ECONOmIST JOHN ÈI±±IAmSON IN 1989 TO STEER WHAT ¶.².
AND INTERNATIONA± fiNANCIA± INSTITUTIONS (mOST BASED IN ÈASHINgTON, ´·) SAW AS
NECESSARY STAgES FOR ECONOmIC gROWTH. ¹NC±UDINg RECOmmENDATIONS FOR fiNANCIA± AND
TRADE ±IBERA±IzATION, PRIVATIzATION, AND DEREgU±ATION, THE FRAmEWORk ESPOUSED INTEN-
SIfiED INTEgRATION INTO THE INTERNATIONA± ECONOmY AND mACROECONOmIC STABI±ITY. °IS
NEO±IBERA± VIEW OF ECONOmIC gROWTH HAS SHAPED APPROACHES TO DEVE±OPmENT IN LATIN
µmERICA AND OTHER REgIONS OVER THE PAST THREE DECADES, THOUgH mANY ECONOmISTS
AND PO±ITICIANS HAVE ±EVIED STRONg CRITIqUES AgAINST THE ·ONSENSUS PHI±OSOPHY AS THE
BEST APPROACH FOR SO-CA±±ED DEVE±OPINg COUNTRIES.
5. ¹N ÉCEmBER 1994 THE MExICAN gOVERNmENT DEVA±UED ITS NATIONA± CURRENCY,
THE PESO, IN RESPONSE TO PO±ITICA± INSTABI±ITY AND WARNINg SIgNS OF CAPITA± flIgHT. °E
DEVA±UATION SPARkED A fiNANCIA± CRISIS THAT PU±±ED THE COUNTRY INTO A RECESSION WITH
SOARINg INflATION AND A PESO AT HA±F OF ITS ORIgINA± VA±UE. µ±SO kNOWN AS THE “¸ESO
·RISIS,” THE ¾EqUI±A ·RISIS SENT SHOCkWAVES THROUgHOUT LATIN µmERICA AND OTHER
EmERgINg mARkETS AND PROmPTED THE ¶NITED ²TATES AND THE ¹NTERNATIONA± MONETARY
ºUND TO OffER A BAI±OUT PACkAgE.
6. °E “·HICAgO ÊOYS” WERE A CREW OF ECONOmISTS FROm LATIN µmERICA TRAINED
mOST±Y AT THE ¶NIVERSITY OF ·HICAgO (UNDER MI±TON ºRIEDmAN AND µRNO±D ÉARBERgER)
AND THE ¸ONTIfiCA± ·ATHO±IC ¶NIVERSITY OF ·HI±E. ÈITH ROOTS IN THE ¶.². ²TATE
ÉPARTmENT’S “·HI±E ¸ROjECT” OF THE 1950S, THE INflUENCE OF THIS gROUP ROSE ESPECIA±±Y
DURINg THE EAR±Y YEARS OF GENERA± µUgUSTO ¸INOCHET’S REIgN (1973–90), WHEN THE NEW
gOVERNmENT ADOPTED THE ·HICAgO ÊOYS’ NEO±IBERA± PROgRAm OF DEREgU±ATION, PRIVA-
TIzATION, AND OTHER FREE mARkET PO±ICIES.
7. µﬅER SUCCESSFU±±Y OVERTHROWINg A REPUB±ICAN gOVERNmENT IN THE BRUTA±
²PANISH ·IVI± ÈAR FROm 1936 TO 1939, GENERA± ºRANCISCO ºRANCO (1892–1975) ESTAB-
±ISHED A TOTA±ITARIAN STATE THAT ±ASTED UNTI± HIS DEATH. ºRANCO’S SUCCESSOR, ¸RINCE JUAN
·AR±OS (gRANDSON OF ²PAIN’S FORmER kINg), INITIATED ²PAIN’S TRANSITION TO A CONSTITU-
TIONA± mONARCHY IN THE ±ATE 1970S.
8. ¹N µPRI± 1982 THE mI±ITARY jUNTA IN µRgENTINA SENT SO±DIERS TO INVADE THE
MA±VINAS, OR ºA±k±AND, ¹S±ANDS, A REmOTE CO±ONIA± OUTPOST OF ÊRITAIN. °E EffORT TO
RESUSCITATE THE flAggINg REgImE THROUgH AN ANTI-ImPERIA±IST AND NATIONA±IST CAmPAIgN
E±ICITED A SURPRISINg±Y STRONg REACTION FROm MARgARET °ATCHER’S gOVERNmENT. °E
TEN-WEEk CONflICT ENDED IN HUmI±IATION FOR THE DICTATORSHIP IN µRgENTINA, WHICH
SUBSEqUENT±Y YIE±DED TO CIVI±IAN RU±E.
9. MASS OPPOSITION TO ·HI±EAN DICTATOR ¸INOCHET mOUNTED THROUgHOUT THE
1980S. ¸RESSURE FROm THE DEmOCRATIC mOVEmENT FORCED CONCESSIONS FROm ¸INOCHET,
WHO CA±±ED FOR A P±EBISCITE—A VOTE BY A±± mEmBERS OF THE NATION—ON HIS RU±E IN
»CTOBER 1988. ·HI±EANS VOTED DOWN ANOTHER TERm FOR ¸INOCHET BY 54.6 PERCENT.
10. µ 2012 fi±m DIRECTED BY ¸AB±O LARRAíN AND STARRINg GAE± GARCíA ÊERNA± ABOUT
ADVERTISINg TACTICS USED IN THE P±EBISCITE OF 1988.
11. LA MONEDA IS A B±OCk-±ONg PA±ACE AND SEAT OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE ¼EPUB±IC OF
·HI±E. µS ¸RESIDENT, LAgOS OPENED SOmE OF THE INNER COURTYARDS TO THE PUB±IC IN
2000, AS SOON AS IT WAS INAUgURATED, AND RESTORED MORANDé 80, A DOOR ON THE SIDE OF
THE PA±ACE THAT SYmBO±IzES A DEmOCRATIC ·HI±E. ¹T WAS THIS DOOR THAT WAS OPENED IN
2003.
12. °E SPECIfiC CONTExT HERE WAS LAgOS’S 25 µPRI± 1988 APPEARANCE ON THE PRO-
gRAm De cara al país, ONE OF THE FEW SITES FOR PUB±IC PO±ITICA± DISCOURSE AND OPPOSITION
IN ¸INOCHET’S ·HI±E AT THE TImE. LAgOS, WHO HAD BECOmE ±EADER OF THE RECENT±Y CRE-
ATED ¸ARTIDO POR ±A ÉmOCRACIA (¸¸´), ±EVIED DIRECT CRITICISm AgAINST ¸INOCHET’S
ABUSES OF POWER AND URgED SUPPORT FOR A “½O” VOTE IN THE 1988 P±EBISCITE THAT WOU±D
U±TImATE±Y ±EAD TO THE DICTATOR’S REmOVA± FROm OffiCE.
two
°e Conversion of Francis
the first latin aÇerican pope and the
woÇen he needs
Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Jennifer Scheper Hughes
Än 12 Öarch 2013 ·ARDINA± JORgE MARIO ÊERgOg±IO OF ÊUENOS µIRES

ENTERED THE ÍATICAN PAPA± CONC±AVE IN ¼OmE WITH A HEAVY HEART. ÉE HAD jUST
RESIgNED AS CARDINA± ARCHBISHOP OF ÊUENOS µIRES AND HAD A±READY CHOSEN A
SImP±E ROOm IN AN µRgENTINE RETIREmENT CENTER FOR ·ATHO±IC C±ERICS WHEN HE
WAS SUDDEN±Y SUmmONED TO THE ÍATICAN FO±±OWINg THE SCANDA±OUS RESIgNATION
OF ¸OPE ÊENEDICT XÍ¹ (B. JOSEPH ¼ATzINgER).× ¹NSTEAD, HE WOU±D BE SEqUES-
TERED WITH 114 OTHER CARDINA±S UNTI± THEY REACHED A DIVINE±Y INSPIRED CONSEN-
SUS ABOUT WHO WOU±D BE THE NExT SPIRITUA± AND PO±ITICA± ±EADER OF AN ESTImATED
1.2 BI±±ION ·ATHO±ICS, 40 PERCENT OF WHOm ±IVE IN LATIN µmERICA.
¾WO DAYS BEFORE THE OPENINg OF THE PAPA± CONC±AVE, ·ARDINA± ÊERgOg±IO
TOOk A SO±ITARY WA±k THROUgH ¼OmE’S HISTORIC DISTRICT DRESSED INCOgNITO IN THE
B±ACk CASSOCk OF A SImP±E VI±±AgE PRIEST. »N SEEINg AN O±D FRIEND, ºATHER
°OmAS ¼OSICA, ÊERgOg±IO gRABBED HIS HAND, SAYINg, “¸±EASE, PRAY FOR mE.”
ÈHEN THE ACqUAINTANCE ASkED HIm IF HE WAS NERVOUS, ÊERgOg±IO REP±IED THAT
INDEED HE WAS. ÈHOEVER WAS CHOSEN POPE WOU±D INHERIT A B±OODY, HO±Y mESS.
ºIRST THERE WAS THE FA±±OUT OF DECADES OF PAPA± mA±FEASANCE IN REFUSINg TO
ACkNOW±EDgE AND RESPOND APPROPRIATE±Y AND ADEqUATE±Y TO A C±ERICA± CHI±D AND
ADO±ESCENT SExUA± ABUSE SCANDA± THAT WAS g±OBA±, RE±ENT±ESS, AND CONTINUOUS
(²CHEPER-ÉUgHES AND ÉVINE 2003; ²CHEPER-ÉUgHES 2011). Ø °EN THERE WAS
THE “ÍATI±EAkS” SCANDA± WHEN ¸OPE ÊENEDICT’S BUT±ER RE±EASED SECRET PAPA±
DOCUmENTS AND COmmUNICATIONS BEARINg ON THE INTRIgUE, CRONYISm, POWER
STRUgg±ES, BRIBES, AND mONEY ±AUNDERINg WITHIN THE mOST SECRET BANkINg SYS-
TEm IN THE WOR±D, THE ÍATICAN ÊANk .
ºINA±±Y, THERE WERE PROB±EmS INSIDE THE ·URIA, THE ÍATICAN’S “ROYA± COURT”
OF HIgH-RANkINg CARDINA±S WHO OVERSEE CHURCH ±AW AND ·ATHO±IC DOCTRINE.
¸UB±ISHED REPORTS DESCRIBED A DYSFUNCTIONA± gAY, HOmOPHOBIC ±OBBY WITHIN
37
THE ·URIA. °E ÍATICAN DOUB±E STANDARD REqUIRES ITS gAY PRE±ATES TO BE CE±IBATE
OR TO BE DISCREET AND SI±ENT ExCEPT FOR TAkINg THEIR SINS TO THE CONFESSIONA±.
¾OgETHER, THESE EVENTS AND DI±EmmAS ±ED TO THE ABDICATION OF ¸OPE ÊENEDICT,
A SCHO±AR±Y AND fiERCE±Y CONSERVATIVE PRE±ATE WHO OWNED UP TO BEINg A POOR
ADmINISTRATOR. Ù
¸RIOR TO HIS PAPACY, JOSEPH ¼ATzINgER HEADED THE ·ONgREgATION FOR THE
ÓCTRINE OF THE ºAITH, THE mODERN-DAY HEIR OF THE ¹NqUISITION. µS THE
gUARDIAN OF ·ATHO±IC ORTHODOxY, ¼ATzINgER WAS kNOWN AS “GOD’S ¼OTTWEI±ER”
IN HIS DEFENSE OF THE PAPACY AND HIS C±OSE FRIEND AND PAPA± PREDECESSOR, ¸OPE
JOHN ¸AU± ¹¹ (B. ÌARO± JózEF ÈOjTYł). ÊOTH mEN WERE ·ENTRA± ³UROPEANS
WHO CAmE OF AgE DURINg ÈOR±D ÈAR ¹¹ AND ROSE TO PREEmINENCE IN THE
CHURCH DURINg THE ·O±D ÈAR. °EIR WOR±DVIEW WAS ³UROCENTRIC AND FOCUSED
ON THE EVI±S OF ·OmmUNISm AND THE gOD±ESS ²OVIET ¶NION. ÊOTH WERE DEEP±Y
TROUB±ED BY A NEW MARxIST-INflECTED REVO±UTIONARY THEO±OgICA± TURN, “±IBERA-
TION THEO±OgY,” WITHIN SECTORS OF THE POST–ÍATICAN ¹¹ CHURCH IN LATIN
µmERICA.
¹RONICA±±Y, THE TWO FUTURE POPES HAD PARTICIPATED IN ÍATICAN ¹¹, WHICH WAS
±ED BY ¸OPE JOHN XX¹¹¹, WHO SOUgHT TO “OPEN THE WINDOW AND ±ET IN FRESH
AIR” AND TO REPOSITION THE CHURCH IN THE mODERN WOR±D. ¼ATHER THAN BEINg
INSPIRED, THEY BECAmE OBSESSED WITH THE “ERRORS” AND “ExCESSES” UN±EASHED BY
ÍATICAN ¹¹, AND THEIR PAPACIES WERE mARkED BY AN ATTEmPT TO REVERSE REFORmS
THAT THEY FOUND ExCESSIVE. °EY DID NOT ±IkE THE INC±USION OF SECU±AR ·ATHO±IC
SCHO±ARS IN DISCUSSIONS OF DE±ICATE TOPICS SUCH AS THE CE±IBACY OF PRIESTS, THE
ORDINATION OF WOmEN, CONTRACEPTION, AND ABORTION. µND THEY DISAPPROVED OF
ACTIVIST PRIESTS PARTICIPATINg IN ±IBERATION THEO±OgY BASE COmmUNITIES IN
LATIN µmERICA THAT qUESTIONED THE C±OSE TIES OF THE TRADITIONA± LATIN
µmERICAN HIERARCHY WITH OPPRESSIVE RU±INg C±ASSES.
µ±THOUgH ±IBERATION THEO±OgY WAS NEVER THE DOmINANT OR HEgEmONIC
·ATHO±IC THEO±OgY IN LATIN µmERICA, Ú IT WAS A STRONg AND VISIB±E SOCIA± mOVE-
mENT THAT REA±IgNED C±ERgY AND NUNS IN SUPPORT OF THE POOR AND THOSE WHO
SPOkE ON THEIR BEHA±F DURINg CIVI± WARS IN ·ENTRA± µmERICA AND mI±ITARY DIC-
TATORSHIPS IN ²OUTH µmERICA IN THE 1970S AND 1980S. ¸ROmINENT ±IBERATION
THEO±OgIANS, SUCH AS THE DIOCESAN PRIESTS LEONARDO ÊOff IN ÊRAzI± AND GUSTAVO
GUTIéRREz IN ¸ERU, WROTE INflUENTIA± BOOkS THAT RETURNED ·ATHO±IC THEO±OgY
TO ITS ORIgINS AND THE ROOTS OF ·HRISTIANITY. ÈITH THE WRITINgS OF THE EAR±Y
DESERT FATHERS AND THE GOSPE±S AND TEACHINgS OF JESUS OF ½AzARETH, THEY
BROUgHT RENEWED ATTENTION TO A FOCUS ON THE POOR, THE ±OW±Y, THE SICk, THE
STIgmATIzED, AND THE mARgINA±IzED. LIBERATION THEO±OgY WAS A UNIqUE±Y LATIN
38 • ch a p t er t wo
fi¿ure 2.1. °E ·OUNCI± ºATHERS SEATED DURINg THE ²ECOND ÍATICAN ·OUNCI±. ¸HOTO BY
LOTHAR ÈO±±EH. °IS fi±E IS ±ICENSED UNDER THE ·REATIVE ·OmmONS µTTRIBUTION 2.0 GENERIC
±ICENSE. HTTPS://COmmONS.WIkImEDIA.ORg/WIkI/ºI±E:²ECOND_ÍATICAN_·OUNCI±_BY_LOTHAR
_ÈO±±EH_003.
µmERICAN THEO±OgICA± REVO±UTION THAT DEfiNED ·ATHO±ICISm AS A RE±IgION OF THE

OPPRESSED.
µT THE 1968 MEDE±±íN ·ONFERENCE OF LATIN µmERICAN ÊISHOPS, ±IBERATION
THEO±OgIANS TOOk THEIR mESSAgE FURTHER INTO WHAT THIS mIgHT mEAN IN TERmS OF
EVERYDAY PASTORA± PRACTICE. °E BISHOPS P±EDgED THEmSE±VES TO A NEW SPIRITUA±-
SOCIA± CONTRACT, CA±±ED THE “PREFERENTIA± OPTION FOR THE POOR.” °IS CONTRACT
REqUIRED A STRUCTURA± REA±IgNmENT OF THE LATIN µmERICAN CHURCH AWAY FROm ITS
CO±ONIA± mOORINgS AND ITS FAVORITISm TOWARD THE POWER E±ITES, THE ±ANDOWNINg
AND INDUSTRIA± C±ASSES. °EY CA±±ED FOR ECC±ESIASTICA± BASE COmmUNITIES IN FAVE±AS
AND SHANTYTOWNS WHERE ·ATHO±IC C±ERgY AND ±AYPEOP±E WOU±D READ AND DISCUSS
Ãh e åon v er sion of Ôr a ncis • 39

THE SCRIPTURES AS PO±ITICA± AS WE±± AS THEO±OgICA± TExTS. ¸OVERTY AND HUNgER WERE
RECAST AS “STRUCTURA± VIO±ENCE” AND AS SOCIA± SINS TO BE CHA±±ENgED AND ExPUNgED.
LIBERATION THEO±OgY RECONCI±ED ·HRISTIANITY AND MARxISm AT A TImE WHEN
RIgHT-WINg DICTATORS OVERTHREW DEmOCRATIC SOCIA±IST PO±ITICA± ±EADERS WITH THE
HE±P OF THE ·¹µ AND THE ¶.². ·ONgRESS. ºROm MEDE±±íN IN 1968, A NEW ±IBERA-
TION THEO±OgY REORIENTED THE ENTIRE ·HRISTIAN PROjECT FROm THE NORTHERN TO THE
SOUTHERN HEmISPHERE, UNTETHERED THE CHURCH FROm THE CO±ONIA±-ImPERIA± APPA-
RATUS TO WHICH IT HAD TIED ITSE±F FOR mORE THAN A mI±±ENNIUm, RECONCI±ED
·HRISTIANITY AND MARxISm, AND CHARTED A PATH OF REDEmPTION FOR A mORA±±Y
AND THEO±OgICA±±Y COmPRISED RE±IgION FOR THE LATIN µmERICAN ·ATHO±IC ·HURCH.
ÈHI±E IN SOmE CIRC±ES ±IBERATION THEO±OgY WAS SEEN AS A SHIﬅ IN THE CU±TIVA-
TION OF A CRITICA±, SOCIO±OgICA±, SPIRITUA± ImAgINATION, IN ½ICARAgUA AND
GUATEmA±A DURINg THE 1980S ±IBERATION THEO±OgY BECAmE A VERITAB±E CA±± TO
ARmS AgAINST mI±ITARY DICTATORS. °IS FEET-ON-THE-gROUND, “BAREFOOT” THEO±OgY
INTRODUCED NEW ExEmP±ARS IN A gENERATION OF BE±OVED “RED BISHOPS”: Óm
Éé±DER ·æmARA IN ¼ECIFE; ²AmUE± ¼UIz IN ·HIAPAS; ²ERgIO MéNDEz µRCEO IN
·UERNAVACA; AND THE mARTYR-BISHOP OF ³± ²A±VADOR, çSCAR ¼OmERO.
LESS RECOgNIzED WAS THE CENTRA± RO±E OF LATIN µmERICAN WOmEN THEO±O-
gIANS, SUCH AS THE µRgENTINE MARCE±±A µ±THAUS-¼EID AND THE ÊRAzI±IAN
ECOFEmINIST ¹VONE GEBARA, AND WOmEN CATECHISTS, OﬅEN I±±ITERATE, A±mOST
INVARIAB±Y POOR, WHO ORgANIzED, ±ED, AND mOST±Y POPU±ATED THE ECC±ESIASTICA±
BASE COmmUNITIES. °E FEmINIST THEO±OgIANS, WHI±E IN SYmPATHY WITH THE
±IBERATION THEO±OgY OF LEONARDO AND ·±ODOVIS ÊOff AND GUSTAVO GUTIéRREz,
IDENTIfiED A ±ACUNA IN THE FAI±URE OF THE PROgRESSIVE THEO±OgIANS TO RECOgNIzE
AND ACkNOW±EDgE THE SUffERINg OF WOmEN, INC±UDINg THOSE WHO WERE DESIg-
NATED AS “SINNERS” AND “INDECENT” BECAUSE THEY WERE SINg±E mOTHERS, TRADI-
TIONA± mIDWIVES, OR SEx WORkERS WHO HAD NOWHERE E±SE TO TURN DURINg TImES
OF ExTREmE SCARCITY AND CRISIS. ²OmE OF THESE “DEVIANTS” BECAmE PROmINENT
±EADERS IN ±IBERATION BASE COmmUNITIES.
¹N RESPONSE TO THE WARS ON “INDECENCY” BY THE mI±ITARY jUNTAS OF THE 1960S
THROUgH 1980S, THE µRgENTINE ±IBERATION THEO±OgIAN MARCE±±A µ±THAUS-¼EID
PROPOSED AN “INDECENT THEO±OgY” THAT CONFRONTED THE PO±ITICA± TRINITY OF
¸OPE, ½ATION, AND ·ATHO±IC ºAmI±Y THAT UNDERPINNED THE IDEO±OgY OF RIgHT-
WINg mI±ITARY REgImES IN LATIN µmERICA. ²HE WROTE, “°E RESURRECTION [OF
·HRIST] WAS NOT A THEmE FOR OUR gENERATION. . . . Los desaparecidos [AmONg
THEm, kIDNAPPED WOmEN AND THEIR BABIES] WAS OUR THEmE.”
¹N ¼ECIFE, ÊRAzI±, ²ISTER ¹VONE GEBARA, A ·ATHO±IC NUN AND ONE OF LATIN
µmERICA’S ±EADINg FEmINIST THEO±OgIANS, WROTE AND TAUgHT FROm THE PERSPECTIVE
OF ECOFEmINISm AND ±IBERATION THEO±OgY. ºOR NEAR±Y TWO DECADES, GEBARA WAS
A PROFESSOR AT ¹¾³¼, THE ±IBERATION THEO±OgY SEmINARY IN ¼ECIFE. GEBARA’S
THEO±OgY EmERgED FROm HER WORk WITH POOR WOmEN IN THE S±UmS AND FAVE±AS
OF ¼ECIFE IN THE ±ATE 1960S DURINg THE mI±ITARY DICTATORSHIP YEARS. ¹N HER fi RST
BOOk, Longing for Running Water: Ecofeminism and Liberation, GEBARA
ARTICU±ATED WHAT SHE CA±±ED A “THEO±OgICA± ANTHROPO±OgY” EmBEDDED IN THE
STRUgg±ES OF EVERYDAY ±IFE. °E gARBAgE IN THE STREET, THE NONExISTENT OR INADE-
qUATE HEA±TH CARE, AND, ABOVE A±±, THE REPRODUCTIVE CRISES FACED BY POOR WOmEN
±ED GEBARA TO ARgUE FOR “RE±IgIOUS BIODIVERSITY,” ONE THAT WAS INC±USIVE OF
WOmEN’S SUffERINg AND NEEDS. ²HE SAW REPRODUCTIVE RIgHTS FOR WOmEN AS ±INkED
TO ENVIRONmENTA± AND ECONOmIC SUSTAINABI±ITY AND TO THE CREATION OF A DIgNI-
fiED ±IFE.
°E PAPACIES OF JOHN ¸AU± ¹¹ AND ÊENEDICT XÍ¹ FOUgHT TOOTH AND NAI±
AgAINST THIS LATIN µmERICAN THEO±OgICA± “HERESY.” °E TWO PREVIOUS POPES
SAW THE NEW LATIN µmERICAN RADICA± THEO±OgY AS A THREAT TO PAPA± AUTHORITY.
°EY ARgUED THAT ±IBERATION THEO±OgY WAS NO THEO±OgY AT A±± BUT A PO±ITICA±
PROjECT THAT FOCUSED ON THE “HERE AND NOW” RATHER THAN A SPIRITUA± PROjECT
CONCERNED WITH THE SOU± AND ITS AﬅER±IFE. ÉOWEVER, ±IBERATION THEO±OgY’S
gREATEST THREAT TO PAPA± AUTHORITY WAS ITS EmPOWERmENT OF WOmEN AS THEO±O-
gIANS AND AT THE gRASSROOTS ±EVE± AS COmmUNITY ±EADERS, CATECHISTS, AND PASTO-
RA± COUNSE±ORS AND REPRESENTATIVES OF THE NEW CHURCH.
¸OPE JOHN ¸AU± ¹¹ AND ·ARDINA± ¼ATzINgER, ±ATER AS ¸OPE ÊENEDICT, ACTIVE±Y
DISmANT±ED LATIN µmERICAN ±IBERATION THEO±OgY. ¹N 1984, jUST AS THE ÊRAzI±IAN
mI±ITARY DICTATORSHIP WAS ENDINg, ¼ATzINgER ISSUED HIS “¹NSTRUCTION ON
·ERTAIN µSPECTS OF THE ‘°EO±OgY OF LIBERATION,’ ” WHICH ±ISTED THE mANY
DOCTRINA± ERRORS AND ExCESSES OF ÍATICAN ¹¹, INC±UDINg ITS DEDICATION TO BUI±D-
INg A CHURCH OF THE POOR.
°US, IN 1985, THE ÍATICAN SI±ENCED THE ÊRAzI±IAN ±IBERATION THEO±OgIAN
LEONARDO ÊOff AND FORCED Óm Éé±DER ·æmARA INTO RETIREmENT. ÈHEN IN
»CTOBER 1989 ¼ATzINgER C±OSED ¹¾³¼, Óm Éé±DER’S ±IBERATION THEO±OgY
SEmINARY, SEVERA± HUNDRED SEmINARIANS, NUNS, ±AYPEOP±E, AND PEASANTS
TRAVE±ED BY FOOT FROm THE ImPOVERISHED, DROUgHT-RIDDEN INTERIOR OF
¸ERNAmBUCO TO PROTEST, AND ONE OF US (JENNIFER ²CHEPER ÉUgHES) jOINED THE
DEmONSTRATION. °E POWERFU± SOCIA± mOVEmENT THAT WAS CA±±ED ±IBERATION
THEO±OgY WAS EVENTUA±±Y DESTROYED, AS THEO±OgIANS WERE DISCIP±INED, IF NOT
SI±ENCED, AND YOUNg C±ERgY WERE ENCOURAgED TO TAkE UP A POPU±IST AND ARTIfi-
CIA± CHARISmATIC ·ATHO±ICISm TO CONTEST THE gROWTH OF ¸ENTECOSTA± CHURCHES
IN LATIN µmERICA. »NE OF THE ±AST STRAWS WAS THE ATTACk ON THE FEmINIST

THEO±OgIANS WHO HAD NEVER REA±±Y BEEN INCORPORATED WITHIN THE mA±E-DOmI-
NATED HIERARCHY OF ±IBERATION THEO±OgY. °EY WERE mARgINA±IzED EVEN BY THEIR
mA±E CO±±EAgUES, WHO, WITH THE ExCEPTION OF Óm Éé±DER, FOUND THEm SCAN-
DA±OUS FOR ADDRESSINg IN PUB±IC THE SExUA±ITY OF WOmEN IN THE CONTExT OF A
kIND OF “gREEN” FEmINIST THEO±OgY.
¸ROFESSOR GEBARA ACHIEVED NOTORIETY WHEN THE ÍATICAN SI±ENCED HER FOR
TWO YEARS IN 1995. ÉER DIffiCU±TIES BEgAN IN 1993 WITH AN INTERVIEW SHE gAVE
TO THE ÊRAzI±IAN NEWS mAgAzINE ÆEJA, IN WHICH SHE SAID, RATHER Off-HANDED±Y,
THAT ABORTION WAS NOT NECESSARI±Y A SIN FOR POOR WOmEN. GIVEN THE ExTREmE
POVERTY OF mANY WOmEN IN ÊRAzI±IAN FAVE±AS, TOO mANY BIRTHS WOU±D ON±Y
RESU±T IN mORE HARDSHIP FOR THE mOTHERS AND THEIR OTHER CHI±DREN. MOREOVER,
GEBARA SAID TO THE jOURNA±IST, OVERPOPU±ATION PUTS INCREASED STRESS ON NATURA±
RESOURCES, INC±UDINg DECREASED ACCESS TO POTAB±E WATER, ONE OF HER mAIN CON-
CERNS. ºOR THESE REASONS, GEBARA CA±±ED FOR gREATER TO±ERANCE FOR WOmEN’S
REPRODUCTIVE RIgHTS AND NEEDS. °E ARTIC±E IN ITS DAY WENT VIRA± VIA TE±EVISION
RATHER THAN SOCIA± mEDIA. ·OmP±AINTS WERE RAISED, AND FO±±OWINg mANY DIS-
CUSSIONS THROUgHOUT 1994, THE PRESIDENT OF ÊRAzI±’S ·ATHO±IC ·ONFERENCE OF
ÊISHOPS OF ÊRAzI±, Óm LUCIANO MENDES DE µ±mEIDA, jUDgED THAT THE CASE
AgAINST GEBARA AS A HERETIC WAS C±OSED, CITINg HER DEEP COmmITmENT TO, AND
UNDERSTANDINg OF, THE SUffERINg AND PAIN OF POOR WOmEN. ÉOWEVER, THE
ÍATICAN’S ·ONgREgATION OF THE ÓCTRINE AND ºAITH DISAgREED AND BEgAN AN
INVESTIgATION OF GEBARA’S THEO±OgICA± WRITINgS, INTERVIEWS, AND TEACHINg mOD-
U±ES. »N 3 JUNE 1995, GEBARA WAS INSTRUCTED TO REFRAIN FROm SPEAkINg, TEACH-
INg, AND WRITINg FOR A PERIOD OF TWO YEARS, DURINg WHICH TImE SHE WAS ExI±ED
TO ºRANCE FOR THEO±OgICA± REEDUCATION. ¾ODAY ¸ROFESSOR GEBARA IS STRUgg±INg
WITH I±±NESS, BUT SHE REmAINS TOTA±±Y DEDICATED TO HER FEmINIST THEO±OgY.
enter èor¿e ber¿o¿lio—a vatican in

shaÇbles and a catholic church divided
·ARDINA± ÊERgOg±IO APPROACHED THE 2013 PAPA± CONC±AVE WITH ANxIETY. ÉE HAD
COmE C±OSE TO BEINg CHOSEN POPE IN THE 2005 PAPA± CONC±AVE THAT E±ECTED
·ARDINA± JOSEPH ¼ATzINgER. ÊERgOg±IO WITHDREW FROm THE COmPETITION AND
THREW HIS SUPPORT TO ¼ATzINgER WHEN HE ±EARNED THAT OPPONENTS IN µRgENTINA
WERE UNDERmININg HIS CANDIDACY BY CIRCU±ATINg DAmNINg DOCUmENTS ABOUT
HIS HISTORY AS PROVINCIA± SUPERIOR OF THE JESUITS DURINg µRgENTINA’S INFAmOUS
DIRTY WAR (1976–83). ¹T WAS A TImE OF TERROR WHEN mI±ITANTS AND RADICA±S,
STUDENTS AND ±ABOR ±EADERS, jOURNA±ISTS AND PSYCHIATRISTS, PRIESTS AND NUNS WHO
WORkED AND ±IVED WITH THE POOR IN BASE COmmUNITIES WERE kIDNAPPED, INTER-
ROgATED UNDER TORTURE, AND DISAPPEARED. °OSE WHO PROVED TO BE USE±ESS
INFORmANTS WERE DRUggED AND THROWN SEmICONSCIOUS INTO THE µT±ANTIC »CEAN
AND THE ¼IO ¸±ATA, AS WERE OTHERS REgARD±ESS OF WHETHER THEY PROVIDED INFOR-
mATION. °E “mETHOD” WAS SANCTIONED BY HIgH-RANkINg µRgENTINE ·ATHO±IC
PRE±ATES AS A DIgNIfiED DEATH, A DEATH AT SEA. ¹T WAS A SACRIfiCE OF SOmE qUESTION-
AB±E ±IVES TO PRESERVE THE Proceso, THE ½ATIONA± ¸ROCESS OF ¼EORgANIzATION TO
mAkE µRgENTINA CONFORm TO A RIgHT-WINg FASCIST VERSION OF ·ATHO±ICISm.
µmONg THE TENS OF THOUSANDS OF VICTImS WERE 150 ·ATHO±IC PRIESTS WHO
REFUSED TO BEND, AS WE±± AS HUNDREDS OF NUNS, ±AY CATECHISTS, AND RE±IgIOUS
PERSONS WHO EmBRACED ±IBERATION THEO±OgY.
JORgE ÊERgOg±IO’S COmP±Ex PO±ITICA± HISTORY BEgINS IN 1973 WHEN, AS A
RECENT±Y ORDAINED JESUIT PRIEST, HE WAS APPOINTED PROVINCIA± SUPERIOR OF THE
µRgENTINE JESUITS AT THE ABSURD±Y YOUNg AgE OF THIRTY-SIx. JESUITS ARE THE mUS-
CU±AR SCHO±ARS OF THE ¼OmAN ·ATHO±IC ·HURCH. »RDINATION REqUIRES mORE
THAN A DECADE OF INTE±±ECTUA± AND SPIRITUA± TRAININg, OﬅEN CU±mINATINg IN TWO
DOCTORATES, ONE IN THEO±OgY AND ONE IN ANOTHER CHOSEN fiE±D. ¹T IS UNHEARD OF
THAT A mAN SO YOUNg AND INExPERIENCED COU±D BE APPOINTED PROVINCIA± SUPE-
RIOR OF THE JESUITS ANYWHERE IN THE WOR±D.
°E ÍATICAN PUT PRESSURE ON THE SUPERIOR gENERA± OF THE JESUITS IN ¼OmE TO
STOP µRgENTINE JESUITS FROm FO±±OWINg THE PATH OF THE JESUITS IN ·ENTRA±
µmERICA, ÊRAzI±, ·HI±E, AND ¸ERU IN RESISTINg mI±ITARY REgImES. °US, THE ±Eﬅ-
±EANINg HEAD OF THE JESUITS WAS REmOVED AND ºATHER ÊERgOg±IO TOOk HIS P±ACE
WITHOUT THE SUPPORT OF mOST OF HIS RE±IgIOUS ORDER IN µRgENTINA. GIVEN THE
C±OSE RE±ATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHURCH AND STATE IN µRgENTINA, THERE A±SO mUST
HAVE BEEN SOmE NEgOTIATION OVER ÊERgOg±IO’S APPOINTmENT WITH THE DEC±ININg
¸ERONIST gOVERNmENT AND THE µRgENTINE mI±ITARY, WAITINg IN THE WINgS.
ºATHER ÊERgOg±IO WAS A PIOUS PRIEST OF CONSERVATIVE PO±ITICA± VIEWS. ÉE WAS
NOT A POPU±AR SUPERIOR AmONg THE JESUITS, AND HE WAS FORCED OUT OF OffiCE IN 1979,
WHEN HE WAS ASSIgNED TO SERVE AS RECTOR OF THE ·O±EgIO MáxImO IN ÊUENOS µIRES,
WHERE HE TAUgHT THEO±OgY. ¹N 1986 HE WAS ExI±ED TO GERmANY UNDER THE PRETExT
OF COmP±ETINg A SECOND DOCTORA± THESIS. »N HIS RETURN TO µRgENTINA IN JUNE 1990,
HIS PERIOD OF ImPOSED REflECTION AND PENANCE WAS NOT OVER. °E FORmER JESUIT
SUPERIOR WAS AgAIN SENT INTO ExI±E, THIS TImE TO THE CITY OF ·óRDOBA, µRgENTINA,
WHERE HE SPENT TWO SO±ITARY YEARS IN A SmA±± gUEST HOUSE AT THE JESUIT RECTORY.
°IS PERIOD, WE SUggEST, WAS THE BEgINNINg OF THE CONVERSION OF ÊERgOg±IO.
ÚRINg HIS ENFORCED SO±ITUDE, ºATHER ÊERgOg±IO RARE±Y SPOkE TO ANYONE. ÉE

WAS EVEN CUT Off FROm THE OTHER JESUITS WITH WHOm HE WAS ±IVINg. ÉE WAS
COmINg TO TERmS WITH HIS (SE±F-DEfiNED) RIgID, AUTHORITARIAN PERSONA±ITY THAT
HAD CONTRIBUTED TO HIS DECISION TO DISmISS THE TWO “DISOBEDIENT” ±IBERATION
THEO±OgY JESUITS, ºATHER ºRANz (ºRANCIS) JA±ICS, HIS FORmER THEO±OgY TEACHER,
AND »R±ANDO ÓORIO, WHO HAD REFUSED TO gIVE UP THEIR ECC±ESIASTICA± BASE COm-
mUNITY IN A POOR PARISH OF ÊUENOS µIRES. ÊERgOg±IO’S DECISION PUT THE mEN IN
mORTA± DANgER. »NCE REmOVED FROm THE PROTECTION OF THE ²OCIETY OF JESUS, THE
JESUITS WERE kIDNAPPED, A±ONg WITH SEVERA± OTHER ±IBERATION CATECHISTS, BY THE
AgENTS OF µDmIRA± ³mI±IO MASSERA AND TAkEN TO THE ³SCUE±A DE MECáNICA DE
±A µRmADA (³²Mµ), WHERE FOR SIx mONTHS THEY WERE TORTURED AND INTERRO-
gATED, THEN RESCUED IN THE NICk OF TImE BY ºATHER ÊERgOg±IO’S INTERCESSIONS IN
PERSON WITH BOTH GENERA± ÍIDE±A AND µDmIRA± MASSERA. ÊERgOg±IO WA±kED
OUT OF THE SECOND mEETINg WITH MASSERA SAYINg DEfi NITIVE±Y AS HE ±Eﬅ, “¹ WANT
THEm TO APPEAR.” ²OON AﬅER, THE TWO JESUITS WERE REmOVED FROm THEIR CE±±S
AND DROPPED FROm A P±ANE IN A fiE±D ON THE OUTSkIRTS OF ÊUENOS µIRES, WHERE
THEY WERE FOUND DRUggED, DAzED, AND IN POOR PHYSICA± CONDITION. °E OTHERS
WHO WERE kIDNAPPED WITH THEm WERE DROPPED INTO THE SEA. °IS STORY HAS
BEEN TO±D mANY TImES.
reÇeÇber the woÇen: the first conversion

of èor¿e ber¿o¿lio
LESS NOTED IS THE FAI±ED RESPONSE OF THE FORmER JESUIT SUPERIOR ON ±EARNINg OF
THE DISAPPEARANCES OF THREE WOmEN. ¾WO OF THEm WERE ºRENCH NUNS, ORIgI-
NA±±Y CATECHISTS (CATECHISm TEACHERS) TO THE mENTA±±Y “DEfiCIENT,” WHICH
INC±UDED THEIR DEVOTED CARE FOR JORgE ÍIDE±A’S YOUNg SON WHO HAD SEVERE AND
IRREVERSIB±E DEVE±OPmENTA± PROB±EmS. µ THIRD desaparecida WAS ºATHER
ÊERgOg±IO’S FORmER BOSS AND mENTOR, ³STHER ÊA±±ESTRINO DE ·AREAgA, A CHEmIST
IN THE FACTORY WHERE THE FUTURE POPE WORkED AS A STUDENT IN 1953–54, jUST
BEFORE HE DECIDED TO ENTER THE PRIESTHOOD. »VER TImE, THE SPIRITUA± FORmATION
OF THE NUNS AND ³STHER ÊA±±ESTRINO DE ·AREAgA CHANgED AS IT WAS SHAPED BY
±IBERATION THEO±OgY. °EY SPOkE OF “AN OPTION FOR THE POOR,” WHI±E CRITICIzINg
GENERA± ÍIDE±A’S OPTION FOR “POWER, B±OOD, AND fiRE.” ÍIDE±A’S SECRETARY-gENERA±
BROkE THE NEWS OF THEIR kIDNAPPINg ON 13 ÉCEmBER 1977, A WEEk BEFORE A±±
THREE WERE DRUggED AND THROWN INTO THE µT±ANTIC »CEAN. °E BODIES OF TWO
OF THE WOmEN WASHED UP ON SHORE, TO BE BURIED IN PAUPER gRAVES. °EY WERE
±ATER ExHUmED AND IDENTIfiED BY mEmBERS OF THE µRgENTINE FORENSIC TEAm.
²EVERA± WEEkS BEFORE SHE AND HER DAUgHTER WERE kIDNAPPED, ³STHER
ÊA±±ESTRINO CONTACTED ºATHER ÊERgOg±IO ASkINg FOR HE±P WHEN SHE ±EARNED THAT
HER DAUgHTER, A UNIVERSITY STUDENT, HAD BEEN TARgETED BY THE mI±ITARY.
ÊERgOg±IO AgREED TO COmE TO THE FAmI±Y’S HOmE AND REmOVE AND HIDE ANY
BOOkS THAT mIgHT BE SEEN AS qUESTIONAB±E OR SUBVERSIVE. »NE OF THE BOOkS
ÊERgOg±IO TOOk AWAY WITH HIm WAS Das Kapital. ÉE WARNED ³STHER TO BE
PRUDENT, TO DRIVE CAREFU±±Y, TO WEAR DARk SUNg±ASSES, AND TO BE AS INCONSPICU-
OUS AS POSSIB±E. °IS ASSISTANCE PROVED TO BE NOT SO HE±PFU±. ÊOTH THE DAUgHTER
AND, ±ATER, HER mOTHER WERE kIDNAPPED. ÈHI±E HER DAUgHTER WAS RE±EASED AND
SURVIVED, ³STHER WAS DROPPED INTO THE OCEAN.
µﬅER HIS PERIOD OF SEC±USION IN ·óRDOBA ENDED, ÊERgOg±IO WAS gIVEN
ANOTHER CHANCE AND APPOINTED AUxI±IARY ARCHBISHOP OF ÊUENOS µIRES IN 1992.
ÉE EmERgED AS A STRONg AND POPU±AR SPIRITUA± ±EADER AND AN EffECTIVE PO±ITI-
CIAN. ÉE mOVED qUICk±Y UP THE ±ADDER FROm ARCHBISHOP TO CARDINA± IN 1998. µ
NEW ÊERgOg±IO BEgAN TO EmERgE DURINg THIS TImE, A mORE TO±ERANT AND HUmB±E
PRE±ATE, NOT WITHOUT CONTRADICTIONS BUT C±EAR±Y ON A DIffERENT PATH. ÉE VISITED
POOR villas AND BARRIOS, HE TENDED TO THE NEEDS OF YOUNg C±ERICS, AND HE
BECAmE INVO±VED IN SOCIA± ACTION ON BEHA±F OF mARgINA± PEOP±E, INC±UDINg
mIgRANTS, STREET CHI±DREN, AND ASY±Um SEEkERS. ÉE CO±±ABORATED IN THE FOUND-
INg OF A NONgOVERNmENTA± ORgANIzATION (½G») DEDICATED TO THE RESCUE OF
DISP±ACED REFUgEES AND TRAffiCkED PERSONS. ¹N 2000, µRCHBISHOP ÊERgOg±IO
mADE THE mOST DIffiCU±T VOYAgE OF HIS ±IFE, WHEN HE PAID A VISIT TO ºATHER JA±ICS
IN GERmANY. ÊY A±± ACCOUNTS, IT WAS AN EmOTIONA± ENCOUNTER. ÊOTH mEN WEPT,
EmBRACED AND (PRESUmAB±Y) FORgAVE EACH OTHER, AND CO-CE±EBRATED THE MASS. Û
ÉOWEVER, ¸OPE ºRANCIS HAS NOT YET mADE AmENDS TO THE mEmORY OF THE
µRgENTINE WOmEN WHO DIED FOR THEIR FAITH UNDER HIS WATCH.
the first latin aÇerican pope
ÊY THE TImE ÊERgOg±IO WAS SUmmONED TO ¼OmE FOR THE PAPA± CONC±AVE THE
PO±ITICA± C±ImATE HAD CHANgED. °E DEmAND FOR A NEW DISPENSATION, A PETITE
REFORmATION OF THE ¼OmAN ·HURCH AND ITS ·URIA, WAS ON THE TOP OF THE
AgENDA. °ERE WAS TA±k OF SE±ECTINg A POPE FROm THE ²OUTH: LATIN µmERICA,
µFRICA, OR µSIA. ÉOWEVER, ·ARDINA± ÊERgOg±IO DID NOT ENTER THE CONC±AVE
AS ONE OF THE PAPA± fiNA±ISTS. ÊUT AﬅER A mERE TWENTY-FOUR HOURS OF DE±IBERA-
TION THE CONC±AVE SETT±ED ON HIm. ÈHEN ASkED IF HE ACCEPTED THE VOTE,
ÊERgOg±IO DID NOT gIVE THE ExPECTED RITUA±IzED REP±Y, “µCCEPTO.” ¹NSTEAD

HE SAID, “¹ Am A gREAT SINNER; TRUSTINg IN THE mERCY AND PATIENCE OF GOD IN
SUffERINg, ¹ ACCEPT.”
ÈHEN HE APPEARED ON THE BA±CONY OF ²AINT ¸ETER’S ÊASI±ICA AS THE NEW
POPE, THE WE±±-WISHERS gATHERED BE±OW IN ²AINT ¸ETER’S ²qUARE WERE CONFUSED.
°EY DID NOT RECOgNIzE HIm. ÊUT ONCE THEY HEARD THAT THE NEW POPE WOU±D
BE kNOWN AS ¸OPE ºRANCIS, THEY SENT UP CHEERS: “ÍIVA ºRANCESCO! ÍIVA
ºRANCESCO!”
LIkE JOHN ¸AU± ¹¹, ºRANCIS WAS A fiRST: THE fiRST LATIN µmERICAN POPE, THE
fiRST POPE FROm THE G±OBA± ²OUTH, THE fiRST JESUIT POPE, AND THE fiRST POPE TO
NAmE HImSE±F AﬅER ²AINT ºRANCIS, WHO WAS NEVER A POPE AT A±±. ÊOTH OF THESE
OUTSIDER POPES WERE OR ARE POSITIONED TO mAkE DECISIVE PUB±IC RO±ES IN g±OBA±
TRANSITIONS. °E ¸O±ISH POPE, JOHN ¸AU± ¹¹, gAVE HIS B±ESSINg TO ²O±IDARNOść,
CONTRIBUTINg TO THE END OF THE ²OVIET ¶NION. °E µRgENTINE POPE HAS A±READY
P±AYED A kEY RO±E IN NEgOTIATINg BEHIND THE SCENES THE DIA±OgUES BETWEEN
¸RESIDENT ÊARACk »BAmA AND ¼Aú± ·ASTRO THAT PROmISE AN END TO THE ¶.².
·O±D ÈAR IN ·UBA AND ¶.². mEDD±INg WITH SOCIA±IST AgENDAS IN OTHER LATIN
µmERICAN NATIONS.
°E ·ATHO±IC WOR±D qUICk±Y WARmED UP TO ¸OPE ºRANCIS, WHO WAS PRAISED
FOR HIS SImP±ICITY, HUmI±ITY, AND COmmON TOUCH. °E NEW POPE REFUSED A±± THE
TRAPPINgS OF POPERY: THE THRONE AND THE PA±ACE, THE ±ACE AND ROSE S±IPPERS.
°IS POPE WORE WE±±-WORN B±ACk SHOES THAT HE CARRIED WITH HIm FROm ÊUENOS
µIRES. ÉE ±IkED TO TRAVE± BY BUS AND SUBWAY AND TO COOk HIS OWN mEA±S. ÉE
jOINED ÍATICAN WORkERS FOR ±UNCH IN THE ÍATICAN CAFETERIA.
ÉIS mANNER IS INFORmA±, HIS ±ANgUAgE CO±±OqUIA±. ÉE SOON BECAmE FAmOUS
FOR HIS Off-THE-CUff zINgERS, ESPECIA±±Y IN THE AIR AND BETWEEN HIS TRAVE±S. “¹
DON’T kNOW WHAT COmES OVER mE,” ¸OPE ºRANCIS TO±D µNTONIO ²PADARO, THE
JESUIT EDITOR IN CHIEF OF La Civiltà Cattolica, IN µUgUST 2013. °E POPE HAD
jUST RETURNED FROm HIS fiRST AND WI±D±Y SUCCESSFU± INTERNATIONA± TRIP TO ÊRAzI±
FOR ÈOR±D ÓOUTH ÁY. “¹ DID NOT RECOgNIzE mYSE±F WHEN ¹ RESPONDED TO THE
jOURNA±ISTS ASkINg mE qUESTIONS [ABOUT gAY C±ERgY] ON THE flIgHT FROm ¼IO DE
JANEIRO.” ÉE FAmOUS±Y TO±D THE jOURNA±ISTS, “¹F SOmEONE IS gAY AND HE SEARCHES
FOR THE LORD AND HAS gOODWI±±, WHO Am ¹ TO jUDgE?” ÉE SPOkE IN ¹TA±IAN, BUT
HE USED THE ³Ng±ISH WORD gay RATHER THAN homosexual. µNOTHER PAPA± fiRST.
ÈHAT DOES THIS AUgER FOR ·ATHO±ICS, NON-·ATHO±ICS, AND SECU±ARISTS A±IkE?
ÓES “ÈHO Am ¹ TO jUDgE?” mEAN THAT THE POPE WI±± SUPPORT gAY mARRIAgE OR
THAT HE SEES gAY PRIESTS AS SINNERS WHO NEED TO SEEk PENANCE AND PRACTICE
SExUA± ABSTINENCE? ÈHEN HE TE±±S A DIVORCED WOmAN WHO IS SAD ABOUT NOT
TAkINg ÉO±Y ·OmmUNION, “GO AHEAD AND TAkE IT, YOU HAVE DONE NOTHINg
WRONg,” IS ¸OPE ºRANCIS INVITINg DIVORCED ·ATHO±ICS TO PARTICIPATE IN A±± THE
SACRAmENTS, INC±UDINg REmARRIAgE? ÈHEN HE AffiRmS THE SCIENCE OF EVO±UTION
AND THE ÊIg ÊANg THEORY OF CREATION, WI±± HE RETHINk THE CHURCH’S BAN ON NEW
REPRODUCTIVE TECHNO±OgIES AND STEm CE±± RESEARCH? ÈHEN HE SAYS THAT POOR
WOmEN SHOU±D NOT HAVE TO “BREED ±IkE RABBITS,” IS HE qUESTIONINg Humanae
vitae, THE PAPA± ENCYC±ICA± THAT CONDEmNED CONTRACEPTION AND ABORTION, OR IS
HE DEmEANINg THE “SECOND SEx” AS BREEDERS?
¹S ºRANCIS A POPU±IST POPE WHO IS PROmISINg BREAD AND CIRCUSES TO THE
mASSES AT MASS? »R ARE HIS Off-THE-CUff zINgERS AN ATTEmPT TO RATT±E THE NERVES
OF THE O±D gUARD ·URIA AND ITS CONSERVATIVE AND PAmPERED CARDINA±S? ¹S HE
OffERINg AN OPEN WINDOW AND BREATH OF FRESH AIR IN THE STY±E OF ¸OPE JOHN
XX¹¹¹, OR IS HE mASkINg THE STA±E AIR TRAPPED INSIDE THE ÍATICAN? MANY
ÍATICAN WATCHERS SUggEST THAT ¸OPE ºRANCIS IS A gOOD PO±ITICIAN WHO IS TRYINg
TO P±EASE A±± SIDES. »N THE ONE HAND, HE C±EARS THE WAY FOR A POSSIB±E SAINTHOOD
FOR THE mARTYRED ±EﬅIST µRCHBISHOP ¼OmERO OF ²A±VADOR. »N THE OTHER HAND,
HE NOmINATES FOR SAINTHOOD ºATHER JUNíPERO ²ERRA, THE DESPISED CO±ONIzER OF
NATIVE ·A±IFORNIANS (²CHEPER-ÉUgHES 2015).
²O, WHO IS ºRANCIS? ÈHAT CAN A LATIN µmERICAN µRgENTINE POPE DO FOR
LATIN µmERICA AND FOR THE WOR±D?
one pope for Çany catholicisÇs
ÉSPITE THE UNIFYINg SYmBO± OF THE ÍATICAN AND ITS PONTIff, LATIN µmERICAN
·ATHO±ICS ARE AN UNRU±Y ±OT. °ERE ARE mANY VERSIONS OF ·ATHO±ICISm, WITH
DIVERSE HISTORIES AND RE±IgIOUS TRADITIONS. MExICAN ·ATHO±IC PIETY, FORgED BY
THE RE±IgIOUS AND RITUA± ±ABORS OF ITS mESTIzO POPU±ATION, HAS ±ITT±E IN COmmON
WITH ·ARIBBEAN ·ATHO±IC SPIRITUA±ITY, SHAPED AS IT WAS BY µFRICAN POPU±A-
TIONS ±ABORINg WITHIN THE CONSTRAINTS OF A S±AVE SOCIETY. ·ATHO±ICISm IN
·ENTRA± µmERICA, THE µNDES, AND THE µmAzON HAS DISTINCT ROOTS THAT mIx
¼OmAN ·ATHO±ICISm WITH INDIgENOUS AND µFRICAN RE±IgIONS. µ±THOUgH ÊRAzI±,
WITH C±OSE TO 127 mI±±ION ·ATHO±ICS, HAS mORE ·ATHO±ICS THAN ANY OTHER COUN-
TRY, mANY OF THEm ARE INDEPENDENT AND “SECU±AR” ·ATHO±ICS. ÊRAzI±IANS TERm
THIS gROUP “·ATó±ICO ±ITE,” OR CU±TURA± ·ATHO±ICS (SImI±AR TO JEWS IN LATIN
µmERICA). °EY ARE ·ATHO±ICS WHO DEVOTE THEmSE±VES TO THE RITUA±S AND TRADI-
TIONS, THE SAINTS AND THE PAgEANTRY, BUT SHRUg THEIR SHOU±DERS AT THE DOgmA.
¸OOR ·ATHO±IC WOmEN IN THE FAVE±AS OF ÊRAzI± PAY SCANT ATTENTION TO THE
ÍATICAN PROHIBITIONS ON CONTRACEPTION AND ABORTION: WHAT DO CE±IBATE mEN,

fi¿ure 2.2. ¸OPE ºRANCIS DRINkS mATE
OffERED BY A PI±gRIm IN ²T. ¸ETER’S ²qUARE.
¸HOTO COURTESY OF µSSOCIATED ¸RESS.
POOR THINgS, kNOW ABOUT BIRTHINg AND RAISINg BABIES?, THEY OﬅEN WONDER.
°E POPE CAN PREACH A UNIVERSA± DOCTRINE, BUT IT WI±± BE DIffERENT±Y RECEIVED.
ÊROAD gENERA±IzATIONS ABOUT THE ImPACT OF AN µRgENTINE POPE ON LATIN
µmERICA AND THE WOR±D mUST BE PARSED THROUgH ±OCA± AND REgIONA± HISTORIES
AND CONTExTS.
·ATHO±ICS RECEIVED THE NEW POPE DIffERENT±Y IN ÊRAzI± THAN IN µRgENTINA.
°REE AND A HA±F mI±±ION ÊRAzI±IANS gATHERED ON ·OPACABANA ÊEACH TO WATCH
ºRANCIS DRIVE BY IN HIS POPE mOBI±E. °E CROWDS WERE EUPHORIC. °E POPE WAS
SEEN AS agradável, PERSONAB±E, INTImATE, UNPREDICTAB±E, AND, mOST OF A±±, ani-
mado, FU±± OF VITA±ITY. “ÍD YOU SEE HOW HE RESPONDED TO THE CROWDS, HOW HE
ACCEPTED A gOURD OF chá mate [YERBA mATE] AND S±URPED IT UP? ÉE IS A mAN IN
±OVE WITH ±IFE.” ÊRAzI±IANS FROm THE SHANTYTOWNS THOUgHT THAT THEY COU±D
TEACH THE NEW POPE ABOUT THEIR SOCIA± NEEDS AND REA±ITIES. ÉE WAS SEEN AS
flExIB±E AND TEACHAB±E.
°EIR PRESIDENT AgREED WITH THEm. µ FEW WEEkS EAR±IER, ¸RESIDENT Í±mA
¼OUSSEff mET WITH ¸OPE ºRANCIS IN THE ÍATICAN, AND SHE EmERgED FROm THE
THIRTY-mINUTE CONVERSATION TO CONgRATU±ATE µRgENTINES ON BEINg VERY ±UCkY
TO HAVE A POPE OF THEIR OWN WHI±E jESTINg THAT NONETHE±ESS GOD, AS EVERYONE
kNOWS, IS A ÊRAzI±IAN. µ±THOUgH Í±mA SUffERED TORTURE AT THE HANDS OF
ÊRAzI±’S mI±ITARY DICTATORSHIP, WHICH OVER±APPED WITH µRgENTINA’S BRUTA± DIRTY
WAR, SHE PRAISED ¸OPE ºRANCIS AS A CHARISmATIC ±EADER AND A POPE WHO WOU±D
SPEAk ON BEHA±F OF THE POOREST AND THE WEAkEST C±ASSES AND WHO HAS THE CAPAC-
ITY TO BE mOVED. ÉIS E±ECTION, SHE SAID, WAS REASON FOR ÊRAzI±IANS, µRgENTINES,
AND A±± LATIN µmERICANS TO BE PROUD. ÉE WAS gOOD NEWS FOR LATIN µmERICA,
AND gOOD NEWS FOR THE WOR±D AT ±ARgE.
¹N µRgENTINA, HOWEVER, THE NEW POPE’S RECEPTION WAS mORE COmP±Ex
AND mEASURED. ºAmI±IARITY WAS AN OBSTAC±E TO UNmODERATED ADU±ATION.
ÈHI±E SOmE WERE WI±±INg TO OVER±OOk ÊERgOg±IO’S SHORTCOmINgS, AND THERE
WERE CERTAIN±Y CE±EBRATIONS IN THE STREET WITH PEOP±E SHOUTINg, “¡¶N ¸APA
µRgENTINO!,” SOmE OF HIS FORmER JESUIT CO±±EAgUES REFUSED TO ACkNOW±EDgE THE
NEW POPE AS ONE OF THEIR OWN. °EY kNEW ÊERgOg±IO C±OSE UP AND OVER TImE
AND HAD mIxED REACTIONS. °E µRgENTINE CHURCH REmAINS BITTER±Y DIVIDED
BETWEEN AN O±D gUARD EmBODIED IN POPU±AR YOUTH mOVEmENTS SUCH AS
·ATHO±IC µCTION, µCCIóN ·ATó±ICA, AND THE ·ATHO±IC ²COUTS, »PUS ÉI, AND
THE LEgIONNAIRES OF MARY AND THOSE PROgRESSIVE ·ATHO±ICS WHO REmAIN FAITH-
FU± TO THE ±IBERATIONIST CHURCH.
°E µRgENTINE ·ATHO±IC ·HURCH HAS A±WAYS P±AYED A STRONg HAND IN gOVERN-
mENT AffAIRS, FROm THE CHURCH’S figHTS WITH JUAN ¸ERóN OVER THE ±EgA±IzATION OF
DIVORCE AND PROSTITUTION, FOR WHICH HE WAS ExCOmmUNICATED (AND ±ATER RECON-
CI±ED), TO THE CHURCH’S SI±ENCE AND TACIT SUPPORT OF THE mI±ITARY jUNTA OF ¸RESIDENT
ÍIDE±A. °EN-µRCHBISHOP ÊERgOg±IO DESCRIBED DISPUTES HE HAD WITH ¸RESIDENTS
½éSTOR AND ºERNáNDEz ÌIRCHNER AND OVER gAY mARRIAgE IN A ±ETTER TO ·ARmE±ITE
NUNS AS “A C±EAR REjECTION OF THE ±AW OF GOD, ENgRAVED IN OUR HEARTS.”
°ERE ARE TWO VERSIONS OF THE NEW POPE. °E fiRST IS FOUND IN A CAREFU±±Y
ORCHESTRATED SERIES OF BIOgRAPHIES, CONVERSATIONS, AND DIA±OgUES WITH JORgE
MARIO COVERINg THE PERIOD BEFORE AND AﬅER HE BECAmE ¸OPE ºRANCIS. °ESE ARE
ROmANTIC HAgIOgRAPHIES THAT DESCRIBE A mAN ON HIS WAY TO SAINTHOOD. °EY
DENY THE CRITIqUE OF ÊERgOg±IO’S BEHAVIOR DURINg THE DIRTY WAR AND DESCRIBE
HIm AS A CONSISTENT, mODEST DEFENDER OF THE POOR. ¹N HIS BOOk, Bergoglio’s List
(2014), ½E±±O ²CAVO DARED TO COmPARE JORgE ÊERgOg±IO TO »SkAR ²CHIND±ER,
WHO SAVED THE ±IVES OF mORE THAN A THOUSAND mOST±Y ¸O±ISH JEWISH REFUgEES
DURINg THE ÉO±OCAUST BY EmP±OYINg THEm IN HIS FACTORIES. °E SECOND AND
OPPOSINg VERSION, A SERIES OF ESSAYS AND BOOkS BY jOURNA±ISTS AND THE POPE’S
mOST RE±ENT±ESS CRITIC, HIS BêTE NOIR, ÉORATIO ÍERBITSkY,Ý IS THAT ÊERgOg±IO WAS
A ±ACkEY OF THE gENERA±S DURINg THE DIRTY WAR (ÍERBITSkY 2006). °IS VIEW IS
HISTORICA±±Y INCORRECT, AND EVEN ÍERBITSkY HAS RETREATED SOmEWHAT.
ÈE SUggEST A THIRD VIEW, ONE OF ¸OPE ºRANCIS AS A “mAN OF TORTURED COm-
P±ExITY” (ÍA±±E±Y 2013) WHO SAVED SOmE INDIVIDUA±S, BUT HE WAS NO ²CHIND±ER.
ÉIS INTERVENTIONS WERE SO DISCREET, SO SPECIfiC, SO ±ATE IN THE gAmE, SO PERSON-
A±ISTIC (SAVINg THIS ONE BUT NOT THAT ONE), THAT IT ±Eﬅ THE POPE HImSE±F DEEP±Y
gUI±T-RIDDEN (²CHEPER-ÉUgHES 2013).
³VEN THIRTY YEARS AﬅER THE DIRTY WAR, IN 2010, UNDER THE NEW DEmOCRATIC
DISPENSATION, WHEN ÊERgOg±IO, NOW ARCHBISHOP OF ÊUENOS µIRES, WAS CA±±ED AS
A WITNESS IN THE CRImINA± TRIA± OF EIgHTEEN OffiCERS WHO HAD WORkED AT ³²Mµ,
THE ½AVA± MECHANICS ²CHOO±, INC±UDINg µDmIRA± MASSE±A, A±THOUgH NOT A
DEFENDANT IN THE CASE, HE WAS ExTREmE±Y EVASIVE. ¹N HIS FORmA± DEPOSITION HE

SAID THAT HE HAD WARNED HIS TWO JESUIT SUBORDINATE E±DERS TO ABANDON THEIR
±IBERATION BASE COmmUNITY WORk IN THE S±UmS BECAUSE SOmE SECTORS OF THE
mI±ITARY AND THE OffiCIA± CHURCH HIERARCHY SAW THEIR ACTIVITIES AS SUBVERSIVE.
ÈHEN THEY REFUSED HIS AUTHORITY AS THEIR SUPERIOR HE TO±D THE PRIESTS THAT
THEIR DISOBEDIENCE mEANT THEY COU±D NO ±ONgER BE JESUITS. ÊERgOg±IO’S
RESPONSES TO qUESTIONS ABOUT HIS ACTIONS ON BEHA±F OF THE ºRENCH NUNS AND HIS
FORmER BOSS, ³STHER, WERE PERP±ExINg. ÈHAT DID ÊERgOg±IO HAVE TO ±OSE IN
gIVINg INFORmATION RECORDED IN OffiCIA± CHURCH ARCHIVES? °E ARCHBISHOP WAS
NOT ON TRIA±. ÈHEN ASkED ABOUT THE ExISTENCE OF CHURCH ARCHIVES BEARINg ON
THE DEATHS OF THE ºRENCH NUNS AND OF ³STHER DE ·AREAgA, ÊERgOgIO REP±IED, “¹
SUPPOSE SO, BUT ¹ DON’T kNOW FOR SURE.” ÈHEN ASkED WHERE THESE fi±ES WERE
±OCATED, HE SAID THEY WERE IN THE CENTRA± ARCHIVE OF THE ·ONFERENCE OF THE
·ATHO±IC ÊISHOPS. “ÈHO SUPERVISES THE ARCHIVES?” “¹ DO,” ÊERgOg±IO SAID.
·OU±D HE POSSIB±Y ±OCATE THE fi±E? ÊERgOg±IO REP±IED, “¹ CAN ±OOk FOR IT, BUT ¹
Am NOT SURE ¹ CAN fiND IT.”
ÈHEN ASkED WHAT HE DID TO RESCUE HIS FORmER mENTOR, ³STHER DE ·AREAgA,
WHEN HE ±EARNED THAT SHE HAD BEEN DISAPPEARED, ÊERgO±IO SAID THAT HE TRIED TO
±OCATE A FAmI±Y mEmBER BUT THEY SEEmED TO BE IN HIDINg. ÉAD HE CONTACTED
ANY PUB±IC OffiCIA±S ABOUT THEIR DISAPPEARANCE? ½O, BECAUSE THE CASE FE±± UNDER
THE jURISDICTION OF THE ARCHBISHOP OF ÊUENOS µIRES, AND AT THE TImE HE WAS
ON±Y THE PROVINCIA± OF THE JESUITS. ÓOU kNEW MS. DE ·AREAgA WE±±? ÓES,
ÊERgOg±IO SAID. Bastante, qUITE WE±±. ³±SEWHERE IN HIS TESTImONY ÊERgOg±IO
SAID THAT ³STHER “WAS A gOOD WOmAN.” °E qUESTION HANgINg IN THE AIR WAS,
“ÈAS THIS A±± YOU COU±D DO?”
ÊERgOg±IO’S CONFESSION, ±IkE HIS CONVERSION, IS INCOmP±ETE. ÉIS DEFENSE THAT
HE WAS YOUNg AND INExPERIENCED IS NOT CONVINCINg. °E ExCUSE THAT HE, ±IkE
¸OPE ÊENEDICT, IS NOT A gOOD ADmINISTRATOR IS A±SO UNCONVINCINg. ÉE HAS BEEN
AN ADmINISTRATOR FOR mOST OF HIS RE±IgIOUS ±IFE. ÉIS DEFENSE THAT HE WAS RIgID
BUT THAT HE WAS NEITHER A RIgHT-WINgER NOR A SAINT±Y gOODY TWO-SHOES—jUST “A
POOR gUY” WHO mADE SOmE ERRORS—IS AS C±OSE AS ÊERgOg±IO gETS TO mAkINg AN
APO±OgY. ÊUT HE DID NOT SOUND ±IkE A “POOR gUY AT ±OOSE ENDS” Þ WHEN HE VISITED
³²Mµ ·OmmANDER ³mI±IO MASSERA DEmANDINg THAT HE mAkE THE TWO DISAP-
PEARED JESUITS “APPEAR.” ÉE SOUNDED fiRm AND CONVINCINg. MASSERA RESPONDED
POSITIVE±Y. ÈITHOUT THAT INTERVENTION THE JESUITS WOU±D SURE±Y HAVE BEEN
SE±ECTED FOR ExTERmINATION BY THE ³²Mµ ExECUTIONERS. °E PROB±Em WAS ONE
OF THE ADEqUACY AND TImINg OF HIS RESPONSE TO THE STATE OF TERROR.
ÈE SUggEST THAT AS ¸OPE ºRANCIS, JORgE ÊERgOg±IO IS IN THE PROCESS OF SPIRIT-
UA±, mORA±, AND PO±ITICA± CONVERSION, ONE THAT IS INCOmP±ETE. µ±± IS NAUgHT IF HE
FAI±S TO FORgE A NEW SOCIA± CONTRACT OR A NEW COVENANT, AS ÉANNAH µRENDT
DEfiNED IT IN THE Human Condition. °IS NEW COVENANT IS WITH WOmEN, REmEm-
BERINg AND HONORINg THE FEmA±E VICTImS OF THE DIRTY WAR WHO WERE kI±±ED FOR
BEINg “S±UTS” AND THEIR INFANTS kIDNAPPED AT BIRTH AND gIVEN TO FRIENDS OF THE
jUNTA TO RAISE AND TO PURIFY THE NATION WHI±E THE µRgENTINE CHURCH STOOD BY,
DOINg NOTHINg TO SAVE THEm. °E FAI±URE OF THE FUTURE POPE TO SAVE HIS mENTOR
AND HIS gOOD FRIEND, ³STHER ÊA±±ESTRINO DE ·AREAgA, IS A CASE IN POINT.
¹F ÊERgOg±IO WAS NOT A ²CHIND±ER, NEITHER WAS HE A ¸OPE ¸IUS X¹¹, WHO
REFUSED ASSISTANCE TO JEWS DURINg THE ÉO±OCAUST. ÉIS WAS A WEAk RESPONSE TO
A mAjOR CATASTROPHE. ÉE WORkED BEHIND THE SCENES FOR A SmA±± NUmBER OF
µRgENTINE PEOP±E AT RISk OF BEINg DISAPPEARED. ÉE ARRANgED PASSPORTS AND
VISAS AND HID SOmE PO±ITICA± SUSPECTS IN HIS ·O±EgIO, DESCRIBINg THEm AS THEO±-
OgY STUDENTS OR VISITORS. ÉE WARNED THOSE WHO HAD BEEN IDENTIfiED TO BE CARE-
FU±, TO BE VIgI±ANT, TO NOT g±ANCE OUT OF THEIR HOmE OR CAR WINDOWS, TO WA±k
WITH THEIR HEADS DOWN, AND SO ON. ÊUT HE DID NOT CONDEmN THE mI±ITARY
DICTATORSHIP. ÉE DID NOT RAISE HIS VOICE AT MASS. ÉE DID NOT THREATEN TO
ExCOmmUNICATE THE gENERA±S. ÉE DID NOT SEEm TO RECOgNIzE THE ENORmITY OF
THE CRImE, EVEN WHEN HIS ±OYA± FEmA±E FRIEND JUDgE µ±ICIA »±IVERIA URgED HIm
TO SPEAk OUT. °E FUTURE POPE TO±D HER THAT THIS WAS NOT EASY TO DO.
µS HEAD OF THE µRgENTINE ·ONFERENCE OF ÊISHOPS BETWEEN 2005 AND 2011,
ÊERgOg±IO RESISTED PRESSURES TO ISSUE A FORmA± APO±OgY FOR THE CHURCH’S ACTIONS
DURINg THE DIRTY WAR. ºINA±±Y, IN »CTOBER 2012, µRgENTINA’S BISHOPS, UNDER
ÊERgOg±IO’S ±EADERSHIP, ISSUED A STRANgE±Y WORDED APO±OgY FOR FAI±INg TO
PROTECT THEIR flOCk ADEqUATE±Y DURINg THE DICTATORSHIP. ÊUT THE “APO±OgY” B±AmED
both THE RIgHT-WINg gENERA±S AND THE ±Eﬅ-WINg gUERRI±±AS FOR THE YEARS OF B±OOD-
SHED, A gROSS±Y INACCURATE DEPICTION OF WHAT HAPPENED. ¸OPE ºRANCIS HAS YET TO
ACkNOW±EDgE, ±ET A±ONE APO±OgIzE TO, THE FAmI±IES OF THE DISAPPEARED. ¶NTI± HIS
DEATH (IN µRgENTINA) ºATHER ÓORIO HE±D ÊERgOg±IO RESPONSIB±E FOR HIS
kIDNAPPINg.
ÈE COU±D USE THE SAmE WORDS THAT ºRANCIS USED IN REFERRINg TO THE PRIVATE
±IVES OF gAY ·ATHO±ICS, ÈHO ARE WE TO jUDgE? ½OT ONE OF US kNOWS HOW WE
mIgHT HAVE BEHAVED UNDER THE TYRANNY OF THE µRgENTINE jUNTA, HOW WE mIgHT
RESIST OR HIDE FROm RESPONSIBI±ITY DURINg WHAT THE ANTHROPO±OgIST MICHAE±
¾AUSSIg mIgHT TERm A CU±TURE OF TERROR, AND SPACE OF DEATH, ONE THAT DESTROYED
CIVI± SOCIETY, SO±IDARITY, AND DECENCY, WHEN ONE’S OWN ExISTENCE, AS WE±± AS THAT
OF THOSE FOR WHOm ONE IS RESPONSIB±E, IS AT STAkE. ²OmETImES COmP±ICITY IS VERY
DIRECT, BUT mORE OﬅEN IT IS INDIRECT, AS, FOR ExAmP±E, IN ATTEmPTS TO NEgOTIATE
WITH THE TERRORIST, WITH THE DICTATOR, AS ºATHER ÊERgOg±IO DID ON BEHA±F OF THE

DISAPPEARED JESUITS. ²OmETImES COmP±ICITY IS DISgUISED AS A ¼EA±PO±ITIk OF
±ETTINg SOmE gO, SO THAT mANY OTHERS mIgHT ±IVE.
ÊERgOg±IO HAD ExEmP±ARS IN ±IBERATION THEO±OgY PRIESTS, NUNS, AND BISHOPS
WHOSE CONVERSION TO ACTION DURINg OTHER PO±ITICA± AND HUmAN RIgHTS CRISES WAS
SWIﬅ AND APPROPRIATE. µS HIS FE±±OW JESUIT JON ²OBRINO STATES, JORgE ÊERgOg±IO
WAS “NO çSCAR ¼OmERO,” REFERRINg TO THE ARCHBISHOP OF ³± ²A±VADOR WHO WAS
mURDERED BY ·¹µ-INflUENCED COUNTERINSURgENTS IN ²AN ²A±VADOR ON 24 MARCH
1980. ½EITHER WAS HE A Óm Éé±DER ·æmARA, THE TINY ARCHBISHOP OF ¼ECIFE, WHO
BECAmE AN OUTSPOkEN CRITIC OF THE mI±ITARY DICTATORSHIP (1964–85), DARINg TO
SUggEST THAT STRUCTURA± VIO±ENCE, POVERTY, AND HUNgER WERE SINS OF THE STATE.
LIkE ÊERgOg±IO, çSCAR ¼OmERO AND Óm Éé±DER ·æmARA WERE ExPOSED TO
STRONg FASCIST TENDENCIES AS YOUNg PRIESTS. ÊUT ¼OmERO’S AND ·æmARA’S CONVER-
SION TO ±IBERATION THEO±OgY IN RESPONSE TO THE THREAT POSED BY VIO±ENT mI±ITARY
REgImES WAS ImmEDIATE AND COmP±ETE. °EY AND OTHER RADICA± PRE±ATES BROkE
RANkS WITH THE POWER BROkERS, DEfiED THE gOVERNmENT, AND PUB±IC±Y CRITICIzED
THE mI±ITARY. ºOR ExAmP±E, µRCHBISHOP ¼OmERO, ONCE A±±IED WITH THE TRADI-
TIONA± E±ITES, BEgAN DRIVINg THROUgH CITY DUmPS SEARCHINg AmONg THE TRASH
FOR THE TORTURED AND EVISCERATED VICTImS OF THE DEATH SqUADS. ÉIS SERmONS
BECAmE fiERY TO THE ExTENT THAT ¸OPE JOHN ¸AU± ¹¹ DECIDED TO REmOVE HIm
FROm OffiCE. ÊUT THE ±ETTER OF DISmISSA± NEVER REACHED ¼OmERO, WHO WAS CE±E-
BRATINg MASS WHEN ASSASSINS mURDERED HIm.
ÊERgOg±IO/ºRANCIS IS TRYINg TO DO THE ImPOSSIB±E—TO STRADD±E A SPACE IN-
BETWEEN, BETWEEN THE ±EgACY OF THE O±D CO±ONIA±IST, PATRIARCHA± CHURCH AND THE
CHURCH OF ±IBERATION THEO±OgY. °IS STRIkES US AS A PROjECT THAT WI±± U±TImATE±Y
FAI±, ±EAVINg A ±EgACY OF A CHURCH AT WAR WITH ITSE±F.
the final conversion of pope francis
µS A PO±ITICA± SPIRITUA± ±EADER ºRANCIS HAS NEgOTIATED A DéTENTE BETWEEN ·UBA

AND THE ¶NITED ²TATES. ÉE HAS WE±COmED ATHEISTS TO THE TAB±E IN THE TASk OF
PEACEmAkINg. ÉE HAS BEgUN TO mAkE PEACE WITH FORmER THEO±OgICA± ENEmIES.
ÉE INITIATED A RAPPROCHEmENT WITH EIgHTY-fiVE-YEAR-O±D ºATHER GUSTAVO
GUTIéRREz OF LImA, ¸ERU, THE FATHER OF ±IBERATION THEO±OgY, AND HE ±IﬅED THE
BAN ON THE BEATIfiCATION OF çSCAR ¼OmERO, THE fiRST STEP TO SAINTHOOD, DESCRIB-
INg ¼OmERO AS “A mAN OF GOD.” ÉE A±SO ENDED THE ÍATICAN INVESTIgATION OF
FEmINIST ·ATHO±IC NUNS BY PRAISINg THE WORk THAT THE gOOD SISTERS DO IN EDU-
CATINg THE POOR, HOUSINg THE HOmE±ESS, AND VISITINg THE ImPRISONED. °ESE
ImPORTANT gESTURES AUgUR WE±± FOR THE g±OBA± ·ATHO±IC COmmUNITY AND FOR THE
FAmI±Y OF mAN. ÊUT THERE IS A DISTURBINg AND g±ARINg ABSENCE AT THE CENTER OF
HIS NEW PAPACY: THE FAmI±Y OF WOmEN. ÉE HAS NOT REACHED OUT TO ·ATHO±IC
WOmEN THEO±OgIANS.
µT PRESENT ¸OPE ºRANCIS IS AT A CRITICA± jUNCTURE. ÉE DEC±ARED RADICA± FEmI-
NISm ONE OF THE mOST SERIOUS DANgERS FACINg THE mODERN ·ATHO±IC ·HURCH.
ÉERE, ºRANCIS IS AT RISk OF REPEATINg THE SAmE DANgEROUS ERROR, HIS FEAR OF ±IB-
ERATION THEO±OgY PRIESTS. ÉE RISkS TURNINg FEmINIST THEO±OgIES OF ±IBERATION
AND THEIR WORkS OF mERCY ON BEHA±F OF SUffERINg mOTHERS AND CHI±DREN INTO
THEO±OgICA± ERRORS AND mORTA± SINS. ÈITHOUT A NEW COVENANT WITH WOmEN, CAN
ºRANCIS RESPOND ADEqUATE±Y TO HIS FE±±OW JESUIT JON ²OBRINO’S CHA±±ENgES TO
HIm: TO fix THE UNBEARAB±E AND UNTENAB±E SITUATION OF WOmEN VIS-à-VIS THE
CHURCH, TO RECOgNIzE AND VA±UE THE INDIgENOUS PEOP±ES OF WOR±D, AND TO ±OVE
MOTHER ³ARTH?
°US FAR, ºRANCIS HAS NOT HEARD THE “SIgH OF THE OPPRESSED” FROm WOmEN
WHO ARE TURNED AWAY FROm PUB±IC C±INICS AND DOCTORS THROUgHOUT LATIN
µmERICA BY THE ¼OmAN ·ATHO±IC BANS ON CONTRACEPTION ENSHRINED IN THE ±AWS
OF mOST LATIN µmERICAN COUNTRIES. ²OmE ARE THE VICTImS OF DOmESTIC VIO-
±ENCE, OTHERS OF PO±ICE BRUTA±ITY AgAINST THEIR ADU±T SONS, AND STI±± OTHERS ARE
±IVINg ON THE EDgE OF A REPRODUCTIVE C±Iff. ÈE kNOW THEm A±± TOO WE±± IN THE
FAVE±AS OF ÊRAzI± AND IN THE mESTIzO VI±±AgES OF MExICO, AND WE kNOW THE
CONSEqUENCES OF COERCED BIRTHS IN THE HEAD COUNTS OF TINY gRAVES WITH WHITE
WOODEN CROSSES AND IN THE mUNICIPA± ±EDgERS THAT TA±±Y THE DEATHS OF mOTHERS
AND INFANTS.
¸OPE ºRANCIS SAYS THAT THE CHURCH NEEDS TO DIVERT ITS OBSESSIVE PREOCCUPA-
TION WITH SExUA±ITY, CONTRACEPTION, AND DIVORCE AS THESE ARE NEgATIVE AND
DIVISIVE ISSUES; BETTER TO PUT THEm ASIDE. ÊUT IN SO DOINg THE POPE IS IgNORINg
THE DOCTRINA± mI±±STONE THAT IS TIED AROUND THE NECkS OF WOmEN AND THEIR
DOCTORS. ¹N STIgmATIzINg THE WRITINgS OF LATIN µmERICAN WOmEN THEO±OgIANS,
BY REFERRINg TO THEm AS FO±±OWINg “RADICA± FEmINIST THEmES INCOmPATIB±E WITH
THE ·ATHO±IC FAITH,” HE IS INVA±IDATINg THE WORk OF SERIOUS WOmEN SCHO±ARS,
PORTRAYINg THEm AS IRRESPONSIB±E, NAIVE, OR WORSE, AS DANgEROUS THINkERS.
ÉERE, ¸OPE ºRANCIS COmES C±OSE TO HIS EAR±IER SUSPICION OF THE ±IBERATION THEO-
±OgIANS HE FAI±ED TO UNDERSTAND OR TO PROTECT DURINg THE DIRTY WAR.
°E NEW PREFECT OF THE ·ONgREgATION OF THE ÓCTRINE OF THE ºAITH, GERHARDT
MUE±±ER, HAS DEC±ARED THAT “THE WAR BETWEEN ±IBERATION THEO±OgY AND ¼OmE IS
OVER” AND THAT ±IBERATION THEO±OgY SHOU±D BE RECOgNIzED AS “AmONg ONE OF THE
mOST ImPORTANT CURRENTS IN 20TH CENTURY ·ATHO±IC THEO±OgY.”ß °E TImE IS

RIgHT FOR A RAPPROCHEmENT WITH WOmEN THEO±OgIANS ±IkE ¹VONE GEBARA, A NUN
WITH TWO DOCTORA± DEgREES AND A DOzEN BOOkS BEARINg ON POOR WOmEN IN
¸ERNAmBUCO, ÊRAzI±. ²ISTER GEBARA WAS SI±ENCED IN 1995 FOR SUggESTINg Off THE
RECORD THAT A POOR WOmAN WITH fiVE CHI±DREN AND AN ABSENT FATHER WHO ACCI-
DENTA±±Y BECAmE PREgNANT AﬅER A ONE-NIgHT STAND WITH A gAS STATION ATTENDANT
AND WHO TOOk A NIgHT-AﬅER PI±± HAD NOT COmmITTED A mORTA± SIN. ¹F THE SCIENTIST
IN ¸OPE ºRANCIS CAN EmBRACE THE mYSTERY OF TImE AND THE ÊIg ÊANg, HE CAN
DE±VE INTO THE ANTHROPO±OgICA± AmBIgUITY OF THE EmBRYO, AS A POTENTIA± ±IFE BUT
NOT YET ENSOU±ED UNTI± THE qUICkENINg, A BIB±ICA± VIEW OF PREgNANCY STI±± HE±D
BY WOmEN IN THE RURA± NORTHEAST OF ÊRAzI± (²CHEPER-ÉUgHES 2013). ¹N INAUgU-
RATINg THE ÓEAR OF MERCY (2016–17), ¸OPE ºRANCIS ANNOUNCED AN OPENINg, A
YEAR IN WHICH WOmEN COU±D BE FORgIVEN FOR THE PREVIOUS±Y “UNFORgIVAB±E” SIN
OF ABORTION. °IS ImPOSES A DOUB±E BIND ON WOmEN AND THEIR mARITA± OR
DOmESTIC PARTNERS. MUST THEY BOTH ADmIT TO COmmITTINg A gRIEVOUS SIN IN
ORDER TO RECEIVE FORgIVENESS? ÈHI±E ABORTION IS NOT NOTHINg, mORA±±Y SPEAkINg,
IT IS OﬅEN THE ON±Y PATH A±±OWINg WOmEN TO ±ET gO OF AN EmBRYO THAT WOU±D
BECOmE AN INFANT THAT THEY CANNOT NURTURE. µN EmBRYO, mY ÊRAzI±IAN SHAN-
TYTOWN INFORmANTS INSIST, IS NOT YET A CHI±D; IT IS A creatura, A CREATURE, EqUA± TO
A BIRD OR TO A TADPO±E, A±± OF WHOm DESERVE RESPECT.
¹N TAkINg THE NAmE OF ²AINT ºRANCIS, JORgE MARIO mIgHT REflECT ON THE C±OSE
RE±ATIONSHIP BETWEEN ²AINT ºRANCIS AND ²AINT ·±ARE, WHO SHARED AN INTImATE
INTE±±ECTUA± AND SPIRITUA± RE±ATIONSHIP IN COFOUNDINg THE mENDICANT AND THE
C±OISTERED ºRANCISCAN ORDERS. ºRANCIS’S STRONg, EqUITAB±E RE±ATIONSHIP WITH
·±ARE AS HIS SPIRITUA± companheira WAS NECESSARY TO THE FOUNDINg OF ºRANCISCAN
THEO±OgY IN PRAxIS, A DYNAmIC THEO±OgY, ROOTED IN VO±UNTARY POVERTY, THAT
EmBRACED A±± CREATURES, HUmANS AND ANImA±S. ºRANCIS OﬅEN REFERRED TO HIm-
SE±F AND TO HIS BAREFOOT FRIARS AS “mOTHERS” RATHER THAN AS mEN. ÈE WOU±D ±IkE
¸OPE ºRANCIS TO FO±±OW HIS PATRON SAINT AND TO THINk OF HImSE±F AS “±A MAmmA”
AS WE±± AS “I± ¸APA.”
ÈE HAVE FO±±OWED JORgE ÊERgOg±IO/¸OPE ºRANCIS AS HE STRIVES TO REmAkE
HImSE±F AS A PROgRESSIVE, TRANSFORmATIVE, CHARISmATIC POPU±IST WHO REmAINS A
THEO±OgICA± CONSERVATIVE WITH RESPECT TO THE PUB±IC RO±ES AND PRIVATE NEEDS OF
WOmEN WOR±DWIDE. ÈE SUggEST A SO±UTION, ONE WITH A ±ONg AND DISTINgUISHED
PEDIgREE, THE INTE±±ECTUA±, THEO±OgICA±, AND ADmINISTRATIVE COmPANIONSHIP OF
WOmEN TO CHURCH ±EADERS BEgINNINg WITH THE C±OSE FEmA±E FRIENDS AND DISCI-
P±ES OF JESUS, INC±UDINg THE THREE MARYS—JESUS’S mOTHER, MARY THE mOTHER OF
JAmES, AND MARY MAgDA±ENE, INCORRECT±Y IDENTIfiED AS A PROSTITUTE RATHER THAN
AS THE gENEROUS AND INflUENTIA± WOmAN OF mEANS THAT SHE WAS. °E POPE’S
AVATAR, ²AINT ºRANCIS OF µSSISI, CONSU±TED THROUgHOUT HIS PUB±IC ±IFE WITH
·±ARE, FOUNDER OF THE ºRANCISCAN »RDER OF ¸OOR ·±ARES. ¸OPE ºRANCIS NEEDS
THE WISDOm OF STRONg WOmEN TO HE±P HIm NAVIgATE THE OTHER HA±F OF THE
WOR±D—SHA±± WE CA±± IT THE INVISIB±E 50 PERCENT—THE PART OF THE WOR±D THAT
STI±± PERP±ExES HIm AND WITHOUT WHICH HE CANNOT SUCCEED IN HIS REFORmATION
OF THE ·ATHO±IC ·HURCH IN LATIN µmERICA AND IN THE WOR±D.
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2015 “ÈITNESS TO A ¾ROUB±ED ²AINTHOOD: JUNIPERO ²ERRA AND A ºAI±ED
°EO±OgY.” CounterPunch. WWW.COUNTERPUNCH.ORg/2015/10/07/WITNESS
-TO-A-TROUB±ED-SAINT-mAkINg-jUNIPERO-SERRA-AND-THE-THEO±OgY-OF-FAI±URE/.
²CHEPER-ÉUgHES, ½ANCY, AND JOHN ÉVINE
2003 “¸RIEST±Y ·E±IBACY AND ·HI±D ²ExUA± µBUSE.” Sexualities 6.1: 15–39.
ÍA±±E±Y, ¸AU±
2013 Pope Francis: Untying the Knots. ½EW ÓORk: Ê±OOmSBURY µCADEmIC.
ÍATICAN ·ONgREgATION FOR THE ÓCTRINE OF THE ºAITH
2012 “ÓCTRINA± µSSESSmENT OF THE LEADERSHIP ·ONFERENCE OF ÈOmEN ¼E±I-
gIOUS,” 18 µPRI±. WWW.VATICAN.VA/ROmAN_CURIA/CONgREgATIONS/CFAITH/DOCU-
mENTS/RC_CON_CFAITH_DOC_20120418_ASSESSmENT-±CWR_EN.HTm±.
ÍATICAN ¹NSIDER
2013 “°E ÈAR BETWEEN THE LIBERATION °EO±OgY MOVEmENT AND ¼OmE ¹S
»VER,” 21 JUNE. WWW.±ASTAmPA.IT/2013/06/21/VATICANINSIDER/ENg/THE-
VATICAN/THE-WAR-BETWEEN-THE-±IBERATION-THEO±OgY-mOVEmENT-AND-ROmE-IS-
OVER-Dz·½Ê¸¾ÌBX¶´Ë´0JSWURL¸/PAgINA.HTm±.
ÍERBITSkY, ÉORACIO
2006 El silencio: De Paulo ÆI a Bergolglio. Las relaciones secretas de la Iglesia con
la ESMA. ÊUENOS µIRES: ³DITORIA± LA ¸ágINA.
notes
1. ÊENEDICT XÍ¹ WAS THE fiRST POPE TO RESIgN IN SIx HUNDRED YEARS. ¸OPE GREgORY
X¹¹ RENOUNCED HIS PAPACY IN 1415 AmID A gREAT SCHISm IN WHICH TWO OTHER “ANTIPOPES”
IN ³UROPE WERE VYINg FOR THE PAPA± CHAIR. ÊEFORE HIm, IN 1045, ANOTHER ÊENEDICT, ¸OPE
ÊENEDICT ¹X, RESIgNED AﬅER SE±±INg HIS PAPACY TO HIS gODFATHER. °E RETIREmENT OF A
POPE RAISES THEO±OgICA± qUESTIONS ABOUT THE RO±E OF THE “ÉO±Y ²PIRIT” IN gUIDINg THE
SE±ECTION OF THE POPE. µ POPE’S RESIgNATION CASTS DOUBT ON PAPA±, ±ET A±ONE DIVINE,
infallibility.
2. ¹N 1991 ²CHEPER-ÉUgHES WAS INVITED TO ADDRESS A C±OSED mEETINg IN ²AINT
JOHNS, ½EWFOUND±AND, OF PUB±IC OffiCIA±S, PO±ICE, EDUCATORS, C±ERgY, PARENTS, AND
VICTImS OF SExUA± ABUSE BY ·ATHO±IC C±ERgY AND TEACHERS FO±±OWINg THE PUB±ICATION OF
THE Royal Commission of InQuiry into the Newfoundland Criminal Justice System to
Complaints (OF C±ERICA± SExUA± ABUSE). °E A±±EgATIONS OF ABUSE WENT BACk TO THE 1950S,
AND THE SENSE OF BETRAYA± BY THE CHURCH WAS ENORmOUS. ²EE HTTP://BISHOPACCOUNTA-
BI±ITY.ORg/REPORTS/1991_ÉUgHES_MOUNT_·ASHE±/1991_ÉUgHES_ÍO±UmE_1_¼OYA±_
·OmmISSION_OF_¹NqUIRY_¼EPORT.PDF.
3. µS SOON AS ºRANCIS BECAmE POPE, HE WAS gIVEN A SECRET REPORT COmmISSIONED
BY HIS PREDECESSOR, ÊENEDICT XÍ¹, ON THE ±EAkS AND SCANDA±S THAT HAD P±AgUED HIS
PAPACY.
4. °E POSSIB±E ExCEPTIONS ARE ½ICARAgUA DURINg THE ²ANDINISTA REVO±UTION AND
ÊRAzI± DURINg THE E±ECTION OF ¸RESIDENT LUIz ¹NáCIO LU±A DA ²I±VA IN 1989. ¹N BOTH
INSTANCES THE INflUENCE OF ±IBERATION THEO±OgY WAS A POWERFU± PO±ITICA± FACTOR.
5. µ FU±± STATEmENT BY ºATHER ºRANz JA±ICS ON HIS ARREST AND DETENTION WAS PUB-
±ISHED ON 15 MARCH 2013 ON THE New Ãork Times B±Og. ²EE ÌU±ISH 2013.
6. ÍERBITSkY’S BOOk, PUB±ISHED ON±Y IN ²PANISH, El silencio: De Paulo ÆI a
Bergoglio. Las relaciones secretas de la Iglesia con la ESMA, IS THE mOST COmP±ETE
ASSAU±T ON THE COmP±ICITY OF ºATHER ÊERgOg±IO.
7. JAVIER ·AmARA AND ²EBASTIáN ¸FAffEN (2014) qUOTE ÊERgOg±IO AS SAYINg THAT HE
IS NO SAINT AND DESCRIBES HImSE±F DURINg HIS PERIOD IN ·óRDOBA AS “jUST A POOR gUY”
AT ±OOSE ENDS.
8. “ÓCTRINA± µSSESSmENT OF THE LEADERSHIP ·ONFERENCE OF ÈOmEN ¼E±IgIOUS,”
ISSUED 18 µPRI± 2012, BY THE ÍATICAN ·ONgREgATION FOR THE ÓCTRINE OF THE
ºAITH. WWW.VATICAN.VA/ROmAN_CURIA/CONgREgATIONS/CFAITH/DOCUmENTS/RC_CON_
CFAITH_DOC_20120418_ASSESSmENT-±CWR_EN.HTm±.

three
Fidel Castro
the first superdele¿ate
Greg Grandin
“Üon¿ ere the second centennial arrives,” ÈA±T ÈHITmAN

PREDICTED IN 1871, “THERE WI±± BE SOmE FORTY TO fiﬅY gREAT ²TATES,” AmONg THEm
·UBA. ¹T WAS A COmmON ENOUgH BE±IEF. ºROm °OmAS JEffERSON ONWARD, mANY
µmERICANS THOUgHT THAT, AS ²ECRETARY OF ²TATE JAmES Ê±AINE SAID IN 1881,
“·UBA mUST NECESSARI±Y BECOmE µmERICAN.”
ÊASED ON ITS CURRENT POPU±ATION, IF THE IS±AND HAD BECOmE A ¶.². STATE, IT
WOU±D HO±D ABOUT THE SAmE WEIgHT IN DECIDINg µmERICAN PRESIDENTIA± E±EC-
TIONS AS DOES »HIO. ÉISTORY, OF COURSE, TOOk A DIffERENT TURN; YET, OVER THE ±AST
fiVE DECADES, ·UBA COU±D STI±± COUNT ONE SUPERDE±EgATE.
ºIDE± ·ASTRO WAS NOT SEEN IN PUB±IC FOR SEVERA± YEARS AﬅER JU±Y 2006, WHEN
A NEAR-FATA± STOmACH I±±NESS FORCED HIm INTO SEmI-RETIREmENT. ¹N THE ¶NITED
²TATES, HOWEVER, HE REmAINS A CONTENDER, AT ±EAST IN TERmS OF THE HO±D HE HAS
ON THE ImAgINATION OF CANDIDATES RUNNINg FOR THE ÈHITE ÉOUSE. ÉERE’S A
SHORT HISTORY OF ·ASTRO’S ±ONg RUN IN ¶.². PRESIDENTIA± PO±ITICS.
1960. JOHN º. ÌENNEDY, flANkINg HIS ¼EPUB±ICAN OPPONENT, ÍICE ¸RESIDENT

¼ICHARD ½IxON, ON THE RIgHT ON mATTERS OF FOREIgN PO±ICY, WAS THE fiRST PRESI-
DENTIA± CANDIDATE TO BRAND ºIDE± ·ASTRO AN “ENEmY.” ¹N µUgUST 1960, HAVINg
jUST ACCEPTED THE ÉmOCRATIC NOmINATION, JºÌ TO±D A MIAmI gATHERINg OF
µmERICAN VETERANS THAT, FOR THE “fiRST TImE IN OUR HISTORY, AN ENEmY STANDS AT
THE THROAT OF THE ¶NITED ²TATES.” °E ·UBANS, HE DEC±ARED, ARE OUR “ENEmIES
AND WI±± DO EVERYTHINg IN THEIR POWER TO BRINg ABOUT OUR DOWNFA±±.” ÚRINg
THE CAmPAIgN, HE REPEATED±Y HAmmERED ½IxON ON ·UBA, DEmANDINg THAT THE
³ISENHOWER ÈHITE ÉOUSE CUT Off TRADE TO THE IS±AND AND PROVIDE AID TO “figHT-
ERS FOR FREEDOm” TO OVERTHROW ·ASTRO.
58
¹N FACT, mONTHS BEFORE ÌENNEDY’S µUgUST SPEECH, ¸RESIDENT ´WIgHT ´.
³ISENHOWER HAD A±READY AUTHORIzED THE FUNDINg OF A CAmPAIgN OF PARAmI±I-
TARY SABOTAgE IN ·UBA, AS WE±± AS THE TRAININg OF A SmA±± ARmY OF ·UBAN ExI±ES
TO OVERTHROW ·ASTRO. ¼EPUB±ICANS HAD NO PROB±Em WITH WHAT TODAY gOES BY
THE NAmE “REgImE CHANgE,” HAVINg A±READY ORCHESTRATED TWO SUCCESSFU±
COUPS—IN ¹RAN IN 1953 AND GUATEmA±A IN 1954—AgAINST gOVERNmENTS THEY
PERCEIVED AS HOSTI±E TO ¶.². INTERESTS. °EY jUST PREFERRED TO DO IT qUIET±Y.
µS ³ISENHOWER’S VICE PRESIDENT, ½IxON WAS OB±IgATED NOT TO REVEA± HIS
ADmINISTRATION’S SECRET FOREIgN PO±ICY P±ANS, SO HE COU±D ON±Y ±AmE±Y RESPOND
TO ÌENNEDY’S TAUNTS. ·UBA, HE INSISTED, WAS NOT “±OST.” ½IxON kNEW THAT THE
ÈHITE ÉOUSE HAD STARTED TRAININg ·UBAN ExI±ES, AND HE WAS PROBAB±Y AWARE
THAT THE ·¹µ WAS WORkINg ON A P±AN TO POISON ·ASTRO’S CIgARS, BUT THE VICE
PRESIDENT COU±D ON±Y BARE±Y A±±UDE TO SUCH kNOW±EDgE, WHICH jUST mADE HIm
SOUND COmP±ACENT. “°E ¶NITED ²TATES,” ½IxON SAID, “HAS THE POWER, AND MR.
·ASTRO kNOWS IT, TO THROW HIm OUT OF OffiCE ANY DAY THAT WE WOU±D CHOOSE TO.”
ÌENNEDY, OF COURSE, WON THE E±ECTION. µS PRESIDENT, HE CARRIED OUT THE
¼EPUB±ICAN INVASION P±AN, THE BOTCHED ÊAY OF ¸IgS OPERATION. ÈHEN THAT
FAI±ED, ÌENNEDY AUTHORIzED “»PERATION MONgOOSE,” A BROAD-SPECTRUm COVERT
OPERATION THAT USED SABOTAgE, ASSASSINATIONS, AND PSYCHO±OgICA± WARFARE IN
HOPES OF SPARkINg AN UPRISINg AgAINST ·ASTRO. ÉE A±SO ImPOSED A TRADE EmBARgO
ON ·UBA. µ STICk±ER FOR ±EgA±ITY, JºÌ HE±D Off SIgNINg THE DECREE CUTTINg Off
TRADE WITH THE IS±AND UNTI± HIS PRESS SECRETARY, ¸IERRE ²A±INgER, COU±D PURCHASE
HIm A CACHE OF 1,200 ¸ETIT ¶PmANN ·UBAN CIgARS.
1964. ·ASTRO, WHO BY ONE RECENT COUNT HAS SURVIVED mORE THAN SIx HUNDRED
ASSASSINATION ATTEmPTS, NEVER A±±OWED A FREE VOTE IN ·UBA. “°E REVO±UTION,”
HE ONCE REPORTED±Y REmARkED, “HAS NO TImE FOR E±ECTIONS.” ÊUT HE mADE TImE
FOR THOSE HE±D IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES. ¹N 1964, THE ÉAVANA DAI±Y Revolución
CONDEmNED BOTH ¸RESIDENT LYNDON JOHNSON AND HIS ¼EPUB±ICAN CHA±±ENgER
ÊARRY GO±DWATER, WRITINg THAT THE TWO CANDIDATES REflECTED THE “STRUCTURA±
DEgENERATION” OF µmERICAN DEmOCRACY. ÊUT IN THE WEEkS ±EADINg TO THE E±EC-
TION, ·ASTRO, FEARINg GO±DWATER’S “ExTREmISm” AND CONVINCED THAT JOHNSON
WOU±D PURSUE A “PO±ICY OF mODERATION,” STEPPED UP HIS ANTI-ImPERIA±IST, ANTI-
¶.². RHETORIC, HOPINg TO SPARk A BACk±ASH IN THE PRESIDENT’S FAVOR. JOHNSON
WON IN A ±ANDS±IDE, WITHOUT THE NEED FOR A (BACk)HAND FROm ºIDE±.
1968. ÉCADES BEFORE ÈI±±IE ÉORTON, THERE WAS ºIDE± ·ASTRO—AND ºRANCE’S
PRESIDENT, ·HAR±ES DE GAU±±E, WHOSE CRITICISm OF ¶.². PO±ICIES IN ÈESTERN
Ô i del å a st ro: Ãh e Ô i r st Ñu per dele¿ at e • 59

³UROPE AND ITS WAR IN ÍIETNAm HAD EARNED HIm THE ENmITY OF mANY
ÈASHINgTON OPINION mAkERS. ¼ICHARD ½IxON, THIS TImE RUNNINg AS THE CHA±-
±ENgER AgAINST JOHNSON’S VICE PRESIDENT, ÉUBERT ÉUmPHREY, SPONSORED A ¾Í
AD flASHINg ImAgES OF THOSE TWO TRIBUNES OF “ANTI-µmERICANISm,” THE ODD-
COUP±ED “AxIS OF EVI±” OF THAT µmERICAN mOmENT, WHI±E PROmISINg THAT HE
WOU±D RESTORE ¶.². AUTHORITY AT HOmE AND ABROAD.
°E ÍIETNAm ÈAR, AND THE DEmONSTRATIONS IT PROVOkED, DOmINATED POPU-
±AR DEBATE, AND ·UBA P±AYED ON±Y A SmA±± RO±E IN THE CAmPAIgN. ²TI±± ½IxON
AND HIS RUNNINg mATE, ²PIRO µgNEW, kNEW WHO TO B±AmE FOR THE PROTESTS THAT
DOggED THEm. µgNEW REgU±AR±Y CONDEmNED STUDENT ANTIWAR PROTESTERS AS AN
“EffETE CORPS OF ImPUDENT SNOBS” WHO “HAVE NEVER DONE A PRODUCTIVE THINg IN
THEIR ±IVES.” ÉE CONTINUED, “°EY TAkE THEIR TACTICS FROm ºIDE± ·ASTRO AND
THEIR mONEY FROm ÁDDY.” µgNEW USED THAT ·ASTRO ±INE WHENEVER HE COU±D
AS PART OF HIS PITCH FOR THE B±UE-CO±±AR VOTE. µﬅER INVOkINg ·ASTRO TO SI±ENCE
PROTESTERS AT A º±ORIDA UNIVERSITY EVENT, HE EVEN SUggESTED THAT STUDENT DISSENT
WAS A “DISEASE,” ASSURINg THE AUDIENCE, “ÈHEN ÍCk ½IxON BECOmES PRESI-
DENT OF THESE ¶NITED ²TATES WE ARE gOINg TO fiND THAT THAT DISEASE COmES UNDER
SOmE kIND OF TREATmENT PRETTY qUICk±Y.”
1972. ¹mPENDINg DEFEAT IN ÍIETNAm mADE TA±k OF COOPERATION AND

COmPROmISE—NOT CONFRONTATION—THE ORDER OF THE DAY, AS ¸RESIDENT ½IxON RAN
FOR REE±ECTION ON HIS NATIONA± SECURITY ADVISER ÉENRY ÌISSINgER’S DRAmATIC DIP±O-
mATIC OPENINgS TO MOSCOW AND ·HINA. ¸ERHAPS AFRAID THAT THE ÌREm±IN ±EADERS
WOU±D CUT A DEA± AND ABANDON HIm, ·ASTRO mADE A NUmBER OF OVERTURES IN THE
mIDD±E OF THE PRESIDENTIA± CAmPAIgN THAT CAUgHT THE ÈHITE ÉOUSE Off gUARD.
°ERE WAS EVEN TA±k OF ÌISSINgER mAkINg A “SECRET VISIT TO ÉAVANA,” AS HE HAD
EAR±IER THAT YEAR TO ÊEIjINg. ÊUT ½IxON’S POWERFU± RIgHT WINg, UNAB±E TO STOP THE
ADVANCE OF ÌISSINgER-STY±E “APPEASERS” WHEN IT CAmE TO THE ²OVIET ¶NION, ·HINA,
OR EVEN ÉANOI, WAS NOT ABOUT TO RO±± OVER ON ·UBA.
ÊY NOW, THREE E±ECTIONS AﬅER ÌENNEDY HAD fiRST OUTflANkED ½IxON ON
·UBA, ANTI-·ASTROISm HAD BECOmE A VERITAB±E OBSESSION ON THE CARNIVA±ESqUE
RIgHT WHERE AN A±±IANCE OF ·UBAN ExI±ES, JOHN ÊIRCHERS, ÓOUNg µmERICANS FOR
ºREEDOm, ±AW-AND-ORDER ANTICOmmUNISTS, ²O±DIER OF ºORTUNE mERCENARIES,
AND ·¹µ SPOOkS HE±D SWAY.
²O EVEN THOUgH ½IxON STUDIOUS±Y IgNORED ·UBA DURINg THE CAmPAIgN, THE
ºAR ¼IgHT, INC±UDINg THE National Review’S ÈI±±IAm ÊUCk±EY, BEgAN TO WHIS-
PER THAT THE ÉmOCRATIC NOmINEE, GEORgE MCGOVERN, HAD ACTUA±±Y CUT A
SECRET DEA± WITH ·ASTRO. MCGOVERN DISmISSED THE RUmORS AS THE WORk OF A
60 • ch a p t er th r ee
“BITTER,” “PARANOID,” AND “DESPICAB±E” CONSERVATIVE mOVEmENT THAT WOU±DN’T
BE HAPPY WITH ANY CANDIDATE WHO WASN’T TO THE “RIgHT OF GENgHIS ÌHAN.”
°ERE WAS, AT THE TImE, ABOUT AS mUCH INTE±±IgENCE ESTAB±ISHINg A COVERT
RE±ATIONSHIP BETWEEN MCGOVERN AND ·ASTRO AS THERE WOU±D BE ±INkINg A±-
ëAEDA TO ²ADDAm ÉUSSEIN—OR ÊARACk »BAmA TO AN ¹S±AmIC mADRASSA. ÓET
½IxON DID TRY TO OB±IgE. ÉIS “P±UmBERS”—THE SECRET TEAm THAT BROkE INTO
THE ÉmOCRATIC ½ATIONA± ÉEADqUARTERS AT THE INFAmOUS ÈATERgATE ÉOTE±
COmP±Ex—WERE ±ARgE±Y mADE UP OF ANTI-·ASTRO ·UBAN ExI±ES. ¹T HAD BEEN
ORgANIzED BY ÊAY OF ¸IgS VETERAN ·¹µ AgENT ³. ÉOWARD ÉUNT, WHO SAID THAT
ONE OF THE REASONS FOR THE BURg±ARY WAS TO ±OOk FOR EVIDENCE ESTAB±ISHINg A
CONNECTION BETWEEN ·ASTRO AND MCGOVERN. ½IxON WON IN A ±ANDS±IDE, BUT
ÈATERgATE EVENTUA±±Y TOOk HIm DOWN.
1976. ·ASTRO P±AYED AN ImPORTANT RO±E IN THE ¼EPUB±ICAN PRImARIES IN THIS

E±ECTION. ·HA±±ENgED BY ¼ONA±D ¼EAgAN FROm THE ¼IgHT, GERA±D ºORD, THE
ÉOUSE mAjORITY ±EADER WHO HAD gAINED THE PRESIDENCY WHEN ½IxON RESIgNED,
TRIED TO ACT TOUgH. ÉE flEW TO ¸UERTO ¼ICO AND TO±D ·ASTRO TO kEEP HIS HANDS
Off THE µmERICAN CO±ONY, BUT THAT BIzARRE DEmAND HAD NOTHINg ON THE GIPPER.
ÊEFORE HE BEgAN TO CRITICIzE ºORD ON ·UBA, ¼EAgAN WAS TRAI±INg BY DOUB±E
DIgITS IN THE º±ORIDA PO±±S. ÊUT BY mAkINg ·ASTRO AN ISSUE, THE CHA±±ENgER
TURNED THE PRImARY INTO A HORSE RACE, ±OSINg THE STATE TO AN INCUmBENT PRESI-
DENT BY jUST A FEW POINTS. ¼EAgAN SWEPT ÁDE ·OUNTY AND ITS ·UBAN
µmERICAN VOTE, PROmPTINg A ºORD CAmPAIgN ADVISER TO COmmENT SARDONICA±±Y
THAT HIS BOSS mIgHT AS WE±± “RECOgNIzE ·UBA ImmEDIATE±Y.”
“°E ·UBAN THREAT IS A gEOPO±ITICA± VERSION OF THE mIRAC±E OF THE ±OAVES AND
fiSHES,” NOTED THE Washington Post—THE gIﬅ THAT kEEPS gIVINg. ¼EAgAN ±OST
HIS CHA±±ENgE BUT WOU±D BE BACk AS ºORD WENT DOWN TO ÉmOCRATIC CHA±±ENgER
JImmY ·ARTER.
1980. ¼EAgAN P±AYED HIS ÁDE ·OUNTY STRATEgY ±ARgE: ¹N THE ¼EPUB±ICAN PRI-
mARIES, HE CA±±ED FOR A B±OCkADE OF ·UBA IN RETA±IATION FOR THE ²OVIET INVASION
OF µFgHANISTAN, WHICH mADE ABOUT AS mUCH SENSE AS ATTACkINg ¹RAq IN RESPONSE
TO 9/11. ÉIS mAIN OPPONENT, Ex-·¹µ DIRECTOR GEORgE É. È. ÊUSH, CA±±ED
¼EAgAN’S PROPOSA± A “mACHO THINg,” POINTINg OUT THAT “·UBA DIDN’T INVADE
µFgHANISTAN.” ÊUT SUCH A FACT-BASED CAmPAIgN POSITION WAS A NONSTARTER. µﬅER
¼EAgAN BEAT ÊUSH 2 TO 1 IN THE º±ORIDA PRImARY ON HIS mARCH TO THE NOmINA-
TION, ÊUSH, SIgNINg ON TO THE TICkET AS VICE PRESIDENT, mADE HIS PEACE WITH
¼EAgAN’S VOODOO DIP±OmACY. ¹N THE E±ECTION CAmPAIgN, ·ASTRO—PERHAPS

FORgETTINg THE REVERSE PSYCHO±OgY HE HAD APP±IED IN 1964—PRAISED ¸RESIDENT
JImmY ·ARTER FOR SUPP±YINg fiNANCIA± AID TO ½ICARAgUA’S ±EﬅIST ²ANDINISTAS AND
CA±±ED ¼EAgAN A “THREAT TO WOR±D PEACE.” ¼EAgAN, OF COURSE, TOOk º±ORIDA IN THE
gENERA± E±ECTION AND TROUNCED ·ARTER. µS HIS CABINET WAS gETTINg SETT±ED IN THE
ÈHITE ÉOUSE, ²ECRETARY OF ²TATE µ±ExANDER ÉAIg TO±D HIS BOSS, “ÓOU jUST gIVE
mE THE WORD, AND ¹’±± TURN THAT FUCkINg IS±AND INTO A PARkINg ±OT.” ¼EAgAN
DEmURRED, CHOOSINg TO TAkE THE FAR SmA±±ER, mORE DEFENSE±ESS ·ARIBBEAN IS±AND
OF GRENADA INSTEAD—AND SPARINg ·UBA FOR HIS NExT AND ±AST PRESIDENTIA±
CAmPAIgN.
1984. ¼EAgAN ACCUSED ÉmOCRATIC PRESIDENTIA± NOmINEE ÈA±TER MONDA±E OF

NEITHER REjECTINg NOR DENOUNCINg JESSIE JACkSON FOR—AS A CANDIDATE FOR THE
ÉmOCRATIC NOmINATION—HAVINg VISITED ÉAVANA AND, ACCORDINg TO ¼EAgAN,
HAVINg “STOOD WITH ºIDE± ·ASTRO AND CRIED: ‘LONg LIVE ·UBA.’ ‘LONg LIVE
·ASTRO.’ ‘LONg LIVE ·HE GUEVARA.’ ” (ÈHAT ¼EAgAN DIDN’T SAY WAS THAT
JACkSON HAD USED THE VISIT TO NEgOTIATE THE RE±EASE OF SEVERA± PO±ITICA± PRISONERS
AND THAT HE HAD A±SO SHOUTED “ÍIVAS” TO THE ¶NITED ²TATES, AS WE±± AS TO
MARTIN LUTHER ÌINg JR.) “¹ DON’T ADmIRE ºIDE± ·ASTRO AT A±±,” MONDA±E
RESPONDED, “BUT JESSE JACkSON IS AN INDEPENDENT PERSON. ¹ DON’T CONTRO± HIm.”
¹N ½OVEmBER, ¼EAgAN WON EVERY STATE ExCEPT MINNESOTA.
1988. ÍICE ¸RESIDENT GEORgE É. È. ÊUSH INVOkED THE POSSIBI±ITY OF A NUC±EAR

ATTACk FROm ·UBA TO jUSTIFY HIS SUPPORT FOR ¼EAgAN’S mUCH-RIDICU±ED ²TAR ÈARS
ANTI-mISSI±E DEFENSE SYSTEm, BUT HE DIDN’T NEED ·ASTRO TO TAkE OUT THE INEPT
ÉmOCRATIC CANDIDATE MICHAE± ÚkAkIS AND WIN THE PRESIDENCY. ¼ONA±D AND
½ANCY ¼EAgAN’S ASTRO±OgER, JEANNE ÍxON, DID PREDICT THAT A CRISIS IN ·UBA
DURINg ÊUSH’S fiRST SUmmER IN OffiCE WOU±D gIVE THE NEW PRESIDENT A CHANCE TO
mOVE OUT OF ¼EAgAN’S SHADOW AND “CONSO±IDATE HIS NATION’S CONfiDENCE.”
1992. ºO±±OWINg THE CO±±APSE OF THE ²OVIET ¶NION, mANY OBSERVERS THOUgHT
THE TImE WAS fiNA±±Y OPPORTUNE TO NORmA±IzE RE±ATIONS WITH ÉAVANA. ÊUT
º±ORIDA HAS 25 VOTES IN THE E±ECTORA± CO±±EgE, AND MIAmI’S ·UBAN ExI±ES—
ABOUT 600,000 (OUT OF A STATE POPU±ATION OF, AS OF 2008, jUST OVER 800,000
·UBAN mIgRANTS) ±IVE IN CRUCIA± ÁDE ·OUNTY—REmAINED A POWERFU± DOmES-
TIC ±OBBY. ¾OUCHED BY THE SPIRIT OF JºÌ, CHA±±ENgER ÊI±± ·±INTON HEADED FOR
MIAmI IN µPRI± 1992 TO ExCORIATE GEORgE É. È. ÊUSH FOR NOT “DROPPINg THE
HAmmER DOWN ON ·ASTRO AND ·UBA.” ·±INTON EVEN ENDORSED THE PUNITIVE
·UBAN ÉmOCRACY µCT, WHICH ÊUSH (fiNDINg HImSE±F OUTflANkED TO HIS
VU±NERAB±E RIgHT) SIgNED SHORT±Y THEREAﬅER. µ±ONg WITH SUBSEqUENT ±EgIS±ATION
THAT ·±INTON, AS PRESIDENT, WOU±D BACk, THE ACT TIgHTENED ÈASHINgTON’S ±ONg-
STANDINg EmBARgO ON ·UBAN TRADE. °IS ON±Y SERVED TO CUT ÈASHINgTON OUT
OF WHAT WOU±D BE THE IS±AND’S POST–·O±D ÈAR PO±ITICA± AND ECONOmIC OPEN-
INg TO THE REST OF THE WOR±D. ·±INTON TOOk 20 PERCENT OF º±ORIDA’S ·UBAN
µmERICANS, ±OST THE STATE TO GEORgE É. È. ÊUSH, BUT WON THE ÈHITE ÉOUSE.
1996. ·±INTON, AS PRESIDENT, STAYED ON POINT AgAINST ¼EPUB±ICAN CHA±±ENgER

¼OBERT Ó±E, RUNNINg TO HIS RIgHT ON ·UBA, THOUgH HE DID ADmIT IN A ¾Í
DEBATE THAT “NOBODY IN THE WOR±D AgREES WITH OUR PO±ICY ON ·UBA NOW.”
ÚRINg HIS fiRST TERm, ·±INTON HAD DRAWN C±OSE TO MIAmI’S ANTI-·ASTRO
·UBAN ±OBBY, TAkINg PO±ITICA± ADVICE FROm ÉI±±ARY ·±INTON’S ·UBAN-
ImmIgRANT SISTER-IN-±AW, MARíA ÍICTORIA µRIAS. °IS TImE, º±ORIDA WAS HIS, AND
HE DOUB±ED HIS PERCENTAgE OF ·UBAN µmERICAN VOTES.
2000. ¹N »CTOBER, BY A VOTE OF 86 TO 8, THE ²ENATE PASSED ±EgIS±ATION EASINg THE

EmBARgO, A±±OWINg FOOD TO BE SO±D TO ·UBA. ·ASTRO CRITICIzED THE ±EgIS±ATION
FOR BEINg PATERNA±ISTIC AND NOT gOINg FAR ENOUgH IN NORmA±IzINg COmmERCIA±
RE±ATIONS. GEORgE È. ÊUSH CONDEmNED IT. µ± GORE REFUSED TO COmmENT.
µNgRY AT JANET ¼ENO’S RETURN OF ³±IáN GONzá±Ez, THE YOUNg ·UBAN REFUgEE
RESCUED BY fiSHERmEN AﬅER mOST OF HIS COmPANIONS, INC±UDINg HIS mOTHER,
DROWNED TRYINg TO mAkE IT TO THE ¶NITED ²TATES, º±ORIDA’S ·UBAN µmERICANS
ABANDONED THE ÉmOCRATIC ¸ARTY EN mASSE IN ½OVEmBER. µ±ONg WITH
½ADERITES AND ¸A±m ÊEACH JEWS-FOR-ÊUCHANAN, ÊUSH gOT jUST ENOUgH VOTES TO
DEAD±OCk THE E±ECTION. ·ASTRO OffERED TO SEND OBSERVERS TO OVERSEE A RECOUNT.
2004. ÚRINg A VISIT TO ÊRAzI± IN »CTOBER, ²ECRETARY OF ²TATE ·O±IN ¸OWE±± mADE
AN OìAND REmARk THAT ·UBA WAS NO ±ONgER A mAjOR THREAT TO LATIN µmERICA.
“ÈE DON’T SEE EVERYTHINg THROUgH THE ±ENS OF ºIDE± ·ASTRO,” HE SAID. JOHN ÌERRY
THOUgHT HE SAW AN OPENINg AND POUNCED. ÉE C±AImED HE FOUND IT “SHOCkINg
THAT THE ÊUSH ADmINISTRATION IS TE±±INg THE WOR±D THAT ºIDE± ·ASTRO NO ±ONgER
POSES A PROB±Em FOR THIS HEmISPHERE.” ¸ERHAPS AﬅER A mERE FORTY-FOUR YEARS AND
TWE±VE PRESIDENTIA± E±ECTIONS, THE ·ASTRO BOUNCE WAS WEARINg Off. ÊUSH WON
º±ORIDA WITH A mI±±ION mORE VOTES THAN HE HAD RECEIVED FOUR YEARS EAR±IER.
2008. °IS, HIS THIRTEENTH, WI±± mOST ±IkE±Y BE ·ASTRO’S ±AST PRESIDENTIA± E±EC-
×
TION. µﬅER A PHOTO SURFACED INDICATINg THAT ONE OF ÊARACk »BAmA’S ¾ExAS
VO±UNTEERS (WHO IS ·UBAN µmERICAN) HAD HUNg A ·UBAN flAg SUPERImPOSED

WITH AN ImAgE OF ·HE ON A WA±± BEHIND HER DESk, THE CONSERVATIVE B±OgOSPHERE
RIgHT-C±ICkED A CO±±ECTIVE AH HAH! ·ONSIDERINg THE TEmPTATION OF ÉmOCRATIC
CANDIDATES TO CA±± FOR A HARD ±INE AgAINST ·UBA AS A ±OW-COST, HIgH-RETURN WAY
OF ESTAB±ISHINg THEIR NATIONA± SECURITY CREDS, THE »BAmA CAmPAIgN RESPONDED
WITH REmARkAB±E RESTRAINT, SImP±Y TERmINg THE flAg “INAPPROPRIATE.” ÉI±±ARY
·±INTON, ±OOkINg mORE ±IkE THE HAP±ESS ÌERRY THAN THE WI±Y ÊI±±, PROmPT±Y
ATTACkED »BAmA FOR SAYINg THAT HE WOU±D mEET WITH THE AI±INg REVO±UTIONARY.
“ÈE’RE NOT gOINg TO jUST HAVE OUR PRESIDENT mEET WITH ºIDE± ·ASTRO,” SHE SAID.
“¹ DON’T WANT TO BE USED FOR PROPAgANDA PURPOSES.”
¹T’S BEEN NEAR±Y fiﬅY YEARS SINCE ¼ICHARD ½IxON SAID THAT THE ¶NITED ²TATES
COU±D gET RID OF ºIDE± ·ASTRO WHENEVER IT WANTED. ·ASTRO, OF COURSE, IS STI±±
AROUND, THOUgH NOT FOR ±ACk OF EffORT ON ÈASHINgTON’S PART. °E ·UBAN gOV-
ERNmENT CA±CU±ATES THAT SOmE 3,500 ·UBANS HAVE DIED OVER THE PAST fiVE DEC-
ADES AS A RESU±T OF ¶.².-SUPPORTED PARAmI±ITARY OPERATIONS AgAINST THE IS±AND.
¹N RECENT YEARS, ·ASTRO’S CONTINUED SURVIVA±, NOT TO mENTION THE DISASTER IN
¹RAq, mAY HAVE FORCED ON OUR PO±ICY mAkERS A SOmEWHAT mORE mODEST APPRE-
CIATION OF ÈASHINgTON’S ABI±ITY TO BRINg ABOUT REgImE CHANgE.
²TI±±, THE ·ASTRO FACTOR HAS YET TO DISAPPEAR. JOHN MC·AIN RECENT±Y CA±±ED
ON HIS SUPPORTERS TO SIgN AN ON±INE PETITION TO “STOP THE DICTATORS OF LATIN
µmERICA,” THOUgH HE DIDN’T SAY ExACT±Y WHOm SUCH A PETITION SHOU±D BE DE±IV-
ERED TO. ¹T HAS SINCE BEEN REmOVED FROm HIS CAmPAIgN’S WEBPAgE. °E DICTA-
TORS IN qUESTION APPARENT±Y INC±UDE ÉUgO ·HáVEz OF ÍENEzUE±A AND ³VO
MORA±ES OF ÊO±IVIA AS WE±± AS ·ASTRO. “°EY INSPIRE EACH OTHER,” MC·AIN TO±D
A gATHERINg OF ÊAY OF ¸IgS VETERANS IN MIAmI’S LITT±E ÉAVANA. “°EY ASSIST
EACH OTHER. °EY gET IDEAS FROm EACH OTHER. ¹T’S VERY DISTURBINg.”
LAST mONTH [ºEBRUARY 2008], ·ASTRO ANNOUNCED THAT HE WOU±D NOT SEEk
REE±ECTION AS ·UBA’S PRESIDENT. ÊUT THAT HASN’T STOPPED HIm FROm WEIgHINg IN
ON THE CONTEST IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES, PREDICTINg THAT A ·±INTON-»BAmA TICkET
WOU±D BE “UNBEATAB±E.” “ÈI±± ·ASTRO’S NOD TO ÉI±±ARY AND »BAmA,” RAN A Fox
News HEADER REPORTINg THE ENDORSEmENT, “HE±P OR HURT?” ÈHY WON’T THE
ÉmOCRATS, ASkED ONE OF THE SHOW’S gUESTS, “CA±± HIm A DICTATOR?” µND SO THE
BEAT, HOWEVER FAINT, gOES ON.
notes
°IS ESSAY IS REPRINTED WITH PERmISSION OF THE AUTHOR FROm WWW.TOmDISPATCH.COm/

POST/174903, 6 MARCH 2008.
1. ·ASTRO SURPRISES. ¹ WROTE THE ABOVE IN 2008, WHEN IT SEEmED NOT ON±Y THAT HE
WASN’T ±ONg FOR THIS WOR±D, BUT THAT ÈASHINgTON’S ·O±D ÈAR STANCE TOWARD ·UBA WAS
ImmUTAB±E. ÊUT HERE WE ARE IN 2016, ON THE THRESHO±D OF YET ANOTHER PRESIDENTIA±
E±ECTION, AND THE »±D MO±E IS STI±± AROUND, STI±± COmmENTINg ON ¶.². PO±ITICS.
MOREOVER, ¸RESIDENT »BAmA HAS mADE A HISTORIC VISIT TO ·UBA TO SPEAk TO THE ·UBAN
PEOP±E AND mEET WITH ¼Aú± ·ASTRO, WHO HAD UNExPECTED±Y TEAmED UP WITH »BAmA
TO flIP THE SCRIPT, BEgINNINg, IN ÉCEmBER 2014, THE PROCESS OF DIP±OmATIC NORmA±I-
zATION BETWEEN ÉAVANA AND ÈASHINgTON. ¹N EffECT, »BAmA NATIONA±IzED THE ·UBA
qUESTION. ¸O±±S INDICATE THAT THE mAjORITY OF ¶.². VOTERS SUPPORT NORmA±IzATION, EVEN
IN º±ORIDA. °IS mEANS THAT NOW, INSTEAD OF ÉmOCRATS HAVINg TO TRAVE± TO º±ORIDA TO
P±EDgE TO AN INCREASINg±Y SmA±± gROUP OF IDEO±OgUES THAT THEY WI±± kEEP THINgS AS THEY
ARE (AS »BAmA DID IN 2008), ¼EPUB±ICANS, STI±± CHAINED TO A PO±ICY OF ISO±ATINg
ÉAVANA, WI±± HAVE TO ExP±AIN TO A ±ARgER E±ECTORATE WHY THEY WANT TO RETURN TO THE
PAST—WHY, SAY, ¹OWA SHOU±DN’T BE AB±E TO SE±± CORN IN ·UBA OR ±UNg CANCER PATIENTS
SHOU±DN’T HAVE ACCESS TO ±IFESAVINg DRUgS DEVE±OPED BY THE ·UBAN PHARmACEUTICA±
INDUSTRY.

Border Crossings
Renato Rosaldo
i.
³YES g±ImmERINg, SORROW IN HIS SkIN,

HE TO±D mE WORk WAS HARD TO fiND.
¹N 1932, ±EAVINg MExICO ·ITY,
mY FATHER SETT±ED IN ·HICAgO.
»NE NIgHT HE DREAmED OF ·HAR±IE ·HAP±IN,
THEN SCHEmED WITH A MExICAN NEIgHBOR.
½ExT DAWN, AT THE FACTORY gATES,
HIS NEIgHBOR ±IﬅED A RINg OF kEYS
AND ANNOUNCED THE jOB HAD BEEN fi±±ED.
¹T DISSO±VED THE ±INE OF WAITINg mEN.
MY FATHER STEPPED INTO THE jOB: SPRAY-PAINTINg.
µ CO±±EgE SOPHOmORE IN MExICO, HERE HE ±ACkED ·IVICS

AND µmERICAN ÉISTORY AND RETURNED TO HIgH SCHOO±.
ÉIS ACCENT mE±TED INTO RADIO ³Ng±ISH.
ÉE S±ID DOWN-STATE TO CO±±EgE,
mARRIED AN ¹±±INOIS WOmAN,
AND TAUgHT HIS YOUTHFU± ±OVE
—MExICAN ±ITERATURE.
66
Cruces de Fronteras
Renato Rosaldo
i.
»jOS RE±UCIENTES, TRISTEzA EN ±A PIE±,

mE DIjO qUE NO ENCONTRABA TRABAjO.
³N 1932, DEjANDO ±A CIUDAD DE MéxICO,
mI PADRE SE ASENTó EN ·HICAgO.
¶NA NOCHE SOñó CON ·HAR±IE ·HAP±IN
±UEgO CONSPIRó CON SU VECINO mExICANO.
LA PRóxImA mADRUgADA ±±Egó A± PORTóN DE ±A FáBRICA,
SU VECINO ±EVANTó UN ±±AVERO,
PROC±Amó qUE YA NO HABíA P±AzA,
DISIPó ±A CO±A DE HOmBRES qUE ESPERABAN.
MI PADRE ASUmIó E± EmP±EO: PINTOR CON ATOmIzADOR.
¹BA A ±A mITAD DE SU CARRERA EN MéxICO, PERO ±E FA±TABA CIVISmO

E HISTORIA DE ³STADOS ¶NIDOS, TUVO qUE VO±VER A ±A PREPARATORIA.
²U ACENTO SE FUNDó EN E± INg±éS DE RADIO.
²E DES±Izó HACIA E± SUR, A ±A UNIVERSIDAD,
SE CASó CON UNA mUjER DE ¹±±INOIS,
EmPEzó A ENSEñAR E± AmOR DE SU jUVENTUD
—±ITERATURA mExICANA.
67
ii.
ÓEARS ±ATER, ÁD BOUgHT mE A PUPPY,

NAmED HIm ·HICO,
BUT AﬅER A WEEk THE DOg RO±±ED OVER,
WHImPERINg AND VOmITINg.
ÁD RUSHED HIm TO THE VET,

CAmE BACk HOmE THAT AﬅERNOON,
SUCCESSFU±, CO±±APSED ON THE COUCH,
CHUCk±ED ON AND ON WITHOUT STOPPINg.
ÉE BEgAN ±AUgHINg TEARS,

HIS WORDS BURST BREATH±ESS±Y,
immaculate clinic . . . starched white nurse . . .
a form . . . patient’s name, date of birth—of a dog!
iii.
¼USHINg BROWN RIVER. MEN USED ROPES TO FERRY OUR CAR;

SUmmER IN MExICO, NEW ROAD, NO BRIDgES.
ÁD’S mOTHER, MAmA ³mI±IA, HE±D mY NEWBORN BROTHER, SHIT flOWED

A±ONg HER ±Eg, WATER ROSE ABOVE HER CA±VES.
ÁD SAID, I thought you loved adventure,
SHE ANSWERED, Never said I was Christopher Columbus.
¾EACHINg SUmmER SCHOO± FOR µmERICANS,

HE BECAmE MExICAN CU±TURE,
TRANS±ATED HImSE±F BACk INTO ³Ng±ISH,
TO±D OF A HERO’S HEAD, SPIkED ON THE CORNER,
THE gRACE OF fiSHINg WITH BUTTERflY NETS,
HOW SEVEN REED mEANT A DATE ON THE µzTEC CA±ENDAR.
68
ii.
µñOS DESPUéS, ¸APá mE COmPRó UN PERRITO,

±E NOmBRó ·HICO,
PERO A ±OS OCHO DíAS SE PUSO PATAS ARRIBA,
gEmíA Y VOmITABA.
¸APá ±E ±±EVó VO±ANDO A± VETERINARIO,

REgRESó A CASA ESA TARDE,
ExITOSO, SE CAYó SOBRE E± SOFá
SE REíA máS Y máS SIN PARAR.
³mPEzó A REíR ±ágRImAS,

BROTARON SUS PA±ABRAS SIN A±IENTO,
clínica inmaculada . . . enfermera blanca almidonada . . .
una forma . . . nombre del paciente, fecha de nacimiento—¡de un
perro!
iii.
¼íO ARENOSO qUE CORRE RáPIDO. ÉOmBRES ±±EVARON NUESTRO CARRO CON
SOgAS,
VERANO EN MéxICO, UNA CARRETERA NUEVA, SIN PUENTES.
LA mADRE DE mI PAPá, MAmá ³mI±IA, ABRAzABA A mI HERmANO, RECIéN

NACIDO,
mIERDA CORRIó POR SU PIERNA, AgUA SUBIó POR SUS PANTORRI±±AS.
¸APá DIjO: ÇNo dijiste Que te encantaban las aventuras?
³±±A DIjO: Nunca dije Que era Cristóbal Colón.
µ± ENSEñAR EN UNA ESCUE±A DE VERANO PARA gRINgOS

SE CONVIRTIó EN ±A CU±TURA mExICANA,
±UEgO SE TRADUjO OTRA VEz A± INg±éS,
CONTó DE ±A CABEzA DE UN HéROE, C±AVADA EN E± RINCóN,
±A mANERA PRECISA DE PESCAR CON REDES DE mARIPOSA,
E± SIgNIfiCADO DE SIETE jUNCOS EN E± CA±ENDARIO AzTECA.
69
iv.
ÉE BECAmE THE DEPARTmENT HEAD.

²WE±±INg ImPORTANCE SHRANk HIS ±AUgHTER.
MY BROTHER DIED SUDDEN±Y. MAmA ³mI±IA

FAINTED INTO mY FATHER’S PAIN.
ÉE TEETERED OVER THE gRAVE,
PRAYINg TO TRADE, HIS ±IFE FOR HIS SON’S.
µT HOmE, SITTINg, HIS kNEES ROSE UP AND SHOOk.
°REE WHITE CO±±EAgUES CIRC±ED HIm ±IkE SHARkS,

Love the culture you study,
but don’t let a Mexican run the department.
°EY CA±±ED IN THEIR ÊIRCHER BUDDIES.
ÉE NEVER RECOVERED, ±OST THE jOB,

AND SUffERED ONE STROkE AﬅER ANOTHER.
ÉE SPOkE ABOUT HIS gRANDmOTHER, MAmA MECHE,
HIS EYES SPARk±ED, THEN FADED.
70
iv.
L±Egó A SER DIRECTOR DE± DEPARTAmENTO.

²U CARgO CRECIó, SE ENCOgIó SU RISA.
MI HERmANO mURIó DE REPENTE. MAmá ³mI±IA

SE DESmAYó DENTRO DE± DO±OR DE mI PADRE.
³± SE BAmBO±EABA A ±A ORI±±A DE ±A SEPU±TURA,
VIBRó CON gANAS DE CAmBIAR SU VIDA POR ±A DE SU HIjO.
²ENTADO EN CASA, SE ±EVANTARON SUS RODI±±AS. ¾EmB±ABAN.
¾RES CO±EgAS B±ANCOS ±E RODEABAN COmO TIBURONES,

Ama a la cultura Que estudias,
pero no dejes Que un mexicano se encargue de nada.
L±AmARON A SUS AmIgOS DE ±A DERECHA DURA.
½UNCA RECUPERó, PERDIó ±A P±AzA,

Y SUFRIó EmBO±IA TRAS EmBO±IA.
ÉAB±ABA DE SU ABUE±A, MAmá MECHE,
BRI±±ABAN SUS OjOS, ±UEgO SE AmORTIgUARON.
71
f ou r
From Illustrating Problems to Offering

Solutions
latin aÇerica as a ¿lobal source
of social innovation
Gabriel Hetland and Peter Evans
Ãhrou¿h Çost of its five HUNDRED YEARS OF CO±ONIA± AND NEOCO±ONIA±

HISTORY, LATIN µmERICA’S CHA±±ENgE WAS DEfiNED IN TERmS OF ITS ABI±ITY TO ABSORB
PO±ICY PRESCRIPTIONS gENERATED IN ³UROPE AND THE ¶NITED ²TATES. ¹TS INABI±ITY
TO DO SO WAS CONSIDERED TO DEfiNE THE FAI±URES OF ITS INSTITUTIONS AND CU±TURE.
ºROm SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY ¹BERIAN mERCANTI±ISm TO NINETEENTH-CENTURY ±IB-
ERA±ISm TO TWENTIETH-CENTURY µmERICAN NEO±IBERA± CORPORATE CAPITA±ISm,
ImPORTED IDEO±OgICA± AgENDAS DOmINATED THE PO±ICY AgENDAS OF mOST LATIN
µmERICAN STATES, PART±Y BECAUSE OF mI±ITARY AND ECONOmIC DOmINATION BY THE
½ORTH BUT A±SO PART±Y BECAUSE THE IDEAS OF THE ½ORTH WERE HEgEmONIC,
ASSUmED, AT ±EAST BY E±ITES, TO REflECT LATIN µmERICA’S INTEREST IN DEVE±OPmENT.
°ESE AgENDAS WERE A±WAYS INEffECTUA±, BUT THE VICTIm WAS gIVEN THE B±AmE FOR
THEIR FAI±URE, AND, PUNCTUATED BY DRAmATICA±±Y ExCEPTIONA± REBE±±IOUS EPI-
SODES, LATIN µmERICA ±ARgE±Y ACCEPTED THE ONUS OF FAI±URE, ±EADINg µ±BERT
ÉIRSCHmAN TO COIN THE TERm Äacasomania.
°IS HISTORICA± CONTExT mAkES LATIN µmERICA’S g±OBA± RO±E AT THE TURN OF THE
THIRD mI±±ENNIUm SURPRISINg AND REFRESHINg. °E ½ORTH HAS gIVEN UP ANY
CREDIB±E C±AIm TO BEINg THE (SO±E OR PRImARY) SOURCE OF SO±UTIONS FOR PRESENT
PROB±EmS OR VISIONS OF THE FUTURE. ¸O±ITICS IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES IS CRIPP±ED BY
THE INCREASINg±Y UNRESTRAINED POWER OF fiNANCE CAPITA± AND POPU±AR ImAgINA-
TIONS THAT CANNOT ±ET gO OF THE REACTIONARY FANTASY OF RETURNINg TO A mYTHICA±
EIgHTEENTH-CENTURY ±AISSEz-FAIRE PARADISE. ³UROPE IS CONVU±SED WITH PO±ITICA±
CRISES AND gRASPINg TO COmE UP WITH ANY IDEAS, NEW OR O±D, THAT mIgHT RESO±VE
ITS CURRENT PREDICAmENT.
72
ÈHI±E THE O±D SOURCES OF “mODERNITY” STRUgg±E AND BECOmE mORE BACk-
WARD-±OOkINg LATIN µmERICA HAS BEEN ExPERImENTINg WITH IDEAS THAT HAVE
BEEN TAkEN UP AROUND THE WOR±D. °ESE RANgE FROm SURPRISINg±Y EffECTIVE
ECONOmIC RESPONSES TO THE ½ORTH’S 2008 fiNANCIA± CRISIS TO THE RANgE OF NEW
CU±TURA± PRODUCTION CHRONIC±ED IN THIS VO±UmE.
ÈE ExAmINE FOUR CASES OF INNOVATION IN SOCIA± mOVEmENT STRATEgY AND
SOCIA± PO±ICY THAT HAVE REVERBERATED BEYOND THE REgION’S BOUNDARIES AND BEEN
TAkEN UP BY OTHER ACTORS IN BOTH THE G±OBA± ²OUTH AND THE ½ORTH: PARTICIPA-
TORY BUDgETINg, TRANSITIONA± jUSTICE AND HUmAN RIgHTS, NEW STRATEgIES FOR RURA±
mOBI±IzATION, AND NEW ARgUmENTS FOR ADDRESSINg C±ImATE CHANgE. °ESE
ExAmP±ES RANgE FROm WHAT mIgHT SEEm ±IkE SImP±E TECHNOCRATIC fi xES (CERTAIN
VERSIONS OF PARTICIPATORY BUDgETINg) TO WHAT mIgHT SEEm ±IkE qUIxOTIC EffORTS
TO AffECT g±OBA± PO±ITICS (E.g., ÊO±IVIA’S EffORTS TO RESHAPE C±ImATE CHANgE
PO±ITICS).
°E ExTRAREgIONA± TRAVE± OF THESE IDEAS HAS NOT BEEN ENTIRE±Y STRAIgHTFOR-
WARD. ¹N mOST CASES, POWERFU± g±OBA± ACTORS HAVE P±AYED AN ImPORTANT RO±E IN
THIS PROCESS. °US, THE ÈOR±D ÊANk BEgAN PROmOTINg ITS OWN VERSION OF PAR-
TICIPATORY BUDgETINg AND THE mOST ImPORTANT SOURCE OF g±OBA± ADVICE TO COUN-
TRIES TRYINg TO ImP±EmENT TRANSITIONA± jUSTICE IS THE ¹NTERNATIONA± ·ENTER FOR
¾RANSITIONA± JUSTICE (¹·¾J) IN ½EW ÓORk ·ITY.
°E APPROPRIATION OF LATIN µmERICAN IDEAS BY g±OBA± ACTORS mIgHT SEEm TO
NEgATE LATIN µmERICAN AgENCY AND SUggEST THAT O±D STRUCTURES OF ½ORTHERN
DOmINATION HAVE NOT REA±±Y BEEN CHA±±ENgED. ÊUT SUCH A mECHANISTIC VIEW OF
HOW SOCIA± INNOVATION OCCURS IS PARTICU±AR±Y INAPPROPRIATE FOR ±OOkINg AT
g±OBA± PROCESSES. °E INfi ±TRATION AND PARTIA± SUBVERSION OF DOmINANT IDEAS
A±WAYS COExISTS WITH THE APPARENT CO-OPTATION OF POTENTIA±±Y DISRUPTIVE IDEAS
IN A DE±ICATE INTERP±AY THAT DOES NOT A±WAYS ±EAD TO REA± CHANgE BUT IS, AT THE
SAmE TImE, THE ON±Y THINg THAT DOES.
LIkEWISE, CYNICS WI±± NOTE THAT THESE LATIN µmERICAN INNOVATIONS DO NOT
HAVE THE POWER TO RESHAPE g±OBA± PO±ICY REgImES IN THE WAY THAT g±OBA± CAPI-
TA±IST PO±ICY PARADIgmS RESHAPED THE WOR±D AND ARgUE AgAIN FOR plus ça change.
ÈE WOU±D ARgUE THAT THIS IS EVIDENCE OF THINkINg TRAPPED IN THE PAST. ¾O THE
ExTENT THAT LATIN µmERICA IS gENERATINg A NEW mODE± FOR THE g±OBA± flOW OF
IDEAS, THIS mODE± IS ±ESS ABOUT ImPOSINg LATIN µmERICAN IDEAS ON THE REST OF
THE WOR±D, EVEN IF THAT WERE POSSIB±E. ¹NSTEAD, IT IS CONTRIBUTINg TO NEW PAT-
TERNS OF g±OBA± flOWS THAT ARE PART OF A DIVERSE SET OF “COUNTERHEgEmONIC” CUR-
RENTS INVO±VINg A HORIzONTA± ExCHANgE OF IDEAS AND PRACTICES AmONg RE±ATIVE±Y
EqUA± PARTNERS.
Ï llust r at i n¿ Àroble Çs, Äf fer i n¿ Ñolu t ions • 73

the travels of participatory bud¿etin¿
¸ARTICIPATORY BUDgETINg IS A PRACTICE gIVINg ORDINARY CITIzENS CONTRO± OVER

±OCA± BUDgET DECISIONS.× ½ORmA±±Y, THIS TAkES P±ACE THROUgH SEVERA± ROUNDS OF
PUB±IC ASSEmB±IES WHERE RESIDENTS, IN CONSU±TATION WITH gOVERNmENT OffiCIA±S
AND ExPERTS, DISCUSS AND THEN VOTE ON THEIR PRIORITIES. LOCA± gOVERNmENT SUB-
SEqUENT±Y ImP±EmENTS WINNINg PROjECTS, AT TImES WITH SUBSTANTIA± COmmU-
NITY INVO±VEmENT. °E mOST WE±± kNOWN ExAmP±E OF PARTICIPATORY BUDgETINg
(OﬅEN REFERRED TO AS ¸Ê) IS ¸ORTO µ±EgRE, ÊRAzI±, WHICH ImP±EmENTED AN AmBI-
TIOUS PARTICIPATORY BUDgET DURINg THE 1990S AND EAR±Y 2000S THAT INVO±VED
TENS OF THOUSANDS OF RESIDENTS AND HUNDREDS OF mI±±IONS OF DO±±ARS.
ºO±±OWINg ITS SUCCESS IN ¸ORTO µ±EgRE, ¸Ê SPREAD IN AN EVER-INCREASINg mAN-
NER: IN THE mID-1990S, TO OTHER CITIES IN ÊRAzI± mOST±Y RUN BY THE ÈORkERS’ ¸ARTY
(¸¾) AND TO CITIES RUN BY OTHER LEﬅ PARTIES IN SEVERA± OTHER LATIN µmERICAN
COUNTRIES; IN THE ±ATE 1990S, TO mANY mORE ÊRAzI±IAN CITIES, OVER A THIRD RUN BY
CENTRIST, AND A FEW CONSERVATIVE, PARTIES; AND FROm 2000 ON, TO CITIES AROUND THE
WOR±D, IN A±± REgIONS OF LATIN µmERICA, ³UROPE, µFRICA, µSIA, AND ½ORTH
µmERICA. ¸Ê IS NOW PRACTICED IN fiﬅEEN HUNDRED CITIES ON A±± CONTINENTS AND IS
NATIONA±±Y mANDATED IN ¸ERU, ÍENEzUE±A, AND THE ÓmINICAN ¼EPUB±IC.
°E g±OBA± SPREAD OF PARTICIPATORY BUDgETINg CAN BE TRACED TO A SERIES OF
EVENTS. ¹N 1996 ¸ORTO µ±EgRE’S PARTICIPATORY BUDgET WAS AWARDED A ¶½
ÉABITAT ¸RIzE IN ¹STANBU±. ºROm 2001 TO 2005, ¸ORTO µ±EgRE HOSTED THE ÈOR±D
²OCIA± ºORUm FOUR TImES, BRINgINg HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS OF INTERNATIONA±
ACTIVISTS TO THE CITY. ¹N THE ±ATE 1990S AND EAR±Y 2000S, THE ¶½ AND ³¶ BOTH
±AUNCHED ORgANIzATIONA± INITIATIVES PROmOTINg ¸Ê. °E ÈORkERS’ ¸ARTY, AND
¸ORTO µ±EgRE’S ¸¾ ADmINISTRATION IN PARTICU±AR, P±AYED THE kEY RO±E IN THE
g±OBA± PROmOTION OF ¸Ê IN THE ±ATE 1990S AND EAR±Y 2000S. ÊY THE EAR±Y 2000S,
HOWEVER, A VERY DIffERENT INSTITUTION—THE ÈOR±D ÊANk—BECAmE THE mOST
ImPORTANT ACTOR PROmOTINg ¸Ê. ²INCE 2002, THE ÈOR±D ÊANk HAS SPENT AT
±EAST $280 mI±±ION (AND ±IkE±Y mUCH mORE) SUPPORTINg ¸Ê AND ¸Ê-RE±ATED
PROjECTS IN AT ±EAST fiﬅEEN COUNTRIES.
°E DIzzYINg SPEED OF ¸Ê’S g±OBA± DIffUSION (PARTICU±AR±Y SINCE 2001) AND
THE SHIﬅ IN THE mAIN ACTORS PROmOTINg IT—FROm RE±ATIVE±Y mARgINA± RADICA±
LEﬅ PARTIES IN LATIN µmERICA TO THE WOR±D’S mOST ImPORTANT INTERNATIONA±
DEVE±OPmENT ORgANIzATIONS—RAISES PROFOUND qUESTIONS. ¹N PARTICU±AR, SHOU±D
THE TRAVE± OF PARTICIPATORY BUDgETINg BE INTERPRETED AS AN ExAmP±E OF “COUN-
TERHEgEmONIC g±OBA±IzATION” OR THE NEUTERINg OF A FORmER±Y RADICA± PRACTICE BY
THE POWERS THAT BE?
74 • ch a p t er fou r
°E ANSWER IS “BOTH” AND “IT DEPENDS.” °E TRANSFORmATIVE POTENTIA± OF ¸Ê
APPEARS TO BE SHAPED, ABOVE A±±, BY THE ±OCA± AND NATIONA± CONfigURATIONS OF
C±ASS AND PO±ITICA± POWER IN WHICH PARTICU±AR ¸Ê ExPERImENTS ARE EmBEDDED.
µS ONE mIgHT ExPECT, ¸Ê APPEARS TO BE mOST TRANSFORmATIVE AND EmPOWERINg
WHEN ImP±EmENTED BY A RADICA± LEﬅ PARTY THAT IS C±OSE±Y ±INkED TO AN AUTONO-
mOUS AND mOBI±IzED SOCIA± BASE. ÊUT “±ESS RADICA±” CASES OF ¸Ê CAN HAVE
ImPORTANT CONSEqUENCES AS WE±±. ¾O I±±USTRATE THIS, WE BRIEflY DISCUSS TWO
CASES OF ¸Ê THAT HAVE OCCURRED IN mARkED±Y DIffERENT CONTExTS.
¹N 2005, ¾ORRES, A SEmIRURA± mUNICIPA±ITY IN THE CENTRA± WESTERN ÍENEzUE±AN
STATE OF LARA, INITIATED AN ExPANSIVE PARTICIPATORY BUDgET THAT gIVES ±OCA± RESI-
DENTS CONTRO± OVER 100 PERCENT OF THE mUNICIPA±ITY’S INVESTmENT BUDgET
(¶²$6.8 mI±±ION IN 2006). °OUSANDS (AND PROBAB±Y TENS OF THOUSANDS) OF
±OCA± RESIDENTS HAVE PARTICIPATED IN THIS PROCESS, mOST VIA ONE OF ¾ORRES’S SIx
HUNDRED COmmUNA± COUNCI±S AND OTHER CIVIC ASSOCIATIONS. ¾ORRES’S PARTICIPA-
TORY BUDgET WAS INTRODUCED BY JU±IO ·HáVEz, A SE±F-DESCRIBED SOCIA±IST REVO±U-
TIONARY WHO WAS E±ECTED mAYOR IN 2004. ¶N±IkE THE ÈOR±D ÊANk, ·HáVEz SEES
¸Ê NOT AS A FORm OF gOOD gOVERNANCE BUT AS AN INTEgRA± COmPONENT OF “TWENTY-
fiRST-CENTURY SOCIA±ISm.” µS mAYOR, ·HáVEz (NO RE±ATION TO ÉUgO ·HáVEz) WAS
C±OSE±Y ±INkED TO ¾ORRES’S POWERFU± URBAN AND RURA± SOCIA± mOVEmENTS. °IS
A±±OWED ¾ORRES’S PARTICIPATORY BUDgET TO SURVIVE fiERCE RESISTANCE FROm AgRARIAN
E±ITES AND THE ºIﬅH ¼EPUB±IC MOVEmENT, ÉUgO ·HáVEz’S PARTY (THROUgH 2007,
WHEN IT WAS REP±ACED BY THE ¶NITED ²OCIA±IST ¸ARTY OF ÍENEzUE±A), WHICH CON-
TRO±±ED ¾ORRES’S mUNICIPA± COUNCI± DURINg JU±IO ·HáVEz’S TENURE AND REPEATED±Y
TRIED (AND FAI±ED) TO B±OCk THE mAYOR’S AgENDA DURINg HIS fiRST TWO YEARS IN
OffiCE.
¹N 2012, ÍA±±EjO, WHICH gAINED NOTORIETY IN 2008 BY BECOmINg THE ±ARgEST
CITY IN ·A±IFORNIA HISTORY TO DEC±ARE BANkRUPTCY, BECAmE THE fiRST CITY IN THE
¶NITED ²TATES TO ImP±EmENT A CITYWIDE PARTICIPATORY BUDgET. ÍA±±EjO’S DECI-
SION TO ImP±EmENT ¸Ê, IN A CONSIDERAB±Y mORE mODEST FASHION COmPARED TO
¾ORRES (OR ¸ORTO µ±EgRE), IS AN INDIRECT CONSEqUENCE OF THE CITY’S BANkRUPTCY,
WHICH IN 2011 ±ED VOTERS TO APPROVE A ONE PERCENT SA±ES TAx INCREASE, PROVIDINg
THE CITY WITH $10 mI±±ION PER YEAR. µT THE BEHEST OF AN ENTREPRENEURIA± CITY
COUNCI±OR (INSPIRED BY STORIES OF ¸Ê IN ·HICAgO AND ¸ORTO µ±EgRE), $3.2 mI±-
±ION OF THIS WAS DEVOTED TO ¸Ê. °OUgH ±ESS THAN 2 PERCENT OF ÍA±±EjO’S BUDgET,
THIS IS THE ±ARgEST ¸Ê AmOUNT A SINg±E gROUP OF VOTERS HAS DECIDED ON IN THE
¶NITED ²TATES. GIVEN THE CITY’S fiSCA± WOES, DEARTH OF CIVIC ASSOCIATIONS, AND
THE mAYOR’S OPPOSITION, THE FACT THAT ¸Ê CAmE TO ÍA±±EjO AT A±± IS qUITE REmARk-
AB±E. ÊUT THERE ARE DOUBTS ABOUT THE ImPACT AND ±ONg-TERm SUSTAINABI±ITY OF

fi¿ure 4.1. ¸ARTICIPATORY ÊUDgET µSSEmB±Y, ·ECI±IO ËUBI±±AgA ¸ARISH, ¾ORRES, LARA,
ÍENEzUE±A, ½OVEmBER 2009. ¸HOTO BY GABRIE± ÉET±AND.
fi¿ure 4.2. ¸ARTICIPATORY ÍAgNOSIS, NEIgHBORHOOD OF LA GUzmANA, ·ARORA, ¾ORRES, LARA,

ÍENEzUE±A, JUNE 2008. ¸HOTO BY GABRIE± ÉET±AND.
THE PROCESS. µN ExTERNA± ORgANIzATION, THE ¸ARTICIPATORY ÊUDgETINg ¸ROjECT
(A ¶.².-BASED ½G» FOUNDED BY RESEARCHERS WHO STUDIED ¸Ê IN ÊRAzI± AND
µRgENTINA), PROVIDED SUPPORT FOR THE PROCESS IN ITS fiRST YEAR. °E CITY COUNCI±
APPROVED ¸Ê FOR A SECOND YEAR BUT ±OWERED THE AmOUNT TO $2.4 mI±±ION, WHICH
mAY DAmPEN SPIRITS AND ±OWER TURNOUT. ¹N ADDITION, DESPITE A SIzAB±E AND RE±A-
TIVE±Y DIVERSE TURNOUT FOR THE fiNA± VOTE (IN YEAR ONE), THE PROCESS SUffERED
FROm ±OW PARTICIPATION AmONg ±OW-INCOmE gROUPS AND PEOP±E OF CO±OR, PAR-
TICU±AR±Y IN THE PROjECT DESIgN PHASE.
Ó THE DIffERENCES BETWEEN ¸Ê IN ¾ORRES AND ÍA±±EjO mEAN ¸Ê INEVITAB±Y
BECOmES “¸Ê ±ITE” AS IT TRAVE±S THE g±OBE? ÈE REjECT THIS INTERPRETATION. °ERE
IS CONSIDERAB±E VARIATION IN ¸Ê IN BOTH THE ½ORTH AND THE ²OUTH, mAkINg
BROAD gENERA±IzATIONS RE±ATIVE±Y USE±ESS. ÈE AgREE WITH OTHER SCHO±ARS WHO
SUggEST THAT ¸Ê SHOU±D NOT BE EVA±UATED BY A SINg±E ONE-SIzE-fiTS-A±± YARDSTICk.
¼ATHER ¸Ê SHOU±D BE ASSESSED BASED ON HOW (mUCH) IT TRANSFORmS PARTICU±AR
CITIES compared to what might have occurred in its absence. ÍA±±EjO’S ¸Ê mAY
APPEAR INSIgNIfiCANT COmPARED TO ExPERIENCES ±IkE THOSE OF ¾ORRES AND ¸ORTO
µ±EgRE. ÊUT FOR (SOmE OF) THE HUNDREDS OF CITIzENS WHO VO±UNTEERED THEIR TImE
AND THE THOUSANDS WHO VOTED IN THE PROCESS ¸Ê IS SEEN AS A POTENTIA± TURNINg
POINT FOR THE CITY, WITH RESIDENTS ExPRESSINg HOPE THAT ÍA±±EjO WI±± COmE TO BE
SEEN AS A ±EADER IN INNOVATION AND CIVIC PARTICIPATION RATHER THAN AN ExAmP±E
OF fiSCA± IRRESPONSIBI±ITY AND POOR mANAgEmENT.
huÇan ri¿hts / transitional èustice: latin

aÇerica as a focal point for ¿lobal
innovation
¹N THE 1970S STATE OffiCIA±S gUI±TY OF VIO±ATINg THE HUmAN RIgHTS OF THEIR CITI-
zENS WERE STI±± BENEfiTINg FROm A ±EgA± INSTITUTIONA± FRAmEWORk THAT WAS
“RATHER NEW AND STI±± qUITE INERT” (²IkkINk 2011: 90).Ø »VER THE COURSE OF THE
1980S AND 1990S, WHAT ÌATHRYN ²IkkINk CA±±S A “jUSTICE CASCADE” TRANSFORmED
g±OBA± NORmS FOR THE PROSECUTION OF STATE OffiCIA±S RESPONSIB±E FOR mURDER,
TORTURE, AND DISAPPEARANCES UP TO AND INC±UDINg HEADS OF STATE. °E PROCESS
OF CHANgE WAS g±OBA±, BUT LATIN µmERICA WAS THE INNOVATIVE FOCA± POINT.
°E STORY OF HUmAN RIgHTS PROSECUTIONS IN µRgENTINA IS THE BEST ±ENS FOR
I±±USTRATINg THIS mOmENTOUS CHANgE, BOTH BECAUSE OF µRgENTINA’S CRUCIA± RO±E
AND BECAUSE ²IkkINk HAS DOCUmENTED THE CASE SO WE±±. ²IkkINk SUCCINCT±Y
SUmS UP THE BOTTOm ±INE AS FO±±OWS: “µRgENTINA HE±PED INVENT THE TWO mAIN

ACCOUNTABI±ITY mECHANISmS THAT ARE THE FOCUS OF mUCH OF THE DEBATE ON TRAN-
SITIONA± jUSTICE: TRUTH COmmISSIONS AND HIgH ±EVE± HUmAN PROSECUTIONS. . . .
µRgENTINE HUmAN RIgHTS ACTIVISTS WERE NOT PASSIVE RECIPIENTS OF A jUSTICE CAS-
CADE, BUT PIONEERS AND PROPAgATORS OF mU±TIP±E NEW TACTICS AND TRANSITIONA±
jUSTICE mECHANISmS” (²IkkINk 2011: 87, 89).
»NE OF THE mOST INTERESTINg AND ±EAST kNOWN CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE
µRgENTINE HUmAN RIgHTS mOVEmENT WAS ITS FOUNDATIONA± RO±E IN THE CREATION
OF THE SCIENCE OF FORENSIC gENETICS. ¹T WAS THE qUEST OF THE µBUE±AS OF THE ¸±AzA
DE MAYO IN µRgENTINA TO fiND A CREDIB±E TECHNO±OgY THAT WOU±D ENAB±E THEm
TO fiND THEIR ±OST gRANDCHI±DREN THAT TRANSFORmED FORENSIC gENETICS FROm A
NASCENT AND DUBIOUS TECHNIqUE TO A g±OBA± TOO± FOR HUmAN RIgHTS INVESTIgA-
TIONS. LINDSAY ²mITH SUmmARIzES THIS CONTRIBUTION AS FO±±OWS: “ºORENSIC
gENETICS HAD ITS gENESIS IN HUmAN RIgHTS WORk IN µRgENTINA IN THE EAR±Y 1980S,
WITH THE DEVE±OPmENT OF THE ¹NDEx OF GRANDPATERNITY, A ±EgA±±Y RECOgNIzED
gENETIC TEST CAPAB±E OF PROVINg gENETIC RE±ATEDNESS BETWEEN A gRANDPARENT AND
A CHI±D IN THE ABSENCE OF THE PARENTA± gENERATION.” Ù ÊUT, WHI±E FORENSIC gENET-
ICS IS AN ExCE±±ENT ExAmP±E OF HOW LATIN µmERICAN STRUgg±ES gENERATE INNOVA-
TIONS WITH g±OBA± ImPACTS, THE PRINCIPA± CONTRIBUTIONS OF LATIN µmERICAN
HUmAN RIgHTS mOVEmENTS WERE PO±ITICA± AND INSTITUTIONA± TRANSFORmATIONS
THAT mOVED FROm THE ±OCA± TO THE g±OBA± AND BACk.
°E MOTHERS AND GRANDmOTHERS OF THE ¸±AzA DE MAYO, THE ·ENTER FOR
LEgA± AND ²OCIA± ²TUDIES (·³L²), AND A HOST OF OTHER HUmAN RIgHTS ½G»S—
BRAVINg THE THREAT OF REPRESSION TO PROTEST THE mI±ITARY’S HUmAN RIgHTS
VIO±ATIONS—INITIA±±Y SPARkED THE PROCESS. ÊY 1983, WITH THE mI±ITARY REgImE AT
ITS END, THERE WERE FORTY THOUSAND PEOP±E mARCHINg IN ÊUENOS µIRES AND,
ONCE IN POWER, µ±FONSIN’S DEmOCRATICA±±Y E±ECTED gOVERNmENT FORmED A “TRUTH
COmmISSION” (½ATIONA± ·OmmISSION ON THE ÍSAPPEARANCE OF ¸ERSONS, OR
·»½µ´³¸),Ú WHICH PUB±ISHED ITS PATHBREAkINg REPORT, Nunca Más, IN
1984. ·»½µ´³¸’S fiﬅY THOUSAND PAgES OF EVIDENCE PROVIDED THE FOUNDA-
TION FOR THE CONVICTION AND SENTENCINg TO ±IFE ImPRISONmENT OF THE TWO TOP
mI±ITARY ±EADERS.
ºOR A COUNTRY TO BE AB±E TO SEND ITS OWN ±EADERS TO PRISON FOR VIO±ATINg THE
RIgHTS OF ITS OWN CITIzENS REPRESENTED A SEA CHANgE FROm THE ½UREmBURg
mODE± OF FOREIgN VICTORS jUDgINg VANqUISHED ±EADERS. °E PROCESS OF INNOVA-
TION WAS SImU±TANEOUS±Y HIgH±Y INDIgENOUS AND FU±±Y g±OBA±.
°E PO±ITICA± WI±± TO BRINg THE PERPETRATORS TO jUSTICE CAmE FROm ACTIVISTS
AND HUmAN RIgHTS ±AWYERS IN µRgENTINA. µT THE SAmE TImE, µRgENTINE ACTIV-
ISTS AND HUmAN RIgHTS ±AWYERS DID NOT mAkE HISTORY BY THEmSE±VES. ½ETWORkS
OF g±OBA± SUPPORT WERE CRUCIA±. ÈHI±E THE ENERgY OF THE RANk-AND-fi±E ACTIVISTS
CAmE PRECISE±Y FROm THE FACT THAT THEY WERE ±OCA±±Y ROOTED, mANY OF THE kEY
±EgA± ACTORS HONED THEIR SkI±±S AND ExPERTISE WHI±E IN ExI±E. °E ¹NTER-µmERICAN
·OmmISSION ON ÉUmAN ¼IgHTS (¹µ·É¼), WHICH WAS jUST BEgINNINg TO P±AY
A SIgNIfiCANT RO±E IN DEFENDINg HEmISPHERIC HUmAN RIgHTS IN THE ±ATE 1970S,
PROVIDED INVA±UAB±E SUPPORT IN THE FORm OF A 1980 REPORT BASED ON RESEARCH
DONE IN µRgENTINA.
µRgENTINA’S CONTRIBUTIONS WERE A±SO UNExPECTED±Y g±OBA± IN TERmS OF THEIR
ImPACT. ¶N±IkE THE 1970S PROSECUTIONS IN GREECE AND ¸ORTUgA±, WHICH BARE±Y
mADE RIPP±ES IN THE g±OBA± PANORAmA OF HUmAN RIgHTS INSTITUTIONS, THE
µRgENTINE PROCESS WAS PROjECTED AROUND THE WOR±D. °E mOST ImPORTANT ±INk
mAY HAVE BEEN THE ²OUTH-²OUTH NETWORkS THAT CONNECTED µRgENTINE ACTIVISTS
AND ±AWYERS TO ²OUTH µFRICAN ACTIVISTS WHO THEN INCORPORATED THE LATIN
µmERICAN ExPERIENCE IN THE DEVE±OPmENT OF THEIR ¾RUTH AND ¼ECONCI±IATION
PROCESS. °E LATIN µmERICAN ExPERIENCE A±SO SPREAD TO THE ½ORTH, BOTH IN
TERmS OF ITS INflUENCE ON g±OBA± NORmS AND VIA INDIVIDUA±S WHO TOOk THEIR
ExPERIENCES WITH THEm AS THEY P±AYED RO±ES IN g±OBA± INSTITUTIONS. ºOR ExAm-
P±E, LUIS MORENO-»CAmPO, WHO WAS THE ASSISTANT PROSECUTOR IN THE TRIA±S OF
THE µRgENTINE gENERA±S IN THE 1980S, ENDED UP THREE DECADES ±ATER AS THE CHIEF
PROSECUTOR OF THE ¹NTERNATIONA± ·RImINA± ·OURT (¹··). µND WHEN THE ²OUTH
µFRICAN ¾RUTH AND ¼ECONCI±IATION mODE± WENT g±OBA± WITH THE ESTAB±ISHmENT
OF THE ¹·¾J IN ½EW ÓORk, ITS RESEARCH DIRECTOR WAS ¸AB±O DE GREIff, FROm
·O±OmBIA.
G±OBA± HUmAN RIgHTS INSTITUTIONS TODAY BEAR THE INDE±IB±E ImPRINT OF LATIN
µmERICAN CONTRIBUTIONS OVER THE COURSE OF THE PAST THREE DECADES. LATIN
µmERICA STI±± ±EADS THE WOR±D IN TERmS OF NUmBERS OF HUmAN RIgHTS PROSECU-
TIONS AND IS THE ON±Y REgION OF THE WOR±D IN WHICH THERE HAS BEEN A C±EAR
DEC±INE IN AVERAgE ±EVE±S OF REPRESSION OVER THE COURSE OF THE PAST qUARTER CEN-
TURY, PROVIDINg A g±OBA± mODE± FOR THE EffiCACY OF HUmAN RIgHTS ADVOCACY.
¸ERHAPS EVEN mORE ImPORTANT, HOWEVER, IS THE INflUENCE OF LATIN µmERICA’S
PIONEERINg ExPERIENCE ON THE SHAPE OF THE g±OBA± jUSTICE CASCADE THAT EVO±VED
IN THE 1990S AND THE fiRST DECADE OF THE TWENTY-fiRST CENTURY.
°E mOmENTUm OF THE jUSTICE CASCADE IN THE ½ORTH A±SO REVERBERATED BACk
TO LATIN µmERICA, ENAB±INg kEY BREAkTHROUgHS IN THE REgION. °E ÊRITISH
ARREST OF µUgUSTO ¸INOCHET IN 1998, IN RESPONSE TO A ²PANISH REqUEST FOR HIS
ExTRADITION UNDER THE ·ONVENTION AgAINST ¾ORTURE, HE±PED CATA±YzE NEW
PROgRESS IN HUmAN RIgHTS PROSECUTIONS BACk IN ·HI±E. °E µ±IEN ¾ORT ·±AImS
µCT IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES HAS BEEN USED TO PROSECUTE LATIN µmERICAN TORTURERS

WHO THOUgHT THAT THEY HAD A SECURE REFUgE IN THE ½ORTH. ²OUTH-½ORTH SYNER-
gIES ARE A DEfiNINg CHARACTERISTIC OF THE jUSTICE CASCADE.
ÉSPITE LATIN µmERICA’S PIONEERINg RO±E IN THE TRANSFORmATION OF g±OBA±
HUmAN RIgHTS NORmS AND INSTITUTIONS, IT HAS, OF COURSE, NO WAY OF CONTRO±±INg
THE EVO±UTION OF THE g±OBA± STRUCTURE IT HE±PED CONSTRUCT. °ERE IS NO HEgEm-
ONY HERE. °E ¹·· AND THE ¹·¾J ARE ±IkE±Y TO TAkE ON AgENDAS qUITE DIffERENT
FROm THOSE THAT LATIN µmERICAN PIONEERS HAD IN mIND. ½OR DO THESE g±OBA±
STRUCTURES HAVE THE POWER TO SUPERSEDE THE CORE INTEREST OF HEgEmONIC STATES.
»ffiCIA±S OF THE ÊUSH ADmINISTRATION ARE UN±IkE±Y TO EVER BE PROSECUTED FOR
THEIR RO±E IN TORTURE, DESPITE THE FACT THAT THE ¶NITED ²TATES (UNCHARACTERISTI-
CA±±Y) RATIfiED THE ·ONVENTION AgAINST ¾ORTURE.
LACk OF ABI±ITY TO DOmINATE THE ±ONg-TERm EVO±UTION OF g±OBA± NORmS AND
NETWORkS, EVEN IN AN ARENA IN WHICH IT HAS mADE SUCH FUNDAmENTA± CONTRIBU-
TIONS, SHOU±D NOT BE TAkEN AS A “FAI±URE.” ¾O THE CONTRARY, LATIN µmERICA’S RO±E
IN HUmAN RIgHTS SHOU±D BE TAkEN AS A mODE± OF HOW A DEmOCRATIzED g±OBA±
PO±ITY mIgHT OPERATE. ¹NNOVATION WOU±D EmERgE IN REgIONS AND/OR ARENAS WHERE
A PROB±Em WAS PARTICU±AR±Y ACUTE. »THER REgIONS WOU±D THEN BENEfiT FROm THESE
PIONEERINg INNOVATIONS, AND THEY WOU±D BECOmE INCORPORATED INTO g±OBA±
NORmS AND INSTITUTIONS. ºROm THE PERSPECTIVE OF THIS ARENA AT ±EAST, WHAT HISTO-
RIANS WI±± REmEmBER IS THAT LATIN µmERICA mOVED FROm BEINg A REgIONA± ExEm-
P±AR OF THE PROB±Em TO BEINg A kEY P±AYER IN THE SEARCH FOR A g±OBA± SO±UTION.Û
peasants of the world uniteî the Çst as

a ¿lobal Çodel of rural ÇobiliZation
°E DOmESTIC ACCOmP±ISHmENTS OF ÊRAzI±’S MOVImENTO DOS ¾RABA±HADORES

¼URAIS SEm ¾ERRA (M²¾; LAND±ESS ÈORkERS MOVEmENT) ARE ImPRESSIVE.Ý ²INCE
1984, THE M²¾ HAS ±ED HUNDREDS (POSSIB±Y THOUSANDS) OF ±AND OCCUPATIONS,
RESU±TINg IN THE SETT±EmENT OF OVER 100,000 FAmI±IES IN TWO THOUSAND SETT±E-
mENTS TAkINg UP 3.5 mI±±ION HECTARES OF ±AND. ÈITHIN ITS SETT±EmENTS, THE
M²¾ ENgAgES IN ExTENSIVE EDUCATIONA±-CUm-IDEO±OgICA± WORk AmONg ITS
mEmBERS. °E M²¾ HAS A±SO PUSHED SUCCESSIVE ÊRAzI±IAN gOVERNmENTS TO
ImP±EmENT COmPREHENSIVE ±AND REFORm. °E M²¾ USES ITS TRIP±E STRATEgY OF
DIRECT ACTION, EDUCATION, AND ENgAgEmENT WITH THE STATE TO PURSUE AN OVER-
ARCHINg gOA± OF “FOOD SOVEREIgNTY.” LA ÍíA ·AmPESINA, AN INTERNATIONA± ORgA-
NIzATION THAT THE M²¾ HE±PED FOUND AND P±AYS A ±EADERSHIP RO±E IN, DEfiNES
THIS AS FO±±OWS:
¹N ORDER TO gUARANTEE THE INDEPENDENCE AND FOOD SOVEREIgNTY OF A±± OF THE
WOR±D’S PEOP±ES, IT IS ESSENTIA± THAT FOOD BE PRODUCED THROUgH DIVERSIfiED,
FARmER-BASED PRODUCTION SYSTEmS. ºOOD SOVEREIgNTY IS THE RIgHT OF PEOP±ES TO
DEfiNE THEIR OWN AgRICU±TURE AND FOOD PO±ICIES, TO PROTECT AND REgU±ATE DOmES-
TIC AgRICU±TURA± PRODUCTION AND TRADE IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE SUSTAINAB±E DEVE±OP-
mENT OBjECTIVES, TO DETERmINE THE ExTENT TO WHICH THEY WANT TO BE SE±F RE±IANT,
AND TO RESTRICT THE DUmPINg OF PRODUCTS IN THEIR mARkETS. ºOOD SOVEREIgNTY
DOES NOT NEgATE TRADE, BUT RATHER, IT PROmOTES THE FORmU±ATION OF TRADE PO±ICIES
AND PRACTICES THAT SERVE THE RIgHTS OF PEOP±ES TO SAFE, HEA±THY AND ECO±OgICA±±Y
SUSTAINAB±E PRODUCTION. (MCMICHAE± 2005: 291)
¹N ADDITION TO ITS WORk IN ÊRAzI±, THE M²¾ HAS P±AYED A CRUCIA± RO±E IN THE
g±OBA± mOVEmENT FOR FOOD SOVEREIgNTY. °IS HAS TAkEN P±ACE IN SEVERA± WAYS.
°E M²¾ IS ACTIVE IN INTERNATIONA± NETWORkS ±INkINg SmA±± AND mEDIUm AgRI-
CU±TURA± PRODUCERS IN THE ½ORTH AND ²OUTH. LA ÍíA ·AmPESINA, WHICH WAS
FOUNDED IN 1993 BY PEASANTS’ AND FARmERS’ mOVEmENTS FROm ·ENTRA±, ²OUTH,
AND ½ORTH µmERICA, IS THE ±ARgEST SUCH NETWORk, ENCOmPASSINg OVER 150
NATIONA± AND SUBNATIONA± RURA± SOCIA± mOVEmENT ORgANIzATIONS FROm fiﬅY-SIx
COUNTRIES AROUND THE WOR±D. °E M²¾ IS A±SO AN INflUENTIA± mEmBER OF THE
LATIN µmERICAN ·OORDINATION OF ¸EASANT »RgANIzATIONS (·L»·). ²INCE THE
1990S, LA ÍíA ·AmPESINA AND ·L»· HAVE P±AYED A kEY RO±E IN A NUmBER OF
INTERNATIONA± CAmPAIgNS: FOR ExTERNA± DEBT FORgIVENESS FOR POOR NATIONS,
AgAINST THE ºREE ¾RADE µREA OF THE µmERICAS, AND IN THE “ANTI-g±OBA±IzATION”
mOVEmENT OF THE ±ATE 1990S AND EAR±Y 2000S, mADE FAmOUS BY PROTESTS IN
²EATT±E, ¸RAgUE, AND GENOA.
¹N ADDITION TO BEINg PART OF THESE FORmA±IzED INTERNATIONA± NETWORkS, THE
M²¾ HAS DEVOTED SIgNIfiCANT RESOURCES TO DIRECT ExCHANgES BETWEEN ITS mEm-
BERSHIP AND OTHER mOVEmENTS IN THE G±OBA± ²OUTH. ²IgNIfiCANT±Y, THE M²¾
HAS ESTAB±ISHED INTERNATIONA± BRIgADES—OﬅEN IN CO±±ABORATION WITH LA ÍíA
·AmPESINA—IN ÉAITI, ·ENTRA± µmERICA, ²OUTH µFRICA, ÍIETNAm, ¸A±ESTINE,
AND SEVERA± OTHER COUNTRIES. °E M²¾ HAS A±SO CREATED NUmEROUS ºRIENDS OF
THE M²¾ COmmITTEES IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES, ·ANADA, AND ³UROPE. °ESE COm-
mITTEES WERE SET UP AS A WAY FOR ½ORTHERN ACTIVISTS TO SUPPORT THE M²¾’S
ACTIVITIES. »VER TImE, HOWEVER, THE M²¾ DISCOVERED THAT ITS ORgANIzATIONA±
CAPACITY OﬅEN ExCEEDS THAT OF ITS INTERNATIONA± SUPPORTERS, ±EADINg TO RECENT
DISCUSSIONS ABOUT HOW THE M²¾ CAN PROVIDE SUPPORT to ½ORTHERN ACTIVISTS.
ºINA±±Y, THE M²¾ HAS EDUCATED RURA± ACTIVISTS FROm THROUgHOUT LATIN
µmERICA AND TO A ±ESSER ExTENT THE WOR±D. ²INCE 2005, THESE EDUCATIONA± INITIA-
TIVES HAVE OﬅEN TAkEN P±ACE IN THE M²¾’S º±ORESTAN ºERNANDES ½ATIONA±

²CHOO±, WHICH OffERS SEVERA± COURSES FOCUSED ON LATIN µmERICA AND PO±ITICA±
ECONOmIC THEORY. ³xAmP±ES ARE mONTH±ONg PO±ITICA± THEORY COURSES FOR ±EAD-
ERS OF ÊRAzI±IAN SOCIA± mOVEmENTS; ANNUA± fiVE-WEEk COURSES ON MARxISm, THE
µgRARIAN ëUESTION, AND THE THEORIES OF º±ORESTAN ºERNANDES; AND A THREE-
mONTH COURSE EVERY YEAR ON PO±ITICA± THEORY IN LATIN µmERICA. µCTIVISTS FROm
LATIN µmERICA, THE ·ARIBBEAN, µFRICA, AND ³UROPE HAVE ATTENDED THESE
COURSES, WITH ÊRAzI±, µRgENTINA, ¸ARAgUAY, ÍENEzUE±A, AND ·O±OmBIA SENDINg
THE mOST STUDENTS.
ÈHAT HAS THE M²¾’S (AND A±±IED ORgANIzATIONS’) g±OBA± WORk ±ED TO? °E
M²¾ HAS OBVIOUS±Y NOT SUCCEEDED IN ITS ±ONg-TERm gOA± OF REP±ACINg WHAT
¸HI±±IP MCMICHAE± CA±±S THE “CORPORATE FOOD REgImE.” ÊUT IN CONjUNCTION
WITH OTHER ORgANIzATIONS, THE M²¾ HAS RESHAPED g±OBA± DEBATES ABOUT ±AND
REFORm AND ISSUES OF FOOD, SOCIA± jUSTICE, AND URBAN-RURA± RE±ATIONS. GIVEN
THE FAR gREATER RESOURCES WIE±DED BY THE M²¾’S mAIN ADVERSARY—g±OBA±
AgRIBUSINESS—THIS IS A SIgNIfiCANT FEAT.
turnin¿ the world upside down: bolivia’s

efforts to reshape cliÇate chan¿e politics
²INCE THE 1992 “³ARTH ²UmmIT” IN ¼IO DE JANEIRO, WHICH ESTAB±ISHED THE
¶NITED ½ATIONS ºRAmEWORk ·ONVENTION ON ·±ImATE ·HANgE (¶½º···),
LATIN µmERICA HAS P±AYED AN ImPORTANT RO±E IN INTERNATIONA± EffORTS TO
ADDRESS C±ImATE CHANgE.Þ LATIN µmERICA HAS HOSTED (OR WI±± HOST) FOUR OF THE
TWENTY ANNUA± ¶½º··· ·ONFERENCES OF THE ¸ARTIES, THE mOST ImPORTANT
OffiCIA± gATHERINgS ADDRESSINg C±ImATE CHANgE. LATIN µmERICA HAS A±SO P±AYED
A kEY RO±E IN A±TERNATIVE EffORTS TO ADDRESS C±ImATE CHANgE, WHICH HAVE SPRUNg
UP IN RESPONSE TO THE FRUSTRATION FE±T BY ACTIVISTS AND PO±ITICA± ±EADERS (mOST±Y
FROm THE G±OBA± ²OUTH) AT mANY ½ORTHERN COUNTRIES’, AND ESPECIA±±Y THE
¶NITED ²TATES’S, INABI±ITY AND UNWI±±INgNESS TO COmE UP WITH mEANINgFU±
WAYS TO REDUCE g±OBA± gREENHOUSE EmISSIONS.
²INCE ³VO MORA±ES’S 2005 E±ECTION AS HIS COUNTRY’S fiRST INDIgENOUS PRESI-
DENT, ÊO±IVIA HAS ASSUmED A ±EADINg (BUT NOT FU±±Y CONSISTENT) RO±E IN THE
EffORT TO FORgE A NEW TYPE OF g±OBA± C±ImATE CHANgE PO±ITICS. °IS IS DUE, IN
PART, TO THE FACT THAT, AS »xFAm HAS NOTED, ÊO±IVIA IS AmONg THE COUNTRIES THAT
ARE ±EAST RESPONSIB±E FOR g±OBA± WARmINg YET mOST ExPOSED TO ITS EffECTS.
ÊO±IVIA’S ACTIONS HAVE TAkEN P±ACE ON THREE FRONTS: DISCOURSE REgARDINg C±ImATE
CHANgE, FOSTERINg INTERNATIONA± gATHERINgS AND NETWORkS ±INkINg SOCIA± mOVE-
mENTS AND ²OUTHERN STATES, AND COORDINATED INTERSTATE ACTION THROUgH THE
GROUP OF 77 (G77), WHICH INC±UDES 133 DEVE±OPINg NATIONS.
MORA±ES HAS REPEATED±Y USED THE g±OBA± P±ATFORm PROVIDED BY ¶½ GENERA±
µSSEmB±Y mEETINgS AND INTERNATIONA± C±ImATE CHANgE CONFERENCES TO ENUmER-
ATE THE DANgERS OF C±ImATE CHANgE. ÉE IS ESPECIA±±Y CRITICA± OF ½ORTHERN POW-
ERS, ±IkE THE ¶NITED ²TATES, WHICH BEAR THE gREATEST HISTORICA± RESPONSIBI±ITY
FOR C±ImATE CHANgE BUT HAVE FAI±ED TO ADDRESS THE ISSUE AND ACTIVE±Y B±OCkED
g±OBA± EffORTS TO DO SO. ¹N MORA±ES’S VIEW, THE ½ORTH OWES THE ²OUTH A “C±ImATE
DEBT.” ¹N CONCRETE TERmS, THIS WOU±D mEAN THAT COUNTRIES ±IkE THE ¶NITED
²TATES WOU±D PAY A DISPROPORTIONATE AmOUNT OF THE COSTS THAT NATIONS ±IkE
ÊO±IVIA AND THE MA±DIVES (I.E., THOSE BEARINg ±ITT±E RESPONSIBI±ITY FOR g±OBA±
WARmINg BUT SUffERINg ITS WORST EffECTS) FACE IN ADjUSTINg TO C±ImATE CHANgE.
»ffiCIA± EffORTS TO ADDRESS C±ImATE CHANgE HAVE FOCUSED, IN ±ARgE PART, ON
HOW mARkETS COU±D BE USED TO ADDRESS THE ISSUE (E.g., THROUgH THE CREATION OF
CARBON mARkETS). MORA±ES, BY CONTRAST, IS HIgH±Y CRITICA± OF mARkETS AND, ±IkE
OTHER LATIN µmERICAN ±EADERS SUCH AS THE ±ATE ÉUgO ·HáVEz, VIEWS CAPITA±ISm
AND C±ImATE CHANgE AS C±OSE±Y CONNECTED:
·OmPETITION AND THE THIRST FOR PROfiT WITHOUT ±ImITS OF THE CAPITA±IST SYSTEm
ARE DESTROYINg THE P±ANET. ¶NDER ·APITA±ISm WE ARE NOT HUmAN BEINgS BUT
CONSUmERS. ¶NDER ·APITA±ISm MOTHER ³ARTH DOES NOT ExIST, INSTEAD THERE ARE
RAW mATERIA±S. ·APITA±ISm IS THE SOURCE OF THE ASYmmETRIES AND ImBA±ANCES IN
THE WOR±D. ¹T gENERATES ±UxURY, OSTENTATION AND WASTE FOR A FEW, WHI±E mI±±IONS
IN THE WOR±D DIE FROm HUNgER. ¹N THE HANDS OF CAPITA±ISm EVERYTHINg BECOmES
A COmmODITY: THE WATER, THE SOI±, THE HUmAN gENOmE, THE ANCESTRA± CU±TURES,
jUSTICE, ETHICS, DEATH . . . AND ±IFE ITSE±F. ³VERYTHINg, ABSO±UTE±Y EVERYTHINg, CAN
BE BOUgHT AND SO±D UNDER CAPITA±ISm. µND EVEN “C±ImATE CHANgE” ITSE±F HAS
BECOmE A BUSINESS. (MORA±ES 2008)
¹N RESPONSE TO THE INEffECTIVENESS OF ¶½-SPONSORED C±ImATE CHANgE CON-

FERENCES, IN µPRI± 2010 ÊO±IVIA HOSTED THE ¸EOP±E’S ÈOR±D ·ONFERENCE ON
·±ImATE ·HANgE AND THE ¼IgHTS OF MOTHER ³ARTH, A FOUR-DAY gATHERINg BRINg-
INg TOgETHER 35,000 PARTICIPANTS FROm 140 COUNTRIES, INC±UDINg 56 gOVERN-
mENT DE±EgATIONS AND 9,000 PARTICIPANTS FROm OUTSIDE ²OUTH µmERICA. °E
mOST ImPORTANT ASPECT OF THE CONFERENCE IS THAT IT BROUgHT TOgETHER SOCIA±
mOVEmENTS AND gOVERNmENTS, THE TWO kEY ACTORS NEEDED TO BUI±D AN EffECTIVE
C±ImATE jUSTICE mOVEmENT. °E CONFERENCE PRODUCED THE “¸EOP±E’S µgREEmENT”
ON C±ImATE CHANgE, WHICH C±OSE±Y RESEmB±ES ÊO±IVIA’S STANCE ON THE ISSUE AND
WHICH MORA±ES AND SOCIA± mOVEmENT ±EADERS HAND-DE±IVERED TO ¶½ ²ECRETARY
GENERA± ÊAN ÌI-mOON.

µCCORDINg TO THE ENVIRONmENTA± ACTIVIST ÊI±± MCÌIBBEN, AVERTINg CATA-
STROPHIC C±ImATE CHANgE REqUIRES ±EAVINg $20 TRI±±ION WORTH OF FOSSI± FUE±S
IN THE gROUND. ¸USHINg POWERFU± mU±TINATIONA± CORPORATIONS, AND THE gOV-
ERNmENTS THAT SO OﬅEN DO THEIR BIDDINg, TO mAkE THIS kIND OF ECONOmIC SAC-
RIfiCE WI±± OBVIOUS±Y TAkE mORE THAN fiERY RHETORIC AND INTERNATIONA± gATHER-
INgS, HOWEVER ImPORTANT THESE mAY BE. °IS IS WHY ÊO±IVIA’S EffORT TO ENgINEER
jOINT ACTION BY THE GROUP OF 77 (WHICH INC±UDES TWO-THIRDS OF THE WOR±D’S
NATIONS) mAY BE THE mOST CONSEqUENTIA± ASPECT OF ITS ±EADERSHIP ON C±ImATE
CHANgE.
ÚRINg THE 2013 ÈARSAW ·±ImATE ·HANgE ·ONFERENCE THERE WERE INTENSE
NEgOTIATIONS OVER AN ISSUE kNOWN AS “LOSS AND ÁmAgE,” WHICH WOU±D
REqUIRE THAT DEVE±OPED NATIONS COmPENSATE DEVE±OPINg NATIONS FOR DAmAgES
±INkED TO C±ImATE CHANgE. ÈHEN µUSTRA±IA AND OTHER DEVE±OPED NATIONS
REFUSED TO AgREE TO PROVISIONS ON LOSS AND ÁmAgE, ÊO±IVIA ENgINEERED A
CO±±ECTIVE WA±kOUT OF A±± THE COUNTRIES BE±ONgINg TO THE G77. °IS WAS AN
UNPRECEDENTED ExAmP±E OF COORDINATED CO±±ECTIVE ACTION BY THE G±OBA± ²OUTH
REgARDINg C±ImATE CHANgE. ¹N JANUARY 2014, ÊO±IVIA ASSUmED THE ±EADERSHIP OF
THE G77, AND IN JUNE 2014, THE ORgANIzATION CE±EBRATED ITS fiﬅIETH ANNIVERSARY
AT A SUmmIT HE±D IN THE ÊO±IVIAN CITY OF ²ANTA ·RUz. ·±ImATE CHANgE WAS ONE
OF THE THEmES DISCUSSED AT THE SUmmIT, AND MORA±ES HAS PROmISED TO USE THE
G77 TO CONTINUE PRESSINg FOR gREATER ACTION ON THIS ISSUE.
¹T IS ImPORTANT TO NOTE THAT THERE IS, UNFORTUNATE±Y, A mAjOR CONTRADICTION
BETWEEN ÊO±IVIA’S international ±EADERSHIP WITH RESPECT TO C±ImATE CHANgE AND
ITS domestic PO±ICIES. ³VO MORA±ES HAS FACED HARSH, AND IT SEEmS qUITE jUSTIfiED,
CRITICISm FROm INDIgENOUS AND ENVIRONmENTA± gROUPS WITHIN (AND OUTSIDE)
ÊO±IVIA FOR HIS AggRESSIVE CONTINUATION OF ExTRACTIVE PO±ICIES. °IS HAS ±ED TO
SEVERA± mAjOR CONflICTS REgARDINg ExTRACTION IN THE MADDIDI ½ATIONA± ¸ARk
AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF A ROAD THROUgH THE ¾ERRITORIO ¹NDígENA Y ¸ARqUE
½ACIONA± ¹SIBORO ²éCURE (¾¹¸½¹²).
latin aÇerica’s eÇer¿ence as a ¿lobal leader
LATIN µmERICA CONTINUES TO ±IVE IN A g±OBA± PO±ITICA± ECONOmY DOmINATED BY

THE ½ORTH. ¸ART OF THE ½ORTH’S DOmINATION IS ITS CONTINUED ABI±ITY TO PROmU±-
gATE AND ENFORCE PO±ICY IDEAS THAT HAVE FAI±ED TO DE±IVER SOCIA± BENEfiTS IN EITHER
THE ½ORTH OR THE ²OUTH. ÊUT IN THE AREAS WE HAVE FOCUSED ON—SOCIA± mOVE-
mENT STRATEgY AND SOCIA± PO±ICY—LATIN µmERICA HAS BEEN AT THE FOREFRONT OF
FORgINg mODE±S FOR A NEW SORT OF g±OBA± REgImE, ONE IN WHICH INNOVATIVE IDEAS
CAN SPREAD AND BE USED BY gOVERNmENTS AND SOCIA± mOVEmENTS IN COUNTRIES
AROUND THE WOR±D, REgARD±ESS OF WHERE THEY ORIgINATE, AS ±ONg AS THEY OffER
SO±UTIONS.
ÈE HAVE DESCRIBED A SmA±± SAmP±E OF LATIN µmERICA’S g±OBA± CONTRIBUTIONS.
³xP±AININg THE HISTORICA± CHANgES IN THE REgION AND IN THE WOR±D THAT HAVE
mADE LATIN µmERICA’S NEW RO±E POSSIB±E WOU±D BE A TASk OF mUCH ±ARgER mAg-
NITUDE, BUT A COUP±E OF OBVIOUS OBSERVATIONS ARE WORTH mAkINg. ÈITHIN THE
REgION, THE CONNECTION BETWEEN INNOVATION AND DEmOCRATIzATION IS UNDENI-
AB±E. °E PO±ITICA± EffERVESCENCE ASSOCIATED WITH THE OVERTHROW OF AUTHORITAR-
IAN REgImES UN±EASHED A WAVE OF PO±ITICA± CREATIVITY FROm WHICH BOTH LATIN
µmERICA AND THE REST OF THE WOR±D HAVE BENEfiTED.
»DD±Y ENOUgH, THE ½ORTH’S ROmANCE WITH ExTREmE FORmS OF PO±ITICA±±Y
±IBERA± CORPORATE CAPITA±ISm PROBAB±Y A±SO HE±PED OPEN THE DOORS FOR LATIN
µmERICAN INNOVATIONS IN TWO qUITE DIffERENT WAYS. ºIRST, OF COURSE, UNREgU-
±ATED CAPITA±ISm’S FAI±URE AS A SOCIA± AND ECONOmIC DOCTRINE CREATED A g±OBA±
PO±ICY VACUUm INTO WHICH PEOP±E WITH DIffERENT IDEAS COU±D STEP. ²ECOND, AND
AT THE SAmE TImE, EffORTS TO APPROPRIATE O±D EmANCIPATORY IDEAS ±IkE DEmOC-
RACY AND HUmAN RIgHTS PROVIDED g±OBA± ±EgITImATION TO THOSE WHO WANTED TO
INSTANTIATE THEm IN PROgRESSIVE WAYS. LATIN µmERICANS TOOk ADVANTAgE OF THIS
OPPORTUNITY.
ÈE HAVE FOCUSED ON ON±Y FOUR INNOVATIONS HERE. MANY OTHERS COU±D HAVE
BEEN DISCUSSED. LATIN µmERICA’S INNOVATIVE RO±E IN ExP±ORINg THE POTENTIA± OF
CONDITIONA± CASH TRANSFERS AS AN ANTIPOVERTY STRATEgY IS ONE OBVIOUS ExAmP±E.
µND EVEN WITHIN THE SmA±± SAmP±E WE HAVE CHOSEN, THERE IS gREAT DIVERSITY,
mAkINg IT DIffiCU±T TO DRAW gENERA± ±ESSONS. ½ONETHE±ESS, WE WOU±D ±IkE TO
SUggEST THAT THERE ARE SOmE THREADS THAT RUN THROUgH THE FOUR CASES AND TIE
THEm TOgETHER. ÈE WI±± UNDER±INE fiVE.
ºIRST, THESE INNOVATIONS DO NOT jUST INVOkE DEmOCRATIC VA±UES AS AN IDEO-
±OgICA± ±EgITImATION, BUT HAVE A DEEP±Y DEmOCRATIC CHARACTER IN THEIR ORIgINS
AND THEIR PRACTICES. ÉmOCRACY IN LATIN µmERICA HAS HISTORICA±±Y BEEN mORE
NOTAB±E FOR ITS PERSISTENT FAI±URES THAN FOR ITS OCCASIONA± SUCCESSES, AND IT
REmAINS PROB±EmATIC. ÊUT THESE ExAmP±ES SUggEST THAT OVER THE COURSE OF THE
REgION’S CHECkERED PO±ITICA± HISTORY, LATIN µmERICANS HAVE DEVE±OPED AN
ImmENSE SET OF SkI±±S USINg DEmOCRATIC PRACTICES AND INSTITUTIONS FOR PROgRES-
SIVE ENDS. ¸ARTICIPATORY BUDgETINg mAY BE THE mOST OBVIOUS ExAmP±E, BUT
INNOVATIVE DEmOCRATIC PRACTICES ARE INTEgRA± TO A±± OF OUR CASES. GIVEN THE
g±ARINg “DEmOCRATIC DEfiCIT” IN OUR CURRENT STRUCTURES OF g±OBA± gOVERNANCE,

THE DEmOCRATIC CURRENT OF LATIN µmERICA’S g±OBA± CONTRIBUTION mAkES THEm
ESPECIA±±Y VA±UAB±E.
²ECOND AND RE±ATED±Y, THESE CASES SHOW THAT DEmOCRATIC PRACTICE CANNOT BE
±ImITED TO SE±ECTINg THE mEmBERS OF THE PO±ITICA± E±ITE THAT WI±± HO±D POWER.
°E POWERFU± mUST BE HE±D ACCOUNTAB±E. ÉERE THE CASE OF TRANSITIONA± jUSTICE
IS ExEmP±ARY, DEmONSTRATINg A WAY FOR CITIzENS TO HO±D THEIR PO±ITICA± AND
mI±ITARY ±EADERS TO ACCOUNT, INC±UDINg FOR TRU±Y HORRENDOUS ATROCITIES.
¸ARTICIPATORY BUDgETINg AND M²¾-STY±E DIRECT ACTION PROVIDE DIffERENT WAYS
TO REACH ACCOUNTABI±ITY AS WE±±.
°IRD, A±± OF THESE CASES DEPEND ON BUI±DINg ±INkS BETWEEN STATES AND SOCIA±
mOVEmENTS. °E ±ATTER ARE CRUCIA±, AS A SOURCE OF ENERgY, CREATIVE IDEAS, AND
PREfigURATIVE ExPERImENTS THAT SHOW THE WOR±D THE TYPES OF NEW INSTITUTIONS
IT NEEDS. ÊUT WITHOUT THE fiSCA± RESOURCES AND ADmINISTRATIVE CAPACITY THAT
ON±Y STATES CAN PROVIDE, mOVEmENTS WI±± BE PROFOUND±Y ±ImITED IN WHAT THEY
CAN ACCOmP±ISH. ³VEN WHEN THE STATE IS A TARgET AND AN ADVERSARY, AS IN THE
HUmAN RIgHTS CASE, IT IS THE EVENTUA± ABI±ITY TO “CAPTURE” THE STATE WHI±E STI±±
RETAININg THE CAPACITY TO ACT INDEPENDENT±Y OF, AND IF NECESSARY IN OPPOSITION
TO, THE STATE THAT IS THE mEASURE OF SUCCESS.
ºOURTH, THE RE±ATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIffERENT SCA±ES—THE g±OBA±, THE
NATIONA±, THE ±OCA±—IS NOT ±INEAR OR ONE-WAY. ¹T IS INTERACTIVE AND SYNERgISTIC.
°E REFORmS DISCUSSED ABOVE A±± BEgAN AT THE ±OCA± AND/OR NATIONA± ±EVE±.
²O±UTIONS TO ±OCA± AND NATIONA± PROB±EmS (RE±ATED TO BUDgETINg, HUmAN RIgHTS,
±AND±ESSNESS, WATER SCARCITY, ETC.) mUST OF COURSE BE ±OCA±±Y AND/OR NATIONA±±Y
EffECTIVE. ÊUT THEY A±SO INVO±VE FORgINg ±INkS ACROSS THE g±OBE. °IS IS mOST
OBVIOUS±Y TRUE IN THE CASE OF C±ImATE CHANgE. ÊUT IT IS EqUA±±Y TRUE OF THE
STRUgg±ES OF THE M²¾, µRgENTINE HUmAN RIgHTS’ ACTIVISTS AND g±OBA±±Y mINDED
¸Ê ACTIVISTS.
ºIﬅH AND fiNA±±Y, g±OBA± INTERACTIONS DO AND mUST INVO±VE BOTH ½ORTH AND
²OUTH. ²OUTH-²OUTH COOPERATION IS A POWERFU± SOURCE OF TRANSFORmATION. ÊUT
DESPITE THE ½ORTH’S CU±PABI±ITY IN CREATINg THE PROB±EmS FACINg LATIN µmERICA
AND OTHER REgIONS OF THE ²OUTH, fiNDINg A±±IES IN THE ½ORTH AND SHAPINg INSTI-
TUTIONS BASED IN THE ½ORTH ARE A±SO FUNDAmENTA±. ³ffECTIVE TRANSFORmATIONS
BRIDgE THE ½ORTH-²OUTH DIVIDE, CONNECTINg NATIONS AND CITIzENS OF THE ²OUTH
WITH POTENTIA± A±±IES IN THE ½ORTH. °ERE ARE OBVIOUS±Y PO±ITICA± DANgERS
INHERENT IN FORgINg ±INkS WITH gROUPS WHOSE ±OCATION IN THE ½ORTH PRIVI±EgES
THEm (WHETHER THEY ±IkE IT OR NOT), BUT THESE ExAmP±ES SHOW THAT THE gAINS CAN
OUTWEIgH THE DANgERS. °E gREATEST DANgER WOU±D BE A FAI±URE TO TAkE ACTION
IN THE FACE OF THE PRESSINg PROB±EmS CONFRONTINg LATIN µmERICA AND THE
WOR±D.
GANUzA, ³RNESTO, AND GIANPAO±O ÊAIOCCHI

2012 “°E ¸OWER OF µmBIgUITY: ÉOW ¸ARTICIPATORY ÊUDgETINg ¾RAVE±S THE
G±OBE.” Journal of Public Deliberation 8.2: 1–12.
MCÌIBBEN, ÊI±±
2012 “G±OBA± ÈARmINg’S ¾ERRIFYINg ½EW MATH.” Rolling Stone, 19 JU±Y.
MCMICHAE±, ¸HI±±IP
2005 “G±OBA± ÉVE±OPmENT AND THE ·ORPORATE ºOOD ¼EgImE.” ¹N New Directions
in the Sociology of Global Development Research in Rural Sociology and
Development, VO±. 11, ED. ºREDERICk É. ÊUTTE± AND ¸HI±IP ÁVID MCMICHAE±,
269–303. ÊINg±EY, ¶.Ì.: ³mERA±D GROUP ¸UB±ISHINg.
MORA±ES, ³VO
2008 “³VO MORA±ES ON ·±ImATE ·HANgE: ‘²AVE THE ¸±ANET FROm ·APITA±ISm.’ ”
Links:International Journal of Socialist Renewal, 28 ½OVEmBER. HTTP://
±INkS.ORg.AU/NODE/769.
»xFAm ¹NTERNATIONA± IN ÊO±IVIA
2009 “ÊO±IVIA: ·±ImATE ·HANgE, ¸OVERTY AND µDAPTATION.” WWW.OxFAm.ORg/
SITES/WWW.OxFAm.ORg/fi±ES/BO±IVIA-C±ImATE-CHANgE ADAPTATION-0911.PDF.
²IkkINk, ÌATHRYN
2011 °e Justice Cascade: How Human Rights Prosecutions Are Changing World
Politics. ½EW ÓORk: È. È. ½ORTON.
²mITH, LINDSAY
2013 “ ‘GENETICS ¹S A ²TUDY IN ºAITH’: ºORENSIC ´½µ, ÌINSHIP µNA±YSIS, AND THE
³THICS OF ·ARE IN ¸OST-·ONflICT LATIN µmERICA.” Scholar & Feminist Online
11.3. HTTP://SFON±INE.BARNARD.EDU/±IFE-UN-±TD-FEmINISm-BIOSCIENCE-RACE/
gENETICS-IS-A-STUDY-IN-FAITH-FORENSIC-DNA-kINSHIP-ANA±YSIS-AND-THE-ETHICS-
OF-CARE-IN-POST-CONflICT-±ATIN-AmERICA/.
notes
1. °IS SECTION DRAWS ON GABRIE± ÉET±AND’S fiE±DWORk IN ¾ORRES AND ÍA±±EjO;

GANUzA AND ÊAIOCCHI 2012; AND ÊENjAmIN GO±DFRANk, “°E ÈOR±D ÊANk AND
THE G±OBA±IzATION OF ¸ARTICIPATORY ÊUDgETINg,” Journal of Public Deliberation 8.2
(2012).
2. °IS SECTION DRAWS PARTICU±AR±Y ON THE WORk OF ÌATHRYN ²IkkINk AND HER CO±-
±ABORATORS, ·ARRIE ÊOOTH ÈA±±INg AND ³±±EN LUTz. ²EE ESPECIA±±Y ²IkkINk 2011.

3. LINDSAY ²mITH, “ ‘GENETICS ¹S A ²TUDY IN ºAITH’: ºORENSIC ´½µ, ÌINSHIP
µNA±YSIS, AND THE ³THICS OF ·ARE IN ¸OST-·ONflICT LATIN µmERICA,” Scholar &
Feminist Online (ÊARNARD ·ENTER FOR ¼ESEARCH ON ÈOmEN, 2014), 5, HTTP://SFON±INE.
BARNARD.EDU/±IFE-UN-±TD-FEmINISm-BIOSCIENCE-RACE/gENETICS-IS-A-STUDY-IN
-FAITH-FORENSIC-DNA-kINSHIP-ANA±YSIS-AND-THE-ETHICS-OF-CARE-IN-POST-CONflICT-±ATIN-
AmERICA/.
4. ºOR AN ³Ng±ISH TRANS±ATION OF THE PUB±ISHED VERSION OF THE COmmISSION’S
REPORT, Nunca Más, SEE WWW.DESAPARECIDOS.ORg/NUNCAmAS/WEB/ENg±ISH/±IBRARY
/NEVAgAIN/NEVAgAIN_001.HTm.
5. ¹T SHOU±D, OF COURSE, BE NOTED THAT LATIN µmERICA’S g±OBA± CONTRIBUTIONS TO
HUmAN RIgHTS DID NOT COmE OUT OF THE B±UE AT THE END OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY. µS
ÌATHRYN ²IkkINk, “LATIN µmERICAN ·OUNTRIES AS ½ORm ¸ROTAgONISTS OF THE ¹DEA OF
¹NTERNATIONA± ÉUmAN ¼IgHTS,” Global Governance 20.3 (JU±Y–²EPTEmBER 2014):
389–404, POINTS OUT, ±ONg BEFORE THE mI±ITARY REgImES OF THE 1970S, LATIN µmERICAN
COUNTRIES WERE EAR±Y PROTAgONISTS OF HUmAN RIgHTS IN THE POST–ÈOR±D ÈAR ¹¹ ERA
“DRAﬅINg OF THE fiRST INTERgOVERNmENTA± DEC±ARATION OF RIgHTS—THE µmERICAN
ÉC±ARATION OF THE ¼IgHTS AND ÚTIES OF MAN, A FU±± EIgHT mONTHS BEFORE THE
¶NIVERSA± ÉC±ARATION OF ÉUmAN ¼IgHTS (¶´É¼) WAS PASSED” (391).
6. °IS SECTION DRAWS ON DISCUSSIONS WITH ¼EBECCA ¾AR±AU, AN ExPERT ON THE
M²¾, AND THE FO±±OWINg WORkS: ¸HI±±IP MCMICHAE±, “G±OBA± ÉVE±OPmENT AND THE
·ORPORATE ºOOD ¼EgImE,” New Directions in the Sociology of Global Development
Research in Rural Sociology and Development 11 (2005): 269–303; ²ATURNINO M.
ÊORRAS JR., “LA ÍíA ·AmPESINA AND ¹TS G±OBA± ·AmPAIgN FOR µgRARIAN ¼EFORm,”
Journal of Agrarian Change 8.2–3 (2008): 258–89; ÊRENO ÊRINgE± AND º±áVIA ÊRAgA
ÍIEIRA, “³DUCATIONA± ¸ROCESSES, ¾RANSNATIONA± ³xCHANgES AND THE ¼ECONfigURATION
OF ¹NTERNATIONA±ISm IN ÊRAzI±’S M²¾ AND LA ÍIA ·AmPESINA” (PAPER PRESENTED AT THE
XX¹ ¹NTERNATIONA± ·ONgRESS OF THE LATIN µmERICAN ²TUDIES µSSOCIATION, 2013,
ÈASHINgTON ´·).
7. °IS SECTION DRAWS ON THE FO±±OWINg SOURCES: HTTP://RT.COm/NEWS/C±ImATE-
CHANgE-WA±kOUT-WARSAW-050/; WWW.UN.ORg/½EWS/BRIEfi NgS/DOCS/2014/140108
_G77.DOC.HTm; JESSICA ·AmI±±E µgUIRRE AND ³±IzABETH ²ONIA ·OOPER, “³VO MORA±ES,
·±ImATE ·HANgE, AND THE ¸ARADOxES OF A ²OCIA±-MOVEmENT ¸RESIDENCY,” Latin
American Perspectives 37.4 (2010): 238–44.
MANgA: “·HE GUEVARA,” BY ÌIYOSHI ÌONNO AND ·HIE ²HImANO.
(Upper leﬅ) ¾ODAY, NO mATTER WHERE WE gO
(Upper right) µ±± AROUND THE WOR±D
(Lower) ÈE CAN SEE “HIm.”
(Upper leﬅ) “ÉI THERE, DO YOU kNOW WHAT kIND OF PERSON HE IS, BY THE WAY?”
(Upper right) “ÓOU kNOW, THE FACE ON YOUR ¾-SHIRT”
“Ó YOU kNOW, DUDE?”
“½AH”
(Middle) “»H, THEN WHY ARE YOU WEARINg IT?”
“ÈE±±, YOU SEE, THIS mAN . . .”
(Lower) “¹ DON’T kNOW WHY BUT HE’S jUST SO COO±”
(Upper) °E mAN’S NAmE IS—
(Lower) ³RNESTO ¼AFAE± GUEVARA DE ±A ²ERNA
(Upper) ¸EOP±E CA±± HIm ·HE GUEVARA
(Lower) ÉIS ImAgE HAS SPREAD AROUND THE WOR±D ±IkE AN ICON IN mANY WAYS.
pa r t t w o
Tongues and Feet
introduction
ïith not-so-subtle references to the CU±INARY DE±ICACY lengua

(COW TONgUE) AND THE INSTRUmENTS OF fútbol (SOCCER) SUCCESS, “¾ONgUES AND
ºEET” INTRODUCES US TO THE mAkINg, PERFORmINg, AND CONSUmINg THAT E±ECTRI-
fiES THE CIRCUITS OF g±OBA± LATIN µmERICA. ·HAPTERS TAkE US FROm µNDEAN
mUSIC CONCERTS IN JAPAN TO ±INES OF PEOP±E WAITINg FOR ÌOREAN BARBECUE SERVED
FROm TACO TRUCkS IN LOS µNgE±ES. °IS PART HE±PS US TO SITUATE THE SENSORY
ExPERIENCE OF LATIN µmERICAN CU±TURA± ±IFE FROm AFAR, gIVINg TImE, P±ACE, AND
SPECIfiCITY TO WHAT CAN EASI±Y SEEm TO BE TImE±ESS TRADITION, STY±E, AND TASTE.
“¾ONgUES AND ºEET” PUTS THE Oﬅ-USED WORD authenticity ON THE FRONT
BURNER. µUTHENTICITY IS CERTAIN±Y NO ±ONgER (AS IF IT EVER WAS) A PRISTINE IDEA± TO
BE DISCOVERED BUT AN ONgOINg PROCESS OF RE/CREATION. °ESE CHAPTERS ARE fi ±±ED
WITH mYRIAD ExAmP±ES OF FUSION, mIxTURE, AND APPROPRIATION. °E SUffi x -iza-
tion RECURS THROUgHOUT AS WE ±EARN ABOUT THE µFRICANIzATION OF LATIN µmERICAN
RHYTHmS, THE CREO±IzATION OF ¹BERIAN ±ANgUAgES, AND THE fiTNESSIzATION OF DANCE
STY±ES. ¾OgETHER THEY SHOW HOW ANOTHER “-IzATION” THAT HAS qUICkENED THE PACE
OF CU±TURA± mIxTURE—g±OBA±IzATION—HAS IRONICA±±Y P±ACED A PREmIUm ON SUP-
POSED±Y gENUINE ±OCA± AND REgIONA± CU±TURA± FORmS. °E gREATER INTENSITY
OF g±OBA± CONNECTIONS HAS BEEN A BOON TO THE mARkET FOR THE SEEmINg±Y
PRISTINE AND ExOTIC, AS mANY SEEk “AUTHENTIC” CU±TURA± ExPRESSIONS UNSU±±IED BY
THE HYPERCONNECTED, DIgITA±, NEO±IBERA± NOW, jUST WAITINg TO BE “DISCOVERED” IN
AN EDgY PART OF TOWN OR ON AN ADVENTURE SOUTH OF THE BORDER.
ÈHI±E THE CHAPTERS ExP±ORE THE mAkINg AND REmAkINg OF AUTHENTICITY IN
±ANgUAgE, SPORT, DANCE, AND FOOD, THEY ARE NOT AmUSINg CU±TURA± PROfi ±ES
DIVORCED FROm BA±±OTS AND BUSINESS. ÈE ENCOUNTER HERE THE fiNANCIA± AND
PO±ITICA± CONSEqUENCES OF THE TRADE IN AUTHENTICITY AS THE AUTHORS DETAI± THE
INEqUITIES THAT ACCOmPANY CU±TURA± APPROPRIATION. ºROm PROTEST ON THE SOCCER
PITCH TO THE PRICE OF qUINOA, THE CHAPTERS TAkE US INTO THE P±ACES WHERE CU±-
TURA± CAPITA±—A CURRENCY OF UPWARD SOCIA± mOBI±ITY—IS CREATED AND
ExCHANgED. °AT mARkET HAS C±EAR WINNERS AT CERTAIN TImES AND P±ACES, ±IkE THE
FEW WHO mAkE IT TO THE PREmIERE ±EAgUES IN ³UROPE OR THE ImmIgRANT FOOD
ENTREPRENEURS WHO BECOmE CAB±E TE±EVISION STARS AﬅER WHETTINg THE APPETITE
OF THE ¶.². TE±EVISION PERSONA±ITY µNTHONY ÊOURDAIN. ÓET THERE ARE COUNT±ESS
OTHERS WHO DO NOT mAkE IT BIg. °EY REmAIN ±INE COOkS IN THE BACk OF THE
kITCHEN AND FANS CHEERINg FOR THEIR TEAm ON TE±EVISION BECAUSE THEY CANNOT
AffORD THE PRICE OF A gAmE TICkET.
MOVINg FROm SITES OF PRODUCTION TO CONSUmPTION, THESE CHAPTERS ExP±ORE
THE SYmBO±IC PRESTIgE AND SOCIA± DISTINCTION TO BE gAINED BY kNOWINg THE
±OCATION OF THE HIPPEST FOOD TRUCk OR BY kEEPINg TImE WITH THE NEWEST
·ARIBBEAN RHYTHmS FROm AFAR. ÓET THE AUTHORS SHOW HOW CU±TURA± FORmS ±OSE
mUCH OF THEIR IDEO±OgICA± CONTENT WHEN THEY TRAVE± FAR FROm HOmE. °E ÊUENA
ÍISTA ²OCIA± ·±UB COmES TO REPRESENT THE ·UBA OF CHARISmATICA±±Y AgED CARS
AND CO±ONIA± CHARm, NOT THE MARxIST REVO±UTIONARY STATE. µ±± THE WHI±E NEWER
ENVE±OPE-PUSHINg g±OBA± SOUNDS, ±IkE REggAETóN AND HIP-HOP, ARE BRUSHED
ASIDE AS ±ACkINg IN SkI±± AND TASTE. °ESE AUTHORS DO NOT UNIFORm±Y SUPPORT OR
CRITICIzE THESE PROCESSES. ¹NSTEAD, THEIR WORkS HIgH±IgHT HOW CU±TURE IS IN flUx
IN THE TWENTY-fiRST CENTURY, SEEmINg±Y AT EVER-INCREASINg SPEED AND WITH THE
EVER PRESENT ExPECTATION OF REINVENTION.
G±OBA± LATIN µmERICA HAS HAD AN OUTSIzED INflUENCE WOR±DWIDE. °E
REgION BEqUEATHED TO THE REST OF THE WOR±D THE STUDY OF ±ANgUAgE (PHI±O±OgY),
AS ¸AjA ºAUDREE AND ÁNIE± ²US±Ak SHOW. ÊRENDA ³±SEY WRITES THAT LATIN
µmERICANS HAVE PERFECTED THE ³Ng±ISH INVENTION OF SOCCER, “BEAT[INg] THE
INDUSTRIA±IzED ½ORTH AT ITS OWN gAmE.” ÓET mEASURINg THE DEPTH OF LATIN
µmERICAN ImPACT DOES NOT CAPTURE THE FU±±NESS OF g±OBA± LATIN µmERICA. °IS
STORY IS NOT jUST ABOUT ONE- OR EVEN TWO-WAY RE±ATIONSHIPS OF INflUENCE AND
ExCHANgE. ¹NSTEAD, A VAST ARRAY OF INDIVIDUA±S PARTICIPATE IN THE ExPRESSION
AND RE-CREATION OF REgIONA±±Y RECOgNIzAB±E CU±TURA± FORmS.
G±OBA± LATIN µmERICA IS THEREFORE mADE IN mUSIC STUDIOS IN THE ¶NITED
²TATES AND JAPAN, WHERE SOmE HAVE BECOmE ENTRANCED BY WHAT MICHE±±E
ÊIgENHO TERmS AN “ImAgINED µNDEAN INDIgENISm.” ¹T IS FASHIONED THROUgH
THE REINSERTION OF µFRICAN RHYTHmS INTO SA±SA VIA A TRANSNATIONA± mUSIC SCENE
STRETCHINg FROm ÁkAR AND µBIDjAN TO ÉAVANA AND ½EW ÓORk ·ITY. ¹T TAkES
SHAPE THROUgH EACH NEW ±ExICA± ADDITION TO ²PANg±ISH, WHICH IN 2014 EARNED
94 • pa rt t wo
AN ENTRY IN THE ¼OYA± ²PANISH µCADEmY’S DICTIONARY. °ESE ARE THE REA±ITIES OF
g±OBA± INgENUITY, AND THEY BECkON AN AUTHENTIC APPRECIATION FOR CREATIVE RE/
PRODUCTION.
“¾ONgUES AND ºEET” ASSEmB±ES SCHO±ARS FROm HISTORY, ANTHROPO±OgY, ±AN-
gUAgE STUDIES, ±ITERATURE, AND ±INgUISTICS TO gRAPP±E WITH ONE OF mOST POWERFU±
AND ENDURINg mETAPHORS OF A REFRIED g±OBA± LATIN µmERICAN CU±TURE. °E FOUN-
DATION OF NUmEROUS NATIONA± IDENTITIES AND A TOPIC OF SCHO±AR±Y INqUIRY, THE
CE±EBRATION OF mIxTURE AND SYNCRETISm HAS PERSISTED OVER THE ±ONg DURATION AND
IN DIVERSE P±ACES THROUgHOUT LATIN µmERICA. °E INCREASINg±Y UNCERTAIN ±INES
BETWEEN LATIN µmERICA AND E±SEWHERE AND THE SEARCH FOR AUTHENTICITY IN A
SEEmINg±Y HOmOgENIzINg WOR±D mAY U±TImATE±Y RESHAPE THE PREmIUm ON THE
B±ENDED. ¹N ANY CASE, THE g±OBA± INTERP±AY BETWEEN THE CREATORS AND CONSUmERS
OF LATIN µmERICA REmAINS, AT ±EAST FOR THE mOmENT, AS ±IVE±Y AS EVER.
five
Borges’s Library
latin aÇerica, lan¿ua¿e, and the world
Paja Faudree and Daniel Suslak
°E UNIVERSE (WHICH OTHERS CA±± THE LIBRARY) IS COmPOSED OF AN

INDEfiNITE AND PERHAPS INfiNITE NUmBER OF HExAgONA± gA±±ERIES. . . .
°E LIBRARY IS TOTA± AND ITS SHE±VES REgISTER . . . ³VERYTHINg . . .
èor¿e luis bor¿es, “°E LIBRARY OF ÊABE±”
Ïn the faÇous story by the µRgENTINE AUTHOR JORgE LUIS ÊORgES, THE
LIBRARY OF ÊABE± CONTAINS EVERY BOOk EVER WRITTEN AND DESTINED TO BE WRITTEN,
IN EVERY HUmAN ±ANgUAgE. °E ENTIRE ±INgUISTIC HISTORY OF HUmANITY IS CON-
TAINED IN THAT mAgICA± ±IBRARY—A VAST HExAgON THAT REmAINS HIDDEN, PERHAPS,
SOmEWHERE IN A FORgOTTEN qUARTER OF ÊUENOS µIRES. ¹T IS AN APT mETAPHOR FOR
LATIN µmERICA ITSE±F: A ±IVINg REPOSITORY OF g±OBA± CONVERSATIONS AND A CATA±Og
OF HUmAN ±IVES AND ENCOUNTERS. µND ±IkE THE RE±ATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE WORDS
PRESERVED IN THE LIBRARY’S BOOkS AND WHAT IS SAID BEYOND ITS mIRRORED WA±±S,
LATIN µmERICA’S ±INgUISTIC BIOgRAPHY IS A±WAYS BEINg REWRITTEN.
¾O BETTER UNDERSTAND THE ±INgUISTIC ±EgACY OF LATIN µmERICA AND ITS CON-
TRIBUTION TO OUR SHARED g±OBA± ±ExICON, WE START WITH THE CORNER OF THE ±IBRARY
DEDICATED TO LATIN µmERICA’S PRE-·ONqUEST ROOTS AND THE ±INgUISTIC CONSE-
qUENCES OF THE CO±ONIA± ±EgACY, TRACINg THE mOVEmENT OF PEOP±E IN AND OUT OF
THIS REgION AND THE WORDS THAT mADE THE jOURNEY WITH THEm. ÈE FOCUS ON
THREE kEY COmmUNICATION PRACTICES, BEgINNINg WITH HOW THE INDIgENOUS RESI-
DENTS OF THE µmERICAS AND THE ³UROPEAN CO±ONIzERS NAmED THE NEW THINgS
THEY ENCOUNTERED. ÈE THEN CONSIDER HOW THEY PUT TO WORk BOTH INDIgENOUS
mODES OF WRITINg AND ³UROPEAN A±PHABETIC WRITINg TO CAPTURE ±ANgUAgE AND
REACH OUT TO (OR ExC±UDE) NEW AND ±ARgER AUDIENCES. ºINA±±Y, WE DISCUSS HOW
fiVE CENTURIES OF ENgAgEmENT gENERATED DISTINCTIVE±Y LATIN µmERICAN VARIETIES
OF ²PANISH AND ¸ORTUgUESE, FUNDAmENTA±±Y CHANgED HOW INDIgENOUS LATIN
97
µmERICAN ±ANgUAgES ARE SPOkEN, AND gAVE BIRTH TO WHO±±Y NEW ±ANgUAgES,
SUCH AS ÉAITIAN ÌREYò±. µ±ONg THE WAY WE A±SO HIgH±IgHT THE ImPORTANCE OF
RE±IgION AND RE±IgIOUS INSTITUTIONS IN SHAPINg LATIN µmERICAN IDEAS ABOUT
±ANgUAgE.
¹N THE SECOND HA±F OF THIS CHAPTER WE TURN TO THE AREA OF THE ±IBRARY WHERE
NEW ACqUISITIONS ARE kEPT. ÉERE WE fiND EVIDENCE OF THE gROWINg PRESENCE OF
LATIN µmERICAN ±ANgUAgES AROUND THE WOR±D, AS THEIR SPEAkERS TRAVE± AND
THEIR CU±TURA± PRODUCTIONS CIRCU±ATE EVER mORE WIDE±Y. ÈE PAY PARTICU±AR
ATTENTION TO LATIN µmERICAN ENTANg±EmENTS WITH THEIR µNg±OPHONE NEIgH-
BORS IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES. ÈE A±SO PAUSE TO CONSIDER WHAT THE FUTURE HO±DS IN
STORE FOR ²PANISH AND ¸ORTUgUESE, AS µmERICAN VARIETIES OF THESE ±ANgUAgES
FURTHER OUTPACE THEIR ³UROPEAN COUNTERPARTS IN NUmBERS OF SPEAkERS AND
PO±ITICA± INflUENCE.
µS WE ExP±ORE THE mIRRORED HA±±S OF THIS ±IBRARY, WE CE±EBRATE THE mYRIAD
WAYS THAT LATIN µmERICAN ±ANgUAgES HAVE INflUENCED HOW PEOP±E SPEAk IN
OTHER CORNERS OF THE g±OBE. °E CO±±ECTION OF STORIES fi±±INg ITS SHE±VES DEmON-
STRATE HOW ±ANgUAgE AND CONflICTS ABOUT ±ANgUAgE HAVE P±AYED ESSENTIA± RO±ES
IN SHAPINg THIS REgION’S COmP±Ex HISTORY, gIVINg VOICE TO ITS PO±ITICA±±Y FRAUgHT
CURRENT CONDITION AND FORETE±±INg ITS FUTURE, WHICH WI±± CONTINUE TO BE ONE OF
POROUS AND SHIﬅINg BORDERS, DYNAmISm, AND g±OBA± ENgAgEmENT.
froÇ incas and aZtecs to ar¿entine

novelists: a brief history of latin aÇerica’s
lin¿uistic landscape
Names
°E VERY NAmE “LATIN µmERICA” WEDS gEOgRAPHY AND ±ANgUAgE. °E REgION IS
gENERA±±Y DEfiNED AS CONSISTINg OF THOSE COUNTRIES IN THE µmERICAS WHOSE Offi-
CIA± ±ANgUAgES ARE DESCENDED FROm LATIN. ¹N THE CO±ONIA± PERIOD, THOSE ±AN-
gUAgES WERE ²PANISH AND ¸ORTUgUESE; ±ATER, OTHER ±ANgUAgES—SUCH AS ³Ng±ISH
AND ºRENCH—WOU±D COmP±ICATE THIS PICTURE. ³VEN SO, LATIN µmERICA’S COHER-
ENCE AS A REgION TODAY IS ±ARgE±Y ±INgUISTIC. °E ¼íO ÊRAVO—WHICH NORTH OF
THE BORDER BECOmES THE ¼IO GRANDE (WITH A SI±ENT e AND NO ACCENT)—IS NOT
ON±Y A PO±ITICA± BOUNDARY BUT A±SO A ±INgUISTIC ONE, AT ±EAST IN THE NATIONA±
mYTHO±OgIES THAT HAVE SPRUNg UP ON EITHER SIDE OF IT.
°E DOmINANCE AND PREVA±ENCE OF ²PANISH AND ¸ORTUgUESE IN THE REgION
STEm FROm THE DISCOVERY OF THE µmERICAS BY THE ·ATHO±IC kINgDOmS OF ²PAIN
98 • ch a p t er f i v e
AND ¸ORTUgA± AT THE END OF THE fiﬅEENTH CENTURY AND THEIR SUBSEqUENT EffORTS
TO CONqUER AND CO±ONIzE THOSE ±ANDS. ¸OPE µ±ExANDER Í¹ BROkERED TREATIES
BETWEEN ²PAIN AND ¸ORTUgA± THAT DIVIDED THE g±OBE IN TWO. ¸ORTUgA± WAS
AWARDED EVANgE±ICA± RESPONSIBI±ITY FOR A TERRITORY STRETCHINg FROm THE EASTERN
SHORES OF ²OUTH µmERICA TO JAPAN, AND ²PAIN A SWATH OF THE WOR±D STRETCHINg
FROm º±ORIDA TO THE ¸HI±IPPINES. ³CHOES OF THIS TREATY CAN BE HEARD TODAY IN
THE NAmES OF CITIES ±IkE LOS µNgE±ES AND ÊOmBAY (FROm ¸ORTUgUESE bom
baim) AND IN WORDS ±IkE arigato IN JAPANESE (FROm ¸ORTUgUESE obrigado,
“THANk YOU”) AND THE ³Ng±ISH WORD peon (FROm ²PANISH peon, “FOOTmAN OR
FOOTSO±DIER”). µS IS WE±± kNOWN, ±ARgE SWATHS OF THE ½EW ÈOR±D, FROm ½EW
²PAIN TO THE µmAzON, WERE NAmED AﬅER »±D ÈOR±D ±OCA±ES AND mYTHS. ÊUT
AT TImES THE PO±ITICS OF NAmINg WAS mORE COmP±Ex. ¹N 1510, FOR ExAmP±E, THE
²PANISH WRITER GARCI ¼ODRígUEz DE MONTA±VO—HIS HEAD fi±±ED WITH REPORTS
FROm ·O±UmBUS AND ·ORTéS—WROTE A POPU±AR NOVE± FEATURINg A WARRIOR
qUEEN NAmED ·A±AfiA, FROm A mYTHICA± IS±AND IN THE ¹NDIES NAmED
“·A±IFORNIA.” °AT EVOCATIVE NAmE, IN TURN, IS THOUgHT TO BE THE SOURCE OF THE
NAmE gIVEN TO THE ±ONg STRETCH OF THE ½ORTH µmERICAN ¸ACIfiC COAST RUNNINg
FROm THE ¶.². STATE TO THE TIP OF THE ÊAjA PENINSU±A. ¾ODAY, ±IkE COUNT±ESS
OTHER LATIN µmERICAN P±ACE-NAmES, IT HAS BEEN TAkEN UP IN NAmES FOR PUB±IC
P±ACES AND BUSINESSES FOUND ACROSS THE WOR±D.
ÈE±± OVER A THOUSAND DISTINCT TONgUES WERE SPOkEN IN LATIN µmERICA
WHEN THE fiRST ³UROPEANS ARRIVED ON ITS SHORES, A±± OF THEm RADICA±±Y DIffERENT
FROm THE ±ANgUAgES SPOkEN IN ³UROPE. ÚRINg THE ·ONqUEST, AN ImmENSE
COmmUNICATION gU±F ExISTED BETWEEN THE ³UROPEANS AND THE µmERICAN
INDIgENOUS PEOP±ES. MISCOmmUNICATIONS ABOUNDED. »NE SUCH STORIED CASE
INVO±VED THE NAmE ÓUCATáN, WHICH NOW REFERS TO A SINg±E REgION OF MExICO BUT
INITIA±±Y DESIgNATED A VAST STRETCH OF ²PAIN’S ½EW ÈOR±D DISCOVERIES, ExTEND-
INg FROm MExICO TO ¸ANAmA. °E ²PANISH CONqUISTADOR ÉERNáN ·ORTéS
C±AImED THAT THE NAmE FOR THIS mARVE±OUS ±AND WAS mISTAkEN±Y DERIVED FROm
A MAYA ExPRESSION mEANINg “¹ DON’T UNDERSTAND”—A REP±Y BY MAYA ±OCA±S
WHEN NEW±Y ARRIVED ²PANIARDS ASkED WHAT THEIR HOmE±AND WAS CA±±ED. ²OmE
mODERN SCHO±ARS HAVE TAkEN A SImI±AR VIEW, WHI±E OTHERS HAVE C±AImED THAT
·ORTéS’S STORY WAS ITSE±F PROBAB±Y BASED ON A BAD INTERPRETATION. ¹N EITHER CASE,
ACCOUNTS AgREE THAT NONE OF THE mU±TIP±E POSSIB±E SOURCES FOR THE NAmE COR-
RESPOND WITH ANY MAYA P±ACE-NAmE. ·OUNT±ESS OTHER mISUNDERSTANDINgS OF
THIS SORT ARE ±OST TO HISTORY. ·O±ONIzATION DECImATED mANY INDIgENOUS PEO-
P±ES, WHO TOOk THEIR ±ANgUAgES WITH THEm TO THEIR gRAVES. ½EVERTHE±ESS, SEV-
ERA± HUNDRED INDIgENOUS ±ANgUAgES ARE SPOkEN TODAY. µT ·ONqUEST, TWO OF
Òor¿es’s Üi br a ry • 99
THE mOST WIDE±Y SPOkEN WERE ëUECHUA (PRINCIPA± ±ANgUAgE OF THE ¹NCA
³mPIRE) AND ½AHUAT± (PRINCIPA± ±ANgUAgE OF THE µzTEC ³mPIRE); SEVERA± mI±-
±ION PEOP±E SPEAk mODERN VARIETIES OF THOSE ±ANgUAgES TODAY. ÓOU CAN ±EARN TO
SPEAk THEm, TOO, IN COURSES OffERED AT UNIVERSITIES ACROSS THE g±OBE.
Grammars, Alphabets, and Writing

·ATHO±IC PRIESTS DID mUCH TO BRIDgE THE COmmUNICATION gAP BETWEEN THE »±D
ÈOR±D AND THE ½EW. °EY STUDIED INDIgENOUS LATIN µmERICAN ±ANgUAgES
INTENSE±Y, TURNINg TO THEm AS OBjECTS OF EPISTEmO±OgICA± INqUIRY AND TOO±S FOR
EVANgE±IzATION. °EY FOCUSED ESPECIA±±Y ON WIDE±Y SPOkEN ±ANgUAgES ±IkE
ëUECHUA, ½AHUAT±, ÓUCATEC, AND Ì’ICHE’ MAYA—±ANgUAgES THAT WERE A±SO
gRANTED ±EgA± AND ADmINISTRATIVE STANDINg IN CO±ONIA± ²PANISH COURTS AND
gOVERNmENT OffiCES. °IS ENgAgEmENT BY CO±ONIA± AUTHORITIES IRREVOCAB±Y
CHANgED LATIN µmERICA’S INDIgENOUS ±ANgUAgES. °EY WERE SOON PERVADED BY
²PANISH AND ¸ORTUgUESE ±OANWORDS AND BEgAN TO UNDERgO mORE PROFOUND
gRAmmATICA± TRANSFORmATIONS AS A RESU±T OF THE FORCED ImPOSITION OF NEW ±EgA±
AND RE±IgIOUS DISCURSIVE NORmS. µT THE SAmE TImE, CO±ONIA± ±EgA± INSTITUTIONS
WERE FORCED TO ACCOmmODATE TO INDIgENOUS NORmS AS WE±±, AS WHEN ROYA±
COURTS ACCEPTED AS ±EgA± DOCUmENTS PICTORIA± TExTS WRITTEN IN A mIxTURE OF
LATIN CHARACTERS AND MESOAmERICAN g±YPHS.
°E FORmA± STUDY OF THE WOR±D’S ±ANgUAgES WAS, IN mANY WAYS, HATCHED IN
LATIN µmERICA. °E CREATION OF THE fiRST mODERN gRAmmARS IS OﬅEN ATTRIBUTED
TO THE ²PANISH gRAmmARIAN µNTONIO DE ½EBRIjA, WHOSE 1486 gRAmmAR OF
LATIN WAS FO±±OWED BY ONE FOR ·ASTI±IAN IN 1492. ÉE REPUTED±Y PRESENTED THE
±ATTER TO ²PAIN’S ëUEEN ¹SABE±±A WITH THE FATEFU± PHRASE, “MAjESTY, ±ANgUAgE IS
THE PERFECT INSTRUmENT OF EmPIRE.” µND, INDEED, ±ANgUAgE CONTACT FORmED A
CRUCIA± FRONT IN ²PAIN’S OVERSEAS ExPANSION: ·ATHO±IC PRIESTS WERE CHARgED
WITH ±EARNINg µmERINDIAN ±ANgUAgES AND USINg THEm AS INSTRUmENTS OF CON-
VERSION AND CO±ONIzATION. µ ±ESSER-kNOWN PART OF THIS STORY, HOWEVER, IS THE
FACT THAT mANY OF THE gRAmmARS THAT FO±±OWED WERE STUDIES OF INDIgENOUS
±ANgUAgES ±IkE ½AHUAT±, ËAPOTEC, AND GUARANí. °ESE WORkS BECAmE THE
FOUNDATION FOR THE mODERN STUDY OF ±ANgUAgES ACROSS THE g±OBE WHI±E HE±PINg
TO CEmENT THE ONgOINg INflUENCE TODAY OF PARTICU±AR ±ANgUAgES. GUARANí, FOR
ExAmP±E, IS ONE OF ¸ARAgUAY’S OffiCIA± ±ANgUAgES AND CONTINUES TO BE SPOkEN
BY A mAjORITY OF ITS POPU±ATION. ³Ng±ISH AND OTHER ±ANgUAgES HAVE ACqUIRED A
NUmBER OF WORDS FROm GUARANí, INC±UDINg tapir, piranha, AND, mOST RECENT±Y,
THE TRENDY BERRY açai.
LATIN µmERICA A±SO BECAmE “LATIN” µmERICA VIA THE USE OF THE LATIN A±PHA-
BET. °E PRODUCTION OF WRITTEN TExTS—RE±IgIOUS, ±EgA±, SCHO±AR±Y—WAS CENTRA±
TO THE CO±ONIA± ENTERPRISE. ÊUT WRITINg IN THE µmERICAS HAS A PREVIOUS HISTORY
AS WE±±: SEVERA± OF THE WOR±D’S O±DEST AND mOST SOPHISTICATED WRITINg SYSTEmS
BEgAN DEVE±OPINg SOmE TWENTY-fiVE HUNDRED YEARS AgO IN MESOAmERICA
(ROUgH±Y, MExICO AND ·ENTRA± µmERICA). MANY WERE STI±± WIDE±Y USED UPON THE
ARRIVA± OF THE ²PANISH AND FOR mANY DECADES AﬅER. ÊUT AS CO±ONIA± RU±E TOOk
HO±D IN THE µmERICAS, THE ²PANISH ±AUNCHED CONCERTED EffORTS TO gATHER AND
DESTROY TExTS WRITTEN IN INDIgENOUS ±ANgUAgES, VIEWINg THEm AS IDO±ATROUS.
µ±THOUgH THIS SAVAgE REPRESSION OF INDIgENOUS RE±IgION NEAR±Y WIPED OUT THE
REgION’S ANCIENT WRITINg TRADITIONS, THE REmAININg TExTS HAVE COmE OVER THE
PAST CENTURY TO ATTRACT WIDESPREAD ATTENTION. °E MESOAmERICAN CODICES THAT
SURVIVED THE PURgES ENDED UP STASHED IN ±IBRARIES IN ¸ARIS, LONDON, AND E±SE-
WHERE IN ³UROPE. ÓURI ÌNOROzOV, THE mAN WHO CRACkED THE “MAYA CODE,” WAS
BORN IN ¶kRAINE AND STUDIED ETHNO±OgY AND ³gYPTO±OgY IN MOSCOW. ÉIS
SEmINA± WORk ON MAYAN WRITINg, PUB±ISHED IN 1952, WAS BASED ON CODICES THAT
THE ²OVIET ¼ED µRmY SNATCHED UP FROm ÊER±IN’S NATIONA± ±IBRARY IN THE AﬅER-
mATH OF ÈOR±D ÈAR ¹¹. ÌNOROzOV’S WORk A±SO DREW HEAVI±Y FROm THE WRITINgS
OF A SIxTEENTH-CENTURY ²PANISH BISHOP NAmED ÍEgO DE LANDA. É LANDA
HE±PED PURgE THE ÓUCATAN OF MAYAN WRITINg, BUT IN AN IRONIC TWIST, HIS NOTES
PROVIDED THE kEY TO REDISCOVERINg ITS ±OST mEANINg. ºOUR AND A HA±F CENTURIES
±ATER, MAYAN COmmUNITIES IN MExICO AND GUATEmA±A HAVE REC±AImED THEIR
SYmBO±S AND NOW PUT THEm TO USE IN STREET SIgNS, ±OgOS, AND OTHER DISP±AYS OF
±OCA± IDENTITY—EVERYTHINg FROm TATTOOS TO ON±INE AVATARS. µND THE mI±±IONS
OF TOURISTS FROm AROUND THE WOR±D WHO VISIT THE MAYAN REgION EVERY YEAR TAkE
PIECES OF THAT ANCIENT WRITINg HOmE WITH THEm, AS MAYAN g±YPHS EmB±AzONED
ON ¾-SHIRTS, jEWE±RY, AND OTHER SOUVENIRS.
Linguistic Contact and Borrowing

·ONTACT BETWEEN ¹BERIA AND THE µmERICAS TRANSFORmED THE ±INgUISTIC CHARAC-
TER OF BOTH. ²PANISH BECAmE WHAT IT IS TODAY ±ARgE±Y THROUgH ENgAgEmENT WITH
LATIN µmERICA. µCROSS ³UROPE, ±OCA± VERNACU±ARS TOOk THE P±ACE OF LATIN AS
±ANgUAgES OF AUTHORITY. µS THE OUT±INES OF mODERN ²PAIN COA±ESCED BEHIND THE
ÌINgDOm OF ·ASTI±E, ITS ROYA± HOUSE BECAmE THE ²PANISH ·ROWN. ·ASTI±IAN—
ON±Y ±ATER kNOWN AS “²PANISH” IN mANY PARTS OF THE WOR±D—BECAmE THE ±AN-
gUAgE OF THAT EmERgINg NATION AND WAS CARRIED WITH CO±ONISTS TO THE µmERICAS
A±ONg WITH NOVE± IDEAS AND gOODS. ²PEAkERS OF µmERINDIAN ±ANgUAgES HAD TO
INVENT NEW WORDS FOR THESE. »NE STRATEgY WAS TO ExTEND THE mEANINg OF
A±READY ExISTINg NATIVE WORDS, SUCH AS USINg THE WORD FOR “DEER” TO REFER TO
HORSES AS WE±±. ¹N A NUmBER OF CASES, SPEAkERS DISTINgUISHED NATIVE THINgS
FROm ImPORTS BY ADDINg castellano TO THE NAmE. ºOR ExAmP±E, IN THE MExICAN
±ANgUAgE MAzATEC, THE WORD FOR “BREAD”—A FOOD DATINg FROm CO±ONIA± DAYS—
IS ñoxtila (·ASTI±IAN TORTI±±A); THE WORD FOR “CHAIR,” A TYPE OF FURNITURE ±IkEWISE
OF CO±ONIA± PROVENANCE, IS yaxile (·ASTI±IAN WOOD[EN THINg]).
·ENTURIES OF MOORISH PRESENCE IN ¹BERIA A±SO gIﬅED ²PANISH AND ¸ORTUgUESE
WITH HUNDREDS OF µRABIC ±OANWORDS FROm DIVERSE REA±mS OF ExPERIENCE; FROm
RE±IgION, ojalá (FROm law šhaʾ allāh, “GOD WI±±INg”); FROm ARCHITECTURE, adobe
AND alcoba (A±COVE); FROm mATERIA± CU±TURE, almohada (PI±±OW); FROm AgRICU±-
TURE, café, azúcar, zanahoria, aceituna, AND algodón (COffEE, SUgAR, CARROT, O±IVE,
AND COTTON, RESPECTIVE±Y); FROm PO±ITICS, asesino (ASSASSIN) AND alcalde (mAYOR);
FROm mATHEmATICS, algebra AND cero (zERO); AND FROm COmmERCE, tarifa (TARIff).
MANY OF THESE µRABIC ±OANS mADE THEIR WAY INTO ³Ng±ISH, BY WAY OF CONTACT WITH
²PANISH, AND THEY WERE INCORPORATED INTO INDIgENOUS LATIN µmERICAN ±AN-
gUAgES AS WE±±. ºOR ExAmP±E, THE WORD FOR “COIN” OR “mONEY” IN mANY OF THESE
±ANgUAgES IS DERIVED FROm tumn, AN µRABIC ±OANWORD FOR “SI±VER COIN,” AS IN THE
½AHUAT± WORD tomin OR THE MIxE WORD meen.
MEANWHI±E, DIffERENT NATIONA± VARIETIES OF ²PANISH EmERgED ACROSS LATIN
µmERICA AS THEY ACqUIRED DISTINCTIVE RHYTHmS AND VOCABU±ARY TAkEN IN FROm
THE INDIgENOUS ±ANgUAgES SPOkEN A±± AROUND THEm. °IS, IN TURN, SOWED THE
SEEDS OF ±INgUISTIC CONflICT, AS THE DIVERgENCE OF LATIN µmERICAN ²PANISH FROm
ITS PENINSU±AR PARENT ±ED TO THE FORmATION OF THE ¼EA± µCADEmIA ³SPAñO±A
(¼OYA± ²PANISH µCADEmY), WHICH WAS CHARgED WITH PO±ICINg THE ±ANgUAgE’S
BOUNDARIES AND CODES OF CONTACT. ³AR±Y CONTACT BETWEEN ²PANISH AND ¾AíNO
(A ±ANgUAgE WIDE±Y SPOkEN IN THE ·ARIBBEAN BEFORE ·ONqUEST) gAVE ²PANISH
THE WORDS canoa (CANOE), barbacoa (BARBECUE), hamaca (HAmmOCk), AND
caciQue (CHIEF, BOSS), NOT TO mENTION THE NAmES OF TWO ESSENTIA± g±OBA± FOOD
STAP±ES: maíz (CORN) AND patata (POTATO). ½AHUAT± HEAVI±Y INflUENCED MExICAN
²PANISH, WHICH ABSORBED NAmES FOR P±ACES (¾±AxCA±A, µCAPU±CO), P±ANTS
(tomate, chili), ANImA±S (ocelote, coyote), CUISINE (tamales, chocolate), AND OTHER
THINgS PREVIOUS±Y UNkNOWN TO ³UROPEANS, SUCH AS hule (RUBBER) AND copal
(THE CRYSTA±±IzED SAP OF A ½EW ÈOR±D TREE USED AS INCENSE). µ SImI±AR PROCESS
TOOk P±ACE WITH ëUECHUA WORDS ADOPTED INTO µNDEAN ²PANISH, AmONg THEm
llama, jerky (AS IN BEEF jERkY, FROm ëUECHUA ch’arki), condor, puma, AND THE
FASHIONAB±E gRAIN Quinoa. ·HE GUEVARA gOT HIS FAmOUS NICkNAmE FROm THE
INTERjECTION che (mAN! DUDE!) USED IN µRgENTINE AND OTHER VARIETIES OF ²OUTH
µmERICAN ²PANISH. »NE POPU±AR BUT CONTESTED NARRATIVE HO±DS THAT IT, TOO, IS
AN INDIgENOUS ±OANWORD, ORIgINATINg IN MAPUDUNgUN, THE ±ANgUAgE OF THE
MAPUCHE PEOP±E OF SOUTHERN ·HI±E AND µRgENTINA. ¹N THE TERRITORIES CONTRO±-
±ED BY ¸ORTUgA±, CONTACT BETWEEN ¸ORTUgUESE AND INDIgENOUS ±ANgUAgES SUCH
AS ¾UPí WAS ±ESS ExTENSIVE, A±THOUgH THEY NEVERTHE±ESS ±Eﬅ AN INDE±IB±E mARk
ON ÊRAzI±IAN ¸ORTUgUESE. ¸ONDER THAT AS YOU SIT ON THE BEACHES OF ¹PANEmA
(“fiSH±ESS WATER”), DRINkINg YOUR caipirinha (“±ITT±E HI±±BI±±Y”).
°US LATIN µmERICAN WORDS HAVE BEEN ExPORTED OUT OF THE REgION FOR CEN-
TURIES AND HAVE TAkEN UP RESIDENCE IN ±ANgUAgES AROUND THE g±OBE. °E
²PANISH CO±ONIzERS BROUgHT mANY ¾AíNO AND ½AHUAT± ±OANWORDS WITH THEm
TO THE ¸HI±IPPINES, WHERE THEY ENTERED INTO ¾AgA±Og. µmERICAN ³Ng±ISH
ABSORBED A ±ARgE NUmBER OF INDIgENOUS TERmS AS WE±±, THROUgH CONTACT WITH
MExICAN ²PANISH. °E ±IST OF ½AHUAT± ±OANWORDS IN ³Ng±ISH INC±UDES STAP±E
CROPS SUCH AS mAIzE, POTATOES, TOmATOES, AND TOBACCO. ²OmE OF OUR FAVORITE
FOODS AND DRINkS—SUCH AS gUACAmO±E, CHOCO±ATE, AND TEqUI±A—ARE A±SO ±OANS
FROm ½AHUAT±. µND THERE ARE OTHER PARTIA±±Y OBSCURED ½AHUAT± gEmS IN
³Ng±ISH SUCH AS ·HIC±ET gUm (FROm tzictli), CHIA PETS (FROm chian), AND
SHACk—AS IN ¼ADIO ²HACk OR “SHACkINg UP” (±IkE±Y FROm xacalli, “HUT”).
ÍIRTUA±±Y A±± OF THESE INDIgENOUS TERmS ENTERED ³Ng±ISH INDIRECT±Y, VIA
²PANISH. °ERE IS, THOUgH, AT ±EAST ONE ³Ng±ISH WORD THAT POSSIB±Y mADE THE
jUmP FROm AN INDIgENOUS LATIN µmERICAN ±ANgUAgE DIRECT±Y INTO ³Ng±ISH VIA
S±AVE TRADERS WHO PASSED THROUgH THE GU±F OF MExICO IN THE mID-SIxTEENTH
CENTURY: A SEA CREATURE WITH RAzOR-SHARP TEETH THAT MAYANS CA±±ED xook. ¾ODAY,
³Ng±ISH SPEAkERS CA±± IT shark.
Migration and the Slave Trade

°E CO±ONIA± ERA USHERED IN OTHER WAVES OF mASSIVE mIgRATION AND FORCED
mOVEmENTS OF PEOP±E INTO AND OUT OF LATIN µmERICA. °ROUgHOUT THE REgION,
³UROPEAN CO±ONIA±ISm WAS fiRm±Y HARNESSED TO EmERgINg FORmS OF g±OBA±
TRADE. ³VENTUA±±Y THIS ±ED TO THE DEVE±OPmENT OF ONE OF THE mOST NOTORIOUS,
TRAgIC INSTITUTIONS IN HUmAN HISTORY: THE TRANSAT±ANTIC S±AVE TRADE. °E INTRO-
DUCTION OF mAIzE FROm THE ½EW ÈOR±D ±ED TO ExP±OSIVE POPU±ATION gROWTH IN
PARTS OF µFRICA, WHICH IN TURN mADE IT POSSIB±E FOR mI±±IONS OF µFRICANS TO BE
CAPTURED AS S±AVES AND FORCIB±Y RE±OCATED TO THE ½EW ÈOR±D. ¾ODAY, THE PRO-
FOUND AND FAR-REACHINg ±EgACIES OF THIS HISTORY ARE mOST VISIB±E IN THE mI±±IONS
OF µFRO-DESCENDANT LATIN µmERICANS, WITH POPU±ATIONS OF VARYINg SIzE IN
EVERY LATIN µmERICAN COUNTRY. °E ·ARIBBEAN IS±ANDS, WHOSE INDIgENOUS
INHABITANTS WERE A±mOST COmP±ETE±Y WIPED OUT DURINg THE INITIA± DECADES OF
·ONqUEST, ARE NOW PREDOmINANT±Y INHABITED BY µFRO-DESCENDANT PEOP±E.
ÊRAzI± HAS A SImI±AR DEmOgRAPHIC PROfi±E: ITS SmA±± INDIgENOUS POPU±ATION,
WHI±E PO±ITICA±±Y AND SYmBO±ICA±±Y ImPORTANT, IS DWARFED BY µFRO-ÊRAzI±IANS.
°ERE ARE AUDIB±E ±EgACIES OF THE S±AVE TRADE AS WE±±. ·REO±E ±ANgUAgES ARE
SPOkEN THROUgHOUT THE ·ARIBBEAN AND COASTA± REgIONS OF ²OUTH µmERICA.
·OmBININg E±EmENTS OF ³UROPEAN, µFRICAN, AND µmERINDIAN ±ANgUAgES,
THESE ±INgUISTIC HYBRIDS EmERgED DIRECT±Y OUT OF THE ±INgUISTIC REA±ITIES OF S±AV-
ERY. ²±AVE TRADERS AND OWNERS TRIED TO DISRUPT DE±IBERATE±Y THE TRANSmISSION OF
µFRICAN ±ANgUAgES SUCH AS ¹gBO AND ÓORUBA FROm ONE gENERATION TO THE NExT
BY SEPARATINg SPEAkERS OF THE SAmE ±ANgUAgE. ÉUNDREDS OF µFRICAN ±OAN-
WORDS—SUCH AS marimba, merengue, mucama (HOUSEmAID), guineo (BANANA),
AND mandinga (DEVI± OR gOB±IN)—CAmE TO INFUSE NOT ON±Y LATIN µmERICAN
VARIETIES OF ²PANISH AND ¸ORTUgUESE, BUT EVENTUA±±Y THEIR ³UROPEAN COUNTER-
PARTS, TOO. µND IN LATIN µmERICA’S SYNCRETIC RE±IgIONS SUCH AS ²ANTERíA AND
·ANDOmB±é, µFRICAN ±ANgUAgES AND CREO±IzED VARIETIES SERVE VITA± ±ITURgICA±
FUNCTIONS. ¹N THE WAkE OF S±AVE REVO±TS AND NINETEENTH-CENTURY WARS OF INDE-
PENDENCE, A NUmBER OF THESE CREO±ES ROSE TO BECOmE OffiCIA± ±ANgUAgES OF THE
NEW NATIONS, SUCH AS ÉAITIAN ·REO±E AND GUYANESE ·REO±E. ¹N THE TWENTIETH
CENTURY, JAmAICAN ¸ATWA—A RICH B±END OF ³Ng±ISH, THE ÈEST µFRICAN ±AN-
gUAgE µkAN, AND PARTS OF OTHER µFRICAN, ³UROPEAN, AND INDIgENOUS
·ARIBBEAN ±ANgUAgES—HAS HAD AN ENORmOUS INflUENCE ON g±OBA± POP CU±TURE
VIA THE RISE AND SPREAD OF ¼ASTAFARIANISm AND REggAE mUSIC. µ ±ESS WE±± kNOWN
BUT FASCINATINg STORY IS THAT OF THE µFRO-ÊRAzI±IAN PRESENCE IN GHANA. ¹N THE
fiRST HA±F OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, SEVERA± THOUSAND FORmER S±AVES RETURNED
TO GHANA, BRINgINg THEIR VARIETY OF ¸ORTUgUESE WITH THEm. ²TI±± kNOWN TODAY
AS THE ¾ABOm PEOP±E (FROm ¸ORTUgUESE ta bom, “IT’S OkAY”), THEIR ¸ORTUgUESE
SURNAmES ARE SCATTERED ACROSS SOUTHERN GHANA AND THE CITY OF µCCRA. ·ONTACT
BETWEEN THE ·ARIBBEAN AND ÈEST µFRICA IS ONgOINg AS ·UBAN mEDICA± BRI-
gADES WORk WITH ÈEST µFRICAN HEA±TH OffiCIA±S TO CONTAIN OUTBREAkS OF DIS-
EASES ±IkE ³BO±A.
»VER THE PAST THREE CENTURIES, DEVE±OPmENTS IN LATIN µmERICA HAVE SHAPED
THE WOR±D’S ±INgUISTIC ±ANDSCAPE IN OTHER WAYS, TOO. MIgRANTS FROm ACROSS THE
g±OBE CAmE TO LATIN µmERICA flEEINg RE±IgIOUS AND PO±ITICA± PERSECUTION OR
SEEkINg ECONOmIC OPPORTUNITY. µS A RESU±T, THERE ARE POCkETS OF mINORITIES
ACROSS THE REgION WHO SPEAk ±ANgUAgES THAT ARE NEITHER INDIgENOUS NOR STEm
DIRECT±Y FROm CO±ONIA±ISm OR THE µFRICAN S±AVE TRADE. ¹N THE NINETEENTH CEN-
TURY, FOR ExAmP±E, ¾AmI±-SPEAkINg ±ABORERS WERE BROUgHT TO ·ARIBBEAN
ºRENCH CO±ONIES, ÉINDI SPEAkERS TO ÊRITISH GUYANA, AND ·HINESE ±ABORERS,
BOTH INDENTURED AND CONTRACT, TO VARIOUS PARTS OF THE REgION THROUgH THE
COO±IE TRADE; ·HINESE–½EW ÈOR±D CU±INARY FUSIONS—chifa FOOD IN ¸ERU AND
comida China-Cubana IN ½EW ÓORk—REPRESENT A WE±±-kNOWN ±EgACY OF THIS
CONTACT. ºROm THE MIDD±E ³AST, LEBANESE DESCENDANTS IN LATIN µmERICA
INC±UDE SOmE OF THE REgION’S mOST INflUENTIA± PEOP±E: FROm MExICO’S RICHEST
mAN, THE ºORBES ±IST–TOPPINg BI±±IONAIRE ·AR±OS ²±Im ÉE±ú, TO THE ·O±OmBIAN
POP STAR ²HAkIRA. ÍVERSE gROUPS OF ³UROPEANS A±SO mIgRATED TO THE REgION IN
SIzAB±E NUmBERS, WITH ±INgUISTIC CONSEqUENCES THAT CONTINUE TODAY. ¹N THE
1860S AND 1870S, SEVERA± THOUSAND ÈE±SH NATIONA±ISTS mOVED TO ¸ATAgONIA TO
ESTAB±ISH A CO±ONY THERE, FAR FROm THE REACH OF THE ³Ng±ISH-SPEAkINg WOR±D;
¸ATAgONIAN ÈE±SH CONTINUES TO BE SPOkEN IN THE ·HUBUT PROVINCE OF ÓR
µRIANNIN (THEIR NAmE FOR “µRgENTINA”). ·OmmUNITIES OF GERmAN SPEAkERS
ExIST IN A±mOST EVERY LATIN µmERICAN COUNTRY, INC±UDINg MENNONITES IN
MExICO AND ¸ARAgUAY AND COffEE P±ANTATION OWNERS IN MExICO AND GUATEmA±A.
ÊUENOS µIRES BECAmE A g±OBA± CENTER FOR ÓIDDISH THEATER IN THE fiRST HA±F OF
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY AND TODAY HAS ONE OF THE WOR±D’S FEW REmAININg DAI±Y
NEWSPAPERS IN THE ±ANgUAgE.
Language and Religion

½OT ON±Y A HAVEN FOR RE±IgIOUS mINORITIES flEEINg PERSECUTION, LATIN µmERICA
HAS A±SO BEEN THE BIRTHP±ACE OF NEW SYNCRETIC RE±IgIONS AND A BEACON FOR mIS-
SIONARY AND REVIVA± mOVEmENTS. ¸ROTESTANTISm, FOR ExAmP±E, HAS HAD A DEEP
AND ONgOINg RE±ATIONSHIP WITH THE REgION’S INDIgENOUS ±ANgUAgES—WHICH IN
TURN HAS HAD A SIgNIfiCANT ImPACT ON ¸ROTESTANT mISSIONARY WORk IN OTHER
CORNERS OF THE g±OBE, ESPECIA±±Y THAT PURSUED BY THE ²UmmER ¹NSTITUTE OF
LINgUISTICS (²¹L). °E fiE±D ARm OF THE ÈYC±IffE ÊIB±E ¾RANS±ATORS, THE ²¹L IS
A RECOgNIzED AUTHORITY ON THE WOR±D’S ±ANgUAgES. ¹N THE PROCESS OF ATTEmPTINg
TO TRANS±ATE THE ÊIB±E INTO A±± ±IVINg ±ANgUAgES, THE ²¹L HAS gENERATED A VAST
TROVE OF BASIC DESCRIPTIVE ±INgUISTIC WORk THAT IS g±OBA± IN SCOPE. ÓET mANY OF
THE mETHODS AND APPROACHES A±±OWINg THEm TO ACCOmP±ISH THIS REmARkAB±E
FEAT WERE FORgED AND REfiNED IN LATIN µmERICA. ¹TS FOUNDER, A ¸ROTESTANT mIS-
SIONARY NAmED ÈI±±IAm ·AmERON ¾OWNSEND, BEgAN HIS CAREER AS A ²PANISH-
±ANgUAgE ÊIB±E SA±ESmAN IN GUATEmA±A. ÉE SOON REA±IzED THAT THE ÌAqCHIkE±
MAYA SPEAkERS WITH WHOm HE ±IVED WOU±D BE mUCH BETTER SERVED BY RE±IgIOUS
mATERIA±S THAT THEY COU±D ACTUA±±Y UNDERSTAND AND THAT “SPOkE TO THEIR
HEARTS.” ¹NITIA±±Y THE ²¹L FOCUSED ON MExICO AND THE µmAzONIAN AREAS OF
¸ERU. ÊY THE 1960S IT HAD P±ACED ÊIB±E TRANS±ATORS IN COmmUNITIES ACROSS
LATIN µmERICA AND HAD BEgUN mAkINg FORAYS INTO µFRICA AND »CEANIA. °EIR
WORk HAS P±AYED A CRUCIA± RO±E IN SUBVERTINg “±INgUISTIC RACISm” BASED ON
BE±IEFS THAT INDIgENOUS ±ANgUAgES ARE INHERENT±Y INFERIOR TO ³UROPEAN ONES.
°E ²¹L HAS A±SO BEEN AN ImPORTANT IF CONTROVERSIA± FORCE OF CHANgE, PARTICI-
PATINg IN AND mAkINg POSSIB±E THE DRAmATIC RISE OF ¸ROTESTANT EVANgE±IzATION
ACROSS LATIN µmERICA OVER THE PAST CENTURY.
LATIN µmERICA’S ±INgUISTIC INflUENCE ON THE WOR±D HAS BEEN PARTICU±AR±Y
TIED TO THE EVO±UTION OF THE ·ATHO±IC ·HURCH. ¾ODAY, fiVE CENTURIES AﬅER THE
·ATHO±IC ·HURCH DREW A DIVIDINg ±INE THROUgH THE µmERICAS THAT gRANTED ONE
PIECE TO ²PAIN AND THE OTHER TO ¸ORTUgA±, THE CHURCH HAS ITS fiRST ½EW ÈOR±D
POPE (SEE ²CHEPER-ÉUgHES AND ²CHEPER ÉUgHES, THIS VO±UmE). ÉE, ±IkE
ÊORgES, IS µRgENTINE. µND ±IkE THE RENOWNED AUTHOR, ¸OPE ºRANCIS SPEAkS A
VARIETY OF ²PANISH THAT IN mANY WAYS CONFORmS TO THE STANDARDS PROmOTED BY
²PAIN’S ¼OYA± ²PANISH µCADEmY—WHOSE mOTTO, TE±±INg±Y, STATES ITS gOA± TO
“LImPIA, fijA Y DA SP±ENDOR” (·±EAN, SET, AND gIVE SP±ENDOR [TO]) THE ²PANISH
±ANgUAgE. ÓET HIS ²PANISH A±SO DEPARTS FROm THOSE NORmS, AS WHEN THE POPE
RECENT±Y SAID, “ÍOS NOS PREmEREA,” DRAWINg ON porteño (ÊUENOS µIRES) SOCCER
±INgO, THAT COU±D BE g±OSSED AS “GOD gOES OUT TO mEET US, HE gETS OUT AHEAD OF
US, HE SURPRISES US.” °IS REflECTS THE ·ATHO±IC ·HURCH’S ONgOINg REORIENTATION
OVER mUCH OF THIS CENTURY TOWARD IDEAS AND AgENDAS ANCHORED IN LATIN
µmERICA.
°E CHURCH WAS mASSIVE±Y INflUENCED BY ±IBERATION THEO±OgY; A±TERNATIVE±Y
EmBRACED AND REjECTED BY THE CHURCH HIERARCHY, THE mOVEmENT ORIgINATED IN
LATIN µmERICA IN THE ±AST HA±F OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY AND CA±±ED FOR
·HRISTIAN TEACHINgS TO BE DIRECTED TOWARD ±IBERATION FROm UNjUST SOCIA± CON-
DITIONS. ¸OPE ºRANCIS’S RECENT DECISION CONCERNINg THE ASSASSINATED PRIEST
çSCAR ¼OmERO REflECTS THE POWER OF LATIN µmERICAN CONCERNS TO SHAPE THE
CHURCH’S DIRECTION: A ²A±VADORAN AND ±EADINg ±IBERATION THEO±OgIAN, ¼OmERO’S
±EﬅIST VIEWS PREVIOUS±Y HAD BEEN THE gROUNDS FOR CHURCH OffiCIA±S IN ¼OmE TO
B±OCk HIS BEATIfiCATION. °IS SHIﬅ IN THE BA±ANCE OF POWER WITHIN THE CHURCH,
±IkE THE POPE’S USE OF µRgENTINE ²PANISH, IS A±SO PART OF BROADER REA±IgNmENTS
IN THE gEOPO±ITICA± ORDER AND THEIR ±INgUISTIC ENTAI±mENTS: AS SOmE LATIN
µmERICAN COUNTRIES HAVE mOVED PAST THEIR FORmER CO±ONIzERS IN THE CONfigU-
RATION OF g±OBA± POWER RE±ATIONS, ½EW ÈOR±D VARIETIES OF ²PANISH AND
¸ORTUgUESE HAVE INCREASINg±Y COmE TO EC±IPSE THEIR PENINSU±AR COUNTERPARTS
IN THE g±OBA± “mARkETP±ACE OF ±ANgUAgES.” °IS HAS ImP±ICATIONS FOR THE g±OBA±
STANDINg OF LATIN µmERICA’S OTHER ±ANgUAgES AS WE±±. ²INCE TAkINg OffiCE, FOR
ExAmP±E, ONE OF ¸OPE ºRANCIS’S mOST REmARkAB±E DECISIONS HAS BEEN TO APPROVE
A REqUEST FROm THE ÍOCESE OF ²AN ·RISTóBA± DE LAS ·ASAS (IN ·HIAPAS,
MExICO) TO OffiCIA±±Y APPROVE THE USE OF MAYAN ±ANgUAgES FOR mASS, CONFES-
SION, AND OTHER ·ATHO±IC RITUA±S.
papal È³»¶ºÑ³ and prison nahuatl: latin

aÇerica, lan¿ua¿e, and the world today
°e Circulation of °ings
¾ODAY, THE REA±ITY OF LATIN µmERICA’S NATIONA± ±ANgUAgES IS ONE OF g±OBA± INflU-
ENCE, AND OF CROSSINg RATHER THAN REmAININg WITHIN NATIONA± BORDERS. °IS
SHIﬅ HAS BEEN mADE POSSIB±E BY THE CIRCU±ATION OF PEOP±E, IDEAS, AND THINgS—
INC±UDINg A WIDE RANgE OF CU±TURA± gOODS TIED TO LATIN µmERICAN ±ANgUAgES.
°ESE INC±UDE mUSIC (MAISONNAVE THIS VO±UmE), fi±m (GUI±±ERmOPRIETO THIS
VO±UmE), telenovelas AND OTHER TE±EVISION PROgRAmmINg (ÊENAVIDES THIS VO±-
UmE), CUISINE (¸ORTNOY AND ¸I±CHER THIS VO±UmE), ARTWORk, DANCE FORmS, AND
±ITERATURE (²TAVANS THIS VO±UmE). ³VEN ±ANgUAgES THEmSE±VES HAVE mADE A
SP±ASH ON THE g±OBA± STAgE, AS WHEN THE STORY OF µYAPANECO—A DYINg INDIgE-
NOUS ±ANgUAgE SPOkEN IN THE MExICAN STATE OF ¾ABASCO—RECENT±Y BECAmE THE
CENTERPIECE OF AN ADVERTISINg CAmPAIgN PRODUCED FOR THE GERmAN TE±ECOm
COmPANY ÍODAFONE. ¸ERUVIAN ëUECHUA, FAmOUS±Y, mADE IT TO A DISTANT gA±AxY
FAR, FAR AWAY WHEN GEORgE LUCAS APPROPRIATED IT FOR AN A±IEN ARgOT IN THE
ORIgINA± Star Wars mOVIE.
ºOOD TERmS ±IkE chipotle, WHICH COmES FROm ½AHUAT± chili poctli, “SmOkED
CHI±I PEPPER,” AND tapioca, FROm ¾UPí, ARE NOT ON±Y PART OF OUR SHARED g±OBA±
CU±INARY VOCABU±ARY; THEY A±SO FUNCTION AS SYmBO±IC gATEWAYS, INVITINg PEOP±E
TO ExP±ORE LATIN µmERICA IN A DEEPER WAY. MUSICA± ±ANgUAgE SERVES A SImI±AR
RO±E. °E g±OBA± CIRCU±ATION OF LATIN µmERICAN mUSIC AND DANCE mEANS THAT
NAmES SUCH AS merengue, tango, cumbia, calypso, bolero, bossa nova, AND samba
HAVE BEEN ABSORBED INTO ±ANgUAgES AROUND THE WOR±D. µND BECAUSE THE mUSIC
ITSE±F IS CIRCU±ATED AND PERFORmED IN LATIN µmERICAN ±ANgUAgES, THEY, TOO,
HAVE A g±OBA± PRESENCE, EVEN FOR CONSUmERS WHO DO NOT UNDERSTAND THEm. °E
SAmE IS TRUE OF LATIN µmERICA’S VIBRANT TRADITION OF ±ITERARY, fi ±m, AND TE±EVI-
SION PRODUCTION. ³VEN IN TRANS±ATION, E±EmENTS OF THE ORIgINA± ±ANgUAgE ARE
PRESERVED, BROADENINg THE g±OBA± INflUENCE OF LATIN µmERICAN ±ANgUAgES.
Migration
¸EOP±E HAVE BEEN mOVINg TO LATIN µmERICA FOR CENTURIES. ÓET THE REgION IS
mORE OﬅEN PORTRAYED NOT AS A DESTINATION FOR mIgRANTS BUT AS A mASS PRODUCER
OF THEm. »NE OF THE BEST-kNOWN—AND HEAVI±Y STEREOTYPED—VECTORS OF LATIN
µmERICAN ±INgUISTIC INflUENCE ON THE WOR±D CONCERNS THIS mOVEmENT OF LATIN
µmERICANS INTO OTHER COUNTRIES ACROSS THE g±OBE. LATIN µmERICANS CARRY THEIR
±ANgUAgES WITH THEm ON THEIR jOURNEYS; BADgES OF IDENTITY, THEY ARE A±SO SYm-
BO±IC RESOURCES USEFU± IN ESTAB±ISHINg AND mAINTAININg CONNECTIONS IN THEIR
DESTINATION COUNTRIES. LATIN µmERICAN mIgRANTS HAVE SUCCEEDED, TO VARYINg
DEgREES, IN PRESERVINg THE USE OF THEIR ±ANgUAgES ACROSS mU±TIP±E gENERATIONS
AND IN ESTAB±ISHINg PUB±IC P±ACES FOR THEm. ¸OPE ºRANCIS’S FAmI±Y HISTORY
ExEmP±IfiES SUCH TRENDS. ÊORN JORgE MARIO ÊERgOg±IO IN ÊUENOS µIRES IN 1936,
HE WAS A CHI±D OF ImmIgRANTS WHO flED TO µRgENTINA TO ESCAPE THE FASCISm OF
ÊENITO MUSSO±INI’S ¹TA±Y. µND ±IkE COUNT±ESS LATIN µmERICANS, HE HAS
“RETURNED” TO A P±ACE WHERE HE HAS ROOTS THAT ARE NOT ON±Y CU±TURA± AND HIS-
TORICA± BUT A±SO ±INgUISTIC. µS LATIN µmERICANS HAVE mOVED IN ±ARgE NUmBERS
TO COUNTRIES WHERE THEY SHARE THE NATIONA± ±ANgUAgE—¸ERUVIANS AND
³CUADORANS mIgRATINg TO ²PAIN, ÊRAzI±IANS TO ¸ORTUgA±—THEIR mOVEmENT
mIRRORS IN REVERSE CO±ONIA±-ERA mIgRATIONS FROm ³UROPE TO THE µmERICAS.
°E PATTERN HAS BEEN ECHOED BY PEOP±E WITH TIES TO COUNTRIES OTHER THAN
THE ¹BERIAN CO±ONIA± POWERS. °US TODAY THERE ARE ±ARgE gROUPS OF ²PANISH-
SPEAkINg µRgENTINES, ·HI±EANS, AND ÍENEzUE±ANS IN ¹TA±Y, GERmANY, AND
ºRANCE; IN JAPAN, THERE ARE SIzAB±E NUmBERS OF ¸ERUVIANS AND ³CUADORANS.
°OUgH mANY DO NOT SPEAk THE NATIONA± ±ANgUAgE OF THE DESTINATION COUNTRY,
THEY HAVE NEVERTHE±ESS BEEN ExPOSED TO IT IN mYRIAD WAYS THROUgH THE PRES-
ENCE OF ±ANgUAgES SUCH AS GERmAN, ¹TA±IAN, AND JAPANESE IN LATIN µmERICA.
ÊORgES’S OWN HISTORY ECHOES SImI±AR ENgAgEmENTS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES AND
THEIR ±ANgUAgES. °E AUTHOR WAS RAISED IN A BI±INgUA± ²PANISH-³Ng±ISH HOUSE-
HO±D (ONE gRANDmOTHER WAS ³Ng±ISH) AND SPENT HIS FORmATIVE YEARS AT SCHOO±S
IN ²WITzER±AND AND ²PAIN.
Latin Americans in the United States

°E COUNTRY WITH THE SINg±E ±ARgEST NUmBER OF LATIN µmERICAN mIgRANTS IS
THE ¶NITED ²TATES. °IS CASE ExEmP±IfiES THE DYNAmIC flOW OF ±ANgUAgES
AND IDEAS ABOUT THEm OUT FROm LATIN µmERICA INTO THE REST OF THE WOR±D.
°E HISTORY OF ¶.². INflUENCE IN LATIN µmERICA HAS OﬅEN APPEARED—
NOTWITHSTANDINg OffiCIA± VIEWS TO THE CONTRARY—TO BE ±ITT±E mORE THAN A NEW
FORm OF ImPERIA±ISm. ÊUT HOWEVER ONE INTERPRETS ¶.². PO±ITICA± INVO±VEmENT
IN THE REgION—FROm THE MONROE ÓCTRINE THROUgH THE ·O±D ÈAR INTO THE
PRESENT—THAT HISTORY HAS POSITIONED ³Ng±ISH AS AN INVA±UAB±E ±INgUISTIC
RESOURCE ACROSS LATIN µmERICA. ÈHI±E A RE±ATIVE±Y SmA±± PERCENTAgE OF LATIN
µmERICANS SPEAkS ³Ng±ISH AS A fiRST ±ANgUAgE, ³Ng±ISH HAS BEEN OF CRITICA±
ImPORTANCE FOR LATIN µmERICANS mOVINg BACk AND FORTH BETWEEN THE REgION
AND THE ¶NITED ²TATES (AND ·ANADA) OUT OF ECONOmIC NECESSITY. ¹T HAS A±SO
P±AYED A CRUCIA± RO±E IN THE ±IVES OF E±ITE LATIN µmERICANS, WHO OﬅEN PURSUE
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION, SHOP, VACATION, AND DO BUSINESS IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES.
ÈITHIN LATIN µmERICA, ³Ng±ISH HAS BEEN AND CONTINUES TO SERVE AS A mEDIUm
FOR PO±ITICA± AND ECONOmIC TRANSACTIONS AND AS A gATEWAY TO µNg±OPHONE CU±-
TURE. LATIN µmERICANS HAVE BECOmE ADEPT AT VARYINg THEIR SPE±±INg AND PRO-
NUNCIATION WITH gREAT PRECISION IN ORDER TO INDICATE WHETHER BORROWED BITS OF
³Ng±ISH ARE mEANT TO BE UNDERSTOOD AS USEFU± ADDITIONS TO ±OCA± VOCABU±ARY
OR AS EVIDENCE OF µmERICAN ImPERIA±ISm. ¹T mAY BE Halloween FOR A SCHOO±
±ESSON ON µmERICAN HO±IDAYS, BUT IT qUICk±Y BECOmES Jalowín IN A SARCASTIC
RANT ABOUT THE µmERICANIzATION OF MExICO’S ÁY OF THE ÉAD FESTIVITIES.
ÓOUNg PEOP±E ACROSS LATIN µmERICA (“FRESAS” IN MExICO, “CHETOS” IN ¶RUgUAY)
PEPPER THEIR SPEECH WITH ³Ng±ISH S±ANg IN ORDER TO STRIkE A COSmOPO±ITAN,
UPPER-C±ASS POSE. µ WI±D±Y POPU±AR MExICAN-ÍENEzUE±AN CHI±DREN’S TE±EVISION
PROgRAm CA±±ED La CÉ HAS TEENAgE gIR±S A±± OVER LATIN µmERICA YE±±INg,
“¡ºOCUS, CHICOS! ¡ºOCUS!”
µNg±O µmERICANS DO COmPARAB±E SYmBO±IC WORk WITH BAD±Y mISPRO-
NOUNCED AND UNgRAmmATICA± ²PANISH. »ﬅEN IT gETS USED IN C±EAR±Y PEjORATIVE
WAYS, AS WHEN A USED CAR IS SO±D “FOR PESOS.” ²OmEHOW A SIESTA SOUNDS mORE
DECADENT THAN AN AﬅERNOON NAP, A fiESTA WI±DER THAN A FESTIVA±. µT OTHER
TImES, mOCk ²PANISH SEEmS TO EVOkE A FUN-±OVINg CASUA± STANCE: “½O PROB-
±EmO, mAN” (THE gRAmmATICA±±Y CORRECT VERSION IS “½O HAY PROB±EmA”). µND
OF COURSE, THERE IS A ±ONg AND STORIED ASSOCIATION IN THE µmERICAN ImAgINATION
BETWEEN ²PANISH AND THE “ÈI±D ÈEST.” °IS INC±UDES P±ACES, SUCH AS THE
¸ONDEROSA AND LAREDO; PEOP±E AND ANImA±S, SUCH AS BUCkAROO (vaQuero, “COW-
BOY”) AND mUSTANg (mesteño); AND INSTITUTIONS, SUCH AS RANCH, RODEO, AND
HOOSEgOW ( juzgado, “jAI±”).
ÍVERSE COmmUNITIES OF LATIN µmERICAN mIgRANTS HAVE P±AYED A PROmI-
NENT RO±E IN µmERICAN PUB±IC ±IFE. »VER THE PAST CENTURY, ÓmINICANS, ¸UERTO
¼ICANS, ÉAITIANS, AND ·UBANS HAVE A±± mIgRATED TO THE ¶NITED ²TATES IN ±ARgE
NUmBERS FOR REASONS RANgINg FROm PO±ITICA± REPRESSION AND UPHEAVA± TO
ECONOmIC NECESSITY. LATIN µmERICAN mIgRANTS HAVE A HIgH±Y VISIB±E COmmER-
CIA± PRESENCE, WITH RESTAURANTS AND STORES CATERINg SPECIfiCA±±Y TO mIgRANTS AND
OﬅEN TARgETINg CUSTOmERS BY COUNTRY OF ORIgIN; THEIR INflUENCE IS A±SO FE±T
THROUgH NUmEROUS CU±TURA± AND RE±IgIOUS ORgANIzATIONS AND EVENTS. °EIR
ExISTENCE HAS ±INgUISTIC ImP±ICATIONS AS WE±±. ²UCH BUSINESSES, INSTITUTIONS,
ORgANIzATIONS, AND ACTIVITIES REVO±VE AROUND THE USE OF LATIN µmERICAN ±AN-
gUAgES. °EY CREATE PUB±IC SPACES WHERE USINg LATIN µmERICAN ²PANISH AND
¸ORTUgUESE, ·ARIBBEAN CREO±ES, AND µmERINDIAN ±ANgUAgES ARE ±EgITImIzED
AND gIVEN VA±UE. °IS SUPPORTS THEIR TRANSmISSION ACROSS gENERATIONS AND EVEN
RECRUITS NEW SPEAkERS. °EIR USE IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES CREATES NEW SPACES FOR
±INgUISTIC mINg±INg, WHERE THE DYNAmICS OF ±INgUISTIC AND CU±TURA± COExIST-
ENCE CAN BE WORkED OUT IN PRACTICE.
¹mmIgRANTS ARE DRAWN TO PARTICU±AR PARTS OF THE ¶NITED ²TATES NOT ON±Y BY
NETWORkS OF kINSHIP BUT A±SO BY OTHER FORmS OF A±±IANCE THAT INC±UDE SHARINg
A ±ANgUAgE, EVEN IF NOT A COUNTRY OF ORIgIN. °US mOST ¸ORTUgUESE-SPEAkINg
ImmIgRANTS TO THE ¶NITED ²TATES mOVED TO ½EW ³Ng±AND: INITIA± mIgRANTS
FROm ¸ORTUgA±, WHO ARRIVED TO WORk IN THE fiSHINg AND WHA±INg INDUSTRIES,
WERE ±ATER jOINED BY mIgRANTS FROm ÊRAzI±, ·APE ÍERDE, AND EVEN µNgO±A, A±±
BRINgINg A±ONg THEIR OWN VARIETIES OF ¸ORTUgUESE AS WE±± AS ±OCA± CREO±ES.
GUATEmA±ANS AND ²A±VADORANS, FOR ExAmP±E, HAVE TENDED TO SETT±E IN REgIONS
WITH ±ARgE COmmUNITIES OF MExICANS AND MExICAN µmERICANS—IN A FEW
CASES, THROUgH CONNECTIONS mADE DURINg THEIR jOURNEY TO THE ¶NITED ²TATES,
WHICH gENERA±±Y INVO±VES PASSINg THROUgH MExICO fiRST.
µS THE SINg±E ±ARgEST gROUP OF LATIN µmERICAN ImmIgRANTS TO THE COUNTRY,
THE TENS OF mI±±IONS OF MExICANS AND MExICAN µmERICANS ±IVINg IN THE ¶NITED
²TATES ARE PERHAPS A SPECIA± CASE. ¹N SOmE ±OCA±ES—·A±IFORNIA, ¾ExAS, AND
º±ORIDA, AS WE±± AS mAjOR CITIES ±IkE ·HICAgO AND ½EW ÓORk—THEIR NUmBERS
ARE ESPECIA±±Y ±ARgE. ÊUT THERE ARE A±SO SIzAB±E POPU±ATIONS IN NEAR±Y EVERY
STATE. °EIR RE±ATIONSHIP TO THE ¶NITED ²TATES IS CONDITIONED NOT ON±Y BY COm-
P±Ex PO±ITICA± AND ECONOmIC DYNAmICS BUT A±SO BY gEOgRAPHIC ONES BORN OF
SHARINg—AND figHTINg OVER—A COmmON BORDER. »ffiCIA±±Y THE DIVIDINg ±INE
WHERE LATIN µmERICA ENDS, THE ¶.².-MExICO BORDER IS A±SO ONE OF THE ±ONgEST,
mOST PO±ITICA±±Y FRAUgHT, AND mOST ECONOmICA±±Y UNEqUA± INTERNATIONA±
BOUNDARIES IN THE WOR±D.
ÓET IN THE CONTExT OF ±IVED DAI±Y ExPERIENCE, THE BOUNDARY BETWEEN
MExICAN ImmIgRANTS AND THE REST OF THE ¶.². POPU±ATION IS ±ARgE±Y mARkED—
AND PO±ITICIzED—BY ±ANgUAgE. MOST MExICAN ImmIgRANTS SPEAk ²PANISH,
RE±ATIVE±Y FEW ARRIVE SPEAkINg ³Ng±ISH, AND mOST WI±± CONDUCT THE BU±k OF
THEIR PROFESSIONA± AND PERSONA± ±IVES IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES IN ²PANISH, EVEN IF
THEY SETT±E IN THE COUNTRY PERmANENT±Y. °E SHEER SIzE OF THE ²PANISH-SPEAkINg
POPU±ATION IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES mAkES THIS POSSIB±E. ·OmBINED, MExICANS
AND OTHER ²PANISH-SPEAkINg ImmIgRANT COmmUNITIES SUPPORT A VAST ARRAY OF
²PANISH-DOmINANT WORkP±ACES, BUSINESSES, SERVICE AND CU±TURA± ORgANIzA-
TIONS, AND mEDIA OUT±ETS. °EIR OVERWHE±mINg NUmBERS, gEOgRAPHIC SPREAD,
PUB±IC PRESENCE, AND PO±ITICA± PROmINENCE HAS mADE ²PANISH A DE FACTO SEC-
OND ±ANgUAgE IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES—A TREND A±TERNATE±Y ±AUDED AND ATTACkED.
LESSER kNOWN IS THE ExTENT TO WHICH mANY MExICAN mIgRANTS ARE INDIgENOUS,
AND mAY SPEAk ±ITT±E OR NO ²PANISH—SOmETImES RESU±TINg IN TRAgIC SITUATIONS
WHERE INDIVIDUA±S HAVE BEEN COmmITTED TO mENTA± INSTITUTIONS OR DENIED ±EgA±
RIgHTS. ¹N OTHER WAYS, HOWEVER, INDIgENOUS MExICAN ±ANgUAgES HAVE A DEmON-
STRAB±E IF mODEST PUB±IC PROfi±E. °E CITY OF LOS µNgE±ES, FOR ExAmP±E, HAS BOTH
ËAPOTEC AND MIxTEC NEWSPAPERS AND RADIO STATIONS. µND AS WITH LATIN
µmERICAN NATIONA± ±ANgUAgES, mIgRATION PATTERNS BETWEEN THE ¶NITED ²TATES
AND MExICO ARE SHAPED BY INDIgENOUS ±ANgUAgES: INDIgENOUS MExICANS OVER-
WHE±mINg±Y TEND TO mIgRATE TO AREAS WHERE THERE ARE SIzAB±E gROUPS OF mIgRANTS
WHO SHARE THEIR NATIVE ±ANgUAgE, AS IS THE CASE WITH COmmUNITIES OF INDIgENOUS
MExICANS IN »xNARD, ¸OUgHkEEPSIE, AND ¼A±EIgH-ÚRHAm.
Language Debates
ÉBATES ABOUT THE PRESENCE OF LATIN µmERICANS IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES HAVE HAD
AN OUTSIzED EffECT ON CONVERSATIONS ABOUT LATIN µmERICA’S ENgAgEmENT WITH
THE WOR±D. »N THE ONE HAND, IN µmERICAN POPU±AR CU±TURE, LATIN µmERICAN
±ANgUAgES AND THEIR SPEAkERS SERVE AS STAND-INS FOR THE qUINTESSENTIA± »THER.
°EIR USE IN µmERICAN fi±mS IS PARTICU±AR±Y EVOCATIVE: IN THOUSANDS OF fi±mS,
SPANNINg DECADES, ²PANISH-SPEAkINg LATIN µmERICANS AND LATINOS ARE POR-
TRAYED AS VI±±AINS. »N THE OTHER HAND, THE PRESENCE OF LATIN µmERICAN ±AN-
gUAgES IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES HAS BEEN A TA±E OF INCREASINg ACCEPTANCE. ²PANISH
HAS PERmEATED ³Ng±ISH TO THE POINT, FOR ExAmP±E, THAT “ÉASTA ±A VISTA, BABY!”
CAN BE UTTERED WITHOUT TRANS±ATION IN A ÉO±±YWOOD B±OCkBUSTER.
ÓET THE INCREASINg±Y PUB±IC PRESENCE OF ²PANISH ON EVERYTHINg FROm VOTINg
BA±±OTS TO BI±±BOARDS HAS A±SO BEEN THE TARgET OF POINTED CRITIqUES. ÈHI±E SUCH
ARgUmENTS mAY BE UNDERgIRDED BY ANTI-ImmIgRANT OR EVEN OUTRIgHT RACIST
SENTImENT, THEY TAkE ±ANgUAgE USE AS AN ACCEPTAB±E SITE FOR ExPRESSINg xENO-
PHOBIC VIEWS. µ WIDE±Y CIRCU±ATINg ¹NTERNET mEmE HAS AN ImAgE OF JOHN
ÈAYNE IN FRONT OF AN µmERICAN flAg SAYINg, “½OW jUST WHY IN THE É³LL DO
¹ HAVE TO PRESS ‘1’ FOR ³Ng±ISH???” LANgUAgE USE IS AN ARENA WHERE BROADER
CONflICTS ABOUT ImmIgRATION ARE WAgED, AS REflECTED IN DEBATES ABOUT THE
ACCEPTABI±ITY OF SUCH PHRASES AS “I±±EgA± ImmIgRANT” AND “UNDOCUmENTED
WORkER.” ÈHI±E THE CHOICE BETWEEN THEm mAY BE CAST AS A DISPUTE ABOUT ±ABE-
±INg, THE ARgUmENT IS ANImATED BY DEEP±Y CONflICTINg PO±ITICA± VIEWS ABOUT THE
RE±ATIONSHIP BETWEEN LATIN µmERICANS AND THE ¶NITED ²TATES.
²OmETImES THESE DEBATES mOVE IN UNPREDICTAB±E DIRECTIONS AND SPAWN
UNExPECTED CONSEqUENCES. »NE STRIkINg ExAmP±E INVO±VES THE WAY THAT
MExICAN gANg mEmBERS IN ¶.². PRISONS USE ½AHUAT± AS A PRIVATE FORm OF COm-
mUNICATION AND DEmAND ACCESS TO mATERIA±S ABOUT THE ±ANgUAgE ON CU±TURA±
gROUNDS. µNOTHER RE±EVANT ExAmP±E CONCERNS THE DEPORTATION OF PEOP±E WHO
ARRIVED IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES AS CHI±DREN AND HAVE SPENT THE mAjORITY OF THEIR
±IVES THERE. ÊECAUSE THEY SPEAk flUENT AND “UNACCENTED” µmERICAN ³Ng±ISH—
OﬅEN SPEAkINg IT BETTER THAN THEY DO ²PANISH—THEY HAVE BECOmE COVETED
EmP±OYEES FOR µmERICAN COmPANIES SEEkINg TO CUT COSTS BY ±OCATINg CUSTOmER
CA±± CENTERS OUTSIDE THE ¶NITED ²TATES.
°E CIRCU±ATION OF THINgS LATIN µmERICAN HAS BOOSTED THE WOR±DWIDE
INflUENCE OF ÊRAzI±IAN ¸ORTUgUESE AND LATIN µmERICAN VARIETIES OF ²PANISH.
°OUgH ±ONg TREATED AS INFERIOR TO THE VERSIONS ONE HEARS IN ¸ORTUgA± AND
²PAIN, LATIN µmERICAN VARIETIES NOW DOmINATE SECOND ±ANgUAgE INSTRUCTION,
BOWINg TO THE REA±ITY THAT 90 PERCENT OF THE WOR±D’S ²PANISH SPEAkERS AND 75
PERCENT OF ITS ¸ORTUgUESE SPEAkERS RESIDE IN THE µmERICAS. ³ACH YEAR, THE
¼OYA± ²PANISH µCADEmY’S DICTIONARY INC±UDES AN EVER ±ARgER PERCENTAgE OF
WORDS WITH ½EW ÈOR±D ORIgINS. ÈHEN THE µCADEmY DECIDED TO ADD THE TERm
espanglish TO ITS 2014 DICTIONARY, ADVOCATES OF THIS ³Ng±ISH-²PANISH HYBRID
WERE P±EASED. ÊUT WHEN THEY FOUND OUT THAT THE µCADEmY INTENDED TO DEfi NE
IT AS “a form of speech used by some Hispanic groups in the United States, in
which they mix deformed elements of vocabulary and grammar Äom both
Spanish and English,” THE REACTION WAS SWIﬅ AND ±OUD. °E µCADEmY fiNA±±Y
RE±ENTED AND AgREED TO REmOVE THE WORD deformed FROm THE DEfiNITION.
»NE OF THE mOST DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF SOmE VARIETIES OF LATIN µmERICAN
²PANISH IS THE voseo—THE WIDESPREAD USE OF vos, “YOU,” AS A FORmA± SECOND-
PERSON PRONOUN. ¹T IS A mORE ARCHAIC FORm THAN THE usted FORm OF “YOU” FOUND
IN ·ARIBBEAN AND ¹BERIAN ²PANISH. Æos flOURISHED, ESPECIA±±Y IN ²OUTH
µmERICA, DURINg AN ERA OF RE±ATIVE±Y ±ITT±E CONTACT BETWEEN THE ½EW ÈOR±D
²PANISH CO±ONIES AND ³UROPE. ²OmETHINg COmPARAB±E HAPPENED WITH
ÊRAzI±IAN ¸ORTUgUESE. Æos-fi±±ED ²PANISH IS THE STY±E THAT ÊORgES USED IN HIS
WRITINg AND THAT ¸OPE ºRANCIS HAS NOW BROUgHT TO THE ÍATICAN. ÈE ±IVE IN AN
ERA WHEN THE CENTERS OF ±INgUISTIC INflUENCE HAVE SHIﬅED FROm MADRID TO
MExICO ·ITY AND MIAmI, FROm LISBON TO ¼IO DE JANEIRO AND ½EW ÊEDFORD.
¹F THE LATIN µmERICAN vos EVENTUA±±Y FADES OUT OF USE, IT WI±± BE BECAUSE OF THE
POPU±ARITY OF MExICAN SOAP OPERAS—AND THE vos-FREE VARIETY OF ²PANISH SPO-
kEN IN THEm—RATHER THAN THE EDICTS OF THE ¼OYA± ²PANISH µCADEmY’S “±AN-
gUAgE COPS.”
LANgUAgE HAS SHAPED LATIN µmERICA AS A REgION AND mEDIATES ITS CONNEC-
TIONS WITH THE REST OF THE WOR±D. ÉEATED DEBATES ABOUT ±ANgUAgE—ABOUT WHAT
±ANgUAgES TO SPEAk AND WHO SHOU±D BE SPEAkINg THEm—ARE TAkINg P±ACE RIgHT
NOW IN LATIN µmERICA, jUST AS THEY ARE ACROSS THE BORDER IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES
AND IN P±ACES AROUND THE g±OBE WHERE LATIN µmERICANS RESIDE. ²HOU±D WE
RAISE BI±INgUA± CHI±DREN? ÉOW CAN WE mAINTAIN THE VITA±ITY OF LATIN µmERICA’S
HUNDREDS OF INDIgENOUS ±ANgUAgES? ¹S IT OkAY TO CODE-SWITCH, USE BORROWED
WORDS, SPEAk ²PANg±ISH OR ¸ORTUñO±, USE vos RATHER THAN usted? ²UCH qUESTIONS
ARE SImU±TANEOUS±Y ABOUT ±ANgUAgE ±OYA±TIES AND THE SOCIA± ±ANDSCAPE WRIT
±ARgE. °E LATIN µmERICAN “LIBRARY OF ÊABE±” IS kA±EIDOSCOPIC, UNPREDICTAB±E,
CONflICTIVE, AND VIBRANT: AN ARCHIVE OF LATIN µmERICA’S HISTORY, IT IS A±SO A STORY
ABOUT THE REgION’S g±OBA±IzED FUTURE, TO±D IN A THOUSAND DIffERENT TONgUES.
su¿¿ested readin¿
·±EmENTS, ·±ANCY
2009 °e Linguistic Legacy of Spanish and Portuguese: Colonial Expansion and
Language Change. ·AmBRIDgE: ·AmBRIDgE ¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS.
·OE, MICHAE± ´.
2012 Breaking the Maya Code. 3RD ED. LONDON: °AmES & ÉUDSON.
¼OmERO, ²ImON
2012 “µN ¹NDIgENOUS LANgUAgE WITH ¶NIqUE ²TAYINg ¸OWER.” New Ãork Times, 12
MARCH. HTTP://NYTI.mS/1²W3XO6.
²TAVANS, ¹±AN
2004 Spanglish: °e Making of a New American Language. ½EW ÓORk:
ÉARPER·O±±INS.
¾ERáN, ÍICTOR, AND ÁVID ²HOOk, EDS.
2015 Like a New Sun: New Indigenous Mexican Poetry. LOS µNgE±ES, ·µ: ¸HO-
NEmE MEDIA.
siô
Love, Protest, Dance, Remix

Michelle Bigenho
ÔroÇ his hoÇe in ðapan, ¾AkAATSU ÌINOSHITA HAD BEEN FO±±OWINg

µNDEAN mUSIC SINCE HE WAS A YOUNg BOY IN THE 1980S. × ÉE WAS NOT A±ONE.
²EVERA± mEmBERS OF HIS FAmI±Y A±SO WERE INVO±VED IN THIS HOBBY. µT THE AgE OF
NINETEEN, HE BOUgHT A ONE-WAY TICkET TO ÊO±IVIA. ¾WE±VE YEARS ±ATER, HE
RETURNED TO JAPAN AND BEgAN mAkINg A ±IVINg AS A PROFESSIONA±, P±AYINg
µNDEAN AND LATIN µmERICAN mUSIC. JAPANESE AUDIENCES HAVE BEEN DRAWN TO
µNDEAN mUSIC SINCE THE 1970S WHEN THEY fiRST HEARD THE SOUNDS OF THE
NOTCHED µNDEAN flUTE CA±±ED THE Quena. ¹T WAS THE INSTRUmENT THEY HEARD IN
²ImON AND GARFUNkE±’S HIT RENDITION OF “³± CóNDOR PASA.” JAPANESE AUDIENCES
INITIA±±Y mADE FEW DISTINCTIONS ABOUT THE ORIgINS OF THIS mUSIC, OUTSIDE THE
FRAmE OF THE “µNDES” AND THE WE±±-kNOWN REFERENCE TO THE ¹NCAS. µS TOURINg
CONTRACTS WERE SET UP WITH DIffERENT mUSICIANS FROm ¸ERU, µRgENTINA, AND
ÊO±IVIA, JAPANESE AUDIENCES BECAmE mORE DISCERNINg. ³VENTUA±±Y, ÊO±IVIA
BECAmE A kEY DESTINATION FOR JAPANESE SOjOURNERS WHO SOUgHT TO BETTER UNDER-
STAND HOW THIS mUSIC IS P±AYED. ¹N TURN, CONNECTIONS WITH THESE TRAVE±ERS
OPENED DOORS FOR ÊO±IVIAN mUSICIANS IN JAPAN.
²³Êº, È»³¶º¾¶, ¿µ¸¼º, »º¹·X . . .
ÉPENDINg ON ONE’S AgE, mUSIC FROm LATIN µmERICA PRODUCES IN THE mIND’S
EAR AND EYE DIffERENT SOUNDS AND ImAgES. »NE mIgHT SEE AND HEAR ÉSI µRNAz
P±AYINg HIS DRUmS IN A “LATIN” ACT ON TE±EVISION’S I Love Lucy. »NE mAY HEAR
·ARmEN MIRANDA, THE ¸ORTUgUESE-BORN ÊRAzI±IAN-IDENTIfiED “BOmBSHE±±,”
SINgINg SAmBA, A gENRE WITH µFRO-ÊRAzI±IAN ROOTS. »F COURSE, ONE IS PERHAPS
mORE ±IkE±Y TO REmEmBER ·ARmEN MIRANDA BY HER mOVIE ImAgE—THE ACTRESS
114
WHO WORE A FRUIT HEADDRESS THAT SEEmED TO ExTEND END±ESS±Y TO THE SkY. ¹T’S
BANANAS A±± THE WAY UP! ÉER SINgINg TA±ENTS SECURED A TICkET TO ÊROADWAY AND
ÉO±±YWOOD. ²HE EVEN PARTICIPATED IN ÈOR±D ÈAR ¹¹–ERA ¶.². FOREIgN PO±ICY
ON LATIN µmERICA. ÉO±±YWOOD AND THE ¶.². ²TATE ÉPARTmENT SWEPT HER UP
IN fi±mS AImED AT LATIN µmERICANS. µSSUmINg WHAT WOU±D BECOmE A STEREO-
TYPICA± LATINA RO±E, SHE STARRED IN SEVERA± fi±mS THAT SHOWED A mISHmASH OF
CU±TURA± CUES FROm ÊRAzI±, MExICO, ·UBA, AND µRgENTINA. ½O WONDER
ÊRAzI±IAN AND µRgENTINE AUDIENCES REjECTED fi±mS ±IkE Down Argentine Way,
IN WHICH MIRANDA SANg NOT THE µRgENTINE TANgO BUT A RENDITION OF ·UBAN
RUmBA. µ±THOUgH MIRANDA’S SIgNATURE FRUIT HEADDRESS P±AYED Off STY±ES WORN
BY µFRO-DESCENDANTS WHO ±IVE IN ÊAHíA—±EgACIES OF FORCED µFRICAN DISP±ACE-
mENTS VIA THE ±ONg HISTORY OF THE ¸ORTUgUESE ÊRAzI±IAN S±AVE TRADE—HER
ÉO±±YWOOD REPRESENTATIONS WERE mORE ³UROPEANIzED VERSIONS OF LATIN
µmERICA. ºOR THE ¶.². ²TATE ÉPARTmENT, THESE fi±mS WERE AImED AT LATIN
µmERICA’S ³UROPEAN-DESCENDANT E±ITES, WHO TENDED TO BE WHITE. µFRO-
DESCENDANTS HAD NO P±ACE IN THAT PICTURE.
¸ERHAPS ONE REmEmBERS THE mID-1990S BRIEF mACARENA FAD, A gROUP DANCE
THAT HAD PUB±ICS IN ENTIRE STADIUmS DOINg A ROUTINE WITH SET STEPS ANYONE
COU±D ±EARN. ÈHI±E THE mACARENA WAS mARkETED ±IkE OTHER LATIN DANCE
CRAzES—TANgO, RUmBA, mAmBO, AND CHA-CHA-CHA—IT WAS ORIgINA±±Y RECORDED
BY THE ²PANISH DUO LOS DE± ¼íO.
¸ERHAPS ONE HEARS THE 1990S SOUNDS OF NOSTA±gIA FOR AN O±D ·UBA. »NE SEES
E±DER±Y ·UBAN mUSICIANS WANDERINg THE STREETS OF ÉAVANA AND ½EW ÓORk
·ITY, AS IN THE 1999 DOCUmENTARY Buena Æista Social Club. °IS RECORDINg
INITIATIVE WAS PRECEDED BY THE ÍIEjA ¾ROVA ²ANTIAgUERA, fiNANCED BY THE
²PANISH ENTREPRENEUR MANUE± ÓmíNgUEz AND PROmOTED THROUgH HIS WOR±D
mUSIC ±ABE±, ½UBENEgRA. ²UCH PROjECTS A±±OWED ÈESTERN AUDIENCES THE P±EAS-
URES OF HEARINg AN “O±D” ·UBAN mUSIC WITHOUT BEINg INTERRUPTED BY THE IDEO-
±OgICA± DISPUTES BEHIND THE ·UBAN ¼EVO±UTION AND WITHOUT HEARINg THE
SOUNDS OF CONTEmPORARY ·UBAN HIP-HOP AND REggAETóN. G±OBA± LATIN
µmERICAN mUSIC HAS A±WAYS gONE DOWN mU±TIP±E PATHS OF P±EASURE, PO±ITICS,
AND BUSINESS.
²³Êº, È»³¶º¾¶, ¿µ¸¼º, »º¹·X . . .
½ON–LATIN µmERICAN ±ISTENERS HAVE FA±±EN IN ±OVE WITH LATIN µmERICAN

SOUNDS, AND IN THE PROCESS SOmE PEOP±E HAVE CRIED FOU±. ²OmE STORIES ABOUT
Üov e , Àrot est, õa nce , Â e Ç i ô • 115

HOW LATIN µmERICAN mUSIC TRAVE±S THE WOR±D CRITICIzE THE mARkETINg OF NOS-
TA±gIA AND ExOTIC WOR±DS. ¸OWERFU± CU±TURE INDUSTRIES, USUA±±Y CONTRO±±ED BY
THOSE WHO ARE NOT LATIN µmERICAN, ExP±OIT THESE CU±TURES OF THE G±OBA±
²OUTH, mININg “CU±TURA±±Y RICH” P±ACES FOR THE PROfiTS AND P±EASURES OF NON–
LATIN µmERICANS. ¾A±ES OF APPROPRIATION AND COmmERCIA± ExP±OITATION, HOW-
EVER, DO NOT mAkE UP THE WHO±E STORY OF LATIN µmERICAN mUSIC IN THE WOR±D,
BECAUSE THEY FAI± TO ACCOUNT FOR DIffERENT TYPES OF ±ISTENINg AND CREATIVE SYNER-
gIES. LATIN µmERICAN mUSIC HAS ENTERED INTO WIDE g±OBA± CIRCU±ATION THROUgH
ImmIgRANT COmmUNITIES, RECORDINg INDUSTRIES, AND TOURINg mUSICIANS, BUT IT
HAS CHANgED A±ONg THE WAY. G±OBA± LATIN µmERICAN SOUNDSCAPES CAN BE READ
AgAINST HISTORIES OF mI±ITARY DICTATORSHIPS, PROTEST SONgS, SOCIA± INEqUA±ITIES,
OUT-mIgRATION, AND PO±ITICA± ExI±E. ÈHI±E LATIN µmERICAN ImmIgRANTS HAVE
DRAWN ON mUSICA± SOUNDSCAPES FROm HOmE AS THEY CRAﬅ A SENSE OF BE±ONgINg
IN A NEW P±ACE, NON–LATIN µmERICANS HAVE ±ISTENED TO AND ±EARNED TO PARTICI-
PATE IN THESE SOUNDS, WHETHER THAT INVO±VES P±AYINg LATIN µmERICAN mUSIC,
ExPRESSINg ±EﬅIST SO±IDARITY PO±ITICS, OR gETTINg INTO A ±OCA± SA±SA DANCINg SCENE.
³VEN THOUgH ¶.².–LATIN µmERICAN CONNECTIONS ARE OVERWHE±mINg±Y A
PART OF THIS SOUNDSCAPE, THE SOUNDS flOW mU±TIDIRECTIONA±±Y AND CIRC±E BACk
IN SOmE SURPRISINg WAYS. °E PRESENT DIgITA±±Y SATURATED ERA mAkES THE CU±-
TURA± PO±ITICS OF REmIx EVEN mORE A PART OF THE SCENE, DEmOCRATIzINg SOmE OF
THE CREATIVE CAPACITIES OF SOUND mIxINg AND PRODUCINg NEW CREATIVE EffECTS,
EVEN IF THESE DEVE±OPmENTS HAVE NOT DIS±ODgED ±ONg-STANDINg RE±ATIONS OF
POWER AND INEqUA±ITY. ¾AkINg ±ISTENINg SERIOUS±Y IN g±OBA± LATIN µmERICAN
mUSIC mEANS PAYINg ATTENTION TO HOW PEOP±E RESHAPE AND PARTICIPATE IN THESE
SOUNDSCAPES.
²³Êº, È»³¶º¾¶, ¿µ¸¼º, »º¹·X . . .

Love
“¹ WAS BORN INTO ÊO±IVIAN mUSIC WHEN ¹ HEARD ²ImON AND GARFUNkE±’S ‘³±
CóNDOR PASA,’ ” ³RNESTO ÌAWAmOTO TO±D mE AT A CAFé IN ¾OkYO. “¹ A±SO SANg
[²ImON AND GARFUNkE±’S] OTHER SONgS. ÊUT THAT ONE SONg! ¹T WAS ANOTHER kIND
OF mUSIC! ÈHAT INSTRUmENTS! ¹T mADE mE ImAgINE SOmETHINg E±SE. ²O ¹ STARTED
TO PURSUE THE SOUND OF THE Quena INSTRUmENT.” ºROm ANOTHER JAPANESE mAN,
ÌAWAmOTO BEgAN TO ±EARN TO P±AY THIS µNDEAN flUTE. °ROUgH HIS WORk FOR
THE mAgAzINE Revista Latina, ÌAWAmOTO STUDIED ²PANISH AS HE FO±±OWED
TANgO AND FO±k±ORE PERFORmERS IN THEIR CONCERT TOURS OF JAPAN. ÊY THEN, HE WAS
116 • ch a p t er si ô
DIVIDINg HIS TImE BETWEEN P±AYINg mUSIC AND WORkINg AT HIS OffiCE jOB WITH
THE mAgAzINE. ¹N 1982, WHEN HIS BOSS FORCED HIm TO CHOOSE BETWEEN DOINg
mUSIC AND WORkINg AT THE mAgAzINE, HE qUIT HIS jOB AND WENT TO ÊO±IVIA FOR
THREE mONTHS. ÉE DESCRIBED THIS TRIP AS A TRANSFORmATIVE ExPERIENCE IN WHICH
HE mET mUSICIANS IN THE ±EgENDARY ¸EñA ½AIRA, A FO±k±ORE NIgHTC±UB IN LA ¸Az
THAT WAS C±OSE±Y ASSOCIATED WITH THE EAR±IER PERFORmINg DAYS OF THOSE WHO,
SINCE THE 1960S, WERE ±EgENDS IN THESE mUSIC TRADITIONS. “¾AkAATSU [ÌINOSHITA]
WAS THE fiRST JAPANESE TO ENTER THE ¸EñA ½AIRA. ¹ ARRIVED AﬅER HIm BUT DURINg
THE SAmE YEAR. µﬅER THAT, mANY JAPANESE WENT TO ÊO±IVIA. ¾AkAATSU AND ¹ ARE
PART OF THAT HISTORY.” ÌAWAmOTO DESCRIBED HANgINg OUT AT ¸EñA ½AIRA, gETTINg
TO kNOW THE PERFORmERS, AND EVEN SUBSTITUTINg FOR SOmE OF THEm WHEN THEY
DID NOT ARRIVE FOR AN EVENINg’S PERFORmANCE. ÌAWAmOTO SET UP AN µNDEAN
mUSIC ACADEmY IN ¾OkYO, AND HE HAS mADE A NAmE FOR HImSE±F AmONg ÊO±IVIAN
mUSICIANS WHO HAVE TOURED JAPAN AND AmONg JAPANESE WHO ARE INVO±VED IN
µNDEAN mUSIC.
JAPANESE FANS OF µNDEAN mUSIC mENTION AgAIN AND AgAIN THEIR ±OVE FOR THE
SONg “³± CóNDOR PASA.” ¹T ±ITERA±±Y OPENED THEIR EARS TO A SOUND THAT WAS AT
THE SAmE TImE DIffERENT AND SOmEWHAT FAmI±IAR—THE WINNINg FORmU±A IN THE
WOR±D mUSIC SCENE. ÉOW DID THIS SPECIfiC SONg BECOmE THE g±OBA± CA±±INg CARD
FOR µNDEAN mUSIC? ¹N THE 1960S, ²ImON AND GARFUNkE± SHARED A ¸ARIS STAgE
WITH AN µNDEAN FO±k±ORE ENSEmB±E THAT WAS fiRST kNOWN AS LOS ¹NCAS AND
±ATER AS ¶RUBAmBA. ²ImON AND GARFUNkE± BECAmE INTRIgUED BY THIS BAND’S
PERFORmANCE OF “³± CóNDOR PASA.”Ø °E PIECE THEY P±AYED HAD BEEN ON±Y A
SmA±± PART OF A mUSICA± THEATRICA± PRODUCTION (zarzuela) THAT WAS COmPOSED
BY THE ¸ERUVIAN ÁNIE± µ±OmíA ¼OB±ES IN 1913. ¹N ¸ERU, THE EAR±Y TWENTIETH-
CENTURY PRODUCTION’S P±OT ±INE WAS ABOUT FOREIgN ExP±OITATION OF INDIgENOUS
mINERS IN ¸ERU’S CENTRA± HIgH±ANDS. ¹N ITS HEYDAY, THIS WAS AN ExTREmE±Y POPU-
±AR THEATRICA± PRODUCTION IN LImA, AND IT WAS PRESENTED SOmE THREE THOUSAND
TImES IN fiVE YEARS. µ±OmíA ¼OB±ES’S COmPOSITION WAS ±IkE THE OTHER indigeni-
sta ARTISTIC ExPRESSIONS OF THE TImE, mUSICA± COmPOSITIONS THAT FO±±OWED
³UROPEAN PATTERNS AND AESTHETICS WHI±E DRAWINg INSPIRATION FROm INDIgENOUS
mUSIC OF THE µNDEAN COUNTRYSIDE. ºAST FORWARD TO ²ImON AND GARFUNkE±’S
1960S ¸ARIS ENCOUNTER WITH LOS ¹NCAS-¶RUBAmBA, AN ENSEmB±E COmPOSED
PRImARI±Y OF µRgENTINE mUSICIANS. ¸AU± ²ImON SET HIS OWN ±YRICS TO THE OPEN-
INg mE±ODY, AND THUS WAS BORN ONE OF THE mOST CONTROVERSIA± TUNES THAT FUE±ED
THE µNDEAN mUSIC BOOm, A C±ASSIC CASE OF A fiRST WOR±D mUSICIAN SUPPOSED±Y
“DISCOVERINg” AND THEN SHAPINg THESE SOUNDS INTO mARkETAB±E FORm. ¸ERUVIANS
HAVE BEEN INDIgNANT ABOUT ²ImON’S PURPORTED THEﬅ OF THE TUNE, AND THEY

HAVE C±AmORED TO REC±AIm THIS COmPOSITION AS NATIONA± HERITAgE. ÊO±IVIAN
mUSICIANS’ ATTITUDES ABOUT THE TUNE VARY. MOST OF THEm ARE jUST TIRED OF P±AY-
INg IT FOR INTERNATIONA± AUDIENCES, EVEN IF IT REmAINS A mAINSTAY OF THE ÊO±IVIAN
PERFORmANCE REPERTOIRE IN JAPAN.
²³Êº, È»³¶º¾¶, ¿µ¸¼º, »º¹·X . . .

. . . Protest
²OmETImE BETWEEN THE 1960S AND 1970S, THE g±OBA± CIRCU±ATION OF µNDEAN
mUSIC FUSED ExOTIC ¹NDIAN WOR±DS TO ±EﬅIST SO±IDARITY PO±ITICS.Ù µ COUP IN
·HI±E P±AYED A kEY RO±E IN THIS DEVE±OPmENT. ¹N 1973, THE ¶.². ·¹µ BACkED THE
OVERTHROW OF ²A±VADOR µ±±ENDE, ·HI±E’S DEmOCRATICA±±Y E±ECTED SOCIA±IST PRESI-
DENT. °E COUP WAS FO±±OWED BY THE DICTATORSHIP OF µUgUSTO ¸INOCHET, A
REgImE RESPONSIB±E FOR COUNT±ESS HUmAN RIgHTS ABUSES. ÚRINg THE PO±ITICA±
mOVEmENTS ±EADINg UP TO THE E±ECTION OF µ±±ENDE, SINgERS AND SONgWRITERS ±IkE
ÍIO±ETA ¸ARRA AND ÍíCTOR JARA HAD DEVE±OPED THE PROTEST STY±E Nueva canción,
OR ½EW ²ONg. ÈHEN ¸INOCHET TOOk POWER, ¹NTI-¹±±ImANI AND ëUI±APAYúN,
BANDS FORmED IN THESE mOmENTS OF SOCIA± PROTEST, WENT INTO ExI±E AND FOUND
PO±ITICA±±Y SYmPATHETIC AUDIENCES IN ³UROPE AND BEYOND.
• • •
¹NTI-¹±±ImANI TOURED µUSTRA±IA IN 1977. ¾EN YEARS ±ATER, OTHER ·HI±EAN ExI±ES
±IVINg IN ¾ASmANIA FORmED THE BAND µRAUCO LIBRE. ÈHI±E ·HI±EAN ExI±ES
ARRIVINg IN µUSTRA±IA HAD TO DISRUPT THE ÉO±±YWOOD STEREOTYPES OF LATIN
µmERICANS THAT HAD BEEN ESTAB±ISHED SINCE THE DAYS OF ·ARmEN MIRANDA,
BANDS ±IkE µRAUCO LIBRE CREATED THEIR OWN ImAgINARIES TOO. ºOR ExAmP±E,
THEIR NAmE, µRAUCO LIBRE (ºREE µRAUCO), REFERENCED INDIgENOUS PEOP±E WHO
HAD VERY ±ITT±E TO DO WITH THOSE FROm WHOm THE NOW WE±±-kNOWN µNDEAN
SOUND HAD BEEN APPROPRIATED. °E BAND’S NAmE REFERENCED THE “µRAUCANIANS,”
THE ²PANISH CO±ONIzERS’ TERm FOR THOSE WHO WERE ASSOCIATED WITH THE PRESENT-
DAY MAPUCHE INDIgENOUS PEOP±ES IN ·HI±E AND µRgENTINA, PEOP±ES WHO HAD
NEVER COmE UNDER ¹NCA RU±E. ¹N ½EW ËEA±AND, OTHER ·HI±EAN ExI±ES FORmED
THE BAND ÌANTUTA (REFERENCINg THE NATIONA± flOWER OF ÊO±IVIA AND ¸ERU), BUT
THIS ENSEmB±E PRESENTED A BROADER LATIN µmERICAN REPERTOIRE, PERFORmINg
WARHORSES ±IkE “GUANTANAmERA” AND “LA CUCARACHA,” AND EVENTUA±±Y mOVINg
INTO ROmANTIC SA±SA.
ÈHEN ·HI±E RETURNED TO DEmOCRACY IN 1990, PROTEST mUSIC IN µUSTRA±IA
HE±D ON TO THE INDIgENOUS ASSOCIATIONS THAT THEN ENTERED A WOR±D mUSIC STAgE.
²ECOND-gENERATION mIgRANTS IN ME±BOURNE mUSICA±±Y DEVE±OPED NOT THEIR PAR-
ENTS’ THEmES OF DIS±OCATION, PROTEST, AND ExI±E BUT THEIR OWN CONCERNS ABOUT
SEEkINg A LATIN µmERICAN IDENTITY. °E BAND ¹NkA MARkA, FORmED IN 1997, DID
SO BY TAkINg A NAmE THAT CONjURED UP CONNECTIONS TO THE ANCIENT ¹NCA ³mPIRE.
• • •
¸ROTEST TRADITIONS HAVE A ±ONg AND CONTINUINg HISTORY IN LATIN µmERICAN

mUSIC, BUT THEY DO NOT A±± CROSS OVER SO EASI±Y INTO g±OBA± CONTExTS. Ú Corridos,
A BA±±AD FORm POPU±AR IN NORTHERN MExICO AND THE ¶.².-MExICO BORDER
REgION, TE±± TA±ES OF UNDERDOgS WHO STAND UP TO POWER AND figHT BACk, WHETHER
THOSE figHTERS ARE RUNNINg FROm ABUSIVE ¾ExAS ¼ANgERS, ENgAgED IN THE
MExICAN ¼EVO±UTION A±ONgSIDE ³mI±IANO ËAPATA, OR EVEN RUNNINg DRUgS (AS
SUNg IN narcocorridos) BECAUSE THAT IS THE ON±Y WAY TO mAkE ENDS mEET. ÈITH
ITS ACCORDION-BASED PO±kA RHYTHmS, corridos DO NOT INSPIRE mUCH DANCE mOVE-
mENT OUTSIDE THE LATINO COmmUNITY, AND ITS FORmS OF PROTEST ARE OﬅEN BURIED
IN mANY ²PANISH VERSES. µS A gENRE HEAVI±Y DRIVEN BY ±YRICS AND BA±±AD STORY-
TE±±INg, IT APPEA±S TO MExICAN AND MExICAN µmERICAN AUDIENCES IN THE ¶NITED
²TATES, BUT REmAINS SOmEWHAT UNDER THE RADAR AmONg ¶.². µNg±OS. ÉOWEVER,
THIS RATHER g±OBA±±Y UNCE±EBRATED gENRE TOOk THE STAgE IN A NEW WAY WHEN
mAkERS OF THE HIT TE±EVISION SHOW Breaking Bad HIRED THE BAND LOS ·UATES DE
²INA±OA TO COmPOSE AND PERFORm A corrido. °E SHOW FEATURED A P±OT ABOUT
ÈA±TER ÈHITE (A±IAS ÉEISENBERg), AN µNg±O µ±BUqUERqUE-BASED CHEmISTRY-
TEACHER-TURNED-mETH-DEA±ER. °E BAND’S narcocorrido “½EgRO Y AzU±” INC±UDED
AN ACCOmPANYINg VIDEO THAT ±IONIzED THIS fiCTIONA± DEA±ER AND DEPICTED
ÉEISENBERg’S ±EgEND AS IT WAS ImAgINED TO HAVE TRAVE±ED DOWN INTO MExICO.
²³Êº, È»³¶º¾¶, ¿µ¸¼º, »º¹·X . . .

. . . Dance
ÈHEN ¹ WAS IN ¾OkYO IN 2003, THE ÊO±IVIAN DANCER ËENOBIA MAmANI INVITED
mE TO A cueca C±ASS SHE WAS TEACHINg. Cueca IS A ÊO±IVIAN gENRE DANCED BY
COUP±ES. ¹N HER COUNTRY OF ORIgIN, MAmANI mARRIED A JAPANESE µNDEAN FO±k-
±ORE mUSICIAN WHO HAD ±IVED OVER A DECADE IN ÊO±IVIA BEFORE RETURNINg TO
JAPAN WITH MAmANI AND THEIR SON. ¹N A FOREIgN COUNTRY, MAmANI WENT TO

WORk WITH HER SkI±±S AS A ÊO±IVIAN DANCER, DRAWINg AS HER STUDENTS JAPANESE
µNDEAN mUSIC ENTHUSIASTS WHO SOUgHT OUT DANCE C±ASSES IN ORDER TO FEE± THE
gROOVE OF mORE COmP±ICATED gENRES ±IkE THE cueca. µ YEAR ±ATER, ¹ mET UP IN
ÊO±IVIA WITH A JAPANESE COUP±E FROm MAmANI’S C±ASS. °EY WERE SPENDINg A
FEW mONTHS THERE, HOPINg TO FU±fi±± THE DREAm OF ±EARNINg THE mANY DISTINCT
cueca DANCE STY±ES FOUND IN DIffERENT PARTS OF ÊO±IVIA: LA ¸Az, ·HUqUISACA,
·OCHABAmBA, ¾ARIjA, AND ³± ·HACO.
• • •
ÈHI±E µNDEAN mUSIC, ±IkE mOST mUSIC OF THE WOR±D, IS mEANT FOR DANCINg, IT
IS NOT THE kIND OF LATIN µmERICAN mUSIC THAT DRAWS THE mOST NON–LATIN
µmERICANS TO THE DANCE flOOR. °AT HONOR HAS gONE TO TANgO AND SA±SA. °E
µRgENTINE TANgO ARRIVED IN JAPAN VIA 1920S ¸ARIS AND THEN IN ÊRITISH INSTRUC-
TION mANUA±S.Û ¸ARIS WAS CONSECRATINg LATIN µmERICAN mUSIC FOR THE WOR±D
±ONg BEFORE THE “³± CóNDOR PASA” SAgA. ¹N THE 1930S, THE ºRENCH MOU±IN ¼OUgE
¾ANgO ÊAND P±AYED IN ¾OkYO’S º±ORIDA ÊA±±ROOm. µND DURINg ÈOR±D ÈAR ¹¹,
TANgO CONTINUED TO BE P±AYED IN JAPAN, EVEN THOUgH mOST FOREIgN mUSIC WAS
BANNED THERE AT THE TImE. ²OmE FORm OF “THE TANgO” IS NOW PART OF THE BA±±-
ROOm DANCE SCENE IN mANY PARTS OF THE WOR±D. ¹TS DANCE STEPS, ±IkE A SERIES OF
COmP±ICATED BA±ANCINg ExERCISES, HAVE EVEN BEEN SEEN AS POTENTIA±±Y THERAPEU-
TIC FOR THE E±DER±Y AND THOSE SUffERINg FROm ¸ARkINSON’S DISEASE.
• • •
MANY PEOP±E AgREE THAT SA±SA mUSIC gETS A ±OT OF PEOP±E DANCINg, BUT FEW
PEOP±E AgREE ON THE mUSIC’S ORIgINS. ·UBAN? ¸UERTO ¼ICAN? ·O±OmBIAN?
ÍENEzUE±AN? ½UYORICAN (½EW ÓORk ¸UERTO ¼ICANS)? °E SYmBO±IC CONflICTS
OVER THE ORIgINS OF SA±SA REflECT PO±ITICA± HISTORIES. ¾O SUmmARIzE VERY BRIEflY,
IN THE 1960S, THE ½EW ÓORk–BASED ºANIA ¼ECORDS STARTED USINg “SA±SA” AS A
mARkETINg ±ABE±, BUT SOmE PEOP±E SAID THAT THESE RECORDINgS WERE NOTHINg
mORE THAN ·UBAN mUSIC DRESSED IN NEW C±OTHES.
³VEN IF ONE WANTS TO REmAIN OUT OF THE FRAY IN THIS ORIgIN WAR, THREE POINTS
ARE WORTH kEEPINg IN mIND. ºIRST, ¶.².-·UBAN RE±ATIONS, BEgINNINg WITH THE
1960 EmBARgO, RESHAPED THE PREVIOUS mUSICA± flOWS BETWEEN THE IS±AND AND
THE ¶NITED ²TATES. ²ECOND, ½UYORICAN SA±SA FORmED AS A VITA± PART OF 1960S
AND 1970S gRASSROOTS mOVEmENTS FOR LATINO IDENTITIES AND CIVI± RIgHTS. °IRD,
THE ±ACk OF AgREEmENT ON THE NATIONA± ORIgINS OF SA±SA mUSIC IS IN ITSE±F SIgNIfi-
CANT, REflECTINg THE mUSIC’S ±ONg-TERm HISTORICA± ROOTS IN CO±ONIA±ISm AND THE
·ARIBBEAN-BASED µFRICAN DIASPORA.
°E SA±SA ORIgIN WARS HARD±Y kEPT NON–LATIN µmERICANS AWAY FROm DANC-
INg THIS mUSIC, WHICH ExPERIENCED A mAjOR CROSSOVER IN THE 1980S AND 1990S.
ÈHEN ¹ WAS STUDYINg FOR A mASTER’S DEgREE IN LImA, ¸ERU, ¹ REmEmBER DANC-
INg TO »RqUESTA DE ±A LUz, A JAPANESE SA±SA BAND THAT IN 1990 HAD A NUmBER
ONE A±BUm ON ÊI±±BOARD’S TROPICA± CHART. °E 1989 flASH-IN-THE-PAN FAmE OF
±AmBADA SET Off A RENEWED INTEREST IN COUP±E-BASED DANCINg. ºOR THOSE WHO
DID NOT ExPERIENCE OR WHO CANNOT REmEmBER THIS mOmENT, ±AmBADA WAS A
gENRE BRIEflY POPU±ARIzED BY THE ºRENCH ÊRAzI±IAN BAND ÌAOmA IN A±BUmS ±IkE
World Beat AND Tribal-Pursuit. ÍIDEO PRESENTATION OF ±AmBADA SHOWED A
DANCE IN WHICH WOmEN IN SHORT SkIRTS AND REVEA±INg UNDERWEAR gYRATED THEIR
CROTCHES AgAINST THE THIgHS OF THEIR mA±E PARTNERS, A±± WHI±E kEEPINg THE HIPS
IN CONSTANT mOTION. ÈHAT ±OOkED gREAT IN THE VIDEOS SEEmED ImPOSSIB±E TO
REP±ICATE IN THE ±AYPERSON’S SOCIA± DANCINg ENCOUNTER. ²OmE ATTEmPTS ±ED TO
DANCINg DISASTERS, ±ONg BEFORE “MI±EY ·YRUS” AND “TWERkINg” CO±±IDED IN THE
¶.². NATIONA± ±ExICON. ¹F AWkWARDNESS DID NOT COmP±ETE±Y kI±± THE TREND, THE
±AW DID. °E ÊO±IVIAN µNDEAN BAND LOS ÌjARkAS SUCCESSFU±±Y SUED ÌAOmA FOR
THE UN±ICENSED COVER OF “L±ORANDO SE FUE.” °E ÉERmOSA BROTHERS OF LOS
ÌjARkAS HAD COmPOSED THIS TUNE, WHICH HAD BECOmE THE SINg±E SONg mOST
ASSOCIATED WITH ±AmBADA.
ÈHI±E ±AmBADA FE±± flAT, SA±SA TOOk Off AS A g±OBA± DANCE PHENOmENON
AmONg NON–LATIN µmERICANS. ¹F NON–LATIN µmERICANS WERE DRAWN TO THE
SOUNDS OF STOIC ¹NDIANS IN AN ImAgINED µNDEAN INDIgENISm, IN SA±SA THEY
WERE DRAWN TO ImAgINED TROPICA±IzED SOUNDS. ¸ARTICIPATINg IN THIS SCENE
mEANT gOINg TO C±UBS, TAkINg C±ASSES, AND ATTENDINg CONgRESSES IN ½ORTH
µmERICA AND ³UROPE. ¹N THE CROSSOVER, SA±SA DANCINg WENT FROm BEINg ImPRO-
VISED TO BEINg CHOREOgRAPHED. ¹N mARCHED A DE-µFRICANIzED BA±±ROOm AES-
THETIC THAT INVO±VED mOVES TO BE ±EARNED AND A HIP FETISH THAT IgNORED THE
NECESSARY CORRESPONDINg kNEE AND RIBCAgE mOVEmENTS. MEN WHO HAVE TAkEN
SA±SA C±ASSES mAY FEE± THE NEED TO SHOW Off A±± THEIR ±EADINg mOVES, EACH ONE
STUDIED, mEmORIzED, AND PU±±ED OUT TO ImPRESS. »N THIS SA±SA flOOR, ONE CAN
FORgET TOO EASI±Y THE VERY P±EASURAB±E FEE±INg OF SImP±Y gETTINg IN A gOOD
gROOVE AND STAYINg THERE FOR A ±ONg TImE. ¹N CITIES ±IkE MONTREA±, SA±SA ROU±ETTE
HAS TAkEN THIS gENRE IN YET ANOTHER DIRECTION. ¹N THIS FORm, SEVERA± COUP±ES
DANCE TOgETHER, CHANgINg PARTNERS AND COmP±ETINg mOVES ACCORDINg TO THE
CA±±S OF A ±EAD mA±E DANCER. °INk HERE ABOUT SqUARE DANCINg OR CONTRA DANC-
INg, BUT SA±SIfiED.

½ACHO Gá±VEz INITIA±±Y ARRIVED IN LONDON AS YET ANOTHER ·HI±EAN ExI±E. µT
fiRST, HE OPENED A C±UB THAT FEATURED ·HI±EAN ½EW ²ONg, BUT BY THE 1990S, THE
FO±k PROTEST SONgS WERE REP±ACED BY SA±SA. LONDON C±UBS CATERED TO EITHER
WORkINg-C±ASS ImmIgRANTS OR NON–LATIN µmERICANS WHO WERE DRAWN TO SA±SA
DANCINg. °E ¶NITED ÌINgDOm µ±±IANCE OF ¸ROFESSIONA± ¾EACHERS OF ÁNCINg
AND ÌINDRED µRTS PROFESSIONA±IzED SA±SA WITH ExAmINATIONS, CERTIfiCATES, FOR-
mA± COmPETITIONS, A REgISTRY OF STEPS, AND EVEN HEA±TH AND SAFETY RU±ES. LATIN
µmERICAN ImmIgRANTS IN LONDON DID NOT TAkE WE±± TO THE IDEA OF THE ³Ng±ISH
TE±±INg THEm HOW TO DANCE THEIR OWN mUSIC! ÈHEN NON–LATIN µmERICAN
SA±SA DANCERS VENTURED OUT TO LATIN µmERICAN CONTExTS, THEY WERE DISmAYED
TO fiND THEIR OWN “OffiCIA±” STY±E WAS ±ITT±E mORE THAN A PARODY OF “THE REA±
THINg.”
²³Êº, È»³¶º¾¶, ¿µ¸¼º, »º¹·X . . .

. . . Remix
µ±BERTO “ÊETO” ¸éREz, A ·O±OmBIAN BORN IN ·A±I WHO ImmIgRATED TO THE
¶NITED ²TATES AT THE END OF THE 1990S, DEVE±OPED THE CAREFU±±Y TRADEmARkED
ËUmBA ExERCISE C±ASSES THAT HAVE BECOmE COmmON AT mANY gYmS. Ý ÈHI±E
NON–LATIN µmERICAN SA±SA AND TANgO DANCERS mAY TAkE SPECIA± PRIDE IN ±EARN-
INg THEIR STEPS AND COmINg TO A gREATER UNDERSTANDINg OF LATIN µmERICAN
CU±TURES, SOmE mIgHT SAY THAT qUITE THE OPPOSITE IS THE CASE FOR THESE REmIxED
LATIN RHYTHmS THAT HAVE STOPPED BEINg A mODE OF P±EASURE AND NOW HAVE
BEEN PUT TO THE mORE UTI±ITARIAN END OF mAkINg PEOP±E AROUND THE WOR±D mORE
fiT. ²OmE PEOP±E, HOWEVER, HAVE SUggESTED THAT ËUmBA fiTNESS AND THE mUSIC
USED IN THIS WORkOUT HAVE CREATED A NEW FAN BASE FOR LATIN mUSICIANS ±IkE
ÁDDY ÓANkEE AND ÓN »mAR, BOTH ¸UERTO ¼ICAN REggAETóN ARTISTS.
• • •
ÈHEN THE REggAETóN ARTIST “³± GENERA±” TRAVE±ED TO ·HI±E, OffiCIA±S CONfiS-
CATED HIS PERFORmANCE COSTUmES. ¸INOCHET, WHO WAS NOT A FAN, HAD THE SINgER
UNNAmED AND DEROBED. ÈI±± THE REA± GENERA± P±EASE STEP FORWARD? ³± GENERA±,
THE ARTIST, WOU±D ON±Y BE A±±OWED TO PERFORm IN CIVI±IAN C±OTHES AND UNDER HIS
BIRTH NAmE, ³DgARDO ºRANCO. ³± GENERA± WAS BORN IN ¸ANAmA BUT BEgAN HIS
SINgINg CAREER WHEN HE WENT TO ½EW ÓORk IN 1985. ÉIS TRAjECTORY ExEmP±IfiES
THE TRANSNATIONA± AND mU±TI±INgUA± ASPECTS OF THE REggAETóN gENRE WHOSE
gRASSROOTS ORIgINS ARE IN ¸ANAmANIAN AND ¸UERTO ¼ICAN ²PANISH-±ANgUAgE
REggAE, ¶.². HIP-HOP, AND JAmAICAN DANCEHA±±. °E gENRE HAS BEEN SHAPED
HEAVI±Y IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES BUT A±SO HAS ROOTS IN ÈEST ¹NDIAN ImmIgRATION,
JAmAICAN PATOIS, AND ¼ASTAFARIANISm. ¾ODAY’S DIgITA± RECORDINg TOO±S HAVE
FACI±ITATED REggAETóN’S REmIx, PRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION ACROSS A WIDE SEC-
TION OF ¶.². AND LATIN µmERICAN CREATORS AND AUDIENCES. ¶N±IkE mANY OTHER
g±OBA± LATIN µmERICAN gENRES THAT HAVE BECOmE mORE ³UROPEANIzED, REggA-
ETóN STI±± EmBRACES ITS B±ACk ROOTS. ÓOUNg PEOP±E IN ·UBA ARE ±ISTENINg AND
DANCINg NOT TO THE NOSTA±gIC ÊUENA ÍISTA ²OCIA± ·±UB SOUNDS THAT ENCHANT
FOREIgNERS BUT TO THE TRANS-µmERICAN AND TRANS-·ARIBBEAN SOUNDS AND ±AN-
gUAgES OF REggAETóN.
• • •
¹F THE G±OBA± ½ORTH’S APPROACH TO SA±SA ³UROPEANIzED THE DANCE, SA±SA A±SO
HAD ITS CIRCUITS OF RE-µFRICANIzATION—PROCESSES THAT OCCURRED BETWEEN ·UBA,
½EW ÓORk ·ITY, AND ÈEST µFRICA.Þ ¹N 1931, THE ·UBAN “¸EANUT ÍENDOR ²ONg”
(“³± mANICERO”) ARRIVED IN ÈEST µFRICA VIA ¼·µ ÍICTOR’S RECORDINg BY ÓN
µSPIAzU AND HIS ÉAVANA ·ASINO »RCHESTRA. ÈHEN ¼ADIO ÁkAR WENT ON AIR
IN 1949, ITS PROgRAmmINg A±SO REflECTED THE ºRENCH CO±ONIA± ±OVE FOR LATIN
µmERICAN mUSIC. ÊY THE TImE OF THE ·UBAN ¼EVO±UTION, AN µFRICAN-BASED
RECORDINg INDUSTRY WAS BOOmINg, µBIDjAN HAD BECOmE A SHOW BUSINESS
CENTER, AND WEA±THY ¹VORIANS WERE SPONSORINg TOURS OF THEIR FAVORITE ARTISTS
FROm ·UBA AND ½EW ÓORk. °E µFRICAN RECORDINg INDUSTRY A±SO CATERED TO
µFRICAN STUDENTS WHO HAD STUDIED IN ·UBA AND THEN RETURNED TO THE CONTI-
NENT WITH A THIRST FOR ·UBAN mUSIC.
°E ²ENEgAmBIAN SINgER LABA ²OSSEH OCCUPIED A PRImE P±ACE IN THIS RE-
µFRICANIzATION PROCESS. ÊUT ²OSSEH A±WAYS DENIED THAT HE WAS A SA±SA mUSI-
CIAN. ÊORN INTO A gRIOT FAmI±Y IN GAmBIA IN 1943, ²OSSEH CAmE TO SEE µFRO-
·UBAN mUSIC AS A SOUND OF ±IBERATION. ÉE HAD NO INTEREST IN THE ·UBAN
¼EVO±UTION BUT TOOk SERIOUS±Y THE B±ACk ANTICO±ONIA± A±±IANCES HE ESTAB±ISHED
WITH mUSICIANS FROm ·UBA AND ½EW ÓORk ·ITY. ºANIA ¼ECORDS STARS, ±IkE
“MONgUITO” (¼AmóN ²ARDIñAS ëUIáN), P±AYED WITH ²OSSEH, fiNDINg COmmON
CONNECTIONS THROUgH B±ACk CU±TURA± E±EmENTS THAT WERE THEN REROOTED IN
µFRICA. ÈHEN ²OSSEH TRAVE±ED TO ·UBA, HOWEVER, AROUND THE TURN OF THE
TWENTY-fiRST CENTURY, HE FACED CHA±±ENgES BECAUSE OF HIS FOCUS ON B±ACkNESS.

²UCH IDEAS THAT HIgH±IgHTED RACE DID NOT gO OVER WE±± IN A CONTExT WHERE
OffiCIA± PO±ICY STI±± PRESENTED ·UBA AS A RACE±ESS SOCIETY.
• • •
»THER SOCIA± AND mUSICA± REmIxES SHOW TIES THAT DO NOT fiT NEAT±Y IN THE USUA±
CRITIqUES OF HOW THE G±OBA± ½ORTH AND ÈEST ExOTIFY THE G±OBA± ²OUTH AND
³AST. °E ·HINESE ARE INVESTINg mORE IN LATIN µmERICA, TAkINg mORE VACA-
TIONS TO THE REgION, AND HEARINg AT HOmE mORE SOUNDS FROm LATIN µmERICA,
WHETHER AS PART OF THE ·HAOYANg ¹NTERNATIONA± ¸OP MUSIC ºESTIVA±, AS ENTER-
TAINmENT AT AN µRgENTINE-THEmED BAR IN ²HANgHAI CA±±ED ÊOCA, OR AS PART OF
THE REPERTOIRE PERFORmED BY THE ·HINESE ½ATIONA± »RCHESTRA. ¹N THIS ±AST
CASE, THE ·HINESE mUSICIANS P±AYED LATIN µmERICAN mUSIC ON TRADITIONA±
·HINESE INSTRUmENTS AND A±SO PAIRED UP WITH A ·O±OmBIAN DANCE TROUPE,
²ANkOFA, WHICH EmPHASIzES THE µFRICAN ROOTS OF ·O±OmBIAN mUSIC AND
DANCE.
¹N ¹NDIA, ONE CAN ENCOUNTER LATIN µmERICAN mUSIC IN THE EVERYDAY gYm
WORkOUT. ËUmBA AND THE “µFRO-·UBAN ÁNCE ¼OUTINE” NOW SIT NExT TO OTHER
±OCA± gYm C±ASS OffERINgS ±IkE “MASA±A ÊHANgRA” AND “ÊO±±YWOOD ÈORkOUT.”
ºOR THOSE WHO WANT TO BECOmE DANCE ENTHUSIASTS, THEY mAY TAkE SA±SA DANC-
INg AT STUDIOS ±IkE THE ÉOT ²HOE ÁNCE ·OmPANY IN ·HENNAI, WHERE JEffERY
GERARD ÍARDON TEACHES SA±SA AﬅER HAVINg RECEIVED C±ASSICA± BA±±ET TRAININg IN
¼USSIA AND SA±SA DANCE TRAININg IN ME±BOURNE, µUSTRA±IA. ¹N ADDITION, ¹NDIAN
ARTISTS HAVE BEEN WORkINg ÊO±±YWOOD–LATIN µmERICAN FUSIONS. ¾ANVI ²HAH,
AN ¹NDIAN SINgER-SONgWRITER, WON A GRAmmY AWARD FOR ²PANISH ±YRICS IN A
SONg FROm THE fi±m Slumdog Millionaire. ²HE BEgAN ±ISTENINg TO LATIN
µmERICAN RHYTHmS IN HER CO±±EgE DORmITORY WHEN SHE STUDIED AS AN UNDER-
gRADUATE IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES. ÊACk IN ¹NDIA, SHE NOW SINgS IN ²PANISH AND
¸ORTUgUESE (AmONg mANY OTHER ±ANgUAgES) AND C±AImS TO BE INSPIRED BY THE
±IkES OF ·E±IA ·RUz AND G±ORIA ³STEFAN; THE fiRST ARTIST WAS WE±± kNOWN FOR HER
STUNNINg SA±SA CAREER, NOTAB±Y DEVE±OPED OUTSIDE ºIDE± ·ASTRO’S ·UBA, AND THE
SECOND ARTIST IS A ·UBAN-BORN ¶.².-BASED SINgER-SONgWRITER WHOSE FAmI±Y flED
REVO±UTIONARY ·UBA WHEN SHE WAS qUITE YOUNg.
• • •
µS mANY ÊO±IVIAN mUSICIANS SAY, “°E µNDEAN mUSIC BOOm IS OVER.” °EY TA±k
FRANk±Y ABOUT HOW THEIR TOURS OF ³UROPE AND NOW JAPAN WI±± NOT ±AST FOREVER.
°EY ARE SCRAmB±INg FOR NEW PROPOSA±S, AS ECONOmIC NECESSITY FORCES SOmE OF
THEm TO CONSIDER WHAT THEY THEmSE±VES ±ABE± AS COmP±ETE±Y FAkE—DRESSINg IN
THE STEREOTYPICA± ImAgE OF A NATIVE ½ORTH µmERICAN ¹NDIAN AND gIVINg A
TECHNO ½EW µgE SPIN TO ONE’S mUSIC. °EY CA±± THIS, OR ANY OTHER kIND OF
mUSICA± FAkINg, vendiendo la pomada (SE±±INg THE POmADE), WHICH TRANS±ATES
AS SOmETHINg ±IkE “SE±±INg SNAkE OI±.” ÍgITA± TOO±S HAVE mADE SE±±INg SNAkE OI±
A±± THE EASIER.
ÈHEN ¹ WANTED TO kNOW mORE ABOUT THIS NEW gENERIC ½ATIVE µmERICAN
STY±E, ¹ WAS TO±D TO ±OOk UP SOmE ¸ERUVIAN gROUPS ON ÓOU¾UBE, ARTISTS WHO ARE
SHOWN AS SINgERS OR flUTE P±AYERS, STANDINg ON BOU±DERS IN THE mIDD±E OF RIVERS.
°E ARTISTS WEAR THEIR HAIR ±ONg AND ±OOSE, WITH HEADBANDS AND SOmETImES
FEATHERS. ²OmE OF THEm DON A STEREOTYPICA± ½ATIVE µmERICAN BUCkSkIN SUIT
WITH DECORATIVE DETAI±S AND FRINgES. ÊO±IVIANS TO±D mE THAT ARTISTS ±IkE THESE
SE±± THEIR RECORDINgS TO STREET mUSICIANS, WHO THEN USE P±AYBACk PERFORmANCES
TO PROmOTE THE SA±E OF THE RECORDINgS IN ³UROPE. »NE PERSON CONFESSED THAT
A ÊO±IVIAN RESIDINg IN GERmANY ASkED HIm TO mAkE A RECORDINg IN THIS STY±E;
THE PRODUCER ASkED HIm TO A±TER HIS P±AYINg, TO PERFORm IN A “flAT” (plano) WAY,
WITHOUT THE USUA± DYNAmICS AND INflECTIONS HE WOU±D gIVE A PHRASE. ÉE IN
TURN SPECIfiCA±±Y ASkED THAT HIS NAmE NOT BE ±ISTED AmONg THE RECORDINg mUSI-
CIANS. µNOTHER mUSICIAN ADmITTED HE WANTED TO USE HIS OWN STUDIO TO mAkE
THESE kINDS OF RECORDINgS, BUT HE WANTED TO ±EAVE IT TO OTHERS TO PERFORm THIS
mUSIC ON THE STREET, TO ACTUA±±Y “SE±± THE SNAkE OI±.”
°E ÊO±IVIAN mUSICIANS’ DISDAIN FOR THESE NEW STY±ES AND THEIR EmBARRASS-
mENT ABOUT PARTICIPATINg IN THEIR PRODUCTION SHOW THE COmP±ICATED POSITIONS
OF mUSICIANS AS THEY FACE THE SHIﬅINg DEmANDS OF A g±OBA± mARkET. ÊO±IVIANS
PERFORm WITH PRIDE THEIR INTERPRETATION OF ÊO±IVIAN INDIgENOUS REPRESENTA-
TIONS, BUT “¹NDIAN” HERE IS NOT UNIVERSA±±Y INTERCHANgEAB±E. ÊO±IVIANS FEE±
SI±±Y A±TERINg THEIR mUSICA± AND SARTORIA± AESTHETICS IN ORDER TO ±OOk AND SOUND
±IkE A NATIVE ½ORTH µmERICAN, AND PERHAPS EVEN mORE PROB±EmATICA±±Y, ±IkE
THOSE FROm THEIR RIVA± NEIgHBORINg COUNTRY, ¸ERU. ¾O PARTICIPATE IN THIS NEW
mUSIC ECONOmY THAT mEETS AN ExTERNA± SHIﬅ IN THE DESIRED ExOTIC, SOmE
ÊO±IVIAN mUSICIANS HAVE PREFERRED THE ANONYmITY THE RECORDINg STUDIO A±±OWS.
ÈHI±E ÊO±IVIAN mUSIC PRODUCTION USED TO BE CONCENTRATED IN THE HANDS OF A
FEW ±ARgE ±ABE±S, TODAY SmA±± PRIVATE RECORDINg STUDIOS ARE FOUND IN mANY
ÊO±IVIAN mUSICIANS’ HOmES, SOmETImES EVEN AT THE CENTER OF THAT HOmE. ß
µ±THOUgH NOT WITHOUT THEIR OWN SET OF PROB±EmS, IN THESE STUDIOS mUSICA±
AND CU±TURA± REmIxES HAVE BECOmE SO mUCH EASIER WITH DIgITA±±Y ASSISTED
mOVES.

²³Êº, È»³¶º¾¶, ¿µ¸¼º, »º¹·X . . .
LATIN µmERICAN mUSICS HAVE TRAVE±ED THE g±OBE THROUgH ±OVE, PROTEST, DANCE,
AND REmIx. ¾RAffiCkINg IN NOSTA±gIA AND THE ExOTIC, g±OBA± LATIN µmERICAN
mUSIC DEPENDS ON FRAmES OF TROPICA±IzATION AND NATIVIzATION. ÊUT THESE
FRAmES DO NOT CAPTURE THE SINCERITY WITH WHICH mANY NON–LATIN µmERICANS
BECOmE PARTICIPANTS IN THESE mUSICA± WOR±DS. ¹N THE POST–PROTEST SONg ERA,
NON–LATIN µmERICAN ENTHUSIASTS ARE ±ESS ENgAgED IN SO±IDARITY PO±ITICS AND
mORE ATTUNED TO fiTNESS CRAzES AND TECHNIqUES OF SPECIfiC DANCE mOVES,
A±THOUgH RE-µFRICANIzATION CIRCUITS ARE ExCEPTIONS, CA±±INg FORTH COmmON
HISTORIES OF CO±ONIzATION, S±AVERY, AND DIASPORA. MOREOVER, FOR LATIN
µmERICANS ±IVINg OUTSIDE THE REgION, P±AYINg ONE’S OWN mUSIC CAN STI±± BE A
DEEP±Y PO±ITICA± ACT, AS PEOP±E FORgE A SENSE OF SE±F AND COmmUNITY IN FOREIgN
AND OﬅEN A±IENATINg CONTExTS.
su¿¿ested readin¿
µPARICIO, ºRANCES, AND ·áNDIDA º. JáqUEz, EDS.

2003 Musical Migrations. ÍO±. 1: Transnationalism and Cultural Hybridity in
Latin/o America. ½EW ÓORk: ¸A±gRAVE MACmI±±AN.
ÊIgENHO, MICHE±±E
2012 Intimate Distance: Andean Music in Japan. ÚRHAm, ½·: ÚkE ¶NIVERSITY
¸RESS.
·±ARk, ÈA±TER µARON, ED.
2002 From Tejano to Tango: Latin American Popular Music. ½EW ÓORk:
¼OUT±EDgE.
¼IVERA, ¼AqUE± Ë., ÈAYNE MARSHA±±, AND ÉBORAH ¸ACINI ÉERNáNDEz, EDS.
2009 Reggaeton. ÚRHAm, ½·: ÚkE ¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS.
ÈAxER, LISE, ED.
2002 Situating Salsa: Global Markets and Local Meanings in Latin Popular
Music. ½EW ÓORk: ¼OUT±EDgE.
notes
1. °ROUgHOUT THIS CHAPTER, ¹ DRAW ON mY OWN WORk AS FOUND IN Intimate

Distance: Andean Music in Japan. ¹N THE FO±±OWINg SECTION, ¹ A±SO DRAW ON THE WORk
OF ÈA±TER µARON ·±ARk, ³RIC GA±m, ME±INDA ¼USSE±±, µRIANA ÉERNáNDEz-¼EgUANT,
AND GEOffREY ÊAkER.
2. ¹N THE FO±±OWINg DISCUSSION, ¹ DRAW ON THE WORk OF LYNN µ. MEISCH, JOSé
µNTONIO L±óRENS µmICO, AND µNAHID ÌASSABIAN.
3. ¹N THIS SECTION, ¹ DRAW ON THE WORk OF ºERNANDO ¼IOS, JAN ºAIR±EY, AND ÁN
ÊENDRUPS.
4. ¹N THIS SECTION, ¹ DRAW ON THE WORk OF ¼ICHARD º±ORES, JOSé ³. LImóN, AND ³±IjA
ÈA±D.
5. ¹N THIS SECTION, ¹ DRAW ON THE WORk OF MARTA ²AVIg±IANO MARíA DE± ·ARmEN DE
±A ¸EzA, MADE±EINE ³. ÉACkNEY, ²VET±ANA ÌANTOROVICH, AND GAmmON M. ³ARHART;
LOUIS µ. ¸éREz; ¼OBIN MOORE; ºRANCES µPARICIO AND ·áNDIDA º. JáqUEz; ²HUHEI
ÉOSOkAWA; ½ORmAN ¶RqUíA; ºRANCES µPARICIO AND ²USANA ·HáVEz-²I±VERmAN;
JONATHAN ²kINNER; ²HEENAgH ¸IETROBRUNO; JOANNA ÊOSSE; AND ¸ATRIA ¼OmáN
ÍE±ázqUEz.
6. ¹N THIS SECTION, ¹ DRAW ON THE WORk OF ·HRISTOPHER ¾WICkE± AND ³± GENERA±;
¼AqUE± Ë. ¼IVERA, ÈAYNE MARSHA±±, AND ÉBORAH ¸ACINI ÉERNáNDEz; AND GEOff REY
ÊAkER.
7. ¹N THE FO±±OWINg SECTION, ¹ DRAW ON THE WORk OF µRIANA ÉERNáNDEz-¼EgUANT
AND ¼ICHARD ²HAIN.
8. ÉERE ¹ DRAW ON THE WORk OF ÉENRY ²TOBART.

Lo Prohibido
Renato Rosaldo
¹·³ STATES ITS mISSION: to protect national security,

enforce immigration laws, fight crimes and terrorist activity.
¹N MANHATTAN, THE PHONE WOkE mE.

MY DAUgHTER, »±IVIA, CA±±ED FROm »Ak±AND,
TO±D WHAT JOSé, HER FOURTH-gRADE STUDENT,
TO±D HER THAT mORNINg. ºACE flUSHED, EYES WIDE,
HE SPOkE ON±Y ²PANISH, E± IDIOmA
EN qUE PUDO DECIR ±O PROHIBIDO.
»N HIS WAY HOmE FROm ·éSAR ·HáVEz ³±EmENTARY ²CHOO±
IN ¼ICHmOND, THE mIgRA CA±±ED ¹·³, ASkED,
Who in your house has no papers?
I’m a citizen, born here, THE BOY SAID.
µS JOSé ARRIVED HOmE,
THE mIgRA BURST IN,
DOgS STRAININg ON ±EASHES.
°E BOY’S EYES fixED
ON jAWS, SNAR±S, WHITE TEETH.
ÉIS FAmI±Y HAS PAPERS,
BUT, IN fiVE DAYS, JOSé WI±± BE SENT
BACk TO MExICO, WHERE HE’S NEVER BEEN,
THE WA±k HOmE FROm SCHOO± WITHOUT DOgS.
129
seven
Breaking the Machine

south aÇerican ÂÚ¶´³²
Brenda Elsey
Ôootball was created in Æn¿land BUT PERFECTED IN ²OUTH µmERICA.

¹T WOU±D BE DIffiCU±T TO THINk OF ANOTHER CU±TURA± PRACTICE SO C±OSE±Y IDENTIfiED
WITH THE REgION. ºOOTBA±± IS UNIqUE IN THAT IT IS FORmA±±Y gOVERNED, IT IS SUPREmE±Y
POPU±AR, AND IT mOVES BODIES ACROSS BORDERS. ºOOTBA±± BOTH REflECTS BROADER TRENDS
AND DEVIATES SHARP±Y FROm THEm. LIkE mANY OF THE REgION’S RESOURCES, FOOTBA±± IS
AN ExPORT COmmODITY. ¹N µRgENTINA AND ÊRAzI±, THE ExPORTATION OF FOOTBA±± P±AY-
ERS HAS SURPASSED THAT FOR TRADITIONA± COmmODITIES, SUCH AS BEEF. ÉOWEVER, IT IS
NOT A SImP±E mATTER OF SHIPPINg Off THE CHEAPEST RAW mATERIA±S TO DEVE±OPED mAR-
kETS. ºROm ²PAIN TO ¹NDONESIA, C±UBS AROUND THE WOR±D SEEk ²OUTH µmERICAN
COACHINg, P±AYINg, AND TECHNICA± TA±ENT. »N THE PITCH, UN±IkE IN THE g±OBA± ECON-
OmY, ²OUTH µmERICANS HAVE BEATEN THE INDUSTRIA±IzED ½ORTH AT ITS OWN gAmE.
ºOOTBA±± DIffUSED IN THE ±ATE NINETEENTH CENTURY AS PART OF ³UROPEAN ImPE-
RIA±ISm. ¹TS ±Ag IN POPU±ARITY IN THE ·ARIBBEAN, BEHIND BASEBA±± AND CRICkET,
IS A TESTAmENT TO DISTINCTIVE CO±ONIA± HISTORIES. ¹N ADDITION, THE ·ARIBBEAN,
·ENTRA± µmERICAN, AND MExICAN FOOTBA±± FEDERATIONS ARE INSTITUTIONA±±Y SEPA-
RATED FROm THEIR ²OUTH µmERICAN COUNTERPARTS IN THE WOR±D gOVERNINg BODY
OF FOOTBA±±, THE ¹NTERNATIONA± ºEDERATION OF µSSOCIATION ºOOTBA±±, OR º¹ºµ.
°E ²OUTH µmERICAN ºOOTBA±± ·ONFEDERATION FORmED IN 1916 TO ENCOmPASS
mOST OF THE mAIN±AND. ÉSPITE THESE DIVISIONS, WHEN ±UmINARIES HAVE SOUgHT
A COmmON THREAD TO kNIT TOgETHER Latin µmERICA, THEY HAVE ±OOkED TO FOOT-
BA±±. ºOOTBA±±’S RECENT SURgE IN POPU±ARITY IN THE ·ARIBBEAN, mOST NOTAB±Y
·UBA, REflECTS THE INCREASINg±Y INTEgRATED CU±TURA± IDENTITY OF LATIN µmERICA,
mOTORED BY ²PANISH AND ¸ORTUgUESE mEDIA CONg±OmERATES.
°ERE ARE COUNT±ESS STORIES WORTH TE±±INg OF HOW ²OUTH µmERICA NURTURED
THE g±OBA± gAmE. »N THE PITCH, ²OUTH µmERICANS DEVE±OPED A STY±E OF P±AY
THAT EmPHASIzED ARTISTRY OVER FORCE. °E “BEAUTIFU± gAmE,” OR jogo bonito IN
131
ÊRAzI±, WAS fiRST A NICkNAmE FOR THE ²OUTH µmERICAN STY±E OF FOOTBA±± AND ±ATER
FOR THE SPORT ITSE±F. ·HARACTERIzED BY SPEED, gRACE, AND CREATIVITY, THIS STY±E HAS
BEEN INTERPRETED BY FANS AS A REBE±±ION AgAINST THE mECHANIzATION OF ±EISURE.
°IS STY±E OF P±AY HE±PED TO POPU±ARIzE THE gAmE IN µSIA, µFRICA, AND THE
MIDD±E ³AST. ³UROPEAN FOOTBA±± C±UBS FAVORED SPATIA± STRATEgIES, mECHANICA±
SET P±AYS, AND U±TRA-DEFENSIVE TACTICS. ºOOTBA±± PUB±ICS, NOT ON±Y P±AYERS, CRE-
ATED STY±ES OF P±AY. ¸ASSION FOR FOOTBA±± HAS BEEN FUE±ED BY THIS RE±ATIONSHIP
BETWEEN gROUP ExPERIENCE AND INTERPRETATION. °E STORY OF ²OUTH µmERICAN
STY±E IS mUCH mORE COmP±ICATED AT THE ±EVE± OF ORgANIzATION AND gOVERNANCE.
»ff THE PITCH, SCHO±ARS HAVE CRITICIzED THE RO±E OF FOOTBA±± IN STATE PROPAgANDA,
CONSUmERISm, AND SOCIA± INEqUA±ITIES.
football, inforÇal eÇpire, and reforÇ

ÇoveÇents
ÊANkERS, ENgINEERS, DOCkWORkERS, AND OTHER BROkERS OF ÊRITISH INVESTmENT IN

²OUTH µmERICA INTRODUCED FOOTBA±± TO THE REgION. ÊY THE 1890S, EVERY mAjOR
PORT CITY BOASTED A FOOTBA±± C±UB. ÉSPITE ITS RAPID DISSEmINATION, ÊRITISH C±UB
DIRECTORS FOUND IT INCONCEIVAB±E THAT “CO±ONIA±S” COU±D mASTER THE gAmE. ¹N
1885, MONTAgUE ²HEARmAN, FOUNDER OF THE µmATEUR µTH±ETICS µSSOCIATION,
PREDICTED THAT FOOTBA±± WOU±D BECOmE “A COmmON PASTImE FOR A±± English-
SPEAkINg NATIONS OF THE g±OBE.” ·HI±DREN OF ÊRITISH ImmIgRANTS RETURNED FROm
THEIR STUDIES IN ³Ng±AND EAgER TO ±AUNCH C±UBS. °E STORY OF THE PATRIARCH OF
ÊRAzI±IAN FOOTBA±±, ·HAR±ES MI±±ER, WHO RETURNED FROm BOARDINg SCHOO± IN
²OUTHAmPTON AND FOUNDED THE ²öO ¸AU±O µTH±ETIC ·±UB, IS ExEmP±ARY.
ÊRITISH mANAgERS ENCOURAgED EmP±OYEES IN THE mINES AND RAI±ROADS TO
ORgANIzE FOOTBA±± gAmES IN ORDER TO DEVE±OP DISCIP±INE. ºOR ExAmP±E, IN 1903,
WHI±E BUI±DINg THE RAI±ROAD IN ÊARRANqUI±±A, THE ·O±OmBIAN ¼AI±WAY
·OmPANY gATHERED THE fiRST TEAm THAT C±AImED TO BE A “NATIONA±” SqUAD.
³DUCATIONA± INSTITUTIONS SERVED AS ANOTHER CONDUIT FOR THE DIffUSION OF FOOT-
BA±±. ²CHOO±TEACHERS, ±IkE THE “FOUNDER” OF ¸ARAgUAYAN FOOTBA±±, THE ÚTCHmAN
ÈI±±IAm ¸AATS, SOUgHT A PEDAgOgICA± TOO± TO INSTI±± mORA±ITY IN THEIR STUDENTS.
MIDD±E- AND UPPER-C±ASS REFORmERS ACROSS THE µmERICAS, ANxIOUS ABOUT ±ABOR
AgITATION, HOPED FOOTBA±± WOU±D ENCOURAgE YOUNg mEN TO DEVE±OP HEA±THY
HABITS, TImE mANAgEmENT, AND RESPECT FOR AUTHORITY. MOREOVER, ±EADERS HOPED
FOOTBA±± COU±D REPAIR SUPPOSED RACIA± DEfiCIENCIES OF THEIR NATIONS, ExACERBATED
BY THE POPU±ARITY OF INDIgENOUS AND µFRICAN PRACTICES, SUCH AS CAPOEIRA IN
132 • ch a p t er sev en
ÊRAzI±. °US, IN FOOTBA±±’S EAR±Y YEARS, DIRECTORS TIED THE SPORT TO EUgENICS AND
RACIA± HIERARCHIES.
ÈAVES OF ImmIgRANTS TO ²OUTH µmERICA BETWEEN 1880 AND 1920 CROSS-
PO±±INATED FOOTBA±± fiE±DS ON BOTH SIDES OF THE µT±ANTIC. ½EWCOmERS FOUND
THAT PARTICIPATINg IN FOOTBA±± C±UBS EASED THE TRANSITION INTO THEIR NEW HOmES
AND HE±PED THEm mAINTAIN TIES TO ONE ANOTHER. ÊY 1914, HA±F OF ÊUENOS µIRES
WAS FOREIgN BORN, WITH THE mAjORITY ARRIVINg FROm ²PAIN AND ¹TA±Y. ¹mmIgRANT
FOOTBA±± C±UBS BUI±T STADIUmS, OffERED ±ITERACY C±ASSES, AND HOSTED PO±ITICIANS.
¹N ADDITION TO SOUTHERN ³UROPEANS, µSIAN AND MIDD±E ³ASTERN ImmIgRANTS
SHAPED FOOTBA±± IN ²OUTH µmERICA. ·±UB ¸A±ESTINO IN ·HI±E AND ³SPORTE
·±UBE ²íRIO IN ÊRAzI± ARE A TESTAmENT TO THIS HISTORY. ·HINESE ±ABORERS FOUNDED
C±UBS AS WE±±, INC±UDINg THE POPU±AR ¸ERUVIAN INSTITUTION, ·±UB µ±IANzA LImA.
¾O APPRECIATE THE INflUENCE OF ²OUTH µmERICA ON THE g±OBA± gAmE, ONE mUST
CONSIDER THE PO±ITICS OF C±UB ORgANIzATION, WHICH CONTRAST STARk±Y WITH THE
ÊRITISH mODE±. ¹gNORINg THE P±EAS OF FOOTBA±± PATRIARCHS TO kEEP PO±ITICS OUT OF
SPORT, ANARCHISTS AND SOCIA±ISTS ORgANIzED C±UBS AS VEHIC±ES TO BUI±D SO±IDARITY
AmONg WORkERS. ÚRINg TImES OF REPRESSION, FOOTBA±± C±UBS ACTED AS mAkESHIﬅ
HEADqUARTERS OF ±ABOR UNIONS. ÊY 1906, THERE WERE ENOUgH OF THESE C±UBS IN
²ANTIAgO A±ONE TO FORm THE ·HI±EAN ÈORkERS’ ºOOTBA±± µSSOCIATION, WHICH
FOUgHT DISCRImINATORY PRACTICES IN PUB±IC PARkS AND CREATED WORkER-CONTRO±±ED
gOVERNANCE IN C±UBS. ¹NflUENCED BY THESE ±EADERS, FOOTBA±±ERS IN ²OUTH µmERICA
STRUCTURED C±UBS AS NONPROfiT, AmATEUR, AND CO±±ECTIVE±Y OWNED ENTITIES.
MEmBERS OF THESE C±UBS gAINED VA±UAB±E PO±ITICA± SkI±±S, INC±UDINg PUB±IC
SPEAkINg, WRITINg PETITIONS, AND ±OBBYINg PO±ITICIANS. ºOOTBA±± C±UBS P±AYED A
PARTICU±AR±Y ImPORTANT RO±E WHEN THE STATE FAI±ED TO PROVIDE PUB±IC SERVICES.
°E ORgANIzATION OF INTERNATIONA± TOURNAmENTS E±EVATED FOOTBA±±’S ImPOR-
TANCE AND INTENSIfiED ITS TRANSNATIONA± CHARACTER. °IS PROCESS WAS FACI±ITATED
BY INNOVATIONS IN COmmUNICATIONS, ESPECIA±±Y fi ±m AND THE TE±EgRAPH. ¹N
ADDITION, TRAINS, OCEAN ±INERS, AND CARS mADE IT POSSIB±E FOR P±AYERS TO TRAVE±
FASTER AND FARTHER THAN EVER. ¹N THE VERY EAR±Y 1900S, ON±Y THE WEA±THIEST P±AY-
ERS REPRESENTED NATIONA± TEAmS. ÊY THE 1920S, FOOTBA±± HAD BECOmE A YARDSTICk
FOR NATIONA± PROgRESS AND THE PRESSURE TO WIN PROVED STRONgER THAN THE DESIRE
TO ExC±UDE. °AT P±AYERS FROm HUmB±E BACkgROUNDS COU±D ±EAD NATIONA±
SqUADS REVERSED SOmE OF THE SHAmE ASSOCIATED WITH POVERTY. ¾A±ENTED FOOTBA±±
STARS CONSTRUCTED A±TERNATIVE mASCU±INITIES THAT DEmONSTRATED THE STRENgTH,
RATHER THAN THE DECADENCE, OF THE WORkINg-C±ASS mA±E BODY. °E FOOTBA±± ICON
PRESENTED A COUNTERPOINT TO THE mI±ITARY mAN, THE DOmINANT mODE± OF mAS-
CU±INITY IN THE REgION.
Òr e a K i n¿ th e Ö ach i n e: Ñou th Á Ç er ic a n Ô ÷ t bol • 133

fi¿ure 7.1. µ NEWSPAPER FEATURINg THE WOmEN FOOTBA±± P±AYERS OF ¾EAm ¾A±CA, ·HI±E, IN
THE EAR±Y 1900S. ·OURTESY OF MUSEO ÉISTóRICO ½ACIONA± ·HI±E .
µS FOOTBA±± BECAmE A VEHIC±E FOR DEVE±OPINg mASCU±INITY, C±UB DIRECTORS

mARgINA±IzED WOmEN FROm THE SPORT. ÈOmEN ORgANIzED TEAmS IN ²OUTH
µmERICA AS EAR±Y AS THE 1890S. ¾YPICA±±Y, jOURNA±ISTS ExPRESSED SHOCk AT DISCOV-
ERINg WOmEN’S INTEREST IN FOOTBA±±. ¹N RESPONSE TO THE FORmATION OF A WOmAN’S
C±UB IN THE EAR±Y 1900S, ONE jOURNA±IST REmARkED, “¹T WOU±D NEVER HAVE
OCCURRED TO US THAT THERE COU±D ExIST IN ·HI±E A FOOTBA±± C±UB FORmED BY YOUNg
mEmBERS OF THE WEAk AND BEAUTIFU± SEx.” ºAN CHANTS OF mANY C±UBS RIDICU±ED
THE OPPOSINg TEAmS FOR THEIR FEmININITY AND SUPPOSED HOmOSExUA±ITY. ¹N THIS
WAY, C±UBS CREATED A HOSTI±E ENVIRONmENT FOR WOmEN, AS WE±± AS gAY SPECTATORS.
µ±THOUgH SOmE C±UBS PROVIDED AN AUxI±IARY mEmBERSHIP CATEgORY FOR WOmEN,
THEY WERE USUA±±Y gROUPED WITH CHI±DREN. ¹N ±OOkINg THROUgH mEDIA, CORRE-
SPONDENCE, AND mEmOIRS OF THE TImE, IT IS APPARENT THAT mEN VIEWED FOOTBA±±
AS AN ESCAPE FROm DOmESTIC ±IFE. ·ARTOONISTS CARICATURED WOmEN AS ANgRY
WIVES WAITINg FOR THEIR HUSBANDS TO ARRIVE FROm THE FOOTBA±± C±UB OR AS TRANS-
gRESSORS IN THE STANDS. ÉUmOR BASED ON VIO±ENCE AND RIDICU±E OF WOmEN WAS
A mAINSTAY OF SPORTS mAgAzINES.
ÉSPITE THESE OBSTAC±ES, WOmEN’S FOOTBA±± TEAmS AND FAN C±UBS DEVE±OPED
IN fiTS AND STARTS. LEgIS±ATORS IN ÊRAzI± FOUND WOmEN FOOTBA±±ERS THREATENINg
ENOUgH TO PROHIBIT THEm FROm P±AYINg BETWEEN THE 1940S AND THE 1970S. °E
DICTATORSHIPS THAT CAmE TO POWER IN ²OUTH µmERICA HAmPERED EffORTS TO
DEVE±OP WOmEN’S SPORTS. MI±ITARY jUNTAS PROmISED THE RESTORATION OF TRADI-
TIONA± gENDER RO±ES. ³VENTUA±±Y, INCENTIVES TO ORgANIzE WOmEN’S FOOTBA±± CAmE
FROm ABROAD, PARTICU±AR±Y WITH THE INTEREST OF º¹ºµ IN DEVE±OPINg, AND CON-
TRO±±INg, WOmEN’S PARTICIPATION. ²OUTH µmERICAN WOmEN P±AYERS HAVE
RECENT±Y TAkEN ImPORTANT POSITIONS ON ³UROPEAN AND ¶.². WOmEN’S C±UB
TEAmS. ÈITHOUT ANY INFRASTRUCTURE TO SPEAk OF, ÊRAzI± HAS PRODUCED THE mOST
DECORATED FOOTBA±± P±AYER IN HISTORY, mAN OR WOmAN, IN MARTA ÍIEIRA DA ²I±VA.
LIkE HER mA±E COUNTERPARTS, MARTA’S STY±E HAS BEEN INflUENTIA± IN REFRAmINg
FOOTBA±± FROm A DISCIP±INARY TO A CREATIVE SPORT.
nationalisÇ, race, and the borders of

football
°E gROWTH OF INTERNATIONA± COmPETITIONS ±ED TO A STRONgER ASSOCIATION

BETWEEN FOOTBA±± AND NATIONA± PROgRESS. ºOR A ±ONg TImE, ³UROPEANS IgNORED
THE EffERVESCENCE OF FOOTBA±± IN ²OUTH µmERICA. µﬅER DOzENS OF INVITATIONS
FROm ²OUTH µmERICAN ASSOCIATIONS, ÊRITISH C±UBS BEgAN TOURS OF THE REgION IN
THE 1910S. ½EWSPAPERS REPORTED THAT CURIOUS FANS CAmE OUT IN DROVES. °E
ÊRAzI±IAN ·±UB º±UmINENSE SPONSORED A TOUR OF »xFORD P±AYERS IN THE HOPE
THAT THEY WOU±D TEACH THE mASSES CORRECT SPORTINg BEHAVIOR. ·URIOUS±Y, ²OUTH
µmERICAN ASSOCIATIONS C±UNg TO AmATEURISm ±ONgER THAN THE ÊRITISH. ÈHEREAS
THE ÊRITISH PERmITTED PROFESSIONA±ISm IN THE 1870S, ²OUTH µmERICAN ASSOCIA-
TIONS FORBADE IT UNTI± THE 1930S. ¸RO±ONgED AmATEURISm AND THE PERSISTENCE OF
mEmBER-OWNED C±UBS CREATED A PERCEPTION OF ²OUTH µmERICAN FOOTBA±± AS
“ANTImODERN.”
²OUTH µmERICAN NATIONA± TEAmS INC±UDED P±AYERS “OF CO±OR” mUCH EAR±IER
THAN THEIR ³UROPEAN COUNTERPARTS, WHICH HAD A PROFOUND EffECT ON THE g±OBA±
gAmE. Ê±ACk P±AYERS STOOD OUT AmONg ²OUTH µmERICA’S fiRST SUPERSTARS, ESPE-
CIA±±Y IN ¶RUgUAY. MANY P±AYERS OF INDIgENOUS DESCENT “PASSED” INTO NATIONA±

fi¿ure 7.2. µFRO-¶RUgUAYAN
STAR JOSé µNDRADE BEHIND A
BAR DURINg THE 1928 »±YmPICS
IN µmSTERDAm. ¸HOTOgRAPHER
UNkNOWN, ½ATIONA± µRCHIVES OF
THE ½ETHER±ANDS.
CATEgORIES OF mESTIzO, AVOIDINg OVERT STIgmA. ¼ACIA± INTEgRATION OF FOOTBA±±

DID NOT REflECT EgA±ITARIAN SOCIETIES. ²TI±±, THERE WERE mOmENTS WHEN ATH±ETIC
ExCE±±ENCE DISRUPTED RACIST BE±IEFS. °E µFRO-¶RUgUAYAN P±AYERS ¹SABE±INO
GRADíN AND JUAN É±gADO ±ED THEIR NATIONA± TEAm TO VICTORY IN THE fiRST ²OUTH
µmERICAN ·UP OF 1916. LIkE mANY OF THEIR gENERATION, É±gADO AND GRADíN
COU±D IDENTIFY THEIR ANCESTORS CONNECTINg THEm WITH S±AVERY. É±gADO WAS
A candombe DRUmmER, A mUSICA± gENRE CREATED BY S±AVES ON THE SUgAR
P±ANTATIONS. Candombe CONTINUES TO BE THE SIgNATURE SOUND OF ¶RUgUAYAN
FOOTBA±±.
°E 1924 AND 1928 »±YmPICS, AS WE±± AS THE fiRST ÈOR±D ·UP OF 1930, mADE
IT ImPOSSIB±E FOR ³UROPEANS TO IgNORE THE ExCE±±ENCE OF ²OUTH µmERICAN FOOT-
BA±±. ¶RUgUAY WON A±± THREE COmPETITIONS, WITH µRgENTINA FO±±OWINg C±OSE
BEHIND. ¹N THE 1928 »±YmPICS IN µmSTERDAm, THE ¶RUgUAYAN FORWARD, JOSé
LEANDRO µNDRADE, kNOWN AS THE “B±ACk mARVE±,” WAS A SENSATION. ¼EPORTED±Y
THE SON OF AN µRgENTINE WOmAN AND AN ESCAPED ÊRAzI±IAN S±AVE, µNDRADE DID
NOT fiND THE SAmE OPPORTUNITIES AS HIS WHITE COUNTERPARTS, WHO WERE OffERED
PROFESSIONA± SA±ARIES TO P±AY IN ºRANCE, ¹TA±Y, AND ²PAIN. ÈHEN NOT SHININg
SHOES OR SE±±INg NEWSPAPERS, µNDRADE WORkED AS A CARNIVA± mUSICIAN. ÈHETHER
ATH±ETIC SUCCESS TRANS±ATED INTO BETTER qUA±ITY OF ±IFE FOR µFRO-¶RUgUAYANS IS
DIffiCU±T TO DETERmINE. µﬅER ¹SABE±INO GRADíN’S DEATH, B±ACk C±UBS HE±D FUND-
RAISERS TO HE±P HIS FAmI±Y. JOSé µNDRADE DID NOT FARE mUCH BETTER: HE DIED IN
A NURSINg HOmE FOR THE POOR.
°E qUESTION OF WHETHER ²OUTH µmERICANS P±AYED DIffERENT±Y THAN
³UROPEANS IN THE 1920S IS A THORNY ONE FOR SCHO±ARS. ¼ECENT±Y, fi±m FOOTAgE HAS
BECOmE AVAI±AB±E, BUT REVIEWINg IT DOES NOT HE±P US UNDERSTAND THE SIgNIfi-
CANCE FOR PEOP±E ±IVINg IN THAT mOmENT. ÈHEN ASkED ABOUT STY±E IN THIS
PERIOD, THE HISTORIAN JEffREY ¼ICHEY ExP±AINED, “ÈHEN YOU READ ²OUTH
µmERICAN AND ³UROPEAN ACCOUNTS OF ²OUTH µmERICAN P±AYERS IN ²PAIN, THEY
ARE TOTA±±Y AT ODDS. °ERE ARE OmNIPRESENT COmP±AINTS ABOUT THE REFEREES
FAVORINg ONE SIDE OR THE OTHER. °US, THE qUESTION OF STY±E IS DISTORTED BY PRES-
SURES OF THE PRESS TO DEFEND THEIR OWN.” °E ¶RUgUAYANS, AND TO A ±ESSER ExTENT
THE µRgENTINES, DOmINATED THEIR ³UROPEAN COmPETITORS IN A WAY THAT SUR-
PRISED EVEN THEmSE±VES. °E ³UROPEAN PRESS SEEmED TO AgREE THAT ²OUTH
µmERICAN P±AYERS BROUgHT A ±IgHTNINg-qUICk, SHORT-PASS gAmE THAT BEFUDD±ED
THEIR OPPONENTS.
µS ³UROPEAN C±UBS TOURED ²OUTH µmERICA WITH gREATER FREqUENCY, THE
FOOTBA±± FAN CU±TURES mADE AN ImPRESSION ON VISITORS. ºANS INTEgRATED OTHER
CU±TURA± FORmS INTO THEIR gAmE RITUA±S. ÍISITINg SPORTSmEN SAW FANS P±AYINg
NATIONA± mUSICA± STY±ES, ±IkE THE TANgO, WHICH BECAmE A SENSATION IN THE
¶NITED ²TATES AND ³UROPE. °E FAmED TANgO SINgER ·AR±OS GARDE± VISITED THE
µRgENTINE FOOTBA±± SqUAD DURINg BOTH THE 1928 »±YmPICS AND THE 1930 ÈOR±D
·UP. ¹N µRgENTINA AND ¶RUgUAY, TANgO mUSICIANS DEDICATED SONgS TO FOOT-
BA±±ERS, AS DID SAmBA mUSICIANS IN ÊRAzI±. °E INTImATE CONNECTION BETWEEN
DANCE AND FOOTBA±± ExISTED IN THE mINDS OF P±AYERS, WHO FREqUENT±Y ATTRIBUTED
THEIR PROWESS ON THE FOOTBA±± fiE±D TO THEIR DANCINg.
°E fiRST TRANSAT±ANTIC FOOTBA±± TRANSFERS flOWED IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION
OF ±ABOR mIgRATION, FROm ²OUTH µmERICA TO ³UROPE. ¹TA±IAN C±UBS TOURINg
²OUTH µmERICA mET TA±ENTED P±AYERS WHO WERE EAgER TO EARN A DECENT WAgE
P±AYINg SPORTS. µS A RESU±T, JU±IO LIBONATTI mADE THE fi RST “OffiCIA±” TRANSFER IN
1925, FROm ½EWE±±’S »±D ÊOYS IN µRgENTINA TO ¾ORINO º· IN ¹TA±Y. LIBONATTI
REPRESENTED BOTH THE ¹TA±IAN AND µRgENTINE NATIONA± TEAmS. °IS WAS ±EgA±
UNTI± THE 1960S, WHEN º¹ºµ PROHIBITED P±AYERS FROm REPRESENTINg mORE THAN
ONE NATION. ¼EPRESENTINg ¹TA±Y PRESENTED CHA±±ENgES FOR THOSE WITH mORE DIS-
TANT TIES TO THE COUNTRY. ºAmED STRIkER FOR JUVENTUS, ¼AImUNDO »RSI, FOR
ExAmP±E, COU±D NOT UNDERSTAND ¹TA±IAN. ²TI±± THE µRgENTINES mADE AN ImPOR-
TANT ImPACT ON ¹TA±IAN FOOTBA±± AND POPU±AR CU±TURE. °E µRgENTINE FORWARD
¼ENATO ·ESARINI INSPIRED THE ¹TA±IAN PHRASE, THE zona cesarini. ¹T REFERS TO THE
WANINg mOmENTS OF A mATCH, WHEN ·ESARINI ±OOkED TO SCORE. ¹N PO±ITICS OR
jOURNA±ISm, IT IS A COmmON TERm FOR A DECISIVE ±AST-mINUTE mANEUVER.
²OUTH µmERICAN P±AYERS WHO TRANSFERRED TO ²PAIN AND ¹TA±Y BECAmE
kNOWN AS THE oriundi. °E HISTORIAN JOHN ºOOT HAS ARgUED THAT THE RETURN OF
THE DIASPORA fiT WITH ÊENITO MUSSO±INI’S AgENDA TO ExPAND THE BOUNDARIES OF
¹TA±IAN IDENTITY. »N MUSSO±INI’S ORDERS, FOUR µRgENTINES P±AYED FOR THE ¹TA±IAN
TEAm THAT WON THE ÈOR±D ·UP OF 1934. ¼AImUNDO »RSI, BE±OVED AmONg FANS,
FEARED FOR HIS ±IFE DURINg THE TOURNAmENT. µCCORDINg TO »RSI, MUSSO±INI

THREATENED TO “CUT THEIR THROATS” IF THEY ±OST. LUCkI±Y, HE SCORED IN ¹TA±Y’S VIC-
TORY OVER ·zECHOS±OVAkIA IN THE fiNA± mATCH. µ FEW mONTHS ±ATER, »RSI flED
WITH THREE OF HIS FE±±OW µRgENTINES ACROSS THE ºRENCH BORDER RATHER THAN SERVE
IN THE ¹TA±IAN ARmY. ÈHEN THINgS WENT BAD±Y, THE oriundi WERE B±AmED FOR
POOR PERFORmANCES AND SENT PACkINg. ²ImI±AR TRENDS OCCURRED IN ²PAIN,
WHICH BANNED A±± FOREIgN P±AYERS FROm 1963 TO 1973.°IS STRATEgY DID NOT PAN
OUT WE±± FOR ²PAIN, WHICH SUBSEqUENT±Y FAI±ED TO qUA±IFY FOR THE ÈOR±D ·UPS
OF 1970 AND 1974.
°E ±URE OF ³UROPE FORCED ²OUTH µmERICAN ASSOCIATIONS TO ADOPT PROFES-
SIONA±ISm IN THE 1930S AND 1940S. ¹N THE ·O±D ÈAR PERIOD, THOSE WHO THOUgHT
FOOTBA±± WAS BEINg RUINED BY CONSUmERISm FOUgHT A PITCHED BATT±E AgAINST
THOSE WHO THOUgHT IT SHOU±D BE OPEN TO THE FREE mARkET. ·±UBS WATCHED WITH
gREAT INTEREST AS ºIDE± ·ASTRO DEPROFESSIONA±IzED ·UBAN BASEBA±±. ¹N THAT
mOmENT, FOOTBA±± ASSOCIATIONS THROUgHOUT THE REgION STRENgTHENED THEIR
RE±ATIONSHIPS WITH ±EﬅIST PO±ITICA± PARTIES AND ±ABOR UNIONS. ºOR ExAmP±E, IN
1945 THE ÊRAzI±IAN ·OmmUNIST ¸ARTY ORgANIzED A FUND-RAISINg FOOTBA±± TOUR-
NAmENT FOR THEIR PO±ITICA± CANDIDATES. ¹N THE ±EAD-UP TO THE 1962 ÈOR±D ·UP
IN ·HI±E, AmATEURS ORgANIzED SUCCESSFU± PROTESTS AgAINST THE RAzINg OF WORk-
INg-C±ASS NEIgHBORHOODS, RAmPANT SPECU±ATION, AND STATE SUBSIDIES FOR PROFES-
SIONA± C±UBS. °ESE PROTESTS, AmONg COUNT±ESS OTHERS, INSPIRED SImI±AR ACTIONS
AROUND THE WOR±D. ¸ERHAPS mOST PROmINENT±Y, ExI±ES FROm ²OUTH µmERICA ±ED
PROTESTS OF mI±ITARY DICTATORSHIPS DURINg GERmANY’S 1974 ÈOR±D ·UP.
on the pitch and behind the curtain
°E STATUS OF ²OUTH µmERICAN FOOTBA±± SOARED BECAUSE OF THE REmARkAB±E SUC-

CESS OF THE ÊRAzI±IAN NATIONA± TEAm, WHICH WON THE 1958, 1962, AND 1970
ÈOR±D ·UPS. °E ENDURINg CO±OR ±INE IN ³UROPE HE±PED ÊRAzI±IAN C±UBS RETAIN
THEIR BEST B±ACk P±AYERS. ³DSON µRANTES DO ½ASCImENTO, kNOWN AS ¸E±é, AND
MANUE± ºRANCISCO DOS ²ANTOS, kNOWN AS GARRINCHA, REPRESENTED UNPRECE-
DENTED SUCCESS IN FOOTBA±±. GARRINCHA AND ¸E±é NEVER ±OST A gAmE WHEN THEY
P±AYED TOgETHER. »F µFRICAN DESCENT AND HUmB±E BACkgROUNDS, THE TWO ARE
REmEmBERED DIffERENT±Y. ÈHEREAS GARRINCHA SPIRA±ED INTO BAD HEA±TH AND
fiNANCIA± DIffiCU±TIES, ¸E±é EmBODIED PROFESSIONA±ISm AND TIES TO mU±TINATIONA±
CORPORATIONS THROUgH ENDORSEmENTS. °E ÊRAzI±IANS SUCCEEDED NOT ON±Y WITH
TA±ENT BUT A±SO BECAUSE OF THE ÊRAzI±IAN ºOOTBA±± ·ONFEDERATION’S mETHODICA±
P±ANNINg. ¼ECOgNIzINg THEIR P±AYERS’ WORkINg-C±ASS BACkgROUNDS, THE CONFED-
ERATION mADE mEDICA± CARE AN ImPORTANT PART OF THE ÊRAzI±IAN STRATEgY. ¸±AYERS
CAmE TO TRAININg WITH A HOST OF PROB±EmS, FROm PARASITES TO TOOTH DECAY. °E
FOCUS ON “TOTA± CARE” BECAmE A SIgNATURE OF THE ÊRAzI±IAN TEAm.
ÚRINg THE 1960S, ¸E±é, FAmOUS FOR HIS BA±ANCE AND BA±± CONTRO±, BECAmE
THE FACE OF FOOTBA±± AND ²OUTH µmERICA. ÉE REPRESENTED ATH±ETIC ExCE±±ENCE IN
A B±ACk BODY THAT SHAPED THE VISUA± ±ANDSCAPE OF SPORT. µ NATIONA± DECREE
mANDATED THAT ¸E±é REmAIN WITH THE ÊRAzI±IAN ·±UB ²ANTOS. µﬅER RETIREmENT,
HE P±AYED FOR THE ½EW ÓORk ·OSmOS, DRAWINg mI±±IONS OF FANS TO FOOTBA±± IN
THE ¶NITED ²TATES. ÈHETHER AS THE CHARACTER IN µTARI’S fiRST FOOTBA±± VIDEO
gAmE OR AS THE mUSE FOR AN µNDY ÈARHO± PIECE, ¸E±é CAmE TO BE IDENTIfiED IN
SPHERES OUTSIDE OF FOOTBA±± AS THE “BEST EVER,” AND IT WAS ImPORTANT THAT THE
“BEST EVER” WAS B±ACk.
¸E±é TRANSCENDED NATIONA± IDENTITY TO EmBODY AN ImAgE OF ¸AN-µFRICAN
SUCCESS. ÈHEN ASkED ABOUT THE ImPORTANCE OF ÊRAzI± TO µFRICAN FOOTBA±±, THE
HISTORIAN ¸ETER µ±EgI ExP±AINED THAT IN THE mIDST OF DECO±ONIzATION, VISITS OF
RACIA±±Y INTEgRATED TEAmS TO µFRICAN COUNTRIES “ExCITED THE ImAgINATION ABOUT
WHAT WAS POSSIB±E ON AN INTERNATIONA± SCA±E.” ¸E±é AND HIS TEAmmATES AT ·±UB
²ANTOS TOURED MOzAmBIqUE AND ½IgERIA IN THE ±ATE 1960S. µ±EgI SAID, “°AT
FOOTBA±± WAS AN ARTISTIC ENDEAVOR AND AN ExPRESSIVE CE±EBRATION, NOT jUST THE
mORA± PACkAgE OF THE ÊRITISH, WAS INflUENTIA± IN FORgINg DIffERENT P±AYINg
STY±ES AND CU±TURES ACROSS THE CONTINENT.” °AT THE ±EADERS OF THE ÊRAzI±IAN
TEAm A±SO CAmE FROm ImPOVERISHED NEIgHBORHOODS AND DIffiCU±T CIRCUm-
STANCES CREATED SO±IDARITY WITH P±AYERS ACROSS THE G±OBA± ²OUTH.
ÊRAzI±IAN ±EADERS ExPANDED THE POWER OF ²OUTH µmERICAN FOOTBA±± BEYOND
THE STADIUmS TO THE INTERNATIONA± gOVERNINg BODY, º¹ºµ. ÊASED IN ²WITzER±AND,
º¹ºµ OPERATED AS A ³UROCENTRIC, PATERNA±ISTIC, AND PROVINCIA± ORgANIzATION FOR
mOST OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY. ÚRINg THE 1960S, º¹ºµ’S REPUTATION SUffERED
FROm ITS PRESIDENT ²TAN±EY ¼OUS’S DECISION TO SUPPORT THE APARTHEID-ERA
²OUTH µFRICAN ºOOTBA±± µSSOCIATION. JEAN-MARIE “JOöO” DE ÉAVE±ANgE, PRESI-
DENT OF THE ÊRAzI±IAN ºOOTBA±± ·ONFEDERATION, ±AUNCHED THE fiRST PUB±IC CAm-
PAIgN TO BECOmE THE SEVENTH PRESIDENT OF º¹ºµ IN 1974. JOöO ÉAVE±ANgE
mOBI±IzED ²OUTH-²OUTH SO±IDARITY TO WOO µFRICAN AND µSIAN DE±EgATES. ÉE
TOURED APPROxImATE±Y NINETY COUNTRIES DURINg HIS CAmPAIgN, FREqUENT±Y
APPEARINg WITH ¸E±é. ÉAVE±ANgE SUCCESSFU±±Y POSITIONED HImSE±F AS A CANDI-
DATE FROm THE “DEVE±OPINg WOR±D,” DESPITE HAVINg BEEN EDUCATED IN ºRANCE
AND BENEfiTINg FROm A ³UROPEAN IDENTITY IN ÊRAzI±. ÉE PROmISED, AND DE±IV-
ERED, DEVE±OPmENT mONEY, TECHNICA± TRAININg, AND ExPANDED BERTHS IN THE
ÈOR±D ·UP.

·ONSIDERINg ²OUTH µmERICAN FOOTBA±±’S REPUTATION FOR REBE±±ION AgAINST
HYPERmODERNITY AND THE mECHANIzATION OF TEAm STRUCTURE, IT IS IRONIC THAT JOöO
ÉAVE±ANgE CREATED AN INTImATE RE±ATIONSHIP BETWEEN º¹ºµ AND SPORTS mARkET-
INg fiRmS, SPONSORS, AND TE±EVISION mOgU±S. ÉAVE±ANgE REmADE THE ÈOR±D ·UP
TOURNAmENT INTO A fiNANCIA± BEHEmOTH THAT RODE ON THE WAVE OF THE SPORT’S
EVER-INCREASINg POPU±ARITY. ÉIS EffORTS RESU±TED IN HUgE CONTRACTS WITH THE SHOE
COmPANY µDIDAS AND THE SOﬅ DRINk COmPANY ·OCA-·O±A TO UNDERWRITE SOC-
CER’S ExPANSION. ¶NDER ÉAVE±ANgE, THE ÈOR±D ·UP ATTRACTED THE ±ARgEST TE±EVI-
SION AUDIENCES EVER RECORDED. µ±ONg WITH ±UCRATIVE CONTRACTS, HOWEVER, JOöO
ÉAVE±ANgE BROUgHT CORRUPT BUSINESS PRACTICES TO º¹ºµ. ¾O OBSTRUCT INqUIRIES
INTO HIS fiNANCIA± PRACTICES, HE INSTA±±ED HIS SON-IN-±AW, ºERNANDO ¾EIxEIRA, IN
HIS FORmER POST AS PRESIDENT OF THE ÊRAzI±IAN ºOOTBA±± ·ONFEDERATION. °E
ÊRAzI±IAN mI±ITARY gOVERNmENT RE±AxED RESTRICTIONS ON FOREIgN INVESTmENT,
WHICH ENAB±ED THE flOW OF UNCHECkED FUNDS ACROSS BORDERS.
JOöO ÉAVE±ANgE INgRATIATED º¹ºµ WITH THE mI±ITARY DICTATORSHIPS THAT RU±ED
µRgENTINA, ÊRAzI±, ·HI±E, ¸ARAgUAY, ¸ERU, AND ¶RUgUAY IN THE 1970S AND 1980S.
·HARACTERIzED BY gROSS HUmAN RIgHTS ABUSES AND NEO±IBERA± ECONOmIC REFORmS,
THE mI±ITARY gOVERNmENTS USED FOOTBA±± PITCHES, FROm gRANDIOSE NATIONA± STA-
DIUmS TO mAkESHIﬅ NEIgHBORHOOD fiE±DS, AS TORTURE CENTERS. µmATEUR C±UB
DIRECTORS WERE PUB±IC figURES IN UNIONS, ±EﬅIST PO±ITICA± PARTIES, AND UNIVERSITIES.
MANY ±OST THEIR jOBS, THEIR PASSPORTS, AND, IN THE WORST INSTANCES, THEIR ±IVES.
MI±ITARY jUNTAS BANNED C±UB E±ECTIONS AND P±ACED mI±ITARY ±EADERS AT THE HEAD
OF FOOTBA±± ASSOCIATIONS. º¹ºµ ENAB±ED DICTATORS TO mOBI±IzE THE g±OBA± POPU-
±ARITY OF FOOTBA±± TO THEIR OWN BENEfiT. °E mOST STRIkINg ExAmP±E OF THIS WAS
THE ÈOR±D ·UP OF 1978, ORgANIzED BY THE µRgENTINE ºOOTBA±± µSSOCIATION
UNDER THE AUSPICES OF A BRUTA± mI±ITARY gOVERNmENT.
°E RESISTANCE TO mI±ITARY RU±E IN ²OUTH µmERICA REVERBERATED WE±± BEYOND
THE REgION. ºOR ExAmP±E, SHORT±Y AﬅER THE 1973 COUP IN ·HI±E, THE ²OVIET
¶NION REFUSED TO P±AY IN THE STADIUm WHERE THE mI±ITARY HAD DETAINED AND
mURDERED SUPPORTERS OF THE DEmOCRATICA±±Y E±ECTED gOVERNmENT. ° IS HE±PED
·HI±E qUA±IFY FOR THE 1974 ÈOR±D ·UP IN ÈEST GERmANY, DURINg WHICH THE
DICTATOR µUgUSTO ¸INOCHET SENT THE NATIONA± TEAm WITH A ±ETTER ASSURINg FE±-
±OW PARTICIPANTS THAT ·HI±E WAS “RESTORED” FROm SOCIA±ISm AND READY FOR
INVESTORS. ÚRINg THE TOURNAmENT, SO±IDARITY ACTIVISTS DREW ATTENTION TO THE
ATROCITIES OCCURRINg IN ·HI±E WITH TEACH-INS, PROTESTS OUTSIDE THE TEAm’S qUAR-
TERS, AND ACTIONS INSIDE THE STADIUmS. ÚRINg ·HI±E’S mATCHES, PROTESTERS
CHANTED, “·HI±E SI, JUNTA NO.” µ DARINg gROUP SmUgg±ED IN A BANNER THAT READ
“·HI±E ²OCIA±ISTA” AND RAN ONTO THE fiE±D, UNFUR±INg IT DURINg THE gAmE.
·HI±EAN ACTIVISTS ORgANIzED SO±IDARITY TOURNAmENTS IN ³THIOPIA, ³AST
GERmANY, ºRANCE, AND ¹TA±Y. °EY REFUSED TO A±±OW THE mI±ITARY gOVERNmENTS
TO mARSHA± THE POPU±ARITY OF FOOTBA±± WITHOUT A figHT.
°OSE WHO HAVE SOUgHT TO PROTEST AUTHORITARIANISm, CONSUmERISm, RACISm,
AND SExISm IN SPORT HAVE FOUND INNOVATIVE CAmPAIgNS IN ²OUTH µmERICAN
FOOTBA±±. ¹N ÊRAzI±, ·±UB ·ORINTHIANS ±AUNCHED A RADICA± ExPERImENT TO
DEmOCRATIzE C±UB gOVERNANCE BY EmPOWERINg P±AYERS TO VOTE ON DECISIONS.
¸±AYERS ExTRAPO±ATED THEIR CRITICISm OF C±UB gOVERNANCE TO NATIONA± mI±ITARY
RU±E. LED BY “´R. ²OCRATES,” AN ATTACkINg mIDfiE±DER WITH A mEDICA± DEgREE,
·ORINTHIANS BUCkED THE TREND OF APO±ITICA± ATH±ETES IN THE ±ATE 1970S. ¹N 1982,
·ORINTHIANS’ P±AYERS WORE SHIRTS THAT URgED FANS TO VOTE, AND ²OCRATES SPOkE
E±OqUENT±Y ON THE SUBjECT OF OPPRESSION IN ÊRAzI±. ³xAmP±ES ±IkE ·ORINTHIANS
WERE POWERFU±. ²TI±±, mANY FANS TURNED AWAY IN DISgUST AS FAN VIO±ENCE
INCREASED AND mI±ITARY gOVERNmENTS INTERVENED IN FOOTBA±±.
µS ÊRAzI± DEmOCRATIzED, THE COUNTRY DEBATED ONE OF THE mOST RADICA±
PIECES OF SPORT ±EgIS±ATION IN HISTORY. ¹N THE EAR±Y 1990S, PUB±IC CRITICISm OF THE
±ACk OF ACCOUNTABI±ITY OF PROjECTS OVERSEEN BY THE ·ONFEDERATION OF ÊRAzI±IAN
ºOOTBA±± (·Êº) gREW STEADI±Y. ¹N REACTION, ¸RESIDENT ºERNANDO ÉENRIqUE
·ARDOSO APPOINTED ¸E±é AS mINISTER OF SPORT, mAkINg HIm THE fiRST B±ACk
CABINET mEmBER IN ÊRAzI±. ¸E±é PUB±IC±Y ACCUSED THE ·Êº PRESIDENT ¾EIxEIRA
AND º¹ºµ PRESIDENT ÉAVE±ANgE OF DEmANDINg PERSONA± BRIBES FOR TE±EVISION
RIgHTS. ¹N 1998, HE INTRODUCED A ±AW THAT ±ImITED THE POWER OF THE ·Êº
OVER P±AYERS, OPENED ACCESS TO STADIUmS, AND REqUIRED TRANSPARENT ACCOUNTA-
BI±ITY. ÊEFORE IT COU±D BE ImP±EmENTED, HOWEVER, ¾EIxEIRA AND ÉAVE±ANgE
CONVINCED A NUmBER OF ±EgIS±ATORS TO HACk AWAY AT IT. ·URRENT±Y THE ±AW IS
ON±Y A FRACTION OF ITS ORIgINA± SIzE AND SCOPE. ¹F THE ±AW HAD REmAINED AS PRO-
POSED, THE 2014 ÈOR±D ·UP IN ÊRAzI± WOU±D HAVE DRAINED FEWER PUB±IC
RESOURCES.
²O IT WAS IN kEEPINg WITH THE HISTORY OF FOOTBA±± ON AND Off THE PITCH THAT
THE PROTESTS IN ÊRAzI± BEgAN DURINg PREPARATIONS TO HOST THE 2014 ÈOR±D ·UP.
ÊEgINNINg AT THE 2013 ·ONFEDERATIONS ·UP, PROTESTERS DREW INTERNATIONA±
ATTENTION. ºROm BANNERS THAT READ “º¹ºµ GO ÉOmE” TO STRIkES OVER WORkER
SAFETY, ÊRAzI±IANS USED THE ÈOR±D ·UP AS AN OPPORTUNITY TO PROTEST THE INE-
qUA±ITIES UNRESO±VED BY A DECADE OF ·ENTER-LEﬅ gOVERNANCE. ¸ROTESTERS A±SO
CRITICIzED THE CHANgES TO THE ±EgA± INFRASTRUCTURE DEmANDED BY º¹ºµ. ²TARS
WHO HAD PREVIOUS±Y VOICED CRITICISm, ¸E±é INC±UDED, APPEARED AS mINIONS OF THE
ÈOR±D ·UP mACHINE, EVEN CHASTISINg PROTESTERS DEmANDINg REASONAB±E BUS
FARES AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF HOSPITA±S. ¼EA± ESTATE SPECU±ATION WAS RAmPANT,

REmINISCENT OF THE 1919 CONSTRUCTION OF º±UmINENSE’S STADIUm IN ¼IO DE
JANEIRO. GOVERNmENT REACTION TO THE PROTESTS REVEA±ED THE mI±ITARIzATION OF
mEgA SPORTINg EVENTS AND THE DEgREE OF ImPORTANCE gIVEN TO INTERNATIONA±,
RATHER THAN DOmESTIC, AUDIENCES.
¿lobaliZed talent
ºOOTBA±±’S ±ABOR mARkET HAS g±OBA±IzED A±ONg WITH ITS PO±ITICS. ¹N A RECENT
REPORT, THE ¹NTERNATIONA± ·ENTER FOR ²PORTS ²TUDY STATED THAT THE PROPORTION
OF FOOTBA±±ERS WHO HAVE mIgRATED INTERNATIONA±±Y IS AT AN A±±-TImE HIgH,
APPROxImATE±Y HA±F OF A±± PROFESSIONA± P±AYERS. °ESE fiNDINgS CONfiRm AN
ACCE±ERATION OF THE INTERNATIONA±IzATION OF FOOTBA±± P±AYERS’ ±ABOR mARkET. °E
³Ng±ISH ¸REmIER LEAgUE ImPORTS APPROxImATE±Y 60 PERCENT OF ITS FOOTBA±±ERS.
¶N±IkE A CENTURY AgO, ²OUTH µmERICANS ARE NOT ExC±USIVE±Y HEADED TO ³UROPE.
MANY fiND THEmSE±VES IN ·HINA, ONE OF THE P±ACES WITH THE HIgHEST WAgES, AS
WE±± AS ¹NDONESIA AND THE ¶NITED µRAB ³mIRATES. °E µRgENTINE ¼OBERTINO
¸Ug±IARA, WHO P±AYED IN JAkARTA, WAS SHOCkED TO fiND THAT HIS ¹NDONESIAN
TEAmmATES A±READY DRANk THE TRADITIONA± ²OUTH µmERICAN TEA, mATé.
¹T is STRIkINg THAT ²OUTH µmERICA CONTINUES TO PRODUCE THE WOR±D’S BEST
FOOTBA±± P±AYERS IN SPITE OF DEEP ECONOmIC INEqUA±ITIES, PO±ITICA± TURBU±ENCE,
AND THE DECAY OF ITS ±EAgUES. °EY ARE jOINED BY AN INCREASINg NUmBER OF
µFRICANS. LIkE THEIR PREDECESSORS, THESE P±AYERS TEND TO BE gOA± SCORERS WHO
ExCE± AT PASSINg AND BA±± CONTRO±. LEADINg THE CURRENT gENERATION IS THE
µRgENTINE FORWARD LIONE± MESSI. ¹T IS DIffiCU±T TO ExP±AIN MESSI’S SUB±ImE
TA±ENT TO THOSE UNCONVERTED TO FOOTBA±± FANDOm. °E ESTImATED COST FOR A C±UB
jUST TO HIRE HIm IS OVER $331 mI±±ION. µNA±YSTS FREqUENT±Y FA±± BACk ON THE
COmmON AxIOm THAT FOOTBA±± IS POPU±AR BECAUSE IT IS CHEAP AND THAT POOR
PEOP±E ARE gOOD AT IT BECAUSE THEY HAVE ±ITT±E E±SE TO HOPE FOR. °ESE SImP±ISTIC
ExP±ANATIONS REPRODUCE AN UNFOUNDED ASSUmPTION THAT POOR PEOP±E’S TA±ENT
COmES FROm INNATE PHYSICA±ITY OR DESPERATION.
¹F IT IS DIffiCU±T TO PROVE THAT DEmONSTRAB±E DIffERENCES ExIST BETWEEN ²OUTH
µmERICAN AND ³UROPEAN P±AYERS, HOWEVER, IT IS EASY TO SEE THAT COACHES, P±AY-
ERS, AND FANS believe IT TO BE TRUE. ÈHEN ASkED WHY HE ±Eﬅ µRgENTINA, THE
mIDfiE±DER JORgE ÍA±DANO REP±IED THAT HE P±AYED “±IkE A GERmAN.” ÉE CONTIN-
UED, “°E µRgENTINEAN gAmE FEATURES AgI±ITY AND mOBI±ITY. ÈE A±± kNOW THE
STOCk ImAgE: U±TRA-ImAgINATIVE, U±TRA-CREATIVE . . . ¹ WAS NO MARADONA. °E SAD
TRUTH IS THAT, AS A FAN, ¹ TOO WOU±D HAVE RATHER WATCHED MARADONA THAN
ÍA±DANO.” ²OUTH µmERICAN FOOTBA±± WAS SUPPOSED TO BE SPONTANEOUS, CREA-
TIVE, AND gENIUS. µN INflUENTIA± gROUP OF ÊRITISH jOURNA±ISTS ATTRIBUTES SOmE
OF THE ²OUTH µmERICAN SUCCESS TO CHEATINg. °E SPECTACU±AR HANDBA±±, DUBBED
“THE HAND OF GOD,” OF ÍEgO MARADONA IN THE 1986 ÈOR±D ·UP IS ONE OF
mANY ExAmP±ES THEY CITE. ²OUTH µmERICAN ATH±ETES, FANS, AND jOURNA±ISTS
COUNTER THAT CHEATINg IS ON±Y “DIRTY” IF YOU ASSUmE THE SYSTEm IS C±EAN. ºOR
gENERATIONS THAT gREW UP UNDER mI±ITARY DICTATORSHIPS, THIS WOU±D HAVE BEEN
BOTH A DANgEROUS AND A DAﬅ ASSUmPTION.
²O HOW mIgHT WE ExP±AIN ²OUTH µmERICAN ExCE±±ENCE WITHOUT RE±YINg ON
E±ITIST ASSUmPTIONS ABOUT WHAT POOR AND B±ACk PEOP±E ARE gOOD AT? ¹N THE fiRST
P±ACE, THE INFORmA± SPACES OF FOOTBA±± IN THE REgION HAVE BEEN FERTI±E gROUNDS
FOR DEVE±OPINg TA±ENT. ºINANCIA± INVESTmENT HE±PS WITH YOUTH CAmPS, mEDICA±
BI±±S, AND EqUIPmENT. ÉOWEVER, FOOTBA±± CAN BECOmE TOO REgImENTED FOR
YOUNg BODIES. ¹N ²OUTH µmERICA, FOOTBA±± IS HIgH±Y SOCIA± AND ±ESS COmPART-
mENTA±IzED. ¹T IS P±AYED ON TRIPS TO THE BEACH AND AT PICNICS AND PARTIES.
µCCORDINg TO SPORTS THERAPISTS, THESE OPPORTUNITIES PREVENT EAR±Y BURNOUT
AND INjURY. ¸±AYERS A±SO DEVE±OP BA±± CONTRO± IN SmA±±ER SPACES. MOREOVER,
²OUTH µmERICAN ExCE±±ENCE EmBODIES A UNIqUE HISTORY OF FOOTBA±± PUB±ICS.
²OUTH µmERICAN AUDIENCES VA±UE INNOVATION, INDEED DEmAND IT. ÈHEN THE
µRgENTINE ·±UB ³STUDIANTES DE ±A ¸±ATA ADOPTED A HIgH±Y DEFENSIVE STY±E IN THE
1960S, µRgENTINES CA±±ED IT antifútbol. “µNTI-FOOTBA±±” HAS COmE TO mEAN ANY
TACTIC THAT ImPEDES THE flOW OF THE gAmE, INC±UDINg PREmEDITATED VIO±ENCE.
²OUTH µmERICAN PUB±ICS ExPECT THEIR TA±ENTED SUPERSTARS TO ExHIBIT SOCIA±
CONSCIOUSNESS, A±THOUgH THEY ARE FREqUENT±Y DISAPPOINTED. ¹N AN INDUSTRY
WORTH TRI±±IONS OF DO±±ARS, WHICH USUA±±Y SERVES TO REPRODUCE AND OBFUSCATE
INEqUA±ITY, IT IS STRIkINg WHEN ATH±ETES SIDE WITH PO±ITICA± CAUSES ±IkE HUmAN
RIgHTS CAmPAIgNS. ÉSPITE THE DECAY OF ²OUTH µmERICAN PROFESSIONA± ±EAgUES,
THERE IS A STRONg gRASSROOTS STRUCTURE THAT CONNECTS FOOTBA±± TO BROADER ISSUES
OF SOCIA± jUSTICE. ºOR ExAmP±E, mANY OF THE µRgENTINE P±AYERS HAVE jOINED IN
THE EffORTS TO fiND THE CHI±DREN ABDUCTED BY THE mI±ITARY DURINg THE 1970S AND
1980S. ÊRAzI±IAN WUNDERkIND, ½EYmAR JR., WAS ExPECTED TO SHOW SUPPORT FOR
THE PROTESTERS OF THE 2014 ÈOR±D ·UP, EVEN IF HE WAS A±SO SUPPOSED TO WIN THE
TOURNAmENT FOR ÊRAzI±. JOURNA±ISTS ASk FOOTBA±±ERS TO COmmENT ON ISSUES RANg-
INg FROm CONgRESSIONA± E±ECTIONS TO MIDD±E ³ASTERN DIP±OmACY. °EY FRE-
qUENT±Y COmP±Y, AT TImES TO THEIR OWN DETRImENT. °IS CONTRASTS SHARP±Y WITH
THE TRADITIONS IN ³UROPE AND ½ORTH µmERICA.
¹N RECENT YEARS, FAN INTEREST IN FOOTBA±±’S mEgASTARS HAS gROWN ExPONEN-
TIA±±Y AND IN AREAS WITHOUT A ±ONg FOOTBA±± TRADITION. µN I±±USTRATIVE ExAmP±E

fi¿ure 7.3. LUIS ²UAREz, ½EYmAR JR., AND LIONE± MESSI (±Eﬅ TO RIgHT) P±AYINg FOR ÊARCE±ONA
º·. µS A RESU±T OF THE gAmE’S g±OBA±IzATION, THE ²OUTH µmERICAN SUPERSTARS P±AY IN ²PAIN FOR
A TEAm SPONSORED BY ëATAR’S AIR CARRIER. ·OURTESY OF ¼EUTERS ½EWS µgENCY.
OCCURRED IN 2013 WHEN A JAPANESE gAmE SHOW CHA±±ENgED LIONE± MESSI TO TRY
TO SCORE AgAINST A ROBOT BUI±T TO B±OCk PENA±TY SHOTS. °E SHOW TIT±ED THE SEg-
mENT IN ³Ng±ISH, “MAN VERSUS THE MACHINE.” MESSI, WHO ENgENDERS SYmPATHY
BECAUSE OF HIS SmA±± STATURE A±ONE, IS NOTORIOUS±Y SHY AND SUBDUED. ÈHI±E HIS
PERSONA±ITY ±ACkS THE CHARACTERISTIC BRAVADO OF ²OUTH µmERICAN STRIkERS, HIS
P±AYINg STY±E fiTS THE mODE± PERFECT±Y. MESSI STARED DOWN AT THE BA±±, DRIBB±ED
A FEW TImES, AND TOOk HIS fiRST SHOT. °E ROBOT VEERED TO ITS RIgHT AND B±OCkED
IT. MESSI RESPONDED TO THE ROBOT WITH A ±OOk OF SURPRISE. ÉIS SECOND ATTEmPT
HIT THE gOA±POST. µT THIS POINT, THE “mAN” ExHIBITED SOmE DEgREE OF FRUSTRA-
TION. ¸±AYERS OF MESSI’S CA±IBER ARE ACUTE±Y AWARE OF gEOmETRY, AND HE APPEARED
TO CA±CU±ATE THE mECHANICS OF THE ROBOT. »N THE THIRD ATTEmPT, MESSI SCORED
BY gROUNDINg THE BA±± IN FRONT OF THE ROBOT, CAUSINg IT TO BOUNCE BEHIND IT.
ÉE ±OOkED A±mOST AS ExCITED AS IN A REA± gAmE. MESSI SCORED IN HIS NExT
ATTEmPT AND APPEARED SATISfiED WITH HIS PERFORmANCE. °E VIgNETTE OF LIONE±
MESSI’S VICTORY OVER THE ROBOT CREATED TO DESTROY HIm WAS CONTRIVED.
½ONETHE±ESS, IT REmAINS INCREDIB±Y ATTRACTIVE. ¹T IS A gOOD I±±USTRATION OF ²OUTH
µmERICAN FOOTBA±±’S UNIVERSA± APPEA±. ÈE ARE A±± STANDINg IN FRONT OF A
mACHINE THAT WE HAVE CREATED, SOmEWHAT HAP±ESS AND HOPINg INgENUITY WI±±
HE±P US.
²INCE FOOTBA±±’S DIffUSION, ²OUTH µmERICANS HAVE SOUgHT OUT THE WOR±D. ¹N
mAgAzINES, C±UBHOUSES, AND STADIUmS, FOOTBA±± HAS BEEN A SITE WHERE HIERAR-
CHIES OF RACE, gENDER, AND C±ASS ARE CREATED, REPRODUCED, AND, SOmETImES, CHA±-
±ENgED. MANY HAVE TRIED TO mOBI±IzE PASSION FOR THE gAmE TO PROmOTE SOCIA±
jUSTICE AND TRANSNATIONA± SO±IDARITY. »VER THE COURSE OF A CENTURY, FOOTBA±± HAS
BECOmE INTERTWINED WITH NATIONA± IDENTITIES. ¹T SHOU±D gIVE US PAUSE TO WON-
DER WHAT THE WOR±D WOU±D ±OOk ±IkE IF mORE NATIONA± IDENTITIES WERE FOUNDED
ON CREATIVE BRI±±IANCE, gRACE, AND ENgAgEmENT WITH THE WOR±D, WIN OR ±OSE.
¸ERHAPS THAT IS ²OUTH µmERICA’S mOST BEAUTIFU± CONTRIBUTION TO THE BEAUTIFU±
gAmE.
µRCHETTI, ³DUARDO
1998 Masculinities: Football, Polo, and the Tango in Argentina. »xFORD: ÍERSO.
ÊOCkETTI, GREgg
2016 °e Invention of the Beautiful Game: Football and the Making of Modern
Brazil. GAINESVI±±E: ¶NIVERSITY OF º±ORIDA ¸RESS.
³±SEY, ÊRENDA
2011 Citizens and Sportsmen: Fútbol and Politics in Twentieth-Century Chile.
µUSTIN: ¶NIVERSITY OF ¾ExAS ¸RESS.
GAffNEY, ·HRISTOPHER
2010 Temples of the Earthbound Gods: Stadiums in the Cultural Landscape of Rio
de Janeiro and Buenos Aires. µUSTIN: ¶NIVERSITY OF ¾ExAS ¸RESS.
GO±DB±ATT, ÁVID
2008 °e Ball Is Round: A Global History of Soccer. ½EW ÓORk: ¼IVERHEAD.
ÌITT±ESON, ¼OgER
2014 °e Country of Football: Soccer and the Making of Modern Brazil. ÊERkE±EY:
¶NIVERSITY OF ·A±IFORNIA.
½ADE±, JOSHUA
2014 Futbol! Why Soccer Matters in Latin America. GAINESVI±±E: ¶NIVERSITY OF
º±ORIDA ¸RESS.
¼ICHEY, JEff
N.D. “¸±AYINg AT ½ATION: ²OCCER, ¼ACIA± ¹DEO±OgY, AND ½ATIONA± ¹NTEgRATION IN
µRgENTINA.” ¶NPUB±ISHED mANUSCRIPT.

ei¿ht
Roy Choi, Ricardo Ëárate, and Pacific

Fusion Cuisine in Los Angeles
Sarah Portnoy and Jeffrey M. Pilcher
Üos Án¿eles, a city lon¿ kNOWN FOR ITS CU±TURA± DIVERSITY, HAS BECOmE
A CENTER FOR ONE OF THE mOST ImPORTANT RECENT CU±INARY TRENDS, THE UPSCA±E
FOOD TRUCk PHENOmENON. °E ICONIC ÌOgI TRUCk, SERVINg ÌOREAN BARBECUE
TACOS, WAS THE CREATION OF ·HEF ¼OY ·HOI, WHO WAS BORN IN ²EOU± AND gREW
UP IN LOS µNgE±ES. ¶NEmP±OYED AﬅER THE fi NANCIA± CRASH OF 2008 AND DESPER-
ATE TO DO SOmETHINg ExCITINg, HE COmBINED HIS ÌOREAN HERITAgE AND kNOW±-
EDgE OF MExICAN STREET FOOD, THEREBY gENTRIFYINg THE WORkINg-C±ASS MExICAN
lonchera (FOOD TRUCk). ÉIS INNOVATIVE CREATIONS TOOk Off WITHIN A YEAR AND SET
A NATIONA± TREND, AS ÌOgI COPYCATS BEgAN POPPINg UP IN CITIES ACROSS THE
¶NITED ²TATES, INC±UDINg ½EW ÓORk, µUSTIN, AND ²AN ºRANCISCO. MEANWHI±E
IN 2009, A ¸ERUVIAN-BORN CHEF NAmED ¼ICARDO ËáRATE, WHO HAD TRAINED IN
LONDON AND WORkED AT A JAPANESE RESTAURANT IN LOS µNgE±ES, OPENED A SImP±E
FOOD STA±± CA±±ED MO-·HICA IN THE MERCADO LA ¸A±OmA, A COOPERATIVE NON-
PROfiT mARkET SOUTH OF DOWNTOWN LOS µNgE±ES. ¹N ANOTHER VERSION OF ¸ACIfiC
FUSION, ËáRATE’S CUISINE mIxES ¸ERU’S TRADITIONA± criollo (CREO±E) DISHES WITH
THOSE OF THE COUNTRY’S SIzAB±E JAPANESE POPU±ATION. ÈORD SPREAD qUICk±Y
AmONg FOODIES, AND THE CHEF BECAmE A NATIONA± PHENOmENON; IN 2011, Food
& Wine Magazine AWARDED HIm THE TIT±E “ÊEST ½EW ·HEF, ¸EOP±E’S ·HOICE.”
¹S IT A COINCIDENCE THAT THESE TWO VERY DIffERENT CHEFS BEgAN THEIR RISE TO
PROmINENCE IN LOS µNgE±ES WITHIN A YEAR OF EACH OTHER WITH µSIAN-LATINO
FUSION CREATIONS? ³xP±AININg THE PHENOmENON OF ¸ACIfiC FUSION CUISINE BOTH
IN LOS µNgE±ES AND g±OBA±±Y RAISES TWO ImPORTANT qUESTIONS: ÉOW DOES CU±I-
NARY INflUENCE mOVE WITHIN THE TRANSNATIONA± CIRCUITS THAT CONSTITUTE g±OBA±
LATIN µmERICA? ÈHY DID THESE FUSION FOODS TAkE Off WHEN THEY DID, AND WHAT
DOES THAT TE±± US ABOUT OPPORTUNITIES FOR ImmIgRANT AND ETHNIC ENTREPRE-
NEURS? ÈITHIN LOS µNgE±ES, A CONjUNCTURE OF SPACE AND TImE—ETHNIC
146
fi¿ure 8.1. ÌOgI TRUCk, LOS µNgE±ES. ¸HOTO BY ²ARAH ¸ORTNOY.
ENC±AVES OF ÌOREANS, MExICANS, AND ²A±VADOREANS ±IVINg IN VERY C±OSE PROxIm-

ITY AND THE fiNANCIA± CRASH AND RECESSION OF 2008, WHICH INSPIRED RESIDENTS TO
SEARCH FOR A±TERNATIVES TO HIgH-END DININg—CREATED A UNIqUE ENVIRONmENT
THAT ENCOURAgED ·HOI’S AND ËáRATE’S INITIA± SUCCESS. ³qUA±±Y ImPORTANT FOR
THEIR SUCCESS WAS THE STATUS OF LOS µNgE±ES AS A g±OBA± CITY THAT WAS INTEgRATED
INTO CIRCUITS OF mIgRATION, TRANSNATIONA± RESTAURANT mARkETS, AND g±OBA± CU±I-
NARY FASHIONS.
ÊECAUSE FOOD IS INgESTED DAI±Y AND ±ITERA±±Y BECOmES PART OF THE BODY, CUISINE
IS A POWERFU± mETAPHOR FOR IDENTITY, PARTICU±AR±Y IN mOmENTS OF CU±TURA±
ENCOUNTER. °E CU±INARY TRANSFORmATIONS OF THE “·O±UmBIAN ExCHANgE,” WHICH
SPREAD THROUgH THE µT±ANTIC WOR±D AﬅER 1492, ARE NOW WE±± kNOWN, BUT THE
PARA±±E± HISTORY OF ¸ACIfiC ¼Im FUSION HAS gONE ±ARgE±Y UNNOTICED. °IS NEg±ECT
RESU±TS IN PART FROm THE INVISIBI±ITY OF µSIANS WITHIN NATIONA± IDENTITIES THROUgH-
OUT THE µmERICAS. ºOR ExAmP±E, THE LATIN µmERICAN CONCEPTION OF THE “COSmIC
RACE,” A±THOUgH THEORETICA±±Y EmBRACINg A±± OF HUmANITY, WAS USUA±±Y CONCERNED
WITH THE mestizaje, OR mIxINg, OF ³UROPEANS AND ½ATIVE µmERICANS. ÊY CON-
TRAST, µFRICAN S±AVES, µSIAN INDENTURED SERVANTS, AND MIDD±E ³ASTERN ImmI-
gRANTS HAVE BEEN mARgINA±IzED BY NATIONA±IST IDEO±OgIES. ½EVERTHE±ESS, CU±INARY
ENCOUNTERS HAVE HISTORICA±±Y HE±PED FORgE RE±ATIONSHIPS THAT CROSSED ±INES OF RACE,
C±ASS, ETHNICITY, AND NATIONA±ITY THROUgH THE SHARINg OF INgREDIENTS, TECHNIqUES,
AND DISHES. ¹NSTANCES OF CU±INARY AND CU±TURA± FUSION BETWEEN mASTERS AND
S±AVES, ImmIgRANTS AND ±OCA±S CAN BE SEEN IN COOkINg AND CONSUmPTION THROUgH-
OUT THE µmERICAS, FROm ÊRAzI±IAN feijoada (B±ACk BEANS AND RICE) AND ¸ERUVIAN
åhoi, ø ù r at e , Àaci f ic Ô usion åu isi n e • 147

chaufa (FRIED RICE) TO ¾ExAS FAjITAS. µ±THOUgH ONCE SCORNED AS P±EBEIAN, THESE
DISHES ACqUIRED DEEP SYmBO±IC mEANINgS THAT U±TImATE±Y mADE THEm EmB±Em-
ATIC OF REgIONA± AND NATIONA± IDENTITIES. ¹N A SImI±AR FASHION, TWENTY-fiRST-CENTURY
¸ACIfiC FUSION HAS BECOmE FASHIONAB±E IN LOS µNgE±ES AND OTHER CITIES AROUND
THE WOR±D PRECISE±Y BECAUSE OF ITS ExOTIC, mIxED ORIgINS AND ITS STREET FOOD ImAgE.
°E gENTRIfiCATION OF g±OBA± STREET FOOD HAS RESU±TED FROm TRENDS IN BOTH THE
PRODUCTION AND THE CONSUmPTION OF CU±INARY CU±TURE. ²CHO±ARS HAVE TENDED TO
FOCUS ON THE ±ATTER BY SHOWINg HOW CONTEmPORARY gASTRONOmIC DISCOURSE HAS
g±ORIfiED THE “OmNIVOROUS” CONSUmER, WHO IS kNOW±EDgEAB±E NOT jUST ABOUT
ºRENCH HAUTE CUISINE BUT ABOUT A±± THE WOR±D’S FOODS. ½EVERTHE±ESS, THE PURSUIT
OF ExOTICISm AND AUTHENTICITY AmONg ETHNIC AND WORkINg-C±ASS FOODS HAS NOT
DEmOCRATIzED gOURmET CU±TURE; INSTEAD, E±ITES HAVE BEgUN TO USE CU±INARY TOUR-
ISm AS mEANS TO ACqUIRE ExPERT kNOW±EDgE AND SOCIA± DISTINCTION. °ROUgH THE
ACT OF CURATINg ETHNIC FOODS, CONNOISSEURS POSITION THEmSE±VES AS CU±INARY ART-
ISTS, DRAWINg ON RAW mATERIA±S PROVIDED BY “ExOTIC” AND “AUTHENTIC” ImmIgRANT
COOkS, WHO ARE THEREBY SEEN AS INCAPAB±E OF FU±±Y ENTERINg µmERICAN SOCIETY.
ÊUT A±THOUgH THE E±ITISm OF CU±INARY DISCOURSE IS UNmISTAkAB±E, THE CAREERS OF
¼OY ·HOI AND ¼ICARDO ËáRATE DEmONSTRATE THE ABI±ITY OF ImmIgRANT AND ETH-
NIC ENTREPRENEURS TO SHAPE THE CONTEmPORARY gASTRONOmIC fiE±D THROUgH THEIR
±ABOR AND TASTE (JOHNSTON AND ÊAUmAN 2010; ¼AY 2011). MOREOVER, WHI±E BOTH
PRODUCERS AND CONSUmERS HAVE HE±PED DEfiNE CU±INARY FASHIONS, THE RESTAURANT
INDUSTRY IS HEAVI±Y INflUENCED BY AN UNDER±YINg INFRASTRUCTURE OF mEDIA AND
FOOD CRITICS, CU±INARY EDUCATION AND PROFESSIONA± TRAININg, FOOD DISTRIBUTORS,
TRANSNATIONA± ±ABOR mARkETS, AND THE ±OCA± AND NATIONA± REgU±ATORS THAT gOVERN
THESE DIVERSE ACTIVITIES. °E ¸ACIfiC FUSION mOmENT IN LOS µNgE±ES AROSE AT THE
INTERSECTION OF CONSUmER DESIRE FOR A PARTICU±AR FORm OF ExOTICISm, THE SkI±±ED
±ABOR AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP OF CHEFS SUCH AS ·HOI AND ËáRATE, AND A CU±INARY
INFRASTRUCTURE THAT BROUgHT TOgETHER THESE DREAmS, ASPIRATIONS, AND TASTES.
pacific fusion in historical perspective
·U±TURA± ExCHANgE IS A±WAYS A TWO-WAY STREET; IN Cuban Counterpoint: Tobacco

and Sugar ([1940] 1995), ºERNANDO »RTIz COINED THE TERm “TRANSCU±TURATION”
TO EmPHASIzE THE EffECTS ON CONqUISTADORS AS WE±± AS ON THE CONqUERED. ÚRINg
THE EAR±Y mODERN PERIOD, CU±INARY ExCHANgES ACROSS THE ¸ACIfiC »CEAN CAmE
PRImARI±Y THROUgH THE INTRODUCTION OF NEW FOODS, CARRIED BOTH EAST AND WEST
BY ¸ORTUgUESE mERCHANTS AND BY THE MANI±A GA±±EON, WHICH ±INkED ²PAIN’S
148 • ch a p t er ei¿ht
CO±ONIES IN THE µmERICAS AND THE ¸HI±IPPINES. ¹N THE NINETEENTH CENTURY,
mIgRATION flOWED ±ARgE±Y FROm µSIA TO LATIN µmERICA WITH THE DEmAND FOR
±ABOR ON TROPICA± P±ANTATIONS FO±±OWINg THE ABO±ITION OF THE µFRICAN S±AVE
TRADE. ÉSPITE RESTRICTIONS ON “COO±IE” WORkERS, µSIAN mIgRANTS BECAmE PROm-
INENT IN THE gROCERY AND RESTAURANT TRADES, THEREBY CONTRIBUTINg TO LATIN
µmERICA’S DIVERSE criollo AND mESTIzO CUISINES, TERmS THAT REFER TO POPU±AR
CU±TURA± mIxINg AND ±OCA± IDENTITY. ÊY THE END OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY, HOW-
EVER, THE g±OBA± PROmINENCE OF LATIN µmERICAN CUISINES HAD BEgUN TO REVERSE
THIS CU±INARY flOW, ESTAB±ISHINg A PROmINENT P±ACE FOR MExICAN AND ¸ERUVIAN
RESTAURANTS IN µSIA AS IN OTHER REgIONS OF THE WOR±D.
·O±ONIA± TRADE IN FOODSTUffS BETWEEN LATIN µmERICA AND µSIA WAS gENER-
A±±Y mEDIATED BY ³UROPEAN mERCHANTS, AND AS A RESU±T, CU±INARY TECHNIqUES
WERE OﬅEN ±Eﬅ BEHIND IN THE ExCHANgE. ¸RO±IfiC AND NUTRITIOUS LATIN µmERICAN
STAP±ES SUCH AS mAIzE, SWEET POTATOES, CASSAVA, AND PEANUTS CONTRIBUTED TO
EAR±Y mODERN POPU±ATION gROWTH IN µSIA, WHI±E CHI±E PEPPERS, TROPICA± FRUITS,
AND OTHER µmERICAN CONDImENTS A±SO BECAmE INDISPENSAB±E IN THE CUISINES OF
¹NDIA, ²OUTHEAST µSIA, AND PARTS OF ·HINA (ÉO 1955; MAzUmDAR 1999). ²PANISH
AND MExICAN COOkINg STY±ES HAD SOmE INflUENCE IN THE ¸HI±IPPINES, BUT ON THE
WHO±E, THE NEW CROPS WERE COOkED USINg INDIgENOUS µSIAN RECIPES (¸I±CHER
2012: 33–45). MEANWHI±E, ²PANISH OffiCIA±S HAD ±ImITED SUCCESS IN THEIR CAm-
PAIgN TO TRANSP±ANT µSIAN SPICES TO THE µmERICAS; ON±Y RE±ATIVE±Y COmmON AND
UNPROfiTAB±E SPICES SUCH AS CINNAmON, gINgER, AND TAmARIND ACCU±TURATED,
A±THOUgH THEY mADE ImPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS TO ±OCA± CUISINES (DE ÍOS 2006).
µSIAN TRAVE±ERS ON THE MANI±A GA±±EON DID INTRODUCE SOmE COOkINg TECH-
NIqUES, INC±UDINg TANDOOR OVENS A±ONg MExICO’S ¸ACIfiC COAST, BUT POPU±AR
ATTRIBUTIONS OF mANY CU±INARY INflUENCES ARE mISTAkEN. LATIN µmERICAN RICE IS
NOT A ·HINESE ImPORT BUT RATHER DERIVES FROm A ¸ERSIAN “PI±AU” INTRODUCED
TO ²PAIN BY mEDIEVA± µRABS. ·EVICHE, THE PROCESS OF “COOkINg” RAW fiSH
WITH CITRIC ACID, COmES NOT FROm JAPANESE SUSHI—A NINETEENTH-CENTURY
INVENTION—BUT INSTEAD FROm THE µRABIC PRESERVINg mETHOD, “SEBICH” (ÊAUER
2001: 87–90).
LATIN µmERICAN CU±INARY COSmOPO±ITANISm OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY WAS
DIVIDED A±ONg C±ASS ±INES; WHI±E E±ITES ±OOkED TO ºRANCE FOR fiNE DININg, POPU-
±AR CUISINE WAS INflUENCED BY PRO±ETARIAN mIgRANTS FROm AROUND THE WOR±D.
µSIANS WERE PROmINENT AmONg THESE NEW mIgRANTS, DRAWN BY THE ECONOmIC
OPPORTUNITIES OF THE ·A±IFORNIA GO±D ¼USH AND THE P±ANTATION ±ABOR CON-
TRACTS OF ¸ERU AND THE ·ARIBBEAN. ·HINESE gROCERIES AND RESTAURANTS, THE
±ATTER CA±±ED chifas IN ¸ERU, AT TImES INCITED NATIVIST FEARS OF RATS AND OTHER

UNmENTIONAB±E FOODS, BUT THEY WERE NEVERTHE±ESS FREqUENTED BY THE WORkINg
C±ASSES FOR AffORDAB±E AND TASTY mEA±S OF STIR-FRIED RICE, STEWS, AND SEAFOOD
(ÊA±BI 1999; ´RINOT 2005). ¾AmA±ES, CHI±I CON CARNE, AND mofongo (mASHED
AND FRIED P±ANTAINS) INSPIRED SImI±AR FEARS OF CONTAmINATION IN THE ¶NITED
²TATES, BUT THEY TOO gAINED A FO±±OWINg AmONg BOTH BUDgET-mINDED WORkERS
AND THRI±±-SEEkINg BOHEmIANS. ¾AmA±E PUSHCARTS, WHICH WERE DRIVEN FROm THE
STREETS OF LOS µNgE±ES IN THE EAR±Y 1900S BY ¸ROgRESSIVE-ERA REFORmERS,
RETURNED IN THE 1970S IN THE FORm OF loncheras PROVIDINg A qUICk ±UNCH FOR
MExICAN AND MExICAN µmERICAN CONSTRUCTION WORkERS (¸I±CHER 2012: 111–13).
·ARIBBEAN FOODS mEANWHI±E INflUENCED THE COOkINg OF THE ÉAR±Em
¼ENAISSANCE, AS THE HISTORIAN ºREDERICk »PIE (2008: 139–53) HAS DEmON-
STRATED, THEREBY BECOmINg PRECURSORS OF “SOU± FOOD.”
³VEN AS lonchera AND SOU± FOOD INSURgENCIES AROSE IN THE POSTWAR ¶NITED
²TATES, A REVO±UTION OF “NOUVE±±E CUISINE” WAS TAkINg SHAPE THAT WOU±D SOON
UNDERmINE THE HEgEmONY OF ºRENCH HAUTE CUISINE. °E mOVEmENT BEgAN
FROm WITHIN, AS REVO±UTIONS OﬅEN DO, WHEN THE DISTINgUISHED CHEF ¸AU±
ÊOCUSE TRAVE±ED TO µSIA AND BEgAN INCORPORATINg JAPANESE AESTHETICS INTO HIS
CUISINE. °E INTERNATIONA± YOUTH mOVEmENT OF THE 1960S mEANWHI±E EmBRACED
SUPPOSED±Y mORE AUTHENTIC PEASANT CUISINES AS AN ANTIDOTE TO INDUSTRIA± PROC-
ESSED FOODS. ÊY THE END OF THE CENTURY, THE ·ATA±AN CHEF ºERRAN µDRIà HAD
BEgUN ExPERImENTINg WITH FOOD TECHNO±OgY TO CREATE A mODERNIST gASTRON-
OmY OF flAVORED FOAmS AND OTHER WHImSIES. ½OUVE±±E CHEFS IN THE ¶NITED
²TATES SOUgHT OUT REgIONA± ROOTS FOR AUTHENTIC µmERICAN CUISINES; FOR ExAm-
P±E, ²PANISH AND INDIgENOUS FOODS INSPIRED THE “½EW ²OUTHWESTERN,” WHICH
BEgAN IN LOS µNgE±ES AND ²ANTA ºE IN THE 1980S UNDER THE ±EADERSHIP OF JOHN
¼IVERA ²ED±AR. MEANWHI±E, ¼ICk ÊAY±ESS INTRODUCED TRADITIONA± MExICAN CUI-
SINE AT HIS ·HICAgO RESTAURANT ºRONTERA GRI±± AND THROUgH HIS ±ONg-RUNNINg
PUB±IC TE±EVISION SHOW, Mexico: One Plate at a Time. ¹N CONTRAST TO THE
³Ng±ISH AUTHOR ÍANA ÌENNEDY, WHO BEgAN PUB±ISHINg ETHNOgRAPHICA±±Y
INFORmED MExICAN COOkBOOkS IN THE 1970S, ÊAY±ESS SEEkS TO TRANS±ATE
MExICAN CUISINE FOR µmERICAN AUDIENCES.
ÊUT THIS gOURmET mOVEmENT WAS NOT ±ImITED TO THE G±OBA± ½ORTH; LATIN
µmERICAN CU±INARY PROFESSIONA±S SOUgHT TO C±AIm THESE OﬅEN-INDIgENOUS CUI-
SINES FOR THEIR OWN NATIONA± PROjECTS. MExICAN CHEFS PIONEERED THE nueva
cocina mexicana (NOUVE±±E MExICAN CUISINE) IN THE 1980S, OﬅEN BASED ON mORE
OR ±ESS FANCIFU± ImAgINATIONS OF “PRE-ÉISPANIC mENUS.” °E RECIPE CA±±ED FOR
±ARgE qUANTITIES OF WHAT ANTHROPO±OgISTS CA±± “PEASANT ESSENTIA±ISm,” ExP±OITINg
THE SUPPOSED BACkWARDNESS OF WORkINg-C±ASS, OﬅEN INDIgENOUS POPU±ATIONS,
BUT IT PROVED WI±D±Y POPU±AR WITH TOURISTS, INC±UDINg BOTH THE NATIONA± BOUR-
gEOISIE AND FOREIgNERS IN SEARCH OF µzTEC AND MAYA ExOTICISm. ÊY THE TURN OF
THE TWENTY-fiRST CENTURY, PATRIOTIC MExICAN FOOD CRITICS COU±D TAkE DE±IgHT AS
“AUTHENTIC” TACO TRUCkS AND CHI±E SAUCES (moles) SPREAD AROUND THE WOR±D, DIS-
P±ACINg ¾Ex-MEx VERSIONS THAT HAD BEEN PROPAgATED BY RESTAURATEURS AND FOOD
PROCESSINg COmPANIES FROm THE ¶NITED ²TATES. ¾O ACHIEVE THIS gOA±, THE
MExICAN gOVERNmENT AND PRIVATE gROUPS INVESTED IN A NATIONA± CU±INARY INFRA-
STRUCTURE OF FOOD mEDIA AND COOkINg SCHOO±S TO COUNTER THE INflUENCE OF THE
MICHE±IN GUIDE AND THE “OTHER ·¹µ”—THE ·U±INARY ¹NSTITUTE OF µmERICA.
°E ENORmOUS SUCCESS OF THIS TOURISm DEVE±OPmENT CAmPAIgN BECAmE A mODE±
FOR OTHER LATIN µmERICAN NATIONS.
¸ERUVIANS HAVE CREATED THE mOST SUCCESSFU± RIVA± TO MExICO’S gOURmET
mOVEmENT WITH THE ±ESS NATIONA±IST SOUNDINg cocina novoandino (NOUVE±±E
µNDEAN CUISINE). ¸ERU’S CU±INARY INFRASTRUCTURE WAS DE±AYED BY THE ECONOmIC
CRISES AND THE ²HININg ¸ATH CIVI± WAR OF THE 1980S, BUT THE COUNTRY HAS mADE
UP FOR ±OST TImE, OPENINg A TOTA± OF fiﬅY CU±INARY SCHOO±S IN LImA A±ONE, P±US
ANOTHER THIRTY IN THE PROVINCES. GASTóN µCURIO, THE SON OF A PROmINENT PO±ITI-
CIAN, IS THE ±EADINg figURE OF THE novoandino mOVEmENT; TRAINED AT LE ·ORDON
Ê±EU IN ¸ARIS, HE RETURNED TO ¸ERU IN 1994 WITH HIS GERmAN-BORN PASTRY CHEF
WIFE, µSTRID GUTSCHE. °EIR CO±±ABORATIVE RESTAURANT, µSTRID Y GASTóN, WON
POPU±AR ACC±AIm FOR ITS INNOVATIVE, SIgNATURE CEVICHES AND SPAWNED A g±OBA±
FRANCHISE WITH OUTPOSTS IN MADRID, MANHATTAN, MIAmI, ÊOgOTá, AND MExICO
·ITY. °E INTEREST IN ¸ERUVIAN flAVORS HAS RECENT±Y INSPIRED PI±gRImAgES BY SUCH
INTERNATIONA± CE±EBRITY CHEFS AS ºERRAN µDRIà, ¼ENE ¼EDzEPI, MICHE± ÊRAS, AND
ÁN ÊARBER. °E REVERED SUSHI CHEF ½OBUYUkI MATSUHISA ACTUA±±Y DEVE±OPED
HIS UNIqUE FUSION STY±E WHI±E WORkINg IN LImA.
LATIN µmERICA’S g±OBA± CU±INARY INflUENCE HAS gONE THROUgH TWO DISTINCT
PERIODS, THE EAR±Y mODERN SPREAD OF CU±TIVARS AND A CONTEmPORARY FASHION
WITHIN THE RESTAURANT INDUSTRY. °E FORmER PERIOD ±ED TO THE g±OBA±IzATION OF
mAIzE, POTATOES, TOmATOES, AND CHI±ES, WHI±E SHOPS TODAY INCREASINg±Y STOCk
TOmATI±±OS, qUINOA, TEqUI±A, AND PISCO, ¸ERU’S fiERY gRAPE BRANDY. ÓET LATIN
µmERICANS HAVE RECEIVED ±ITT±E CREDIT FOR THESE gIﬅS; EAR±Y mODERN P±ANTS WERE
OﬅEN ATTRIBUTED TO THE ³UROPEAN mERCHANTS, AND THE CONTEmPORARY INTEREST IN
LATIN µmERICAN FOOD HAS COmE AS PART OF A g±OBA± FASHION FOR PEASANT AND STREET
FOOD. °E SUDDEN INTEREST IN qUINOA, FOR ExAmP±E, HAS mEANT THAT mANY ¸ERUVIAN
FARmERS CANNOT EVEN AffORD TO EAT THEIR OWN STAP±E gRAIN, AND mOST TEqUI±AS ARE
BOTT±ED IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES, WITH ±ITT±E PROfiT FOR MExICAN AgAVE gROWERS.
MARkET AND C±ASS INEqUA±ITIES THUS DETERmINE WHO BENEfiTS FROm FOOD FADS.

roy choi and the culinary borderlands of
los an¿eles
¼OY ·HOI’S ÌOgI TACO TRUCkS I±±USTRATE BOTH THE CROSS-CU±TURA± INflUENCE OF
LATIN µmERICAN CUISINE AND THE ImPORTANCE OF CU±INARY INFRASTRUCTURE FOR
ACHIEVINg SUCCESS EVEN FOR STREET FOOD. ¹N ESTAB±ISHINg HIS BUSINESS, ·HOI DREW
ON THE RESOURCES AND CU±TURA± CAPITA± OF HIS ENTREPRENEURIA± ÌOREAN FAmI±Y,
TRAININg AT THE ·U±INARY ¹NSTITUTE OF µmERICA, PROFESSIONA± ExPERIENCE IN
±EADINg RESTAURANTS, AND mEDIA-SAVVY BUSINESS PARTNERS. ¾ImINg WAS jUST AS
ImPORTANT, FOR THE mARkET CRASH AND RECESSION OF 2008 ±Eﬅ COUNT±ESS YOUNg
mEmBERS OF THE mIDD±E C±ASS DESPERATE FOR NEW FORmS OF STATUS AND ENTERTAIN-
mENT BASED ON CU±TURA± AND mEDIA kNOW±EDgE. ÉIP YOUNg PEOP±E USED THEIR
CE±± PHONES TO FO±±OW THE SEEmINg±Y RANDOm TWEETS OF THE ÌOgI TRUCk AND
THEN WAITED IN ImPOSSIB±Y ±ONg ±INES WITH ±IkE-mINDED FO±k. °E ÌOgI TRUCkS
THUS BECAmE A BEACON FOR A gENERATION THAT COU±D NO ±ONgER AffORD THE FANCY
RESTAURANTS THAT HAD DEfiNED STATUS IN THE PRE-CRASH ERA BUT YEARNED FOR A SImI-
±AR FORm OF DISTINCTION. ¹T A±SO REPRESENTED THE SHIﬅINg WOR±D OF SOCIA± mEDIA
IN WHICH FOOD TRENDS ARE NOT DISCOVERED BY FOOD CRITICS BUT VIA ¾WITTER,
¹NSTAgRAm, AND ÓE±P. ¹N THIS WAY, THE ÌOgI TRUCk PAVED THE WAY FOR A NATIONA±
TREND OF mOBI±E DININg TRACkED THROUgH SOCIA± mEDIA. °E “±UxE-±ONCHERA”
WITH AN EDgY µSIAN flAVOR FO±±OWED THE COO± STY±E PIONEERED BY THE CHEF–
WRITER–TE±EVISION PERSONA±ITY µNTHONY ÊOURDAIN, WHO IN TURN PUB±ISHED
·HOI’S mEmOIR-COOkBOOk, L.A. Son: My Life, My City, My Food (2013), IN HIS
FOOD-CENTERED SERIES.
ÌOgI FUSION gREW FROm ·HOI’S CHI±DHOOD IN THE CU±INARY AND SOCIA± BORDER-
±ANDS OF LOS µNgE±ES. µ±READY BY THE EAR±Y TWENTIETH CENTURY, THE AREA EAST OF
DOWNTOWN, PARTICU±AR±Y ÊOY±E ÉEIgHTS, WAS A gATHERINg P±ACE FOR DIVERSE
mIgRANTS, INC±UDINg MExICANS, ¹TA±IANS, AND JEWS, AS WE±± AS ÌOREANS, JAPANESE,
·HINESE, AND ºI±IPINOS. ·HOI ARRIVED AS A TODD±ER IN THE EAR±Y 1970S AS PART OF
THE BOOm IN µSIAN mIgRATION FO±±OWINg THE 1965 ¹mmIgRATION ¼EFORm µCT. ÉIS
PARENTS STRUgg±ED TO mAkE A ±IVINg FOR mANY YEARS, OPENINg A ÌOREAN RESTAURANT
IN GARDEN GROVE THAT DID NOT SUCCEED A±ONg WITH A SERIES OF OTHER UNSUCCESSFU±
BUSINESS VENTURES. µ ±ATCHkEY CHI±D, ·HOI ATE HIS WAY A±ONE THROUgH ÌOREATOWN’S
BARBECUE RESTAURANTS, JEWISH DE±IS, ²A±VADORAN pupuserías, AND MExICAN
taQuerías. ·HOI’S TASTE BUDS WERE INFORmED BY THESE YEARS OF WA±kINg THE STREETS
OF LOS µNgE±ES, WHERE MExICAN FOOD B±ENDS SEAm±ESS±Y WITH µmERICAN FARE
THROUgH CROSS-CU±TURA± mARkETINg AND INTERmARRIAgE. ½EON SIgNS ADVERTISE
HISTORIC INSTITUTIONS SUCH AS LUCY’S MExICAN-µmERICAN ºOOD, SE±±INg HAmBURg-
ERS AND TACOS, OR ÌOSHER ÊURRITO, A DOWNTOWN FOOD STAND OPENED BY A JEWISH
mAN mARRIED TO A ²ONORAN WOmAN. ¹N THIS WAY, A ÌOREAN BOY WOU±D HAVE EASI±Y
UNDERSTOOD MExICAN FOOD AS PART OF THE mOSAIC THAT mAkES UP µmERICAN FOOD.
¹F ETHNIC CUISINES mIxED EASI±Y ACROSS THE NEIgHBORHOODS OF LOS µNgE±ES, THE
DIVERSE PEOP±ES OﬅEN CAmE INTO CONflICT. ¹N 1992, THE CITY ERUPTED IN VIO±ENCE
WHEN WHITE PO±ICE OffiCERS WERE ACqUITTED OF BRUTA±±Y ASSAU±TINg AN µFRICAN
µmERICAN NAmED ¼ODNEY ÌINg. ÌOREAN BUSINESS OWNERS WERE A PARTICU±AR
TARgET OF VIO±ENCE OF THE PREDOmINANT±Y B±ACk CROWD. ¹N AN INTERVIEW WITH
µNTHONY ÊOURDAIN ON HIS POPU±AR TE±EVISION SHOW, Parts Unknown, ·HOI
DESCRIBED WATCHINg THE RIOTS FROm THE ROOF OF A BUI±DINg AND FEE±INg BESIEgED
FOR THREE DAYS UNTI± PO±ICE fiNA±±Y RESTORED ORDER.
·HOI REBE±±ED AT fiRST AgAINST THE PROFESSIONA± ExPECTATIONS OF HIS ImmI-
gRANT PARENTS BUT ±ATER FU±fi±±ED THEm IN AN UNORTHODOx mANNER BY TRAININg
AS A CHEF AND ACqUIRINg THE TECHNIqUES OF ºRENCH HAUTE CUISINE. µﬅER CO±±EgE,
HE WORkED FOR A FEW YEARS AS A STOCkBROkER, THEN ATTENDED ÈESTERN ²TATE
¶NIVERSITY LAW ²CHOO± FOR A SINg±E SEmESTER, IN 1994, A±± THE WHI±E ABUSINg
DRUgS AND A±COHO±. ÉE FOUND NEW PURPOSE IN ±IFE WITH A DECISION TO BECOmE
A CHEF, WORkED EVENINgS TO gAIN THE BASIC SkI±±S, AND EVENTUA±±Y, IN 1998, gRADU-
ATED FROm THE ·U±INARY ¹NSTITUTE OF µmERICA. ÉE INTERNED IN MANHATTAN AT
THE MICHE±IN THREE-STARRED LE ÊERNARDIN, THEN PASSED THROUgH A STRINg OF
HIgH-PROfi±E RESTAURANTS BEFORE ±ANDINg A COVETED POSITION AS CHEF DE CUISINE
AT THE ÊEVER±Y ÉI±±S ÉI±TON IN 2007. ÉIS PROFESSIONA± ExPERIENCE REINFORCED
HIS CHI±DHOOD ImPRESSIONS FROm THE STREETS OF LOS µNgE±ES; A±THOUgH THE
RESTAURANT DININg ROOmS SERVED AN ExC±USIVE C±IENTE±E, THE kITCHENS WERE
mIxED WITH A PREDOmINANCE OF LATINO ±INE COOkS AS A RESU±T OF CU±INARY ±ABOR
mARkET TRENDS. ·HOI TOOk ADVANTAgE OF HIS COWORkERS’ kNOW±EDgE OF MExICAN
STREET FOOD; ON ONE mEmORAB±E OCCASION, WHI±E WORkINg AT A ¸A±m ²PRINgS
RESORT, HE HE±PED BUTCHER A gOAT AND mAkE birria AT A MExICA±I RESTAURANT
OWNED BY THE FAmI±Y OF ONE OF HIS COOkS.
°E CRASH OF 2008 PROVIDED ·HOI WITH THE OPPORTUNITY—AND THE NEED—
TO FUSE THE PO±Yg±OT STREET FOODS OF HIS YOUTH WITH HIS YEARS OF PROFESSIONA±
TRAININg. ÉAVINg jUST BEEN ±AID Off FROm A HIgH-END RESTAURANT, HE gOT TOgETHER
WITH A ÉI±TON CO±±EAgUE, THE ºI±IPINO µmERICAN MARk MANgUERA, WHO SUg-
gESTED THE IDEA OF A ÌOREAN BARBECUE TACO TRUCk. ·HOI BEgAN HIS RESEARCH IN
THE AIS±ES OF THE ÌOREAN mARkETS, WHI±E MANgUERA ARRANgED THE ±EASE ON A
FOOD TRUCk. ÈITH PROFESSIONA± CREDENTIA±S, THEY EASI±Y PASSED THE ±ICENSINg
AND INSPECTIONS THAT CAN BE SO TROUB±ESOmE FOR ImmIgRANT ENTREPRENEURS.
ÌOgI HIT THE STREETS IN ±ATE 2008, FEATURINg A mENU OF SHORT RIB TACOS, kImCHI

qUESADI±±AS, AND ÌOgI S±IDERS. ÍVERSE CU±INARY INflUENCES A±SO fi±± THE PAgES OF
HIS AUTOBIOgRAPHICA± COOkBOOk WITH ACCESSIB±E STREET FOOD RECIPES SUCH AS
“ÌImCHI AND ¸ORk ÊE±±Y ²TUffED ¸UPUSAS,” A SAUCE CA±±ED “²P±ASH” mADE WITH
SOY SAUCE, RICE VINEgAR, AND jA±APEñO, ”ÌETCHUP ºRIED ¼ICE,” AND “Lµ ·ORNER
ON THE ·OB.”
ÌOgI’S FUSION CUISINE WAS NOT jUST A mIxTURE OF CU±TURES; IT A±SO REflECTED
THE CROSS-C±ASS ENCOUNTERS OF THE LOS µNgE±ES STREETS, AS ·HOI COmBINED A
TATTOOED, HIP-HOP STREET CRED WITH THE PROFESSIONA±ISm OF A ·¹µ TRAININg.
²UCH A COmBINATION BECAmE POSSIB±E THROUgH A NEW FORm OF CU±INARY INFRA-
STRUCTURE ±EVERAgINg THE SOCIA± mEDIA OF ¾WITTER. »N±Y THOSE WHO FO±±OWED
THE ÌOgI TRUCk’S WHEREABOUTS ON±INE COU±D BE SURE OF SCORINg A TACO, PROVID-
INg AN ExC±USIVITY TO THE DIgITA±±Y SAVVY, EVEN IF THEY DID NOT HAVE A GOOg±E
ExPENSE ACCOUNT. °E TRUCkS CREATED A ROVINg PARTY ATmOSPHERE AND BROUgHT
PEOP±E FROm DIffERENT WA±kS OF ±IFE TOgETHER. LOYA± FANS FO±±OWED THE TRUCkS
TO NEIgHBORHOODS THEY WOU±D NOT NORmA±±Y FREqUENT AND INTERACTED WITH
STRANgERS, WAITINg IN ±INE WHI±E ±ISTENINg TO A DEEjAY P±AY DANCE TUNES. µ
HYPERmASCU±INITY, COmmON TO BOTH HIP-HOP ARTISTS AND CE±EBRITY CHEFS,
SEEmED TO HEIgHTEN THE TRANSgRESSIVE APPEA± FOR YOUNg HIPSTERS, WHO WERE
WI±±INg TO WAIT IN ±ONg ±INES FOR A ±ATE-NIgHT, SHORT RIB TACO. ¸ARkED BY A STREET
CORNER OR IN AN EmPTY ±OT, THE TRUCkS BECAmE AN ITINERANT EqUIVA±ENT OF AN
ExC±USIVE NIgHTC±UB, A NEW ExPERIENCE THAT WAS BOTH UNIqUE±Y ±OCA± TO L.µ.
AND YET g±OBA± IN ITS LATIN µmERICAN AND µSIAN INflUENCES.
·HOI CAPITA±IzED ON HIS SUCCESS TO ExPAND A BUDDINg RESTAURANT EmPIRE,
ADOPTINg NEW VARIANTS ON THE BOUNDARY-CROSSINg THEmE. ÊY 2009, FOUR ÌOgI
TRUCkS WERE CRUISINg THE STREETS OF LOS µNgE±ES AS THE ÌOREAN BARBECUE TACO
WENT VIRA± ACROSS THE COUNTRY. µ YEAR ±ATER, ·HOI OPENED A BRICk-AND-mORTAR
RESTAURANT, ·HEgO, SERVINg E±EVATED STREET FOOD SUCH AS ÌImCHI ²PAm BOW±S.
½ExT HE INSTA±±ED AN µ-FRAmE IN A FORmER ¹-ÉOP AND SERVED mODERN PICNIC
FOOD, mESSY DISHES mEANT TO BE EATEN WITH THE HANDS SUCH AS ·RACk±IN’ ÊEER
·AN ·HICkEN AND ÊABY ÊACk ¼IBS, A±ONg WITH WE±±-NAmED COCkTAI±S THAT
INC±UDED THE ÍENICE ÈA±k OF ²HAmE AND ²PITTIN’ ÍSTANCE. ëUOTES ON THE
mENU OffERED A CA±CU±ATED DISINgENUOUSNESS: “¹T’S HOW ¹’D COOk FOR YOU IF THIS
WAS A HOUSE PARTY. ½O RIDICU±OUS PRETENTIOUSNESS, NO HORS D’OEUVRES.” ²UCH
INFORmA±ITY HAD ±ITT±E APPEA± FOR ÌOREAN TRADITIONA±ISTS, AND IT WAS STRIkINg
THAT ÌOgI ATTRACTED NO CU±INARY COPYCATS IN ²EOU±, EVEN AS THE POP mUSICIAN
¸SY’S “GANgNAm ²TY±E” BECAmE A g±OBA± PHENOmENON. ½EVERTHE±ESS, IN THE
SUmmER OF 2014, ·HOI OPENED YET ANOTHER RESTAURANT, ¸OT, SERVINg HIS TAkE
ON TRADITIONA± ÌOREAN DISHES IN THE HEART OF L.µ.’S ÌOREATOWN, A mOVE SURE
TO IRRITATE mANY O±D-TImERS BUT A DRAW FOR A YOUNgER, mORE DIVERSE CROWD.
·HOI’S SUCCESS HAS E±EVATED HIm BEYOND THE ±EVE± OF POPU±AR CHEF TO A TE±EVI-
SION HOST. ¹N µUgUST 2014, ·½½ ANNOUNCED THAT ·HOI WAS jOININg THE NET-
WORk AND WOU±D BE HOSTINg HIS OWN SHOW TIT±ED Street Food.
µ±THOUgH ·HOI ImAgINED ÌOgI AS A DEmOCRATIzINg FORCE THAT COU±D BRINg
gOURmET FOOD TO THE mASSES, THERE WERE ±ImITS TO HOW FAR THE TRUCkS AND THEIR
CUSTOmERS WOU±D gO ACROSS LOS µNgE±ES’S SOCIA± AND SPATIA± BOUNDARIES, AS THE
SOCIO±OgIST »±IVER ÈANg HAS RECENT±Y DISCOVERED. ¶SINg ¾WITTER’S PUB±IC DATA-
BASE, ÈANg mAPPED THE STOPS mADE BY ÌOgI’S FOUR TRUCkS FROm 2009 TO 2011.
ÉE FOUND THE mAjORITY OF STOPS IN TWO REgIONS, NORTH FROm ÍENICE TO
ÓWNTOWN, AND SOUTH, IN »RANgE ·OUNTY. °E SPACE IN BETWEEN, DUBBED
“°E ÍOID” BY ÈANg, “ENCOmPASSED ±ONg-STANDINg zONES OF C±ASS AND RACIA±
SEgREgATION IN THE AREA, INC±UDINg THE ²OUTH ÊAY, ÉARBOR, ²OUTH L.µ.,
²OUTHEAST L.µ., AND ³AST L.µ.” (ÈANg 2013: 85). °E FEW STOPS IN THIS zONE
WERE ExCEPTIONA±, AS WHEN A TRUCk BROkE DOWN AT THE CORNER OF ºIgUEROA AND
ºIﬅY-NINTH. °US, ÌOgI HAS PURSUED AN AUDIENCE OF YOUNg, mIDD±E-C±ASS WHITES
AND µSIAN µmERICANS.
ºOR ¼OY ·HOI, THE ÌOgI TACO TRUCk HAS BECOmE A mETHOD OF “µmERICANIzINg”
THE CUISINE OF HIS HOmE COUNTRY. °E CHOICE IS A SIgNIfiCANT ONE, DISDAININg
THE P±AINNESS OF A SANDWICH, WHICH HAS ±ONg BEEN A TRADITIONA± PATTERN OF
ImmIgRANT ASSImI±ATION, AND INSTEAD CHOOSINg TO EmPHASIzE ITS ExOTIC ROOTS
AND SPICY flAVOR BY WAY OF THE TACO, THEREBY APPEA±INg TO CONSUmERS HUNgRY
FOR BORDER-CROSSINg NOVE±TY. °E COO± OF THE TACO TRUCk SCENE IS NEVERTHE±ESS
BACkED UP BY THE PROFESSIONA± INFRASTRUCTURE OF THE RESTAURANT INDUSTRY, IN
CONTRAST TO THE AD HOC VERSION OF THE TRADITIONA± lonchera. µND WHEREAS OTHER
RESTAURANTS HAD RE±IED ON THE fiCk±E OPINION OF CRITICS, THE ÌOgI TEAm ±EVERAgED
NEW SOCIA± mEDIA TO DEfiNE THEIR OWN ImAgE AND APPEA± TO A CROWD OF SURFERS,
HIPSTERS, AND DIgERATI. MEANWHI±E, ANOTHER ImmIgRANT CHEF, ¼ICARDO ËáRATE,
HAS SOUgHT RECOgNITION FROm FOODIES BY E±EVATINg AND TRANSFORmINg STREET AND
BAR FOOD INTO HIS OWN PROFESSIONA±±Y REfiNED CUISINE.
ricardo Zùrate and pacific riÇ

cosÇopolitanisÇ
“°E STORY OF MO ·HICA IS THE jOURNEY OF mY CAREER,” DEC±ARED ¼ICARDO ËáRATE

IN AN INTERVIEW WITH ²ARAH ¸ORTNOY ON 14 ºEBRUARY 2014. ÈHI±E IT IS A PER-
SONA± STORY ABOUT THE DRIVE OF ±ABOR mIgRATION, PROFESSIONA± TRAININg, AND

ENTREPRENEURIA± AmBITION, IT A±SO REflECTS THE NETWORkS AND INFRASTRUCTURE OF
THE INTERNATIONA± RESTAURANT INDUSTRY. LIkE ¼OY ·HOI’S FUSION TACO TRUCk, TIm-
INg WAS CRUCIA± FOR ËáRATE’S SUCCESS IN INTRODUCINg ¸ERUVIAN FOOD AS HAUTE
CUISINE TO LOS µNgE±ES. µT A mOmENT WHEN RESTAURANT CE±EBRITIES AROUND THE
WOR±D WERE ±OOkINg TO LImA AS THE ±ATEST THINg, ±OCA± FOOD CRITICS AND kNOW±-
EDgEAB±E DINERS EmBRACED A ¸ERUVIAN CHEF THEY COU±D CA±± THEIR OWN. ÓET CON-
SUmERS WERE NOT fixATED ON TRENDINESS A±ONE; ¸ERUVIAN FOOD A±SO SPOkE TO THE
mODERN DESIRE FOR INDIgENOUS AUTHENTICITY, THE ROmANCE OF BOTH THE ANCIENT
¹NkA CIVI±IzATION AND THE PEOP±ES ±IVINg AT THE HEADWATERS OF THE µmAzON
¼IVER. ¸ERUVIAN CEVICHE mEANWHI±E OffERED A SPICY, NEW TAkE ON JAPANESE
SUSHI, WHICH HAD gAINED E±ITE STATUS WITH ÈESTERN CONSUmERS IN THE 1980S.
ËáRATE AND HIS mEDIA INTER±OCUTORS SkI±±FU±±Y CRAﬅED THIS ImAgE WITH THE gOA±
OF ESTAB±ISHINg THE ¸ERUVIAN NATIONA± CUISINE AS A g±OBA± ±EADER IN CU±INARY
TOURISm.
ËáRATE STARTED COOkINg AS A TEENAgER IN THE FAmI±Y kITCHEN IN LImA, ±EARN-
INg FROm HIS mOTHER AND gRANDmOTHER THE criollo DISHES THAT WERE AS COSmO-
PO±ITAN IN THEIR OWN WAY AS THE STREET FOODS OF LOS µNgE±ES. ÉE WAS BORN IN
1973 UNDER THE mI±ITARY DICTATORSHIP, AND THE HYPERINflATION OF THE 1980S HIT
mIDD±E-C±ASS FAmI±IES HARD, INC±UDINg HIS OWN. ½EVERTHE±ESS, THEY COU±D STI±±
AffORD DISHES SUCH AS chanfaina, A ²PANISH µNDEAN STEW OF ORgAN mEAT AND
POTATOES, AND lomo saltado, A ·HINESE-INSPIRED, STIR-FRIED PORk. µ±THOUgH IN
INTERVIEWS ËáRATE HAS ExPRESSED DISAPPOINTmENT AT THE TImE WITH HIS EDUCA-
TION AT THE ¹NSTITUTO DE ±AS µméRICAS IN LImA, WHERE THE CURRICU±Um EmPHA-
SIzED RESTAURANT mANAgEmENT RATHER THAN C±ASSICA± COOkINg, HIS ±ATER ExPERI-
ENCES OPENINg THREE LOS µNgE±ES RESTAURANTS IN SUCCESSION REqUIRED AS mUCH
SkI±± IN mANAgEmENT AS IN COOkINg.
·IRCUITS OF ±ABOR mIgRATION PROVIDED ËáRATE WITH OPPORTUNITIES FOR PROFES-
SIONA± TRAININg AND ADVANCEmENT ABROAD THAT WERE UNAVAI±AB±E AT THE TImE IN
¸ERU. ¹N THE EAR±Y 1990S, HE mOVED TO LONDON AND FOUND WORk AS A DISH-
WASHER AT A ÊENIHANA CHAIN RESTAURANT. ÉIS COWORkERS SOON RECOgNIzED HIS
AmBITIONS, AND WITHIN SIx mONTHS, HE HAD PERFECTED THE THEATRICA±, kNIFE-
jUgg±INg SkI±±S OF THE HIBACHI CHEF. µﬅER TWO YEARS, HE mOVED ON AgAIN, WORk-
INg IN A SUCCESSION OF jOBS AND ±EARNINg WHATEVER HE COU±D IN EACH NEW
kITCHEN. ºO±±OWINg A STINT UNDER ·HEF MARk GREgORY AT »NE µ±DWYCH, HE
BECAmE ExECUTIVE CHEF AT THE CONTEmPORARY JAPANESE RESTAURANT, ËUmA.
ºINA±±Y, AﬅER TWE±VE YEARS IN LONDON, ËáRATE REA±IzED THAT WHI±E HE HAD HONED
HIS PROFESSIONA± SkI±±S, HE WAS UNAB±E TO RAISE THE INVESTmENT BACkINg NEEDED
TO OPEN A ¸ERUVIAN RESTAURANT. °EREFORE, HE DECIDED TO mOVE TO LOS
µNgE±ES AND IN 2007 FOUND WORk IN A ÍENICE SUSHI SHOP WHI±E P±ANNINg HIS
VENTURE.
ËáRATE WAS RIgHT ABOUT THE OPPORTUNITIES IN LOS µNgE±ES FOR A gENTRIfiED
VERSION OF ¸ERUVIAN STREET FOOD. ¹N 2009, WHI±E STI±± WORkINg EVENINgS IN
ÍENICE, HE OPENED MO-·HICA AS A FOOD STA±± IN THE ÈAREHOUSE DISTRICT MERCADO
LA ¸A±OmA. °E mENU INC±UDED criollo DISHES SUCH AS papas a la Huancaina
(POTATO SA±AD), THE chifa STANDBY lomo saltado, ¸ERUVIAN FRIED CHICkEN, AND AN
ExCE±±ENT, FROTHY ¸ISCO SOUR. °E STAND WAS SUCH A SUCCESS THAT HE qUIT HIS jOB
AND WITHIN A FEW YEARS HAD PUT TOgETHER THE fiNANCINg FOR A mOVE TO A TRENDIER,
DOWNTOWN ±OCATION. °E RESTAURANT OPENED IN 2012 TO A PACkED CROWD IN A
NEW±Y REVITA±IzED AREA OF LOS µNgE±ES. ÊY THAT POINT, HE HAD A±READY OPENED HIS
SECOND RESTAURANT, ¸ICCA, IN ÊEVER±Y ÉI±±S, A FAR mORE UPSCA±E ESTAB±ISHmENT
THAT ATTRACTED A DIffERENT C±IENTE±E. ËáRATE mAINTAINED HIS STREET FOOD mOTIF
EVEN IN THIS NEIgHBORHOOD, CA±±INg THE RESTAURANT A CANTINA, WITH THE CONNOTA-
TION OF A ±OWBROW WATERINg HO±E BUT A±SO ImP±YINg A TRADITIONA± gATHERINg P±ACE
SERVINg STREET FARE, SUCH AS anticucho corazón (BEEF HEART) AND anticucho culito
(CRISPY CHICkEN TAI±). ¹N 2013, HE OPENED A THIRD RESTAURANT, ¸AICHE, IN MARINA
DE± ¼EY, AS A ¸ERUVIAN VERSION OF AN izakaya, ESSENTIA±±Y A gENTRIfiED JAPANESE
CANTINA. µS AN ExAmP±E OF THIS ¸ACIfiC FUSION, ËáRATE SERVES CEVICHE CUT IN SmA±±
PIECES, SASHImI STY±E. ³ACH OF HIS RESTAURANTS REPRESENTED A DIffERENT CONCEPT,
DEmONSTRATINg THE flExIBI±ITY OF ¸ERUVIAN CUISINE.
ËáRATE’S CU±INARY ARTISTRY WAS CAREFU±±Y CA±CU±ATED TO APPEA± TO FASHIONAB±E
DINERS AND PARTICU±AR±Y TO CRITICS. °E Los Angeles Times RESTAURANT REVIEWER
JONATHAN GO±D DESCRIBED HIm AS A “CHEF’S CHEF” AND HIS CUISINE AS “ARTFU±±Y
DECONSTRUCTED VERSIONS OF ¸ERUVIAN DISHES ±IkE PAPAS A ±A HUANCAINA, WHICH IS
PRESENTED AS A BACON-WRAPPED TERRINE OF NEAT POTATO S±ICES ±IgHT±Y DRIzz±ED
WITH THE TRADITIONA± SAUCE OF CHEESE AND AmARI±±O CHI±E.” °E mARkET STA±±
BECAmE NOT ON±Y A FOODIE DESTINATION BUT A±SO PART OF A g±OBA± TREND FOR ¸ACIfiC
FUSION. »NCE HE HAD mOVED MO-·HICA BEYOND ITS FOOD COURT ORIgINS, ËáRATE
ARRANgED FOR A FASHIONAB±E POSTINDUSTRIA± DéCOR, INC±UDINg AN ExPANSIVE mURA±
RESEmB±INg STREET gRAffiTI AND ¸ERUVIAN figURINES DESIgNED BY ±OCA± CE±EBRITY
CHEFS, A±± ACCOmPANIED BY PU±SATINg SA±SA mUSIC. °US, THE OPENINg OF ¸AICHE,
NAmED AﬅER AN ENDANgERED µmAzONIAN fiSH, IN 2013 IN A DISTANT OUTPOST NEAR
THE OCEAN, MARINA DE± ¼EY, WAS mUCH HYPED AND ANTICIPATED BY THE gROWINg
NUmBER OF FOOD B±OggERS FO±±OWINg ËáRATE’S RISE TO STARDOm; EVERYONE FROm
THE LA Times FOOD WRITERS TO ³ATER.COm B±OggED ABOUT OPENINg NIgHT. ¹N
2013, EsQuire mAgAzINE NAmED ¸AICHE ONE OF THE BEST NEW RESTAURANTS OF 2013.
ÓET THINgS DID NOT CONTINUE SO SmOOTH±Y FOR ËáRATE. µ YEAR ±ATER, AﬅER THE

HYPE HAD DIED DOWN, THE Los Angeles Magazine CRITIC ¸ATRICk ÌUH gAVE THE
RESTAURANT ONE STAR ON±Y IN AN ExTENSIVE REVIEW AND mUSED THAT ËáRATE mIgHT
BE OVERREACHINg WITH HIS ExPANDINg EmPIRE. ¶NFORTUNATE±Y, ÌUH’S PREDIC-
TIONS TURNED OUT TO BE CORRECT. ¹N 2014, ËáRATE WAS FORCED OUT OF HIS OWN
HOSPITA±ITY gROUP, ËARATE ¼ESTAURANTS, BY HIS INVESTORS. ÊY »CTOBER 2014, HE
WAS REmOVED FROm A±± THREE RESTAURANTS, AND SOON AﬅER BOTH ¸AICHE AND
MO-·HICA C±OSED. ÈAS ËáRATE OUSTED BECAUSE HE TRIED TO gROW TOO qUICk±Y
AND ±OST HIS ORIgINA± FOCUS ON SERVINg HIgH-END, INNOVATIVE ¸ERUVIAN CUISINE?
¹N »CTOBER 2014, Los Angeles Magazine PUB±ISHED AN ARTIC±E TIT±ED, “ÈHAT
THE ÉECk ÉAPPENED WITH ¼ICARDO ËARATE?” °E RUmOR WAS THAT HE WAS TOO
BUSY ExPANDINg HIS ¸ERUVIAN RESTAURANT EmPIRE AND NOT SPENDINg ENOUgH
TImE IN THE kITCHEN OF HIS RESTAURANTS ANYmORE. ÉE WAS A±SO WORkINg ON A
COOkBOOk, °e Fire of Peru: Recipes and Stories Äom my Peruvian Kitchen,
PUB±ISHED IN 2015. µS OF ±ATE 2015, HE WAS BACk IN THE kITCHEN WITH A SUCCESSFU±
BUT gREAT±Y SCA±ED-DOWN POP-UP RESTAURANT IN ²ANTA MONICA AND WAS ±OOkINg
FOR ±OCATIONS FOR NEW RESTAURANTS.
ºROm HIS INITIA± mOVE TO LOS µNgE±ES, ËáRATE’S BUSINESS P±ANNINg HAD
A±WAYS BEEN PREmISED ON THE NOTION OF ±EVERAgINg ¸ERUVIAN CUISINE AS A CU±I-
NARY BRAND. ÉE TOOk A RISk AT THE ORIgINA± MO-·HICA BY PURCHASINg SUSHI-
qUA±ITY SEAFOOD, WHICH A±ONE COST mORE THAN THE ENTIRE CHECk AT NEARBY FOOD
COURT STA±±S, BUT IT PAID Off WITH THE qUICk SUCCESS OF HIS CEVICHE ±UNCHES. ÉE
ExP±AINED, “½OBODY UNDERSTOOD WHAT ¹ WAS TRYINg TO DO WITH ¸ERUVIAN CUI-
SINE AND NO ONE THOUgHT ¹ COU±D mAkE THE FOOD BE COmPETITIVE WITH OTHER
CUISINES.” ²UCH STEREOTYPES WERE CRUCIA± FOR BUI±DINg THE INVESTmENT CAPITA±
NEEDED TO OPEN A HIgH-END RESTAURANT. ËáRATE HAD OPENED THE MERCADO LA
¸A±OmA STA±± WITH ON±Y $30,000; FORmA± RESTAURANTS, BY CONTRAST, OﬅEN REqUIRE
mI±±IONS IN fiNANCINg. ¹NVESTORS TO±D HIm HIS FOOD WAS INCREDIB±E, BUT WHAT HE
WAS DOINg WAS VERY RISkY SINCE ¸ERUVIAN CUISINE WAS NOT WE±± kNOWN AND HE
WAS TRYINg TO DO SOmETHINg NEW.
µS A SE±F-PROC±AImED AmBASSADOR FOR ¸ERUVIAN CUISINE, ËáRATE RECOgNIzED
THE HIgH STAkES IN THE COmPETITION BETWEEN NATIONA± CUISINES WITHIN THE g±O-
BA± CU±INARY INDUSTRY, NOT jUST FOR RESTAURATEURS, BUT A±SO FOR AgRICU±TURA±
ExPORTS, EVERYTHINg FROm FRUITS AND VEgETAB±ES TO TEqUI±A AND PISCO. °E ASSO-
CIATION WITH JAPANESE FUSION WAS A±SO A SAVVY ONE FOR BRANDINg ¸ERUVIAN FOOD,
gIVEN THE UPSCA±E CONNOTATIONS OF SUSHI AND SASHImI. ËáRATE ADmITTED THAT HE
HAD NOT gROWN UP EATINg AT JAPANESE RESTAURANTS IN LImA BECAUSE OF PERSISTENT
DISCRImINATION AgAINST THE JAPANESE AS ±ATE AS THE ±ATE 1970S AND 1980S, AN
IRONIC TWIST gIVEN THE E±ECTION OF µ±BERTO ºUjImORI TO THE PRESIDENCY IN 1990.
ÈHI±E HOPINg THAT ¸ERUVIAN CUISINE WOU±D FO±±OW THE SUCCESS OF JAPANESE
RESTAURANTS, ËáRATE A±SO ExPRESSED CONCERN THAT gROWINg POPU±ARITY COU±D
HAVE A NEgATIVE SIDE EffECT. ÉE FEARS THAT RAPID ExPANSION COU±D ±EAD ¸ERUVIAN
CUISINE, ±IkE MExICAN, TO BE SEEN AS INExPENSIVE, µmERICANIzED, AND ±OWBROW.
¹NSTEAD, HE HOPES THAT ¸ERUVIAN CHEFS WI±± CONTINUE TO USE ON±Y THE fiNEST
INgREDIENTS AND SET THE BAR HIgH TO ENHANCE THE g±OBA± REPUTATION OF THEIR
NATIONA± CUISINE.
ÇaKin¿ latin aÇerican food ¿lobal
LATIN µmERICAN FOODS HAVE SPREAD AROUND THE WOR±D WITH REmARkAB±E SPEED
IN THE TWENTY-fiRST CENTURY. µ±THOUgH ¾Ex-MEx fiRST gAINED A FOOTHO±D IN
³UROPE AND µUSTRA±IA IN THE 1960S AND 1970S, MExICAN CHEFS DID NOT BEgIN TO
REP±ACE µmERICANIzED TACO SHE±±S AND BURRITOS WITH REgIONA± COOkINg UNTI±
AROUND 2000. ¸ERUVIAN CUISINE WAS SCARCE±Y NOTICED UNTI± THE EAR±Y 1990S AND
HAS NOW BECOmE A±mOST UBIqUITOUS. ¹N ²EPTEmBER 2013, LONDON’S LImA
¼ESTAURANT RECEIVED A MICHE±IN STAR, A fiRST FOR LATIN µmERICAN CUISINE, WHI±E
SEVERA± OTHER ¸ERUVIAN RESTAURANTS HAVE RECEIVED CRITICA± ACC±AIm ACROSS THE
¶NITED ²TATES AND ³UROPE. ÈITH THEIR gROWINg PRESENCE, EVEN IN µSIAN
AND µFRICAN TOURIST DESTINATIONS, MExICAN AND ¸ERUVIAN FOODS HAVE COmE TO
REPRESENT A FORm OF g±OBA± mODERNITY. °IS PRESENCE IS A±± THE mORE IRONIC
BECAUSE LATIN µmERICAN FOODS ORIgINA±±Y BECAmE POPU±AR AS “AUTHENTIC”
COUNTERPARTS TO THE STANDARDIzED PRODUCTS OF THE INDUSTRIA± FOOD SYSTEm. µS
“UNDISCOVERED” REgIONA± CUISINES BECOmE mORE SCARCE, BOHEmIAN TREND-
SETTERS SUCH AS µNTHONY ÊOURDAIN mORE AVID±Y PURSUE—OR INVENT—THEm.
ÈHI±E THE FASHION FOR FUSION CUISINE HAS PUT LATIN µmERICA IN A g±OBA±
SPOT±IgHT, FEW HAVE TRIED TO ExP±AIN THESE CU±TURA± INflUENCES, BEYOND SEEINg
THEm AS A SUPPOSED±Y NATURA± PRODUCT OF A CU±TURA± mE±TINg POT. ·HOI HAS
DESCRIBED HIS CUISINE BY SAYINg SImP±Y, “°IS IS WHAT LOS µNgE±ES TASTES ±IkE.”
ÓET AS THE ANTHROPO±OgIST ¼ICHARD ÈI±k (2006: 112) HAS OBSERVED, THE “mE±T-
INg POT” DOES NOT jUST HAPPEN; CREO±E CUISINE IS THE PRODUCT OF ±ABOR AND CREA-
TIVITY. °ERE mAY BE DIVERSE mOTIVATIONS FOR CU±INARY mIxINg, USINg FOOD FOR
STATUS, CONVENIENCE, AND COmFORT. ²IDNEY MINTz (1985: 186) EVEN DEfiNES A
CATEgORY OF FOOD AS DRUgS, WHICH WOU±D SURE±Y INC±UDE CHI±E PEPPERS A±ONg
WITH SUgAR AND CAffEINATED STImU±ANTS. ºUSION CUISINE CAN ImPART STATUS IN
mANY FORmS, AS ·HOI AND ËáRATE DEmONSTRATE, WHETHER THROUgH TECHNIqUES
SUCH AS THOSE OF ºRENCH HAUTE CUISINE OR THROUgH THE ASSOCIATION WITH

JAPANESE SUSHI. ·ONVENIENCE FOODS ARE NOW mORE TYPICA±±Y ASSOCIATED WITH
SUPERmARkETS AND FAST-FOOD RESTAURANTS, BUT THE AVAI±ABI±ITY OF INgREDIENTS
AND THE EASE OF PREPARATION CAN A±SO BE A mOTIVATION FOR CU±INARY mIxINg.
·OmFORT FOODS mAY DERIVE FROm FAmI±IA± AND ±OWBROW CONNECTIONS, INC±UD-
INg THE USE OF A TACO fi±±ED WITH ÌOREAN BARBECUE.
³THNIC ENTREPRENEURIA±ISm AND C±ASS RE±ATIONS WERE A±SO ImPORTANT IN DETER-
mININg THE ECONOmIC SUCCESS OF FUSION CUISINES. ²TREET FOODS AND ENC±AVE RES-
TAURANTS HAVE A±WAYS BEEN AN AVENUE FOR ENTREPRENEURS WITH ±ITT±E CAPITA± TO
INVEST, SINCE BUSINESSES COU±D SUPPORT A FAmI±Y THROUgH SWEAT EqUITY. ²CHO±ARS
gENERA±±Y ATTRIBUTE ImmIgRANT ENTREPRENEURSHIP TO RACISm AND THE RESTRICTION
OF ENTRY INTO PROFESSIONA± OCCUPATIONS. ÊY CONTRAST, ¼ICARDO ËáRATE AND ¼OY
·HOI ACHIEVED PROFESSIONA± STATUS AS CHEFS FO±±OWINg ENTREPRENEURIA± CAREER
PATHS. ËáRATE ARRIVED IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES WITH CU±TURA± CAPITA± FROm HIS CU±I-
NARY TRAININg IN ¸ERU AND LONDON, WHI±E ·HOI DEfiED HIS ImmIgRANT-RESTAURA-
TEUR PARENTS’ ExPECTATIONS THAT HE ATTEND ±AW SCHOO± AND OPTED INSTEAD FOR THE
·U±INARY ¹NSTITUTE OF µmERICA. ÈITHOUT TRYINg TO gENERA±IzE FROm THESE TWO
ExCEPTIONA± CASES, IT SEEmS POSSIB±E THAT SUCH NONTRADITIONA± CAREER PATHS WI±±
BECOmE INCREASINg±Y ATTRACTIVE AS A RESU±T OF THE DOWNgRADINg OF THE PROFES-
SIONS UNDER NEO±IBERA± CAPITA±ISm. ·ERTAIN±Y THE CONTEmPORARY RESTAURANT
WOR±D mAkES SUCH mOVEmENTS POSSIB±E IN NEW WAYS, AT ±EAST FOR THOSE WITH
SUffiCIENT CU±TURA± AND ECONOmIC CAPITA±. ÓET A±THOUgH ·HOI HAS SUggESTED THAT
ÌOgI-STY±E TRUCkS mAY ImPROVE THE ImAgE OF TRADITIONA± loncheras, »±IVER
ÈANg AND OTHER CRITICS HAVE NOT BEEN SO OPTImISTIC THAT WORkINg-C±ASS LATINO
loncheras CAN ACHIEVE THE CROSSOVER APPEA± OF THE gENTRIfiED “TACO” TRUCk.
°E TREmENDOUS SUCCESS OF ¼OY ·HOI AND ¼ICARDO ËáRATE PAYS TRIBUTE AS
mUCH TO THE ImPORTANCE OF CU±INARY INFRASTRUCTURE AS TO INDIVIDUA± ARTISTRY OR
CONSUmER DESIRE. ÈHATEVER A CHEF’S VISION, IT CANNOT BE REA±IzED WITHOUT ADDI-
TIONA± mARkETS FOR SUPP±YINg INgREDIENTS AND ±ABOR. ¸ROFESSIONA± TRAININg
THROUgH CU±INARY EDUCATION A±SO EmERgES AS A VITA± PATH FOR ASPIRINg PROFES-
SIONA±S. ¹NDEED, THE SPREAD OF COOkINg SCHOO±S IN ¸ERU, ÌOREA, AND E±SEWHERE
DEmONSTRATES THE PERCEIVED ImPORTANCE OF CU±INARY TOURISm. ÓET THE RESTAU-
RANT INDUSTRY mAINTAINS A HIgH±Y RACIA±IzED, TWO-TIERED ±ABOR mARkET, IN WHICH
FEW mIgRANT WORkERS HAVE THE CU±TURA± AND ECONOmIC CAPITA± TO RISE BEYOND
THE RANkS OF THE ±INE COOk. °E mEDIA P±AYS AN EqUA±±Y CRUCIA± RO±E IN CRAﬅINg
THE ExPECTATIONS OF CU±INARY TOURISTS, AND THE ÌOgI TEAm’S ABI±ITY TO HARNESS
INNOVATIVE FORmS OF mEDIA WERE FUNDAmENTA±. ÈHI±E ·HOI AND ËáRATE DEVE±-
OPED THEIR ¸ACIfiC FUSION CUISINES WITH VERY DIffERENT gOA±S, THE FORmER SEARCH-
INg FOR A UNIqUE±Y µmERICAN B±END AND THE ±ATTER PRESERVINg HIS ¸ERUVIAN
NATIONA± IDENTITY, ÈESTERN ExPECTATIONS FOR µSIAN AND LATIN µmERICAN FOODS
±ARgE±Y DICTATED THE PRESENTATION OF THEIR DISHES AS ExOTIC FARE. ÓET DESPITE THESE
±ImITATIONS, TACOS AND CEVICHE HAVE ACHIEVED A REmARkAB±E g±OBA± PRESENCE IN
A FEW SHORT DECADES, AND THEY ARE jUST THE APPETIzERS. LATIN µmERICAN CUISINE
HO±DS EVEN gREATER RICHES FOR DINERS OF THE WOR±D TO DISCOVER.
µBOUT ÌOgI.
N.D. HTTP://kOgIBBq.COm/ABOUT-kOgI/.
ÊA±BI, MARIE±±A
1999 Los chifas en el Perú: Historia y recetas. LImA: ¶NIVERSIDAD ²AN MARTíN DE
¸ORRES.
ÊAUER, µRNO±D J.
2001 Good, Power, History: Latin America’s Material Culture. ·AmBRIDgE: ·Am-
BRIDgE ¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS.
·HOI, ¼OY
2013 L.A. Son: My Life, My City, My Food. ½EW ÓORk: ÉARPER·O±±INS.
DE ÍOS, ¸AU±A
2006 “°E ²CIENCE OF ²PICES: ³mPIRICISm AND ³CONOmIC ÊOTANY IN THE ³AR±Y
²PANISH ³mPIRE.” Journal of World History 17 (ÉCEmBER): 399–47.
´RINOT, ¸AU±O
2005 “ºOOD, ¼ACE, AND ÈORkINg-·±ASS ¹DENTITY: ¼ESTAURANTES ¸OPU±ARES AND
¸OPU±ISm IN 1930S ¸ERU.” °e Americas 62.2: 245–70.
ÉO, ¸INg-¾I
1955 “°E ¹NTRODUCTION OF µmERICAN ºOOD ¸±ANTS INTO ·HINA.” American
Anthropologist 57.2: 191–201.
JOHNSTON, JOSéE, AND ²HYON ÊAUmANN
2010 Foodies: Democracy and Distinction in the Gourmet Foodscape. ½EW ÓORk:
¼OUT±EDgE.
MAzUmDAR, ²UCHETA
1999 “°E ¹mPACT OF ½EW ÈOR±D ºOOD ·ROPS ON THE ÍET AND ³CONOmY OF
·HINA AND ¹NDIA, 1600–1900.” ¹N Food in Global History, EDITED BY ¼AY-
mOND GREW, 58–78. ÊOU±DER, ·»: ÈESTVIEW ¸RESS.
MINTz, ²IDNEY È.
1985 Sweetness and Power: °e Place of Sugar in Modern History. ½EW ÓORk:
ÍIkINg ¸RESS.
MODERN ¸ERUVIAN ·UISINE
N.D. WWW.CHEFzARATE.COm/.
»PIE, ºREDRICk ÓUg±ASS
2008 Hogs and Hominy: Soul Food Äom AÄica to America. ½EW ÓORk: ·O±UmBIA
¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS.

»RTIz, ºERNANDO
[1940] Cuban Counterpoint: Tobacco and Sugar. ¾RANS±ATED BY ÉARRIET DE »NíS.
1995 ÚRHAm, ½·: ÚkE ¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS.
¸I±CHER, JEffREY M.
2012 Planet Taco: A Global History of Mexican Food. ½EW ÓORk: »xFORD ¶NIVER-
SITY ¸RESS.
¼AY, ÌRISHNENDU
2011 “´REAmS OF ¸AkISTANI GRI±± AND ÍADA ¸AO IN MANHATTAN: ¼E-¹NSCRIBINg THE
¹mmIgRANT ÊODY IN METROPO±ITAN ÍSCUSSIONS OF ¾ASTE.” Food, Culture, and
Society 14.2: 243–73.
ÍA±±E, ÍICTOR, AND ¼ODO±FO ¾ORRES
2000 Latino Metropolis. MINNEAPO±IS: ¶NIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA ¸RESS.
ÈANg, »±IVER
2013 “LEARNINg FROm LOS ÌOgI µNgE±ES: µ ¾ACO ¾RUCk AND ¹TS ·ITY.” ¹N Eating
Asia America: A Food Studies Reader, EDITED BY ¼OBERT JI-²ONg ÌU, MARTIN
º. MANA±ANSAN ¹Í, AND µNITA MANNUR, 78–97. ½EW ÓORk: ½EW ÓORk ¶NI-
VERSITY ¸RESS.
ÈI±k, ¼ICHARD ¼.
2006 Home Cooking in the Global Æillage: Caribbean Food Äom Buccaneers to
Ecotourists. LONDON: ÊERg.
pa r t t h r e e
Science, Technology, and Health
introduction
Æôpert Knowled¿e—what Âenato ¼OSA±DO TERmS “kNOW-HOW” IN

THIS SECTION’S POEm, “¸ERFECTO º±ORES”—IS NOT A COmmODITY TRADED ON g±OBA±
ExCHANgES. °E CHAPTERS IN “²CIENCE, ¾ECHNO±OgY, AND ÉEA±TH” SUggEST THAT
SOmEDAY THIS mIgHT CHANgE. °E DEVE±OPmENT OF kNOW-HOW AND ITS TRANSFER
ACROSS INTERNATIONA± BORDERS IS AN O±D AND, IN THE CASE OF LATIN µmERICA, gRIP-
PINg STORY. ·URRENT PATTERNS REflECT THE SHIﬅINg g±OBA± PO±ITICA± ±ANDSCAPE AND
LATIN µmERICA’S PROmINENT RO±E WITHIN IT.
¹N THIS PART ONE HISTORIAN, TWO NATURA± SCIENTISTS, AND TWO SOCIA± SCIENTISTS
BRINg AN ExPECTANT IF CRITICA± EYE TO THE RO±ES OF LATIN µmERICAN ExPERTS IN
SCIENCE, TECHNO±OgY, AND HEA±TH IN mEETINg gROWINg g±OBA± CHA±±ENgES.
»BSERVERS TEND TO DESCRIBE THE SCA±E OF TWENTY-fiRST-CENTURY CHA±±ENgES AS
“UNPRECEDENTED,” REqUIRINg, NOT SURPRISINg±Y, “UNPARA±±E±ED” SO±UTIONS. µmONg
THE mORE ImmEDIATE “kNOWN UNkNOWNS” ARE C±ImATE CHANgE, FOOD INSECURITY,
RESOURCE SCARCITY, AND ANTIBIOTIC SHORTAgES AND RESISTANCE. ³xTRAORDINARY COOP-
ERATION AND CO±±ABORATION ACROSS BORDERS—ESPECIA±±Y BETWEEN SO-CA±±ED DEVE±-
OPED AND DEVE±OPINg NATIONS—WI±± BE FUNDAmENTA± TO THE SUCCESS OF INITIATIVES
THAT ADDRESS THESE CHA±±ENgES. MORE THAN A HANDFU± OF LATIN µmERICAN COUN-
TRIES SIT AT THE CROSSROADS IN THAT DUA±ISTIC WOR±DVIEW OF DEVE±OPmENT, AND THEY
WI±± SERVE SIgNIfiCANT RO±ES, BEYOND jUST mEDIATINg BETWEEN PARTIES, IN PIONEER-
INg WAYS FORWARD.
ÉIgH±IgHTINg THE ENVIRONmENTA± COSTS OF FOOD PRODUCTION OR THE INEqUI-
TIES AND IRONIES EmBEDDED IN THE g±OBA± WAR ON DRUgS, READERS ENCOUNTER HERE
THREE CASE STUDIES THAT HIgH±IgHT THE mESSY COmP±ExITIES OF SO±UTION mAkINg.
°ESE AUTHORS DO NOT PAINT SImP±ISTIC, TWO-DImENSIONA± PORTRAITS OF SUCCESS.
°EY COmP±ICATE THE VERY PREmISE OF SO±UTIONS, ExPOSINg THE CONSEqUENCES
AND NEW CHA±±ENgES THAT ACCOmPANY INNOVATION: THE BY-PRODUCTS OF “STEPS
FORWARD.” °E DIffERENT DISCIP±INARY BACkgROUNDS OF THE AUTHORS—SPANNINg
THE NATURA± AND SOCIA± SCIENCES AND HUmANITIES—REflECTS THE DIVERSITY OF
TRAININg AND THINkINg NECESSARY FOR SUCH CONVERSATIONS.
ÈHI±E PRINCIPA±±Y FOCUSED ON CONTEmPORARY STORIES, THESE CHAPTERS COUN-
TER ±ONg-ENDURINg mYTHS ABOUT THE RE±ATIONSHIP BETWEEN kNOW-HOW AND
LATIN µmERICAN PEOP±E AND P±ACES. »NE OF THOSE mYTHS CHARACTERIzES LATIN
µmERICA AS B±ESSED WITH BOUNTIFU±, ExOTIC NATURA± RICHNESS THAT CAN ON±Y BE
STUDIED AND PUT TO gOOD USE BY FOREIgNERS, ON WHOm IT IS THUS DEPENDENT AND
THEREFORE DEFERENTIA±. ¸ICTURE ·HAR±ES ÁRWIN PEERINg INTO THE EYES OF A gIANT
TORTOISE ON THE GA±áPAgOS, OR ImAgINE µ±ExANDER VON ÉUmBO±DT AND µImé
ÊONP±AND SHUDDERINg FROm SHOCkS AS THEY STUDY THE BIOE±ECTRICITY OF E±ECTRIC
EE±S ON THE »RINOCO ¼IVER. ÉERE WE SEE THAT THOSE ARE STA±E IF qUAINT VERSIONS
OF WHO mAkES INNOVATION HAPPEN IN THE REgION.
°E AUTHORS IN THIS PART ARE NOT REVISINg NARRATIVES TO BE gEOPO±ITICA±±Y COR-
RECT. ¹NSTEAD, THEY ARE BRINgINg TO ±IgHT gENUINE INDIVIDUA± AND INSTITUTIONA±
AgENCY THROUgHOUT THE REgION. ÊRAzI±—THE NEW CO±OSSUS ON THE TWENTY-fiRST-
CENTURY B±OCk—OCCUPIES A CONTINENT-SIzED RO±E IN THIS STORY. ºOR INSTANCE, IN
jUST OVER THREE DECADES, FEDERA± INITIATIVES AND INNOVATIVE AgRONOmIC SCIENCE
TRANSFORmED THE NATION FROm A NET FOOD ImPORTER TO ONE OF THE WOR±D’S mOST
PROmISINg BREADBASkETS. °E ±OCA± ENVIRONmENTA± CONDITIONS FOR THIS
ADVANCE—A HIgH±Y ACIDIC, ±OW-FERTI±ITY ExPANSE IN THE COUNTRY’S INTERIOR—mAkE
THAT TRANSFORmATION A±± THE mORE REmARkAB±E. ÊRAzI±IAN SOYBEANS, NOW SERIOUS
COmPETITION FOR mORE ESTAB±ISHED ¶.². COUNTERPARTS, HE±P FEED THE CATT±E THAT
EmERgINg mIDD±E C±ASSES ARE INCREASINg±Y CONSUmINg WOR±DWIDE. ¹N THEIR CHAP-
TER, THE BIO±OgISTS ·HRISTOPHER ½EI±± AND MARCIA MACEDO OUT±INE THE AgRO-
NOmIC AND INSTITUTIONA± INNER WORkINgS THAT ±ED TO THIS ADVANCE.
·OUNTRIES gAIN SOﬅ AND HARD POWER BY CAPITA±IzINg ON THE DEVE±OPmENT OF
kNOW±EDgE WITHIN THEIR BORDERS BY ExPORTINg IT BEYOND THEm. °E SOCIO±O-
gISTS ÈENDY ÈO±FORD AND ¼YAN ½EHRINg ExP±ORE POWER AND kNOW±EDgE VIA
THE TRANSFER OF ExPERTISE EASTWARD FROm ÊRAzI± TO MOzAmBIqUE. °EIR STUDY
P±UmBS THE ±ImITATIONS AND POSSIBI±ITIES OF ExPERTISE BEYOND SURFACE-±EVE±
“CU±TURA± DIffERENCES,” INSTEAD EmPHASIzINg THE ROOTED SOCIA± AND ECONOmIC
STRUCTURES THAT DISTINgUISH ONE P±ACE FROm ANOTHER. ²PECIA±ISTS OF THE G±OBA±
²OUTH WI±± fiND PARTICU±AR INTEREST IN THIS STORY OF ÊRAzI±’S ExPANDINg REACH
AND A CASE OF ATTEmPTED DEVE±OPmENT THROUgH ²OUTH-²OUTH COOPERATION.
²CHO±ARS WORkINg IN mANY CORNERS OF g±OBA± LATIN µmERICA WI±± A±SO gAIN
164 • pa rt th r ee
mUCH, AS SHIﬅINg gEOPO±ITICA± A±±IANCES AND TRADE CONfigURATIONS—“PIVOTS” TO
THE EAST AND WEST, TOWARD THE ¸ACIfiC ¼Im AND TOWARD µFRICA—mAkE SUCH
CASES EVEN mORE RE±EVANT.
°ESE CHAPTERS DO NOT BRUSH ASIDE THE SOCIA± INTERSECTIONS AND ImP±ICATIONS
OF NEW ADVANCES IN SCIENCE, TECHNO±OgY, AND HEA±TH. µ kEY THREAD RUNNINg
THROUgH THEm, ESPECIA±±Y IN ¸AU± GOOTENBERg’S CHAPTER ON g±OBA± DRUg CU±TURE,
ENCOURAgES US TO RETHINk NOTIONS OF WHO BE±ONgS AT THE TAB±E IN CONVERSATIONS
ABOUT g±OBA±±Y SIgNIfiCANT PO±ICIES AND CHA±±ENgES. GOOTENBERg DRAWS OUR
ATTENTION TO THE PROgENITORS OF CURATIVE SUBSTANCES FROm MExICO TO THE µNDES
WHO HE±PED PRESERVE HERBA± CURES—SOmE NOW CONSIDERED “mIRAC±E DRUgS”—
OVER CENTURIES IN THE FACE OF PERSECUTION AND CRImINA±IzATION. MEmBERS OF
THOSE SAmE INDIgENOUS POPU±ATIONS HAVE ASSUmED ImPORTANT RO±ES IN DEBATES
ABOUT g±OBA± C±ImATE CHANgE, WITH SOmE RESIDENTS OF THE µmAzON HE±PINg DRAW
ATTENTION TO THE ±OCA± REA±ITIES OF DEFORESTATION. µS THEY BROADEN THE DEfiNITION
OF ExPERT, CHAPTERS ±IkE GOOTENBERg’S SHOU±D INSPIRE PO±ICY mAkERS TOWARD
gREATER INC±USION IN BOTH ADDRESSINg g±OBA± PROB±EmS AND FORgINg BROAD±Y RE±-
EVANT SO±UTIONS.
“²CIENCE, ¾ECHNO±OgY, AND ÉEA±TH” PROVIDES A g±ImPSE AT INNOVATION IN
g±OBA± LATIN µmERICA AND WI±± TEmPT READERS TO SEEk FURTHER ExAmP±ES. °EY
mAY ENCOUNTER THE BIO±OgISTS AT THE ¶NIVERSITY OF ÊUENOS µIRES WHO SEqUENCED
THE gENOmE OF qUINOA AND FOUND ITS NUTRITIONA± DENSITY AND RESISTANCE TO SA±TY
SOI±S CRUCIA± TRAITS IN THE TWENTY-fiRST-CENTURY figHT AgAINST FOOD INSECURITY.
°EY mAY fiND REFERENCES TO bacillus megaterium uyuni, A BACTERIUm SCIENTISTS
ENCOUNTERED IN ÊO±IVIA’S SA±T flATS THAT CAN BE USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF PO±Y-
mERS THAT gENERATE “NATURA±” P±ASTIC. µ BROAD VIEW OF THESE DISCOVERIES AND
INNOVATIONS SUggESTS THAT IN THE YEARS AHEAD ExPERTISE WI±± SERVE AS A VA±UAB±E
ExCHANgE gOOD HE±PINg TO FUE± NEW gEOPO±ITICA± A±IgNmENTS WITH LATIN
µmERICA AT THE CENTER. ÈHI±E UNEqUA± ½ORTH-²OUTH RE±ATIONSHIPS OF YESTER-
DAY mAY mORPH INTO ²OUTH-²OUTH INEqUA±ITIES OF TOmORROW, THESE CHAPTERS
SHOWCASE HOW CENTURIES-O±D AND DECADES-NEW LATIN µmERICAN kNOW-HOW IS
mAkINg A g±OBA± ImPACT.

nine
°e Rise of Brazil’s Globally Connected

Amazon Soybean Agriculture
Christopher Neill and Marcia N. Macedo
Ãractor-trailer trucKs line UP A±ONg A RED AND mUDDY EARTHEN

ROAD. LARgE VINY± TARPAU±INS SECURED BY ROPES COVER THE OPEN-TOPPED HOPPERS
OF EACH ONE. ¾RUCk DRIVERS HANg OUT AND PREPARE SImP±E mEA±S USINg STOVES
AND kITCHEN UTENSI±S CONTAINED IN A COmPACT BOx BUI±T INTO THE SIDE OF THE
TRUCk CAB. ¹T’S EAR±Y MARCH, STI±± THE mIDD±E OF A ±USH AND HIgH±Y PREDICTAB±E
RAINY SEASON. °E TRUCkS WAIT FOR THEIR TURN AND THEN ENTER A ±ARgE mODERN
COmPOUND WITH A FOOTBA±± fiE±D–SIzED BUI±DINg WHERE THEY ARE ±OADED WITH
RECENT±Y HARVESTED AND DRIED SOYBEANS AND WEIgHED.
ºROm THE gATE OF THIS mODERN FARm FACI±ITY IN THE STATE OF MATO GROSSO IN
ÊRAzI±’S SOUTHEASTERN µmAzON, THESE TRUCkS WI±± DRIVE 75 kI±OmETERS TO THE
NEAREST PAVED ROAD. ºROm THERE, mOST WI±± TRAVE± ANOTHER 1,500 TO 2,000 kI±-
OmETERS, mOST±Y ON TWO-±ANE HIgHWAYS, TO THE µT±ANTIC »CEAN PORT OF ²ANTOS
NEAR THE CITY OF ²öO ¸AU±O OR ¸ARANAgUá IN THE STATE OF ¸ARANá IN SOUTHEASTERN
ÊRAzI±. °ERE, THEY mANEUVER ONTO TI±TINg, TRUCk-SIzED RAmPS THAT DISgORgE
THEIR CONTENTS INTO A gIANT HOPPER, FROm WHICH THE PROTEIN-RICH CARgO WI±± BE
±OADED ONTO gIANT OCEANgOINg SHIPS AND SO±D AROUND THE WOR±D. µ±THOUgH THE
ExACT PATHWAYS SOYBEANS TAkE TO THE g±OBA± mARkET DIffER S±IgHT±Y, THIS SCENE
IS REPEATED ACROSS A 2,500-kI±OmETER-WIDE CONTINENTA±-SCA±E SWATH OF THE
µmAzON STRETCHINg FROm ¼ONDûNIA IN THE SOUTHWEST THROUgH MATO GROSSO
AND ¸ARá IN THE EAST.
°E RISE OF THE SOYBEAN AgRO-INDUSTRY IN MATO GROSSO IS A RECENT AND FAST-
CHANgINg PHENOmENON. MATO GROSSO OCCUPIES 900,000 SqUARE kI±OmETERS AT
THE AgRICU±TURA± FRONTIER OF ÊRAzI±’S SOUTHERN µmAzON (fig. 9.1). µS ±ATE AS THE
1980S, MATO GROSSO’S AgRICU±TURA± ±ANDSCAPE CONSISTED OF ±ARgE-SCA±E CATT±E
RANCHINg ON ±AND C±EARED FROm EITHER NATIVE SAVANNA/gRASS±AND (·ERRADO) IN
THE SOUTH OR THE PERENNIA±±Y gREEN AND HIgHER-STATURE C±OSED-CANOPY µmAzON
167
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
fi¿ure 9.1. Opposite page: (µ) µERIA± VIEW OF MATO GROSSO SOYBEAN fiE±D SHOWINg
µmAzON FOREST IN THE BACkgROUND AND UNCU±TIVATED BUT DEgRADED RIPARIAN VEgETATION IN
THE FOREgROUND. (Ê) ¾RUCkS WAITINg TO BE ±OADED WITH SOYBEANS TO BE TRANSPORTED TO PORT.
AboVe: (·) ²OYBEAN fiE±D AﬅER HARVEST. ºIE±DS HAVE ±ITT±E P±ANT COVER DURINg THE DRY SEASON,
AND THE NExT YEAR’S CROP IS P±ANTED IN THE STUBB±E OF THE PREVIOUS CROP USINg mINImUm TI±±AgE.
(´) ¼AIN OVER A MATO GROSSO SOYBEAN fiE±D. ¼EDUCTIONS IN RAINFA±± ARE PROjECTED BECAUSE OF
REgIONA± DECREASES IN FOREST COVER, BUT THEIR mAgNITUDE AND TImINg ARE STI±± UNCERTAIN. ¹mAgE
µ BY ¸AU±O ÊRANDO, OTHERS BY ·HRISTOPHER ½EI±±.
Atlantic
Ocean
Santarém, PA
reviR ugniX
re
v
Amazon
iR
s
ój
Forest
361-RB
p
a
T
Porto Velho, RO
Cerrado
Santos, SP
Pacific Paranaguá, PR
Ocean
fi¿ure 9.2. MAP INDICATINg THE ±OCATION OF MATO GROSSO STATE, ÊRAzI± (OUT±INE). MATO
GROSSO ENCOmPASSES BOTH µmAzON FOREST (gREEN) AND ·ERRADO SAVANNA (ORANgE) VEgETATION.
MAP BY ¸AU± LEFEBVRE.
FOREST IN THE NORTH (fig. 9.2). °E REgION HAS A TROPICA± mONSOONA± C±ImATE WITH
A ROUgH±Y SIx-mONTH RAINY SEASON AND TOTA± ANNUA± RAINFA±± THAT RANgES FROm
ABOUT 1,700 TO S±IgHT±Y mORE THAN 2,000 mI±±ImETERS. ¹N ±ESS THAN THIRTY YEARS
ÊRAzI± HAS TRANSFORmED ITSE±F FROm A FOOD ImPORTER TO ONE OF THE WOR±D’S gREAT
AgRICU±TURA± POWERHOUSES AND gRAIN ExPORTERS—THE ON±Y TROPICA± NATION TO
BREAk INTO THAT E±ITE gROUP. °E AREA OF SOYBEAN CROP±AND IN MATO GROSSO
INCREASED FROm ±ESS THAN 2.0 mI±±ION HECTARES IN 1990 TO 7.5 mI±±ION HECTARES
IN THE 2012–13 CROPPINg SEASON. »VER THE SAmE TImE, SOYBEAN PRODUCTION ROSE
FROm ±ESS THAN 2 mI±±ION mETRIC TONS PER YEAR TO mORE THAN 24 mI±±ION mETRIC
TONS PER YEAR. ·OmPARED TO CHANgES IN AgRICU±TURA± PRODUCTION IN THE
TEmPERATE NORTH, THAT’S AN ASTOUNDINg RATE OF CHANgE. ÊETWEEN 2008 AND
170 • ch a p t er n i n e
20
18
)snot cirtem noillim( stropxE yoS
16
14
12
10
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
fi¿ure 9.3. ÉSTINATION OF MATO GROSSO’S INTERNATIONA± SOYBEAN ExPORTS, 1997–2013.

³xPORT STATISTICS ARE FROm THE ÊRAzI±IAN µgENCY FOR µgRICU±TURE, LIVESTOCk AND ºOOD ²UPP±Y
(Mµ¸µ).
2012, ÊRAzI±IAN NATIONA± SOYBEAN PRODUCTION gREW A TOTA± OF 9 PERCENT WHI±E

¶.². PRODUCTION gREW ±ESS THAN 0.5 PERCENT. MATO GROSSO NOW ±EADS ÊRAzI± IN
BOTH SOYBEAN AND BEEF PRODUCTION, RESPONSIB±E FOR 31 PERCENT OF THE NATION’S
SOYBEAN PRODUCTION AND mORE THAN 13 PERCENT OF ITS CATT±E HERD IN 2009.
°E U±TImATE DESTINATION OF ÊRAzI±’S µmAzON SOYBEANS HAS A±SO CHANgED
DRAmATICA±±Y. µS RECENT±Y AS 1997, MATO GROSSO ExPORTED ±ESS THAN 2 mI±±ION
mETRIC TONS OF SOYBEANS, AND mORE THAN THREE-FOURTHS OF THAT WENT TO THE
³UROPEAN ¶NION. ÊY 2012, MATO GROSSO ExPORTED mORE THAN 10 mI±±ION mET-
RIC TONS, NEAR±Y 7 mI±±ION mETRIC TONS OF THAT TO ·HINA (fig. 9.3). °IS SHIﬅ
POSITIONED ÊRAzI±, IN 2014, TO VIE WITH THE ¶NITED ²TATES FOR THE TIT±E OF THE
P±ANET’S ±ARgEST SOYBEAN ExPORTER. ÊUT WHI±E ÊRAzI± gAINS INCOmE BY SE±±INg
µmAzON SOYBEANS IN THE INTERNATIONA± mARkET, PURCHASINg COUNTRIES NOW
EffECTIVE±Y ExPORT THE SUBSTANTIA± ImPACTS AND ENVIRONmENTA± COSTS OF gROWINg
SOYBEANS IN THE µmAzON BACk TO ÊRAzI±. ÊRAzI± A±SO ExPORTS SOYBEAN
PRODUCTION kNOW±EDgE AND TECHNO±OgY—AND BECAUSE mOST OF THE EARTH’S
POTENTIA± NEW FARm±AND ±IES WITHIN TROPICA± ±ATITUDES, ÊRAzI±’S INflUENCE OVER
g±OBA± AgRICU±TURA± ExPANSION AND PRODUCTION WI±± CONTINUE TO gROW IN COmINg
DECADES.
ÈITHIN ÊRAzI±, THE RISE OF SOYBEANS IN MATO GROSSO SHIﬅED THE TRAjECTORY
OF µmAzON DEFORESTATION. ºROm 1996 TO 2005, THE FRONTIER STATES OF MATO
GROSSO, ¼ONDûNIA, AND ¸ARá ACCOUNTED FOR 85 PERCENT OF A±± µmAzON DEFOR-
ESTATION. °IS C±EARINg CONVERTED AN AVERAgE OF 16,600 SqUARE kI±OmETERS OF
FOREST TO AgRICU±TURA± USES EACH YEAR (BY COmPARISON THE AREA OF ÊE±gIUm IS
30,528 SqUARE kI±OmETERS), BUT THE UNDER±YINg FORCES THAT DROVE AgRICU±TURA±
Òr a Zi l’s Á Ç a Zon Ñoy be a n Á¿r icu lt u r e • 171

ExPANSION SHIﬅED DRAmATICA±±Y IN THAT PERIOD. ÚRINg THE 1970S AND 1980S,
gOVERNmENT INVESTmENTS IN ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE AND SUBSIDIES FOR µmAzON
±AND DISTRIBUTION OﬅEN REWARDED DEFORESTERS WITH FORmA± ±AND TIT±ES. ·ATT±E
PASTURE WAS THE OVERWHE±mINg±Y PREDOmINANT USE OF C±EARED ±ANDS IN THE
µmAzON AND ·ERRADO AT THAT TImE. ÊY THE EAR±Y 1990S, mANY OF THE PO±ICIES
THAT STImU±ATED DEFORESTATION WERE REmOVED AND g±OBA± mARkETS FOR
COmmODITIES SUCH AS SOYBEANS STARTED TO ExERT AN INCREASINg INflUENCE ON THE
µmAzON ECONOmY. °E FOCUS OF µmAzON DEFORESTATION BEgAN TO SHIﬅ TO
MATO GROSSO AND BY THE EAR±Y 2000S, THE STATE ACCOUNTED FOR 40 PERCENT OF
A±± DEFORESTATION IN THE ÊRAzI±IAN µmAzON. ¾WENTY-SIx PERCENT OF FORESTS
C±EARED IN MATO GROSSO FROm 2001 TO 2005 WERE CONVERTED DIRECT±Y INTO SOY-
BEAN CROP±ANDS, AND CROP±AND ExPANSION IN MATO GROSSO FAR OUTPACED THAT
OF OTHER µmAzON STATES.
transforÇation of tropical a¿riculture
°ERE ARE mANY ROOTS OF MATO GROSSO’S TRANSFORmATION FROm ExTENSIVE CATT±E
FARmINg TO INTENSIVE PRODUCTION OF gRAINS FOR g±OBA± mARkETS. ²OmE OF THESE
ROOTS ARE g±OBA±, BUT OTHERS HAVE THEIR ORIgINS INSIDE ÊRAzI±. °REE ±ARgE±Y
ÊRAzI±-gROWN ADVANCES WERE AgRONOmIC: (1) OVERCOmINg THE HIgH ACIDITY AND
±OW FERTI±ITY OF NATIVE SOI±S, (2) DESIgNINg VARIETIES OF SOYBEANS ADAPTED TO HOT
TEmPERATURES AND ±OW ±ATITUDES, AND (3) DEVE±OPINg SOI± mANAgEmENT PRACTICES
FOR TROPICA± SOI±S THAT mAINTAIN SOI± STRUCTURE AND gOOD INfi±TRATION CAPACITY.
µgRONOmISTS HAVE ±ONg RECOgNIzED POTENTIA±±Y SEVERE ±ImITATIONS FOR CON-
TINUOUS CROP PRODUCTION ON mOST OF THE NATURA± terra firme (NONflOODP±AIN)
SOI±S OF THE ±OW±AND µmERICAN TROPICS. »NE OF THOSE ±ImITATIONS IS ACIDITY.
°IS DERIVES PART±Y FROm THE NATURA±±Y ACIDIC gRANITE BEDROCk THAT UNDER±IES
mOST OF THE ÊRAzI±IAN ²HIE±D OF MATO GROSSO. °E REgION A±SO HAS gENERA±±Y
±OW TOPOgRAPHIC RE±IEF AND HAS BEEN COVERED WITH NATURA±±Y ACID-PRODUCINg
FOREST AND SAVANNA VEgETATION THAT HAS ExISTED IN A RE±ATIVE±Y HIgH-RAINFA±±
ENVIRONmENT FOR HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS OF YEARS. ÈITHOUT mAjOR TECTONIC
UP±Iﬅ OR OTHER gEO±OgIC PROCESSES THAT CAN DEPOSIT NEW SOI±S OR ExPOSE SOI±S TO
mORE A±kA±INE ROCkS, THESE FEATURES PRODUCED DEEP, O±D, AND HIgH±Y WEATHERED
SOI±S THAT ARE HIgH IN IRON AND A±UmINUm C±AY mINERA±S BUT ±OW IN PÉ (A
mEASURE OF ACIDITY; ±OW PÉ INDICATES gREATER ACIDITY).
°IS COmBINATION OF HIgH A±UmINUm AND ±OW PÉ IS TOxIC TO SOYBEANS AND
mANY OTHER CROPS. MANY OF THE SOI±S IN THE SOYBEAN-gROWINg REgIONS OF MATO
GROSSO ARE C±ASSIfiED AS “LATOSSO±OS” THAT CAN BE TENS OF mETERS DEEP, CONTAIN
ANYWHERE FROm 20 PERCENT TO mORE THAN 70 PERCENT C±AY, AND HAVE A PÉ OF ±ESS
THAN FOUR. ¹N CONTRAST, SOI±S IN mUCH OF THE SOYBEAN-gROWINg REgIONS OF THE
¶NITED ²TATES HAVE A mUCH SmA±±ER PROPORTION OF C±AY AND A mUCH mORE CROP-
FRIEND±Y PÉ C±OSER TO SIx. °E SAmE WET CONDITIONS AND ANCIENT SOI±S THAT
CREATED ±OW SOI± PÉ A±SO CAUSED VERY ±OW ±EVE±S OF SOI± PHOSPHORUS, AN ESSENTIA±
CROP NUTRIENT. °IS IS BECAUSE A±mOST A±± OF THE PHOSPHORUS CONTAINED IN THE
ORIgINA± BEDROCk HAS BEEN DISSO±VED AND ±EACHED AWAY. ½ATURA± INPUTS OF
PHOSPHORUS TO THE µmAzON REgION ARE SO ±OW THAT EVEN VERY SmA±± INPUTS,
DERIVED FROm THE FA±±OUT OF DUST TRANSPORTED ACROSS THE µT±ANTIC »CEAN FROm
THE ²AHARAN REgION OF ½ORTH µFRICA, ARE SUSPECTED OF P±AYINg AN ImPORTANT
RO±E—OVER mI±±ENNIA± TImE SCA±ES—IN mAINTAININg THE PHOSPHORUS FERTI±ITY
OF terra firme µmAzON RAIN FORESTS.
°E RECOgNITION THAT AmENDmENTS OF ±ImE AND PHOSPHORUS AND POTASSIUm
FERTI±IzER COU±D OVERCOmE ±OW PÉ AND ±OW PHOSPHORUS FERTI±ITY WAS A kEY
BREAkTHROUgH THAT A±±OWED SOYBEAN CROP±AND ExPANSION—AND SImU±TANE-
OUS±Y CREATED ±ARgE DEmANDS FOR ImPORTED FERTI±IzER—IN MATO GROSSO. °IS
ADVANCE ORIgINATED A±mOST COmP±ETE±Y WITHIN ÊRAzI±, AND WAS ±ARgE±Y THE OUT-
COmE OF THE FOUNDINg IN 1973 OF THE ÊRAzI±IAN AgRICU±TURA± RESEARCH AgENCY,
³mPRESA ÊRASI±EIRA DE ¸ESqUISA µgROPECUáRIA (³mBRAPA), AND THE FORmATION
IN 1975 OF THE SOYBEAN-SPECIfiC ³mBRAPA ²OYBEAN. ³mBRAPA OPERATES UNDER
ÊRAzI±’S FEDERA± MINISTRY OF µgRICU±TURE, LIVESTOCk AND ºOOD ²UPP±Y (Mµ¸µ).
¹T HAS REmAINED A mAjOR INNOVATOR OF AgRICU±TURA± TECHNO±OgY IN ÊRAzI± AND IN
2013 HAD AN ANNUA± BUDgET OF APPROxImATE±Y $1 BI±±ION ÊRAzI±IAN REAIS, WITH
2,400 RESEARCHERS (OF WHOm mORE THAN THREE-FOURTHS HAVE ¸H´S) AmONg ITS
APPROxImATE±Y 9,600 EmP±OYEES.
³mBRAPA CONTRIBUTED OTHER mAjOR AgRO-TECHNICA± ADVANCES THAT ImPROVED
PRODUCTION AND mADE IT PROfiTAB±E TO gROW µmAzON SOYBEANS FOR g±OBA± mAR-
kETS. »NE WAS THE DEVE±OPmENT OF SOYBEAN VARIETIES THAT TO±ERATE BOTH THE
SHORT TROPICA± DAYS AND THE WARm TROPICA± C±ImATE THAT OCCUR BE±OW 20 O ±ATI-
TUDE. ²OYBEANS HAVE THEIR BIO±OgICA± ORIgIN IN ·HINA AND UP UNTI± THE 1980S
WERE gROWN A±mOST ExC±USIVE±Y AS A TEmPERATE CROP, PRImARI±Y IN ½ORTH
µmERICA, ³UROPE, AND THE STATES OF ¸ARANá, ²ANTA ·ATARINA, AND ¼IO GRANDE
DO ²U± IN SOUTHEASTERN ÊRAzI±. ¹mPROVED CU±TIVARS fiRST A±±OWED SOYBEAN CU±TI-
VATION TO SPREAD TO THE HIgHER E±EVATION AND S±IgHT±Y COO±ER PORTIONS OF THE
·ERRADO REgION OF MATO GROSSO IN THE 1980S. ²ECOND- AND THIRD-gENERATION
CU±TIVARS FO±±OWED IN THE 1990S AND 2000S, TOTA±INg mORE THAN THREE HUNDRED
VARIETIES TAI±ORED TO DIffERENT CONDITIONS, WHICH A±±OWED THE mORE RECENT

ExPANSION TO HOTTER REgIONS OF THE FORESTED NORTH. ³mBRAPA’S CU±TIVARS NOW
ACCOUNT FOR mORE THAN 50 PERCENT OF THE NATIONA± SEED mARkET. ÚRINg THIS
PERIOD, PRODUCTIVITY ON SOYBEAN FARmS IN ÊRAzI± TRIP±ED FROm BARE±Y 1,000
kI±OgRAmS PER HECTARE TO mORE THAN 3,000.
°E PHYSICA± PROPERTIES OF mANY µmAzONIAN LATOSSO±OS ARE A±SO FAVORAB±E
FOR CROP PRODUCTION, ONCE THE ±OW PÉ AND PHOSPHORUS FERTI±ITY ARE CORRECTED
WITH AmENDmENTS. MANY HAVE gOOD DRAINAgE AND PHYSICA± CONDITION, OR TI±TH,
DESPITE THEIR C±AY CONTENT, WHICH IS TYPICA±±Y HIgHER THAN THAT OF THE SOI±S THAT
COVER mOST mAjOR TEmPERATE gRAIN-PRODUCINg REgIONS. ° IS IS BECAUSE C±AY
PARTIC±ES AggREgATE INTO ±ARgER, mORE SAND±IkE PARTIC±ES THAT A±±OW WATER TO
INfi±TRATE FREE±Y WHI±E STI±± HO±DINg ENOUgH WATER TO mAINTAIN SOI± mOISTURE.
ÊUT THIS AggREgATION CAN BE DISRUPTED BY TI±±AgE, ESPECIA±±Y WHEN SOI± IS EITHER
VERY WET OR VERY DRY—BOTH OF WHICH ARE COmmON UNDER TROPICA± CONDITIONS.
¹N MATO GROSSO, THIS PROB±Em WAS gREAT±Y REDUCED BY ³mBRAPA’S DEVE±OPmENT
AND WIDESPREAD PROmOTION OF zERO-TI±±AgE TECHNO±OgY, IN WHICH SEEDS ARE
DRI±±ED DIRECT±Y INTO THE STUBB±E OF THE PREVIOUS CROP WITH mINImA± SOI± DIS-
TURBANCE. °IS REqUIRES SPECIA±IzED P±ANTINg mACHINERY BUT HAS PROVED VERY
EffECTIVE AT AVOIDINg DISRUPTION OF SOI± AggREgATES. ³xCEPT FOR THE INITIA± TI±±AgE
REqUIRED TO PREPARE SOYBEAN fiE±DS FO±±OWINg CONVERSION FROm OTHER ±AND USES
(·ERRADO, FOREST, OR PASTURE), TODAY NO-TI±±AgE PRACTICES ARE THE NORm ACROSS
MATO GROSSO. °E AREA OF CROP±AND UNDER zERO TI±±AgE IN ÊRAzI±’S ·ERRADO AND
µmAzON REgIONS ExP±ODED FROm NEAR zERO IN 1990 TO mORE THAN 25 mI±±ION
HECTARES IN 2009.
°E HIgH FERTI±IzER REqUIREmENTS FOR MATO GROSSO SOYBEAN CROPPINg A±SO
REqUIRED THE DEVE±OPmENT OF A SUPPORTINg FERTI±IzER SUPP±Y CHAIN, PARTICU±AR±Y
FOR PHOSPHORUS AND POTASSIUm. ¾ODAY THIS SUPP±Y CHAIN IS HEAVI±Y WEIgHTED
TOWARD ImPORTS. ÊRAzI± CONTAINS ON±Y ABOUT 2 PERCENT OF THE WOR±D’S PHOSPHORUS
RESERVES AND ACCOUNTS FOR ABOUT 4 PERCENT OF g±OBA± ANNUA± PRODUCTION OF THE
PHOSPHORUS ROCkS THAT ARE THE PRECURSORS TO PHOSPHORUS-CONTAININg FERTI±IzERS.
²OYBEAN ExPANSION IN MATO GROSSO WAS THE mOST ImPORTANT REASON THAT
ÊRAzI±IAN USE OF PHOSPHATE mINERA±S INCREASED FROm jUST OVER ONE mI±±ION mET-
RIC TONS IN 1990 TO 4.3 mI±±ION mETRIC TONS IN 2013. ²IxTY PERCENT OF THAT DEmAND
IS SUPP±IED WITHIN ÊRAzI±, AND 40 PERCENT, OR 1.7 mI±±ION mETRIC TONS, WAS
ImPORTED FROm THE ¶NITED ²TATES (21 PERCENT), MOROCCO (25 PERCENT), ¼USSIA (14
PERCENT), ¹SRAE± (10 PERCENT), ·HINA (13 PERCENT), OR OTHER COUNTRIES (17 PERCENT).
ºOR POTASSIUm, ÊRAzI± RE±IES EVEN mORE HEAVI±Y ON ImPORTS; ON±Y 8 PERCENT OF
POTASSIUm FERTI±IzER DEmAND IS SUPP±IED BY DOmESTIC PRODUCTION. ÊRAzI±’S mAIN
SOURCES OF POTASSIUm ARE ·ANADA (27 PERCENT), ÊE±ARUS (22 PERCENT), THE
³UROPEAN ¶NION (20 PERCENT), THE ¼USSIAN ºEDERATION (15 PERCENT), AND ¹SRAE±
(12 PERCENT); OTHER COUNTRIES ACCOUNT FOR 4 PERCENT. ÊRAzI±’S INTERNA± CAPACITY TO
PRODUCE BOTH PHOSPHATE AND POTASSIUm FERTI±IzERS IS NOW ExPANDINg RAPID±Y.
¾RANSPORTINg HARVESTED SOYBEANS FROm THE RE±ATIVE±Y REmOTE INTERIOR OF
MATO GROSSO TO THE COAST REmAINS A mAjOR INFRASTRUCTURA± CHA±±ENgE. µ±mOST
A±± OF MATO GROSSO’S SOYBEANS TRAVE± BY TRUCk BETWEEN 900 AND 1,300 mI±ES TO
µT±ANTIC PORTS. µ mUCH SmA±±ER AmOUNT TRAVE±S WEST TO ¸ORTO ÍE±HO, WHERE IT
IS ±OADED ONTO BARgES THAT WI±± TRAVE± DOWN THE MADEIRA ¼IVER TO PORTS IN
¹TACOATIARA OR ²ANTARém—SITE OF A NEW DEEPWATER PORT BUI±T BY ·ARgI±± AT THE
CONflUENCE OF THE µmAzON AND ¾APAjóS ¼IVERS—WHERE SOYBEANS CAN BE
±OADED ONTO OCEANgOINg SHIPS. µN EVEN SmA±±ER AmOUNT TRAVE±S DIRECT±Y NORTH
BY ROAD FROm MATO GROSSO TO ²ANTARém ON THE CONTROVERSIA± Ê¼-163, THE STI±±
PARTIA±±Y UNPAVED “SOYBEAN HIgHWAY” THAT CUTS A SWATH THROUgH REmAININg
µmAzON RAIN FOREST (SEE fig. 9.2).
¹N 2012, IT COST ABOUT ¶²$50 TO SHIP A mETRIC TON OF SOYBEANS TO ²HANgHAI,
·HINA, FROm ²ANTOS, ÊRAzI±’S ±ARgEST SOYBEAN PORT IN THE STATE OF ²öO ¸AU±O. ¹T
COSTS mORE THAN TWICE THAT TO gET THE SOYBEANS TO ²ANTOS FROm MATO GROSSO
BY TRUCk OVER ÊRAzI±’S ROAD NETWORk, 86 PERCENT OF WHICH IS STI±± UNPAVED. ÊUT
BECAUSE DRIED SOYBEAN gRAIN IS NONPERISHAB±E AND CAN BE SHIPPED IN ±ARgE
TRAI±ER TRUCkS, THIS TRANSPORT COST IS STI±± A VERY SmA±± PROPORTION (ABOUT ONE
PERCENT) OF THE TOTA± COST OF MATO GROSSO SOYBEAN PRODUCTION. ¾RUCk TRANS-
PORT COSTS REmAIN AN ImPORTANT CONSTRAINT ON ÊRAzI±’S SOYBEAN ExPORTS AND ARE
ONE ±INk IN THE ExPORT CHAIN WHERE SOYBEAN ExPORTS FROm THE ¶.². MIDWEST
HAVE A PRICE ADVANTAgE. ¹N 2012, IT COST $87 TO SHIP A TON OF SOYBEANS FROm
ÁVENPORT, ¹OWA, TO ²HANgHAI, ·HINA, ON THE MISSISSIPPI ¼IVER VIA THE ¸ORT OF
½EW »R±EANS, COmPARED TO $161 FOR THE SAmE TON SHIPPED FROm ²ORRISO, MATO
GROSSO, TO THE ¸ORT OF ²ANTOS. °IS WI±± SOON CHANgE BECAUSE CONTRACTS WERE
SIgNED IN 2014 TO fiNISH PAVINg THE Ê¼-163 ROADWAY, WHICH WI±± ±OWER THE COST
OF TRUCkINg MATO GROSSO SOYBEANS NORTH TO THE PORT AT ²ANTARém.
¿lobaliZation of aÇaZon soybeans
¹N 2012, TWO-THIRDS OF MATO GROSSO’S SOYBEAN ExPORTS TRAVE±ED TO ONE

NATION—·HINA. MUCH SmA±±ER AmOUNTS WENT TO ²PAIN, THE ½ETHER±ANDS,
°AI±AND, ½ORWAY, AND ¾AIWAN. ³IgHTY-THREE PERCENT OF SOYBEANS SHIPPED
THROUgH ²ANTOS WENT TO ·HINA. ÊRAzI± NOW COmPETES WITH THE ¶NITED ²TATES
TO BE THE WOR±D’S ±ARgEST SOYBEAN ExPORTER: BOTH NATIONS SHIPPED 37 mI±±ION

mETRIC TONS OF SOYBEANS IN 2013. ÊRAzI±IAN AND ¶.². SOYBEAN ExPORTS DWARF THE
10 mI±±ION mETRIC TONS SHIPPED BY THIRD-P±ACE µRgENTINA. ÊRAzI±’S µmAzON
STATES, mOST±Y MATO GROSSO WITH mUCH SmA±±ER CONTRIBUTIONS FROm ¼ONDûNIA
AND ¸ARá, NOW PRODUCE 31 PERCENT OF ÊRAzI±’S SOYBEANS AND ACCOUNT FOR 35
PERCENT OF ÊRAzI±’S SOYBEAN ExPORTS. ²OYBEANS NOW RANk THIRD, BEHIND IRON
ORE AND CRUDE OI±, AS ÊRAzI±’S mOST VA±UAB±E ExPORT COmmODITY.
·HINESE SOYBEAN ImPORTS gREW ExP±OSIVE±Y FROm A±mOST NOTHINg IN 1990
TO mORE THAN 70 mI±±ION mETRIC TONS IN 2014. °IS TRADE DRIVES THE ExPANSION
OF ÊRAzI±’S µmAzON SOYBEAN PRODUCTION AND IS C±OSE±Y ±INkED WITH THE RISE OF
A ±ARgE—AND INCREASINg±Y mEAT-EATINg—µSIAN mIDD±E C±ASS. µCCORDINg TO THE
¶.½. ºOOD AND µgRICU±TURE »RgANIzATION, PER CAPITA mEAT CONSUmPTION IN
INDUSTRIA±IzED COUNTRIES INCREASED FROm 62 kI±OgRAmS IN 1965 TO 88 IN 1998
AND IS PROjECTED TO gROW TO 100 BY 2030. »VER THE SAmE PERIOD, PER CAPITA
mEAT CONSUmPTION IN ·HINA INCREASED FROm 9 TO 38 kI±OgRAmS AND IS ExPECTED
TO REACH 59 kI±OgRAmS BY 2030. ¼OUgH±Y 70 PERCENT OF THIS CONSUmPTION IS
PORk, 20 PERCENT IS CHICkEN, AND A SmA±± (BUT gROWINg) FRACTION IS BEEF. ºOR
COmPARISON, BETWEEN 1980 AND 2010, mEAT CONSUmPTION IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES
INCREASED FROm 22 mI±±ION TO 32 mI±±ION mETRIC TONS, WHI±E mEAT CONSUmPTION
IN ·HINA ROSE FROm 10 mI±±ION TO 70 mI±±ION mETRIC TONS. °E ¶.². ÉPARTmENT
OF µgRICU±TURE ESTImATES THAT WHI±E DEmANDS FOR SOYBEANS FROm THE REST OF THE
WOR±D WI±± REmAIN RE±ATIVE±Y flAT THROUgH 2025, ·HINESE ImPORTS WI±± CONTINUE
TO gROW TO 110 mI±±ION mETRIC TONS. MUCH OF THAT DEmAND IS AND WI±± CONTINUE
TO BE SUPP±IED BY MATO GROSSO AND ÊRAzI±’S µmAzON REgION.
²EVERA± OTHER FACTORS A±SO CONTRIBUTED TO THE INCREASED DEmAND FOR MATO
GROSSO SOYBEANS IN THE 2000S. ÉmAND INCREASED WHEN “mAD COW” DISEASE
(BOVINE SPONgIFORm ENCEPHA±ITIS, Ê²³) APPEARED IN ³UROPE’S CATT±E HERD IN
2000. ¹N REACTION TO Ê²³, ³UROPE BANNED mEAT AND BONE mEA± INgREDIENTS IN
A±± ±IVESTOCk FEEDS, CREATINg A gREATER DEmAND FOR PROTEIN-RICH SOYBEANS ON THE
g±OBA± mARkET. ¹N 2001, AN OUTBREAk OF FOOT AND mOUTH DISEASE (ºM´), A SERIOUS
AND HIgH±Y INFECTIOUS VIRA± DISEASE OF DOmESTIC CATT±E AND OTHER HOOFED ANImA±S,
OCCURRED IN ÊRITAIN AND REqUIRED THE S±AUgHTER OF mANY ANImA±S. °REATS OF
ºM´ A±SO OCCURRED IN SEVERA± OTHER COUNTRIES AT ABOUT THE SAmE TImE. ¹N 2003,
ÊRAzI± SUCCESSFU±±Y ERADICATED ºM´ FROm THE SOUTHERN µmAzON—A 1.5-mI±±ION-
SqUARE-kI±OmETER AREA THAT INC±UDED MATO GROSSO—ENAB±INg BEEF ExPORTS
OUTSIDE THE µmAzON AND SPURRINg THE ExPANSION OF MATO GROSSO’S CATT±E HERD.
°E THREAT OF ºM´ IN ÊRAzI± CONCURRENT±Y CONTRIBUTED TO mODERNIzATION OF THE
CATT±E INDUSTRY IN MATO GROSSO, INC±UDINg mORE ExTENSIVE VACCINATION, TRACkINg
ANImA±S THROUgH THE PRODUCTION AND COmmODITY SUPP±Y CHAINS, USE OF ImPROVED
gENETIC ±INES OF CATT±E, ARTIfiCIA± INSEmINATION, AND ImPROVED PASTURE mANAgE-
mENT THAT A±±OWED gREATER CATT±E PRODUCTION PER HECTARE OF ±AND. µmAzON
S±AUgHTERHOUSES NOW ExPORT A gROWINg PROPORTION OF THEIR PRODUCTS FROm THE
REgION, AND IN JUNE 2015 THE ¶²´µ’S µNImA± AND ¸±ANT ÉEA±TH ¹NSPECTION
²ERVICE AmENDED ITS RU±ES TO A±±OW ImPORT TO THE ¶NITED ²TATES OF CHI±±ED OR
FROzEN BEEF FROm SEVERA± ÊRAzI±IAN REgIONS, INC±UDINg MATO GROSSO.
¹NCREASINg THE SUPP±Y OF SOYBEANS TO mEET THIS gROWINg DEmAND REqUIRED
CAPITA± INVESTmENTS OF AN UNPRECEDENTED SCA±E, BUT DURINg A DECADE OF fiNAN-
CIA± CRISIS IN THE 1980S THE ÊRAzI±IAN gOVERNmENT HAD ±ITT±E CAPACITY TO PROVIDE
NEW ±INES OF CREDIT FOR THE AgRICU±TURA± SECTOR. ²TARTINg IN THE mID-1990S, HOW-
EVER, PRIVATE BANk fiNANCINg INCREASED SHARP±Y AND THE OVERA±± AVAI±ABI±ITY OF
CREDIT ExPANDED RAPID±Y. ÚRINg THIS PERIOD, A NUmBER OF INNOVATIONS ENA-
B±ED NEW SOURCES OF fiNANCE, INC±UDINg THE DEVE±OPmENT OF THE “²OjA ÍERDE”
PROgRAm FOR fiNANCE AND PRODUCTION OF SOYBEANS IN THE ·ERRADO DURINg THE
1980S, AS WE±± AS THE gRANTINg OF PRIVATE ±AND TIT±ES. »NCE THESE mECHANISmS
WERE IN P±ACE, TRADINg ON THE INTERNATIONA± mARkETS BEgAN TO P±AY A kEY RO±E
IN PROVIDINg CAPITA± TO PRODUCERS, WHO IN TURN gUARANTEED A CERTAIN ±EVE± OF
FOOD SUPP±Y AND SECURITY. °ESE mECHANISmS gREAT±Y INCREASED THE CREDIT
AVAI±AB±E TO THE AgRICU±TURA± SECTOR BY gIVINg PRODUCERS IN THE REgION ACCESS TO
INTERNATIONA± CREDIT ±INES. ¹T A±SO PROVIDED A WAY FOR PRODUCERS TO HEDgE THEIR
BETS THROUgH CONTRACTS IN INTERNATIONA± COmmODITIES ExCHANgES.
new pathways to environÇental ¿overnance
°E ExP±OSIVE gROWTH OF SOYBEAN CROP±AND AREA IN MATO GROSSO DURINg THE

±ATE 1990S AND INTO THE 2000S DREW g±OBA± ATTENTION AS TOTA± µmAzON DEFOR-
ESTATION ROSE STEADI±Y TO A HIgH OF 27,772 SqUARE kI±OmETERS IN 2004. µ
²EPTEmBER 2003 ARTIC±E RAN IN THE New Ãork Times UNDER THE HEAD±INE,
“¼E±ENT±ESS ºOE OF THE µmAzON JUNg±E: ²OYBEANS.” ÈITHIN ÊRAzI±, ARTIC±ES
BEgAN APPEARINg IN REgIONA± NEWSPAPERS WITH HEAD±INES ±IkE “ÉO±OCAUSTO
ÍERDE” (GREEN ÉO±OCAUST). ¹N 2006, GREENPEACE ±AUNCHED A mAjOR PROTEST
CAmPAIgN CA±±ED “³ATINg ¶P THE µmAzON” THAT HIgH±IgHTED ÊRAzI±’S 2004
µmAzON DEFORESTATION RATE OF 3 SqUARE kI±OmETERS AN HOUR OR, AS GREENPEACE
PUT IT, “A FOOTBA±± PITCH EVERY EIgHT SECONDS.” ¹T TARgETED THREE mAjOR ¶.².
COmPANIES THAT ExPORTED µmAzON SOYBEANS TO ³UROPE (µRCHER ÁNIE±S
MID±AND, ÊUNgE, AND ·ARgI±±) AND FOCUSED ATTENTION ON THE NEW ·ARgI±± SOY-
BEAN TERmINA± BEINg BUI±T IN ²ANTARém.

°E PROTEST CAmPAIgN gOT RESU±TS. ¹N JU±Y 2006, THE µSSOCIAüöO ÊRASI±EIRA
DAS ¹NDúSTRIAS DE ç±EOS ÍEgETAIS (µÊ¹»Í³) AND THE µSSOCIAüöO ½ACIONA± DOS
³xPORTADORES DE ·EREAIS (µ½³·) AND THEIR RESPECTIVE mEmBER COmPANIES
P±EDgED NOT TO TRADE OR fiNANCE SOYBEANS PRODUCED WITHIN THE µmAzON BIOmE
ON ±ANDS DEFORESTED AﬅER THAT DATE. °IS UNIqUE INITIATIVE, kNOWN AS THE “²OY
MORATORIUm,” SOUgHT TO RECONCI±E µmAzON ENVIRONmENTA± PRESERVATION WITH
ECONOmIC DEVE±OPmENT. MAjOR INTERNATIONA± CONSERVATION ORgANIzATIONS,
INC±UDINg ·ONSERVATION ¹NTERNATIONA±, THE ÈOR±D ÈI±D±IFE ºUND, GREENPEACE,
AND °E ½ATURE ·ONSERVANCY, ARE PARTIES TO THE mORATORIUm, WHICH WAS
RENEWED INDEfiNITE±Y IN MAY 2016. ³ACH OF THESE gROUPS HAS OffiCES WITHIN
ÊRAzI±. ÊRAzI±IAN CONSERVATION ORgANIzATIONS A±SO P±AYED AN ImPORTANT RO±E IN
SUPPORTINg THE mORATORIUm AND IN CREATINg mECHANISmS THAT ENAB±E mARkET
PRESSURES TO PROmOTE BETTER AgRICU±TURA± PRACTICES. ºOR ExAmP±E, THE ¹NSTITUTO
DE ¸ESqUISA µmBIENTA± DA µmAzûNIA CONDUCTS SCIENTIfiC RESEARCH AND PRO-
mOTES STRONgER ENVIRONmENTA± ENFORCEmENT, AND µ±IANüA DA ¾ERRA CREATED THE
¼EgISTRY OF ²OCIA±-³NVIRONmENTA± ¼ESPONSIBI±ITY, WHICH ENRO±±S FARm PROP-
ERTY OWNERS AND WORkS WITH THEm TO INCORPORATE mORE SOCIA±±Y AND ENVIRON-
mENTA±±Y RESPONSIB±E PRODUCTION PRACTICES. ¹N ADDITION, COmP±IANCE WITH THE
mORATORIUm WAS mONITORED BY THE ÊRAzI±IAN ²PACE µgENCY (¹½¸³) VIA
ANNUA± SATE±±ITE mAPPINg OF DEFORESTATION. °E mORATORIUm A±SO RESU±TED IN
THE ESTAB±ISHmENT OF A FORmA± ±AND REgISTRY FOR RURA± PROPERTIES, kNOWN AS THE
·ADASTRO µmBIENTA± ¼URA± (·µ¼), WHICH ImPROVED TRANSPARENCY AND
ENFORCEmENT OF I±±EgA± DEFORESTATION IN MATO GROSSO. ¹N 2012, THE ÊRAzI±IAN
FEDERA± gOVERNmENT ExPANDED THE ·µ¼ BY mAkINg IT A NATIONA± PO±ICY
AND ESTAB±ISHINg ²¹·µ¼, A gEOREFERENCED, ON±INE REgISTRY OF PROPERTIES THAT
USES SATE±±ITE-DERIVED SPATIA± DATA TO TRACk NATIVE VEgETATION IN PRIVATE
PROPERTIES.
°E mORATORIUm HAD A DRAmATIC EffECT ON µmAzON DEFORESTATION RATES.
ºROm 2006 TO 2010, DEFORESTATION IN THE ENTIRE µmAzON DEC±INED FROm 14,286
TO 4,571 SqUARE kI±OmETERS PER YEAR. ½EW C±EARINg IN MATO GROSSO DEC±INED
EVEN mORE, TO AN ESTImATED 850 SqUARE kI±OmETERS BY 2010—jUST 11 PERCENT OF
ITS HISTORICA± AVERAgE OF 7,600 SqUARE kI±OmETERS FROm 1996 TO 2005. °E
mORATORIUm’S mAIN EffECT WAS TO PUSH DEFORESTATION ONTO ±AND C±EARED BEFORE
2006, WHICH mEANT CONVERTINg mAIN±Y ExISTINg, ±OW-PRODUCTIVITY PASTURES—A
PROCESS THAT MATO GROSSO’S CATT±E SECTOR CARRIED OUT WITHOUT A DROP IN PRO-
DUCTION. °E EffECTIVENESS OF THE mORATORIUm A±SO CHANgED THE TENOR OF INTER-
NATIONA± mEDIA COVERAgE ABOUT µmAzON SOYBEANS BY REDUCINg TA±k OF SOY-
BEANS AS DESTROYERS OF THE µmAzON, INCREASINg NEWS REPORTS OF ÊRAzI±’S SUCCESS
2001
Legend
Soy
Soy/Cotton
N
Soy/Corn
Reserves
0 125 250 375 500

Km
2013
Legend
Soy
Soy/Cotton
N
Soy/Corn
Reserves
0 125 250 375 500

Km
fi¿ure 9.4. ²OYBEAN CROP±ANDS IN MATO GROSSO, ÊRAzI±. °E DOUB±E-CROPPED AREA

IN THE STATE ExPANDED SUBSTANTIA±±Y FROm 2001 (UPPER) TO 2013 (±OWER). MAP BY ¸AU±
LEFEBVRE, BASED ON DATA FROm ²PERA ET A±. 2014.
IN CURBINg DEFORESTATION, AND EVEN RAISINg THE POSSIBI±ITY OF REDUCINg DEFOR-
ESTATION TO zERO. µS THE SOY mORATORIUm DREW C±OSE TO ITS SCHEDU±ED END IN
2014, THE ÊRAzI±IAN SOY INDUSTRY VOTED TO ExTEND IT FOR ANOTHER EIgHTEEN
mONTHS INTO EAR±Y 2016. ¸ART OF THE PO±ITICA± PRESSURE FOR ITS CONTINUATION WAS
A 28 PERCENT UPTURN IN DEFORESTATION FROm 2012 TO 2013, AS WE±± AS CONCERNS
THAT RE±AxATION OF ±EgA± REqUIREmENTS FOR FOREST AND SAVANNA PROTECTION AND
REFORESTATION (RESU±TINg FROm mODIfiCATIONS TO ÊRAzI±’S ºOREST ·ODE PASSED IN
2012) WOU±D SPUR ACCE±ERATED C±EARINg. °E NEW ºOREST ·ODE gRANTS AmNESTY
TO ±ANDOWNERS WHO DEFORESTED I±±EgA±±Y BEFORE 2008 AND REDUCES THE AREA THAT
±ANDOWNERS ARE REqUIRED TO REFOREST FROm 500,000 TO 210,000 SqUARE kI±Om-
ETERS. °E NEW ±AW A±SO A±±OWS ±EgA± DEFORESTATION OF AN ADDITIONA± 400,000
SqUARE kI±OmETERS OF THE ·ERRADO, AN AREA A±mOST THE SIzE OF ·A±IFORNIA.
¹T IS UNC±EAR HOW ±ONg THE CONTAINmENT OF DEFORESTATION RATES IN MATO
GROSSO AND OTHER µmAzON FRONTIER STATES CAN ±AST. ¸±ANNED NEW INFRASTRUC-
TURE, INC±UDINg THE COmP±ETION OF THE Ê¼-163 AND CONSTRUCTION OF SEVERA± ±ARgE
HYDROE±ECTRIC DAmS, WI±± gREAT±Y REDUCE TRANSPORT COSTS AND ±IkE±Y INCREASE
PRESSURE TO ExPAND THE AmOUNT OF ±AND UNDER SOYBEAN CU±TIVATION IN THE COR-
RIDOR TO ²ANTARém. µS SOYBEANS REP±ACE CATT±E PASTURES, THERE IS gROWINg CON-
CERN THAT THEY mAY PUSH CATT±E RANCHINg FARTHER INTO THE FOREST FRONTIER, AS
THOSE WHO SO±D THEIR RANCH±ANDS AT A PROfiT IN REgIONS OF RECENT CROP±AND
ExPANSION INVEST IN NEW ±ANDS FARTHER FROm ROADS. °ESE INDIRECT ±AND USE
CHANgES ARE VERY HARD TO qUANTIFY AND FA±± ±ARgE±Y OUTSIDE THE INflUENCE OF THE
SOYBEAN mORATORIUm.
³VEN AS THE SOYBEAN mORATORIUm mOVED SOYBEAN CROPPINg TO MATO
GROSSO’S PREVIOUS±Y DEFORESTED ±ANDS, A SECOND WAVE OF INTENSIfiCATION BEgAN
SWEEPINg THE STATE IN ABOUT 2000, AS PRODUCERS SHIﬅED TO P±ANTINg A SECOND
±ATE-SEASON CROP FO±±OWINg THE mAIN SOYBEAN HARVEST. ¹N THIS FARmINg SYSTEm,
SOYBEANS AND A SECOND CROP (mOST COmmON±Y CORN BUT A±SO COTTON) IS P±ANTED
AND HARVESTED WITHIN THE SAmE SIx-mONTH RAINY SEASON. ÈHI±E IN 2001 ON±Y
500,000 HECTARES OF MATO GROSSO’S 3.3 mI±±ION HECTARES OF mECHANIzED CROP-
±AND WERE DOUB±E-CROPPED, BY 2013 A±mOST HA±F (2.8 mI±±ION) OF THE STATE’S 5.8
mI±±ION HECTARES OF mECHANIzED CROP±AND WERE DOUB±E-CROPPED (figS. 9.4A,
9.4B). ·ORN ACCOUNTED FOR 94 PERCENT OF A±± DOUB±E-CROPPINg IN 2013. °E
ExPANSION OF DOUB±E-CROPPINg S±OWED AﬅER 2008, WHICH mAY HAVE BEEN
RE±ATED TO FA±±INg CORN PRICES ON THE INTERNATIONA± mARkET, ±ImITATIONS ON THE
CAPITA± TO PURCHASE SPECIA±IzED EqUIPmENT REqUIRED FOR CORN P±ANTINg AND
HARVEST, AND ±ImITS IN THE INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDED TO STORE ±ARgE AmOUNTS OF
HARVESTED gRAIN.
ecolo¿ical costs and opportunities of
a¿ricultural intensification
°E RAPID ExPANSION AND INTENSIfiCATION OF AgRICU±TURE IN MATO GROSSO POSES

mAjOR ENVIRONmENTA± COSTS THAT ±IE AT THE HEART OF THE DEBATE OVER THE FUTURE OF
ÊRAzI±’S µmAzON FOREST. ÊECAUSE THE NATIVE FORESTS AND SAVANNAS OF MATO
GROSSO CONTAIN A VERY RICH ASSEmB±AgE OF P±ANT AND ANImA± SPECIES COmPARED TO
OTHER TROPICA± REgIONS, MATO GROSSO’S AgRICU±TURA± TRANSFORmATION HAS UNDOUBT-
ED±Y HAD ±ARgE CONSEqUENCES FOR BIO±OgICA± DIVERSITY. °E µmAzON FORESTS AT THE
EPICENTER OF SOYBEAN ExPANSION IN MATO GROSSO CONTAIN AS mANY AS ONE HUN-
DRED TREE SPECIES PER HECTARE. µ±THOUgH THIS IS ±ESS THAN HA±F THE SPECIES RICHNESS
FOUND IN THE CENTRA± AND WESTERN µmAzON, IT IS HIgH COmPARED TO TEmPERATE
FORESTS AND ±IkE±Y AN UNDERESTImATE, gIVEN THAT mANY ±OCATIONS IN MATO GROSSO
ARE POOR±Y INVENTORIED. °E ECO±OgICA± FORCES THAT CONTRO± TREE DIVERSITY ACROSS
THE µmAzON ARE NOT WE±± UNDERSTOOD, AND THE UNDERREPRESENTATION OF mANY
SOUTHERN µmAzON SITES mAkES IT ±IkE±Y THAT RARE SPECIES REmAIN UNDETECTED IN
THESE REgIONS.
°E gREATEST ImPACT OF ±AND TRANSFORmATION ON VERTEBRATE ANImA±S mAY BE
ON THE fiSH OF THE SOUTHERN µmAzON. °E NUmBER OF fiSH SPECIES IN
THE µmAzON ±IkE±Y RIVA±S THE NUmBER OF fiSH SPECIES IN A±± OTHER BASINS OF THE
WOR±D COmBINED. ¹TS RIVERINE HEADWATERS—INC±UDINg THE HEADWATERS OF THE
XINgU AND ¾APAjóS BASINS, WHICH DOmINATE NORTHERN MATO GROSSO—
ARE THOUgHT TO BE AREAS OF PARTICU±AR±Y HIgH ENDEmIC fiSH SPECIES DIVERSITY.
°IS DIVERSITY ARISES FROm SOmE OF THE SAmE FACTORS THAT SHAPE THE REgION’S
SOI±S, INC±UDINg THE ANCIENT RIVER DRAINAgE NETWORkS THAT SEPARATE HEADWATER
RIVER SYSTEmS. ·URRENT ESTImATES ARE THAT ABOUT 40 PERCENT OF µmAzON fiSH
SPECIES HAVE YET TO BE DISCOVERED AND DESCRIBED IN THE SCIENTIfiC ±ITERATURE.
µmONg THE ±ARgEST ImPACTS OF AgRICU±TURA± ExPANSION ON fiSH AND AqUATIC
BIODIVERSITY mAY BE THE ±OSS OF STREAmSIDE FOREST VEgETATION, WHICH ±EADS TO
WARmER WATER TEmPERATURES IN STREAm CHANNE±S. ¹N MATO GROSSO, THE ±OSS OF
FORESTS BORDERINg STREAmS RAISES STREAmWATER TEmPERATURES BETWEEN 2 AND 4
DEgREES ·E±SIUS. °E BIO±OgICA± EffECTS—AND HENCE ImP±ICATIONS FOR g±OBA±
fiSH DIVERSITY—OF THIS CHANgE ARE POOR±Y kNOWN BUT ARE ±IkE±Y ImPORTANT
BECAUSE TROPICA± AqUATIC ORgANISmS EVO±VED IN RE±ATIVE±Y STAB±E THERmA±
REgImES COmPARED TO THOSE IN TEmPERATE REgIONS, WHICH ExPERIENCE gREATER
SEASONA± VARIATION IN TEmPERATURE.
°E ·ERRADO IS PARTICU±AR±Y VU±NERAB±E TO THE EffECTS OF AgRICU±TURA± ExPAN-
SION. ÉSPITE ITS HIgH ±EVE±S OF ENDEmISm, ABOUT 66 PERCENT OF THE ·ERRADO IS

NOW A±TERED BY CROP±AND OR mANAgED PASTURE AND ±ESS THAN 7 PERCENT OF THE
REmAININg AREA IS ±EgA±±Y PROTECTED—IN STARk CONTRAST TO THE µmAzON BIOmE
TO THE NORTH. °E ·ERRADO CONTAINS mORE THAN 12,000 P±ANT SPECIES, AS mANY
AS 800 fiSH SPECIES, AND 777 BIRD SPECIES AND CONTAINS mORE ENDANgERED SPE-
CIES OF P±ANTS AND ANImA±S THAN THE µmAzON. MUCH ±IkE THE µmAzONIAN
REgIONS OF MATO GROSSO, mOST OF THE ·ERRADO IS POOR±Y INVENTORIED, AND SPE-
CIES DISTRIBUTIONS ARE NOT WE±± kNOWN ExCEPT IN A FEW RE±ATIVE±Y SmA±± RESERVES.
°E POTENTIA± REgIONA± AND g±OBA± ImPACTS OF AgRICU±TURA± ExPANSION IN
MATO GROSSO ExTEND WE±± BEYOND ±OCA± ±OSSES IN BIODIVERSITY. ºIRST, THE USE OF
NITROgEN FERTI±IzERS IS THE ±ARgEST SINg±E HUmAN-CAUSED SOURCE OF EmISSIONS OF
NITROUS OxIDE—A POWERFU± gREENHOUSE gAS WITH THREE HUNDRED TImES THE HEAT-
TRAPPINg CAPACITY OF CARBON DIOxIDE. ÈHI±E EmISSIONS OF NITROUS OxIDE FROm
SINg±E-CROPPED SOYBEANS APPEAR TO BE VERY ±OW, THE CONSEqUENCES OF ExPANDINg
DOUB±E-CROPPINg ARE NOT kNOWN. ²ECOND, THE SHIﬅ TO INTENSIVE CROP PRODUCTION
SYSTEmS COU±D HAVE WIDESPREAD AND DETRImENTA± EffECTS ON WATER qUA±ITY.
³xPERIENCE WITH INTENSIVE CROP AgRICU±TURE AROUND THE g±OBE SHOWS THAT THE
CONSEqUENCES OF NUTRIENT RUNOff FROm INTENSIVE CROP±ANDS CAN BE SEVERE. ºOR
ExAmP±E, RUNOff OF NITROgEN AND PHOSPHORUS FROm ExTENSIVE FARm±AND HAS CRE-
ATED ±ARgE “DEAD zONES” OF OxYgEN-DEP±ETED ESTUARINE WATER AT THE mOUTHS OF
THE MISSISSIPPI, ÓANgTzE, AND OTHER RIVERS. °E U±TImATE EffECT OF MATO GROSSO’S
INTENSIVE CROP PRODUCTION ON THE SURFACE WATERS OF THE XINgU AND ¾APAjóS
¼IVERS REmAINS UNkNOWN. ²OmE RECENT WORk SUggESTS THAT NUTRIENT AND SEDI-
mENT ±OSSES FROm SINg±E-CROPPED SOYBEANS IN PARTS OF MATO GROSSO ARE VERY ±OW.
°IS ±IkE±Y OCCURS BECAUSE WEATHERED TROPICA± SOI±S BIND STRONg±Y TO PHOSPHORUS
AND BECAUSE SOYBEANS REqUIRE mINImA± INPUTS OF NITROgEN FERTI±IzER (SOYBEANS
ARE mEmBERS OF THE ±EgUmE FAmI±Y AND CAPAB±E OF fixINg NITROgEN DIRECT±Y FROm
THE ATmOSPHERE). ºURTHERmORE, THE flAT, WEATHERED SOI±S OF MATO GROSSO APPEAR
TO HAVE RE±ATIVE±Y HIgH RATES OF WATER INfi±TRATION AND INFREqUENT OCCURRENCE OF
±ATERA± flOWS THAT gENERATE EROSION. ÓUB±E-CROPPINg OF CORN OR COTTON mAY
CHANgE THIS PATTERN DRAmATICA±±Y BECAUSE BOTH CROPS REqUIRE RE±ATIVE±Y HIgH
RATES OF NITROgEN FERTI±IzER ADDITION, WHICH APPEARS mORE CAPAB±E OF mOVINg
THROUgH SOI±S AND INTO gROUNDWATERS AND STREAmS COmPARED TO PHOSPHORUS. ¹N
THIS CASE, THE PATTERNS OBSERVED DURINg THE RE±ATIVE±Y BRIEF PERIOD OF SOYBEAN
SINg±E-CROPPINg mAY NOT BE AN APPROPRIATE INDICATION OF FUTURE ImPACT.
°E HIgH USE OF PESTICIDES IN MATO GROSSO’S CROPPINg SYSTEmS POSES
ANOTHER POTENTIA±±Y ±ARgE ImPACT ON WATER qUA±ITY AND HUmAN HEA±TH. ²OYBEAN
FARmINg ACCOUNTS FOR ABOUT A qUARTER OF A±± PESTICIDES USED IN ÊRAzI±. ¹N MATO
GROSSO, SOYBEAN FARmS ROUTINE±Y USE PESTICIDES WITH ABOUT FORTY DIffERENT
ACTIVE INgREDIENTS. °E ±ARgEST SINg±E C±ASS OF PESTICIDES IS g±YPHOSATE-BASED
BROAD-SPECTRUm HERBICIDES USED TO kI±± WEEDS BEFORE P±ANTINg AND TO SPEED
DRYINg OF SOYBEAN P±ANTS BEFORE gRAIN HARVEST. ÉERBICIDE USE IS gREATER THAN
THAT OF INSECTICIDES AND FUNgICIDES COmBINED. G±YPHOSATE HAS A HA±F-±IFE OF
ABOUT SIxTY DAYS IN SOI±S AND A FEW DAYS IN WATER. ¹T ADHERES STRONg±Y TO SOI± AND
DOES NOT BIOACCUmU±ATE IN FOOD CHAINS. LARgE FARmS NOW USE FEWER OF THE
PESTICIDES mOST TOxIC TO HUmANS THAN DO SmA±±ER FARmS, AND THE OVERA±± USE OF
mOST HIgH±Y TOxIC COmPOUNDS HAS DEC±INED SINCE 2002. °ERE HAVE BEEN SOmE
REPORTS OF PESTICIDE ImPACTS WITHIN THE XINgU ¹NDIgENOUS ¸ARk DOWNSTREAm
OF ±ARgE SOYBEAN gROWINg AREAS IN THE BASIN’S HEADWATERS, BUT THERE HAVE BEEN
NO COmPREHENSIVE SCIENTIfiC STUDIES OF PESTICIDE ImPACTS IN MATO GROSSO.
ÈHI±E SOYBEAN CROPPINg POSES ENVIRONmENTA± PROB±EmS, gAINS IN PRODUCTIV-
ITY AND A STRONg CONNECTION TO g±OBA± mARkETS A±SO PRESENT OPPORTUNITIES—AS
I±±USTRATED BY THE ²OY MORATORIUm—TO SHAPE PRODUCTION SYSTEmS AND AgRICU±-
TURA± FRONTIER ±ANDSCAPES IN WAYS THAT CONSERVE SOmE ExISTINg NATURA± ±AND AND
REDUCE ENVIRONmENTA± RISkS. ²OmE mECHANISmS CURRENT±Y ExIST FOR REDUCINg THE
BIODIVERSITY CONSEqUENCES OF AgRICU±TURA± ±AND CONVERSION. »NE OF THE STRONgEST
SUCH mECHANISmS IS THE ÊRAzI±IAN ºOREST ·ODE, WHICH mANDATES THE CONSERVA-
TION OF ±ARgE B±OCkS OF FORESTS, PROTECTION OF FOREST BUffER zONES A±ONg STREAmS,
AND RESTORATION OF I±±EgA±±Y DEFORESTED AREAS ON PRIVATE FARmS. µ HOT±Y CONTESTED
REVISION TO THE ºOREST ·ODE IN 2012 mAINTAINED A PROVISION INSTITUTED IN 1996
THAT µmAzON PROPERTY OWNERS mAINTAIN 80 PERCENT OF THE TOTA± AREA AS INTACT
FOREST, BUT IT REDUCED THE REqUIREmENT FOR RESTORATION TO 50 PERCENT OF THE FARm
AREA FOR ±ANDS DEFORESTED (I±±EgA±±Y) BEFORE 2008 AND REDUCED THE WIDTH OF
REqUIRED STREAm FOREST BUffER zONES ON SmA±± PROPERTIES. °IS REDUCED THE TOTA±
FOREST AREA TO BE RESTORED BY 41 PERCENT, COmPARED TO THE PREVIOUS (PRE-2012)
ºOREST ·ODE, AND RENDERED IT mORE DIffiCU±T TO RESHAPE FOREST CONNECTIVITY AND
HABITAT CONSERVATION AT ±ANDSCAPE SCA±ES.
µS mANY AS 18 BI±±ION mETRIC TONS OF CARBON—A NUmBER EqUIVA±ENT TO
mORE THAN HA±F THE WOR±D’S ANNUA± CARBON DIOxIDE EmISSIONS—COU±D U±TI-
mATE±Y BE EmITTED FROm THE APPROxImATE±Y 88 mI±±ION HECTARES OF PRIVATE
PROPERTY IN ÊRAzI± THAT COU±D BE DEFORESTED ±EgA±±Y UNDER THE NEW ºOREST
·ODE. ²EVERA± mECHANISmS mIgHT REDUCE THIS TOTA±, BUT THEY ARE ±ARgE±Y
UNTESTED. »NE IS THE INTRODUCTION OF AN ENVIRONmENTA± RESERVE qUOTA—A
TRADAB±E ±EgA± TIT±E TO AREAS WITH INTACT VEgETATION THAT ExCEED ºOREST ·ODE
REqUIREmENTS—THAT COU±D BE TRADED TO COmPENSATE FOR A FOREST AREA DEBT ON
ANOTHER PROPERTY. ³xCHANgE OF THESE qUOTAS COU±D BE A COST-EffECTIVE WAY TO
INCREASE ºOREST ·ODE COmP±IANCE WHI±E PROTECTINg AREAS THAT mIgHT OTHER-

WISE BE DEFORESTED. ÊRAzI± HAS A±SO CREATED A ±OW CARBON AgRICU±TURE PROgRAm
THAT SUBSIDIzES ±OANS TO PRODUCERS WHO ±OWER CARBON EmISSIONS ASSOCIATED
WITH AgRICU±TURA± PRODUCTION ACTIVITIES. °E FUTURE TRADEOffS BETWEEN THE
COSTS AND BENEfiTS OF DIffERENT AgRICU±TURA± AND REgIONA± ±AND mANAgEmENT
OPTIONS ARE FAR FROm CERTAIN.
ÊY BUYINg SOYBEANS FROm MATO GROSSO, ·HINA AND OTHER NATIONS EffEC-
TIVE±Y CAPTURE RESOURCES FROm THE µmAzON AND ExPORT SOmE OF THEIR ENVIRON-
mENTA± ImPACTS TO THIS DEVE±OPINg REgION. ÊY ONE ESTImATE, 30 PERCENT OF
ÊRAzI±’S CARBON EmISSIONS FROm DEFORESTATION WERE “ExPORTED” BETWEEN 2000
AND 2010. ¾WENTY-NINE PERCENT OF THESE EmISSIONS CAmE FROm SOYBEAN PRO-
DUCTION AND 71 PERCENT FROm CATT±E RANCHINg. ÉIgHER VA±UES FOR CATT±E RANCH-
INg WERE DUE TO mORE ACTIVE C±EARINg FOR PASTURES, WHICH OCCURRED PRImARI±Y
IN µmAzON FORESTS WITH HIgHER BIOmASS (HENCE HIgHER CARBON STOCkS). °E
AmOUNT OF WATER “EmBODIED” IN SOYBEAN ExPORTS TO ·HINA INCREASED FROm 10
TO 38 CUBIC kI±OmETERS BETWEEN 2001–5 AND 2006–10. °IS REPRESENTED ABOUT
23 PERCENT OF A±± THE RAINWATER REqUIRED TO gROW THE CROP ±OCA±±Y. ¾OTA± CARBON
EmISSIONS CAUSED BY SOYBEAN PRODUCTION DURINg THE SAmE PERIOD FE±± FROm
ABOUT 92 mI±±ION TO 78 mI±±ION TONS, mAIN±Y BECAUSE THE TOTA± DEFORESTATION
RATE DEC±INED.
·URRENT±Y, ±ARgE AmOUNTS OF FERTI±IzER ARE ImPORTED TO MATO GROSSO, BUT
ON±Y PART OF THAT FERTI±IzER ±EAVES IN THE HARVESTED gRAIN CROP. °IS ±EAVES BEHIND
±ARgE AmOUNT OF NUTRIENTS IN SOI±S WHERE THEY CONTRIBUTE TO SOI± FERTI±ITY BUT
mAY EVENTUA±±Y CAUSE NUTRIENT ImPACTS TO FRESHWATERS. °OSE ImPACTS mAY BE
RE±ATIVE±Y mINOR FOR PHOSPHORUS BASED ON THE HIgH ABI±ITY OF SOI±S TO BIND FREE
PHOSPHORUS. °EY ARE ±ESS kNOWN AND ±IkE±Y INCREASINg RAPID±Y FOR NITROgEN.
°E TOTA± g±OBA± ±AND AREA OVER WHICH ANY OF THESE ImPACTS COU±D OCCUR mAY
ExP±ODE AgAIN IF ÊRAzI± SUCCESSFU±±Y ExPORTS ITS SOYBEAN-gROWINg ExPERTISE TO
THE STI±± ±ARgE±Y UNCU±TIVATED SAVANNAS OF EASTERN AND SOUTHERN µFRICA.
°E ±ARgEST POTENTIA± ENVIRONmENTA± ImPACT OF CONVERTINg MATO GROSSO’S
FORESTS AND SAVANNAS TO SOYBEANS IS ±IkE±Y THE THREAT TO THE µmAzON C±ImATE
SYSTEm, WHICH mAINTAINS THE REgU±AR WET SEASON RAINFA±± THAT mAkES µmAzON
DRY±AND CROPPINg SYSTEmS POSSIB±E. ÊECAUSE SOYBEAN P±ANTS HAVE ±ESS TOTA± AREA
OF ±EAF SURFACES AND OCCUPY ±AND FOR ON±Y PART OF THE YEAR, SOYBEAN CROP±ANDS
RETURN mUCH ±ESS WATER TO THE ATmOSPHERE THAN THE NATIVE FOREST OR WOODY
SAVANNAS THEY REP±ACED. ¹N SmA±± WATERSHEDS IN MATO GROSSO SOYBEAN REgIONS,
THIS CAUSES A THREE- TO FOURFO±D INCREASE IN RIVER flOW IN STREAmS DRAININg SOY-
BEAN fiE±DS, COmPARED TO THOSE DRAININg EVERgREEN µmAzON FORESTS. °ESE
mEASUREmENTS DO NOT, HOWEVER, ACCOUNT FOR POTENTIA± REDUCTIONS IN RAINFA±±
THAT COU±D OCCUR IF ±ESS WATER IS RECIRCU±ATED TO THE ATmOSPHERE THROUgH NATIVE
VEgETATION. ·URRENT mODE±S INDICATE THAT IN THE XINgU ¼IVER BASIN DECREASED
RAINFA±± CAUSED BY ±OSS OF FOREST COVER HAS APPROxImATE±Y COmPENSATED FOR HIgHER
DISCHARgE CAUSED BY ±OWER EVAPOTRANSPIRATION. ²O THE ±ACk OF OBVIOUS NET
CHANgES IN THE XINgU ¼IVER flOW mAY mASk ExISTINg CHANgES TO THE BASIN’S OVER-
A±± WATER DYNAmICS. °OSE SAmE mODE±S PROjECT A 16 TO 26 PERCENT REDUCTION IN
SOYBEAN CROP PRODUCTION DUE TO CHANgINg RAINFA±± REgImES BY 2040 TO 2050.
ÓUB±E-CROPPINg mAY BE THE fiRST VICTIm OF THESE C±ImATE SHIﬅS BECAUSE THE
gROWINg SEASON ±ENgTHS FOR COmBINED SOYBEAN AND CORN CROPS REqUIRE NEAR±Y
THE FU±± ANNUA± PERIOD OF REgU±AR RAINS.
¹N »CTOBER, TA±k IN THE FARm OffiCES AND FARm TOWNS OF CENTRA± MATO GROSSO
OﬅEN CENTERS ON THE APPEARANCE OF THE A±±-ImPORTANT fiRST RAINS THAT WI±± DETER-
mINE THE TImINg OF THE NEW CROPPINg SEASON’S SOYBEAN P±ANTINg DATES. µ±± OF THE
INVESTmENTS—IN SOI± mANAgEmENT, CROP VARIETIES, ROADS, AND INTERNATIONA± FER-
TI±IzER SUPP±Y CHAINS THAT mADE THE RISE OF THIS REmARkAB±E µmAzON FARmINg
SYSTEm POSSIB±E—FOR THE mOmENT SEEm SECONDARY. °E SAmE qUESTION NOW
CONFRONTS C±ImATE SCIENTISTS. ½EW EVIDENCE SUggESTS THAT THE fiRST EffECTS OF
DEFORESTATION-INDUCED C±ImATE CHANgES WI±± BE AN ExTENSION OF THE DRY SEASON,
BUT BY HOW mUCH AND HOW SOON ARE STI±± UNANSWERED qUESTIONS. ºOR NOW A FARm-
INg SYSTEm CARVED FROm THE EARTH’S gREATEST ExPANSES OF RAIN FOREST AND SAVANNA
STI±± DEPENDS—TO A VERY REA± DEgREE—ON HOW mUCH OF THOSE FORESTS AND WOOD-
±ANDS REmAINS STANDINg. ³xACT±Y HOW ±ONg THIS REmARkAB±E AgRICU±TURA± BOOm
CAN CONTINUE A±mOST CERTAIN±Y RESTS ON THE ANSWER TO THAT qUESTION.
µ¼Ì¸³Á²º¿±¹º¸¶¾
°IS WORk WAS SUPPORTED BY gRANTS FROm THE ½ATIONA± ²CIENCE ºOUNDATION (½²º
´³Ê 1257391, ½²º ¹·³¼ 1342943, ½²º ¹»² 1457662). ÈE THANk ¸AU± LEFEBVRE
FOR PRODUCINg THE figURES, ²TEPHANIE ²PERA FOR DATA ON DOUB±E-CROPPINg IN MATO
GROSSO, AND ÌATHIJO JANkOWSkI FOR COmmENTS ON EAR±IER DRAﬅS.
µNONYmOUS
2010 “°E MIRAC±E OF THE ·ERRADO.” Economist, 26 µUgUST.
LATHUI±±IýRE, M. J., M. ². JOHNSON, G. L. GA±FORD, AND ³. G. ·OUTO

2014 “³NVIRONmENTA± ºOOTPRINTS ²HOW ·HINA AND ³UROPE’S ³VO±VINg ¼ESOURCE
µPPROPRIATION FOR ²OYBEAN ¸RODUCTION IN MATO GROSSO, ÊRAzI±.” Environ-
mental Research Letters 9.7, DOI 10.1088/1748–9326/9/7/074001.
MACEDO, M. ½., ¼. ². ÉºRIES, ´. ·. MORTON, ·. M. ²TICk±ER, G. L. GA±FORD, AND Ó. ³.
²HImABUkURO
2012 “ÉCOUP±INg OF ÉFORESTATION AND ²OY ¸RODUCTION IN THE ²OUTHERN µmA-
zON DURINg THE LATE 2000S.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
109.4: 1341–46.
½EPSTAD, ´. ·., ·. M. ²TICk±ER, AND ». ¾. µ±mEIDA
2006 “G±OBA±IzATION OF THE µmAzON ²OY AND ÊEEF ¹NDUSTRIES: »PPORTUNITIES FOR
·ONSERVATION.” Conservation Biology 20.6: 1595–1603.
²PERA, ²., µ. ². ·OHEN, L. Ì. ÍANÈEY, J. º. MUSTARD, Ê. º. ¼UDORff, J. ¼ISSO, AND M.
µDAmI
2014 “¼ECENT ·ROPPINg ºREqUENCY, ³xPANSION, AND µBANDONmENT IN MATO
GROSSO, ÊRAzI±,ÉAD ²E±ECTIVE LAND ·HARACTERISTICS.” Environmental
Research Letters 9.6, DOI 10.1088/1748–9326/9/6/064010.
ten
Constructing Parallels
braZilian eôperts in ÇoZaÇbiÎue
Wendy Wolford and Ryan Nehring
Ãhere is Çuch talK today OF ²OUTH-²OUTH DEVE±OPmENT THAT INVO±VES

EmERgINg ECONOmIES, SUCH AS ÊRAzI±, ¼USSIA, ¹NDIA, ·HINA, AND ²OUTH µFRICA
(OﬅEN REFERRED TO AS THE Ê¼¹·²), HE±PINg NATIONS IN THE G±OBA± ²OUTH TO
ACHIEVE HIgHER STANDARDS OF HUmAN AND ECONOmIC WE±±-BEINg. »RgANIzATIONS
±IkE THE ÈOR±D ÊANk BE±IEVE THAT ²OUTH-²OUTH DEVE±OPmENT WI±± BE A PARTNER-
SHIP, IN CONTRAST TO TRADITIONA± FORmS OF ½ORTH-²OUTH DEVE±OPmENT, WHICH
HAVE TENDED TO REP±ICATE CO±ONIA± RE±ATIONS AND E±ITE PO±ITICA± INTERESTS. ²OUTH-
²OUTH CONNECTIONS PURPORTED±Y TAkE P±ACE BETWEEN EqUA±S AND DO NOT Offi-
CIA±±Y ImPOSE CONDITIONS OR OB±IgATIONS BECAUSE THEY ARE FED BY CO±±ABORATION,
SO±IDARITY, AND SImI±ARITY.
»NE OF THE kEY P±AYERS IN EmERgINg ²OUTH-²OUTH DEVE±OPmENT DISCOURSES
AND PARTNERSHIPS IS ÊRAzI±. ²INCE THE E±ECTION OF LUIz ¹NáCIO LU±A DA ²I±VA TO
THE PRESIDENCY IN 2002, THE ÊRAzI±IAN gOVERNmENT HAS CREATED FOREIgN ASSIST-
ANCE PROjECTS AROUND THE WOR±D, PARTICU±AR±Y IN LATIN µmERICA AND SUB-
²AHARAN µFRICA.× ¹N THIS CHAPTER, WE FOCUS ON ÊRAzI±-µFRICA RE±ATIONS AS THEY
ARE UNFO±DINg IN THE ARENA OF RURA± DEVE±OPmENT IN ONE COUNTRY, MOzAmBIqUE.
°ERE HAVE ±ONg BEEN DIP±OmATIC CONNECTIONS BETWEEN ÊRAzI± AND
¸ORTUgUESE µFRICA, INC±UDINg MOzAmBIqUE, BUT THEY HAVE NOT BEEN PART OF AN
OVERARCHINg PROgRAm OF PO±ITICA± AND ECONOmIC DEVE±OPmENT. °IS CHANgED
WHEN LU±A TOOk OffiCE. »VER THE COURSE OF HIS TWO TERmS AS PRESIDENT, LU±A
mADE mORE VISITS TO µFRICA THAN A±± OF HIS PREDECESSORS COmBINED. ¹N 2010,
WHEN HE ±Eﬅ THE ExECUTIVE OffiCE, LU±A HAD THE DISTINCTION OF HAVINg mADE
mORE VISITS TO µFRICAN NATIONS THAN ANY OTHER SITTINg PRESIDENT IN WOR±D HIS-
TORY. ÚRINg THE SAmE PERIOD, ÊRAzI±’S FOREIgN mINISTRY, ¹TAmARATY, OPENED
TWENTY NEW EmBASSIES ON THE CONTINENT AND DRAmATICA±±Y INCREASED DEVE±OP-
mENT ASSISTANCE SPENDINg AND PROjECTS. ²OUTH-²OUTH DEVE±OPmENT IN µFRICA
187
REPRESENTS A mEANS FOR ÊRAzI± TO ACqUIRE mORE gEOPO±ITICA± INflUENCE IN THE
REgION, A gOA± THAT mANY µFRICAN ±EADERS SUPPORT. µS THEN-PRESIDENT OF ·APE
ÍERDE, ¸EDRO ¸IRES, SAID AT A mEETINg IN 2010, “ÊRAzI± IS A COUNTRY THAT IS
RESPECTED AND ±ISTENED TO, AND ITS PRESIDENT IS A gREAT DEFENDER OF µFRICA’S
INTERESTS. ¹T SHOU±D HAVE A PERmANENT SEAT ON THE ¶NITED ½ATIONS ²ECURITY
·OUNCI±.”
¹N mANY WAYS, IT IS ±OgICA± FOR ÊRAzI± TO BE TAkINg UP THE REINS OF ²OUTH-
²OUTH DEVE±OPmENT. °E COUNTRY HAD REmARkAB±E SUCCESS IN THE fiRST DECADE
OF THE NEW mI±±ENNIUm COmBATINg POVERTY, HUNgER, mA±NUTRITION, AND I±±IT-
ERACY. »NE OF THE kEY FACTORS BEHIND THIS SUCCESS HAS BEEN THE gROWTH AND
SPREAD OF THE COUNTRY’S AgRO-INDUSTRIA± SECTOR. ºROm 1975 TO 2010, ÊRAzI± WENT
FROm BEINg A NET FOOD ImPORTER TO ONE OF THE TOP PRODUCERS AND ExPORTERS IN
THE WOR±D OF kEY COmmODITIES SUCH AS CORN, WHEAT, SOY, SUgAR, AND COTTON.
µgRICU±TURA± ExPORTS FROm THE AgRO-INDUSTRIA± SECTOR ACCOUNTED FOR A THIRD OF
A±± ExPORTS IN 2010 AND mORE THAN A fiﬅH OF G´¸, WHICH HAS HE±PED TO OPEN
fiSCA± SPACE FOR PUB±IC WE±FARE PROgRAmS ±IkE THE POPU±AR ÊO±SA ºAmí±IA CASH
TRANSFER SCHEmE, WHICH PROVIDES mONTH±Y PAYmENTS TO POOR FAmI±IES, CONDI-
TIONA± ON CHI±DREN ATTENDINg SCHOO± AND gETTINg VACCINATED.
µS ÊRAzI± INVESTS IN DEVE±OPmENT ABROAD, A kEY COmPONENT OF THE COUNTRY’S
WORk BUI±DS ON ITS SUCCESSES IN AgRICU±TURA± PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY,
PARTICU±AR±Y IN SUB-²AHARAN µFRICA. ¹N 2006, LU±A INAUgURATED THE µFRICAN
HEADqUARTERS OF THE ÊRAzI±IAN µgRICU±TURA± ¼ESEARCH ·ORPORATION (³mBRAPA),
IN µCCRA, GHANA, AND BY 2015, NINE mORE ³mBRAPA TRAININg, RESEARCH, AND
DEVE±OPmENT CENTERS HAD BEEN ESTAB±ISHED THROUgHOUT THE CONTINENT.
µCCORDINg TO THE STATE-OWNED AgENCY, ITS SCIENTISTS ARE “ExPORTERS OF kNOW±-
EDgE” WHO PROmOTE AgRICU±TURA± DEVE±OPmENT THROUgH gERmP±ASm ExCHANgES,
CAPACITY TRAININg WORkSHOPS, TECHNO±OgY DEVE±OPmENT AND TRANSFER, AND mAR-
kET INTENSIfiCATION. ÊRAzI± IS WE±± RECOgNIzED AS HAVINg BUI±T ONE OF THE mOST
SUCCESSFU± ±ARgE-SCA±E AgRO-INDUSTRIES OVER THE PAST FORTY YEARS AND IS “PAYINg
ITS AgRICU±TURA± SUCCESS FORWARD,” ACCORDINg TO ONE ¶²µ¹´ REPORT.
°E SECRETS OF ÊRAzI±’S SUCCESS WITH AgRICU±TURA± PRODUCTION ARE PARTICU±AR±Y
DESIRAB±E INTERNATIONA±±Y IN THE WAkE OF mU±TIP±E FOOD CRISES SUCH AS THE DOU-
B±INg OF g±OBA± FOOD PRICES IN 2007–8 AND AgAIN IN 2011. ¼EPRESENTATIVES OF
THE ¶NITED ½ATIONS SUggESTED IN 2008 THAT FOOD PRODUCTION NEEDED TO DOU-
B±E IN THE NExT THIRTY YEARS. °IS HAS SPURRED A mASSIVE HUNT FOR NEW ±AND AND
TECHNO±OgIES AROUND THE g±OBE. ºOR INVESTORS OF VARIOUS kINDS, FROm STATE-
OWNED ENTERPRISES IN THE MIDD±E ³AST AND µSIA TO PRIVATE INVESTORS, CORPORA-
TIONS, AND ±ARgE RETIREmENT FUNDS ±IkE ¾¹µµ-·¼³º, ±AND HAS BECOmE ONE OF
188 • ch a p ter ten

THE mOST ATTRACTIVE ASSET C±ASSES, WITH ExPECTATIONS THAT IT WI±± PROVIDE RETURNS
OF OVER 20 PERCENT IN THE EVENT OF ONgOINg CONSUmPTION INCREASES AND PRICE
SHOCkS.
ÊETWEEN 2008 AND 2013 A±ONE, CONSERVATIVE ESTImATES SUggEST THAT THE
AmOUNT OF ±AND CHANgINg HANDS ANNUA±±Y INCREASED fiﬅEEN- TO TWENTY-FO±D
OVER THE ANNUA± AVERAgE FOR THE PRECEDINg FORTY YEARS. °IS RUSH TO ACqUIRE
±AND IS REFERRED TO BY mANY AS THE g±OBA± ±AND gRAB, AND IT IS PREDICATED ON
INEqUA±ITIES THAT mANIFEST AS “HIgH-YIE±D gAPS” WHERE ±OCA± PRODUCTION YIE±DS
PER HECTARE DO NOT YET mEET THE ±EVE±S ACHIEVED BY THE mOST PRODUCTIVE FARm-
ERS g±OBA±±Y. ¹T IS BE±IEVED THAT CREATINg ±ARgE-SCA±E, mODERNIzED FARmS USINg
INDUSTRIA± TECHNIqUES ON THIS UNDERPRODUCINg ±AND WI±± REAP HIgH YIE±DS IN
BOTH COmmODITY CROPS AND fiNANCIA± PROfiTS. °IS IS WHERE ÊRAzI±IAN AgRICU±-
TURA± DEVE±OPmENT PROjECTS HAVE FOCUSED THEIR EffORTS: ON PROVIDINg THE SCIEN-
TIfiC AND TECHNO±OgICA± BASIS FOR ImPROVINg FARm PRODUCTIVITY IN SUB-²AHARAN
µFRICA. ¹N THE WORDS OF AN ³mBRAPA SOI± SCIENTIST, THE AIm IS TO CREATE “INTE±-
±IgENT FARmS IN ANY PART OF THE WOR±D.”
MOzAmBIqUE IS ONE OF SEVERA± FORmER ¸ORTUgUESE CO±ONIES IN µFRICA WHERE,
AS IN ÊRAzI±, ¸ORTUgUESE IS SPOkEN. ¹T IS THE SINg±E ±ARgEST RECIPIENT OF ÊRAzI±IAN
ASSISTANCE AND HOmE TO THE CONTROVERSIA± AgRICU±TURA± DEVE±OPmENT PROjECT
¸RO²µÍµ½µ. ¸RO²µÍµ½µ I±±USTRATES THE WAYS IN WHICH ²OUTH-²OUTH
DEVE±OPmENT INITIATIVES P±AY OUT IN THE CONTExT OF SIgNIfiCANT INEqUA±ITIES
BETWEEN VARIOUS ACTORS WITHIN THE SO-CA±±ED ²OUTH. ÈE SHOW HOW DEVE±OP-
mENT ExPERTS, gOVERNmENT OffiCIA±S, SCIENTISTS, AND AgRARIAN E±ITES USE THE
NOTION OF “PARA±±E±S,” OR SImI±ARITIES, TO jUSTIFY DEVE±OPmENT PROjECTS BETWEEN
ÊRAzI± AND MOzAmBIqUE. ÉOWEVER, WE SUggEST THAT A COmPARISON OF ±AND-
±ABOR RE±ATIONS IN THE TWO COUNTRIES I±±USTRATES THE SA±IENCE OF DIffERENCE RATHER
THAN SImI±ARITY.
ÈE OUT±INE THE HISTORY OF AgRICU±TURA± DEVE±OPmENT IN ÊRAzI±, IN PARTICU-
±AR, THE DEVE±OPmENT OF THE PROgRAm ¸RO·ERRADO, ON WHICH ¸RO²µÍµ½µ IS
BASED. ÈE SUggEST THAT ¸RO²µÍµ½µ IS UNFO±DINg VERY DIffERENT±Y THAN
¸RO·ERRADO IN ÊRAzI± BECAUSE OF DIffERENCES IN THE WAY THAT ±AND, ±ABOR, AND
CAPITA± ARE USED AND ExCHANgED IN THE TWO COUNTRIES. ¸RIVATE±Y OWNED ±AND
AND COmmAND OVER WAgE ±ABOR AND CAPITA± CONTINUE TO BE NECESSARY FOR mAR-
kET ExCHANgE AND CAPITA±IST DEVE±OPmENT, BUT THEY ARE NOT A±WAYS FREE±Y AVAI±-
AB±E AS COmmODITIES. ÈE ExAmINE THE DIffERENT WAYS IN WHICH THESE FACTORS
HAVE BEEN PRODUCED AND PUT TO WORk IN THE ÊRAzI±IAN ·ERRADO AND THE
MOzAmBICAN SAVANNAH, ±EARNINg FROm INTERVIEWS WE CONDUCTED WITH
³mBRAPA PERSONNE± AND OffiCIA±S FROm THE ÊRAzI±IAN ·OOPERATION µgENCY IN
åonstruct i n¿ Àa r a llels • 189

ÊRAzI±, AS WE±± AS ³mBRAPA STAff WORkINg ABROAD IN MOzAmBIqUE BETWEEN
MARCH 2013 AND µUgUST 2014.
braZil and ÇoZaÇbiÎue:

connected at the hip
MI±±IONS OF YEARS AgO, ÊRAzI± AND µFRICA WERE jOINED IN A SINg±E
±ANDmASS.
world banK, Bridging the Atlantic, Brazil
and Sub-Saharan AÄica
¸RO·ERRADO, THE BASIS FOR ¸RO²µÍµ½µ, WAS A TRI±ATERA± DEVE±OPmENT PRO-

gRAm PIONEERED IN THE 1970S BY THE ¶NITED ²TATES, JAPAN, AND ÊRAzI± AS A WAY
TO BRINg AgRICU±TURA± mODERNIzATION AND mARkET DEVE±OPmENT TO ÊRAzI±’S
INTERNA± FRONTIER, THE VAST gRASS±ANDS OF THE ·ERRADO IN THE CENTER-WEST OF THE
COUNTRY. °E TERm cerrado ±ITERA±±Y mEANS “C±OSED” IN ¸ORTUgUESE, SYmBO±Iz-
INg THE ImAgINARY OF THE REgION AS EmPTY, FORBIDDINg, AND BARREN BEFORE THE
1970S. °E TRANSFORmATION OF THE REgION WAS A PRODUCT OF STATE-±ED, ±ARgE-SCA±E
mODERNIzATION FUE±ED BY AgRICU±TURA± ExPERTISE FROm THE ¶NITED ²TATES. °E
mI±ITARY gOVERNmENT IN ÊRAzI± IN POWER DURINg THE 1970S PROVIDED INCENTIVES
TO FARmERS FROm THE SOUTH OF THE COUNTRY WHO COU±D INDUSTRIA±IzE THEIR PRO-
DUCTION RAPID±Y WITH ExISTINg kNOW±EDgE OF mECHANIzED FARmINg AT SCA±E.
µgRICU±TURA± ExPERTISE IN FARmINg AT SCA±E CAmE FROm ExTENSION AgENTS
WITH THE ¶.². µgENCY FOR ¹NTERNATIONA± ÉVE±OPmENT (¶²µ¹´) WHO WORkED
TO PROmOTE AgRICU±TURA± DEVE±OPmENT IN ÊRAzI± THROUgH TRANSFERS OF TECHNO±-
OgY SUCH AS mECHANIzED FARmINg AND gENETIC RESEARCH AS WE±± AS TRAININg AND
SCIENTIfiC EDUCATION. ¶²µ¹´ CONTRIBUTED APPROxImATE±Y ¶.².$40 mI±±ION TO
SUPPORT THE WORk OF ¸EDRO ²ANCHEz, WHO WON THE ÈOR±D ºOOD ¸RIzE IN 2002
FOR RESEARCH ON SOI± FERTI±ITY CONDUCTED IN ÊRAzI± DURINg THE 1970S AND 1980S. Ø
²ANCHEz WAS A SOI± SCIENTIST AT ½ORTH ·ARO±INA ²TATE ¶NIVERSITY, WHERE HE ±ED
THE CAmPAIgN TO “TURN THE ACIDIC, TROPICA± SOI±S OF THE ·ERRADO REgION OF ÊRAzI±
INTO 75 mI±±ION ACRES OF PRODUCTIVE FARm±AND.”
¾O mEDIATE THE TRANSFER OF AgRICU±TURA± ExPERTISE AND FACI±ITATE CO±ONIzATION
OF THE ·ERRADO FRONTIER, THE ÊRAzI±IAN mI±ITARY gOVERNmENT CREATED ³mBRAPA
IN 1973. °ROUgHOUT THE 1970S, A mAjORITY OF THE ORgANIzATION’S PERSONNE± WERE
TRAINED AT ¶.². UNIVERSITIES IN AgRICU±TURA± AND VETERINARY SCIENCES. °ESE
HIgH±Y SPECIA±IzED ³mBRAPA AgRONOmISTS THEN WORkED WITH FARmERS THROUgH-
OUT ÊRAzI±, PARTICU±AR±Y “mODERN” PRODUCERS FROm THE SOUTH, WHO WERE OffERED

gENEROUS CREDIT TERmS TO BUY CHEAP ±AND AND fiNANCE INVESTmENT IN THE REgION.
µ FORmER ExECUTIVE DIRECTOR OF ³mBRAPA SAID IN A PERSONA± INTERVIEW THAT
“±AND IN [THE STATE OF] ÊAHIA WAS SO CHEAP THAT YOU COU±D BUY A HECTARE WITH A
PACk OF CIgARETTES, SO FARmERS FROm THE SOUTH REA±IzED THEY COU±D SE±± [THEIR
FAmI±Y FARmS] AND mOVE NORTH TO OWN FOUR OR fiVE TImES THE ±AND.”
»VER THE NExT TWENTY YEARS, THE DRAmATIC RISE AND SUCCESS OF SOYBEAN PRO-
DUCTION PROmPTED ENTHUSIASTIC COmPARISONS BETWEEN THE ·ERRADO AND THE
¶.². MIDWEST. µ POETIC 1999 ARTIC±E IN THE Economist DESCRIBED THE ·ERRADO
AS “A ±ImIT±ESS gREEN PRAIRIE CARPETED WITH SWE±±INg CROPS.” “°E mONOTONY OF
THE ±ANDSCAPE,” IT CONTINUED, “IS BROkEN ON±Y BY THE ARTIFACTS OF mODERN AgRI-
BUSINESS: A CROP-DUSTINg P±ANE SWOOPS ±OW OVER THE PRAIRIE TO RE±EASE ITS
CHEmICA± C±OUD, WHI±E THE OCCASIONA± FARmHOUSES HAVE gIANT HARVESTINg
mACHINES ±INED UP IN THE YARD OUTSIDE. ¹T COU±D BE THE mID-WESTERN ¶NITED
²TATES. ¹N FACT, IT IS THE VERY HEART OF TROPICA± ²OUTH µmERICA, ITS CENTRA± WATER-
SHED, IN THE ÊRAzI±IAN STATE OF MATO GROSSO.” Ù
°E WAY IN WHICH SCIENCE, AgRICU±TURE, INDUSTRY, AND THE STATE WERE BROUgHT
TOgETHER IN THE ·ERRADO ENCOURAgED ±ARgE-SCA±E ExPORT PRODUCTION STANDARDIzED
FOR g±OBA± mARkETS. ÈITH TECHNO±OgICA± AND fiNANCIA± SUPPORT FROm ¶²µ¹´,
SCIENTIfiC kNOW±EDgE FROm ³mBRAPA PRIVI±EgED ±ARgE-SCA±E, HIgH±Y CAPITA±IzED
FARmERS WHO WERE AmENAB±E TO mODERN TECHNO±OgY AND PRODUCTION mETHODS.
ÈHI±E THERE ARE ONgOINg CONCERNS ABOUT THE SUSTAINABI±ITY OF THE REgION (µ±TAIR
²A±ES ÊARBOSA, A ±EADINg ARCHAEO±OgIST WHO WORkS IN THE REgION, HAS gONE SO FAR
AS TO SAY THAT THE ENTIRE ·ERRADO BIOmE HAS NOW BECOmE “ExTINCT”), THE ABI±ITY
TO FARm THE gRASS±AND FRONTIER HAS PROPE±±ED ÊRAzI±IAN AgRIBUSINESS INTO g±OBA±
±EADERSHIP. ¹NNOVATIONS DEVE±OPED THROUgH RESEARCH AT ³mBRAPA HE±PED ÊRAzI±
BECOmE THE AgRICU±TURA± COmmODITY gIANT IT IS TODAY. ¹NCREASINg±Y, THE SUCCESS
OF THE ·ERRADO HAS PROmPTED mANY TO ASk WHETHER THE ÊRAzI±IAN mIRAC±E CAN BE
ExPORTED TO µFRICA TO ADDRESS RISINg g±OBA± FOOD INSECURITY.
°E ANSWER IS ¸RO²µÍµ½µ. °IS TWENTY-YEAR PROgRAm FUNDED BY THE
ÊRAzI±IAN ·OOPERATION µgENCY (µÊ·) AND THE JAPANESE ¹NTERNATIONA±
·OOPERATION µgENCY (J¹·µ) IS INTENDED FOR THE NORTHERN ½ACA±A ·ORRIDOR
IN MOzAmBIqUE WHERE THE mOST FAVORAB±E HIgH-YIE±D gAPS ARE DEEmED TO ExIST.
¹F P±ANTED TO COmmODITY CROPS WITH mODERN mETHODS AND INPUTS BY ±ARgE-
SCA±E FARmERS, THIS REgION IS ENVISIONED TO BECOmE THE BREADBASkET OF SOUTHERN
µFRICA. ÈHEN WE INTERVIEWED THE DIRECTOR OF ¸RO²µÍµ½µ IN MOzAmBIqUE’S
CAPITA±, MAPUTO, HE POINTED ENTHUSIASTICA±±Y WEST TO ËAmBIA AND MA±AWI AND
EAST THROUgH THE SECOND-DEEPEST OCEAN PORT ON THE EASTERN COAST OF µFRICA
STRAIgHT TO THE HIgH±Y ±UCRATIVE mARkETS OF ³AST µSIA. µ±THOUgH THE PROjECT

ON±Y OffiCIA±±Y STARTED IN 2013, A YEAR ±ATER RESEARCHERS FROm ÊRAzI± WERE CON-
DUCTINg fiE±D TRIA±S OF NEW VARIETIES FOR SE±ECTED CROPS, NAmE±Y, CORN, SOY, RICE,
WHEAT, AND SUgAR. ¾OgETHER, THE ÊRAzI±IANS AND JAPANESE ARE BUI±DINg NEW
±ABORATORIES FOR FURTHER RESEARCH, ImPORTINg AgRICU±TURA± mACHINERY, AND
P±ANNINg mODE± ExPOSITION FARmS.
¸RO²µÍµ½µ INTENDS TO STRENgTHEN THE CAPABI±ITIES OF INNOVATION AND
ExTENSION SYSTEmS IN STRATEgIC AREAS (ExP±ICIT±Y THE ½ACA±A ·ORRIDOR) TO
ImPROVE RURA± DEVE±OPmENT AND FOOD SECURITY AND INCREASE ExPORTAB±E SUR-
P±USES. µCCORDINg TO ³mBRAPA, 14.2 mI±±ION HECTARES OF ARAB±E ±AND HAVE BEEN
IDENTIfiED AS SUITAB±E FOR FU±± mECHANIzATION, AND IT IS ESTImATED THAT ON±Y 30
PERCENT OF ARAB±E ±AND APPROPRIATE FOR AgRICU±TURE IS BEINg UTI±IzED. °E SOI±
HAS gOOD NATURA± CHARACTERISTICS, WITH ±ImESTONE AND PHOSPHATE A±READY AVAI±-
AB±E BASED ON ±AND SURVEYS AND SOI± ANA±YSES THAT HAVE BEEN CONDUCTED.
³xTENSION AgENTS FROm ³mBRAPA AND THE MOzAmBICAN ¹NSTITUTE FOR
µgRICU±TURA± ¼ESEARCH (¹¹µM) HAVE IDENTIfiED TWE±VE DISTRICTS IN THE NORTH-
ERN PROVINCES OF ½AmPU±A AND ½IASSA FOR THE EAR±Y PHASE OF THE WORk, WHICH
BEgAN IN 2011.
ÊRAzI±’S ACTIONS THROUgH ¸RO²µÍµ½µ ARE CONSIDERED BY THE ÈOR±D ÊANk
TO BE PARADIgmATIC OF THE POTENTIA± OF ²OUTH-²OUTH DEVE±OPmENT. ÊRAzI±IAN
DIP±OmATS PRIDE THEmSE±VES ON DOINg DEVE±OPmENT DIffERENT±Y THAN ½ORTH-
²OUTH »ffiCIA± ÉVE±OPmENT µSSISTANCE (»´µ): ÊRAzI±’S DEVE±OPmENT WORk
IN µFRICA IS NOT AID; ÊRAzI±IAN PUB±IC INVESTmENTS IN µFRICA gO THROUgH µÊ·,
UNDER THE MINISTRY OF ºOREIgN ¼E±ATIONS. ¸ROgRAm OffiCERS ARE NOT IN THE BUSI-
NESS OF “DONATIONS”; RATHER, ÊRAzI±-µFRICA COOPERATION IS A PARTNERSHIP FOR
TRANSFERRINg kNOW±EDgE. µS THE HEAD OF ONE ÊRAzI±-MOzAmBIqUE PROjECT TO±D
US, THE ÊRAzI±IANS DO NOT WANT TO CU±TIVATE DEPENDENCY, SO THEY DON’T PROVIDE
“UNNECESSARY” ASSISTANCE: “¹F ¹ HO±D A ONE-WEEk TRAININg SESSION, ¹ CAN’T BUY
PEOP±E COOkIES OR EVEN BOTT±ES OF WATER. °EY HAVE TO PROVIDE THAT.”
µND SUPPORT FOR THIS mODE OF CO±±ABORATION RATHER THAN »´µ IS C±EAR IN
mEDIA REPORTS, OffiCIA± DOCUmENTS, AND THE ExPRESSIONS OF THE PEOP±E WHO
REPRESENT THE ÊRAzI±IAN AND MOzAmBICAN gOVERNmENTS. »ffiCIA±±Y, THE ±OgIC
BEHIND ÊRAzI±’S ASSISTANCE TO MOzAmBICAN AgRICU±TURE TURNS ON THE NOTION OF
SImI±ARITY—OR WHAT THE ÊRAzI±IANS CA±± “PARA±±E±S”—BOTH IN PRINTED DOCU-
mENTS AND IN CONVERSATION. ºROm mEDIA REPORTS, mATERIA± WRITTEN BY PARTICI-
PATINg ORgANIzATIONS, AND INTERVIEWS WITH kEY PROjECT PERSONNE±, THREE mAIN
SImI±ARITIES BETWEEN MOzAmBIqUE AND ÊRAzI± ARE BEINg INVOkED.
°E fiRST PARA±±E± IS ECO±OgICA±. ¹N THIS SENSE, THE CONCEPT OF PARA±±E±S DERIVES
FROm ·ARTESIAN ±OgIC THAT E±IDES SOCIOECO±OgICA± DIffERENCE THROUgH ±ATITUDINA±

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EUQIBMAZOM - TCEJORP HANNAVAS ORP
CATEgORIES SUCH AS THE TROPICS, SAVANNAS, AND CORRIDORS. ³mBRAPA IS CARRYINg OUT
A SATE±±ITE mONITORINg PROjECT, APT±Y NAmED paralelos (PARA±±E±S), TO gENERATE AN
ECO±OgICA± AND gEOgRAPHIC DATABASE THROUgH G¹² THAT mAPS OUT MOzAmBIqUE’S
NATURA± FEATURES WITH SPECIfiC DETAI±S ON THE ½ACA±A ·ORRIDOR. °E ÊRAzI±IANS
INVOkE PARA±±E±S BECAUSE THE REgION OF THE COUNTRY’S gREATEST AgRICU±TURA± SUC-
CESS SITS AT ROUgH±Y THE SAmE ±ATITUDE AS THIS PART OF MOzAmBIqUE, THE REgION
CONSIDERED TO SUSTAIN THE ±ARgEST HIgH-YIE±D gAP.
ÉISTORICA±±Y, ÊRAzI±IAN FOREIgN PO±ICY AND TERRITORIA±ITY WAS PREmISED ON THE
NOTION OF “±IVINg BORDERS,” WHICH EmPHASIzED ENgAgEmENT WITH NEIgHBORINg
COUNTRIES AND RHETORICA±±Y FAVORED COOPERATION OVER SEPARATION. °E ÈOR±D
ÊANk HAS TAkEN THIS NOTION TO AN ExTREmE, INVOkINg THE SUPERCONTINENT OF
¸ANgAEA (300 mI±±ION–200 mI±±ION YEARS AgO) TO SUggEST THAT ±IVINg BORDERS
ONCE ExISTED (IN gEO±OgIC TImE) BETWEEN ÊRAzI± AND µFRICA. ÊECAUSE OF THIS
PREHISTORIC PROxImITY AND ±ATITUDINA± EqUIVA±ENCE, ÊRAzI± AND MOzAmBIqUE
ARE THOUgHT TO SHARE ECO±OgICA± CHARACTERISTICS SUCH AS TROPICA± C±ImATE AND
±ANDSCAPE, WHICH SUPPORTS THE IDEA THAT THE TRANSFER OF ExPERTISE AND TECHNO±-
OgY IS A “NATURA±” PARTNERSHIP.
°E SECOND SET OF SImI±ARITIES BEINg INVOkED BETWEEN ÊRAzI± AND MOzAmBIqUE
DERIVE FROm THEIR COmmON CO±ONIA± HERITAgE. °IS IDEA OF “±USOTROPICA±ISm,” OR
SEEINg µFRICA AS AN ExTENSION OF ¸ORTUgUESE SOI±, IS A kEY PIECE OF THE ARgUmENT
THAT “FUTURE ÊRAzI±S” CAN ExIST IN FORmER ¸ORTUgUESE CO±ONIES. °E SHARED ExPERI-
ENCE OF ¸ORTUgUESE CO±ONIzATION WOU±D PERHAPS BE mEANINg±ESS gIVEN THE
ExTREmE DIffERENCE IN THE ExPERIENCES OF ÊRAzI± AND MOzAmBIqUE AND THE ±ACk OF
REA± INSTITUTIONA± COHERENCE OR CONVERgENCE AS A RESU±T. ÉOWEVER, THE TWO COUN-
TRIES DO SHARE A COmmON ±ANgUAgE, AND mANY PEOP±E INTERVIEWED IN MOzAmBIqUE
SUggESTED THAT THIS SImI±ARITY WAS THE kEY ÊRAzI±IAN ADVANTAgE IN THEIR COUNTRY.
MOST OF THE OTHER DEVE±OPmENT WORkERS, ONE WOmAN FROm ¶²µ¹´ SAID, SPEAk
³Ng±ISH, SO WHEN ÊRAzI±IANS SPEAk ¸ORTUgUESE, IT’S “±IkE THEY’RE NOT COmINg IN
FROm THE OUTSIDE IN THE SAmE WAY.”
°E THIRD SImI±ARITY BETWEEN ÊRAzI± AND MOzAmBIqUE gOES BEYOND CO±O-
NIzATION TO THEIR COmmON ROOTS IN INDIgENOUS µFRICA. °AT THESE ROOTS CAmE
TO ÊRAzI± THROUgH FOUR CENTURIES OF S±AVERY IS NOT USUA±±Y DWE±±ED ON; RATHER,
OffiCIA± DISCOURSE—PARTICU±AR±Y THAT PROVIDED BY FORmER PRESIDENT LU±A—
INVOkES CU±TURA± SImI±ARITIES BETWEEN ÊRAzI± AND µFRICA THAT CAN ON±Y BE
ExP±AINED BY THEIR SHARED B±OOD. “°E ÊRAzI±IAN PEOP±E,” LU±A SAID AT THE
INAUgURATION OF ³mBRAPA’S µFRICAN HEADqUARTERS IN 2006, “OWE THEIR CO±OR,
THEIR HAPPINESS, THEIR DANCES, AND A ±ARgE PART OF THEIR CU±TURE TO OUR µFRICAN
BROTHERS.” °E SUggESTION THAT S±AVERY HAS CREATED A BOND BETWEEN THE TWO

REgIONS RATHER THAN A BARRIER DERIVES FROm A PECU±IAR±Y ÊRAzI±IAN RENDERINg OF
S±AVE RE±ATIONS IN WHICH mASTER AND S±AVE WERE BOUND TOgETHER BY TIES OF AffEC-
TION AND CARE RATHER THAN DISCIP±INE AND PUNISHmENT.
critiÎuin¿ descartes:
froÇ parallels to privatiZation
°E NOTION OF PARA±±E±S IS SEDUCTIVE, BUT THE TERm “²OUTH-²OUTH” HIgH±IgHTS

THE DANgERS OF ·ARTESIAN ±OgIC THAT ASCRIBES SImI±AR CHARACTERISTICS TO gROUPS
OF COUNTRIES ON THE SAmE ±ATITUDINA± COORDINATES AND FAI±S TO DO jUSTICE TO
CONSIDERAB±E PO±ITICA±, ECONOmIC, AND SOCIA± DIffERENCES. ¹T IS DIffiCU±T TO PUT
MOzAmBIqUE AND ÊRAzI± IN THE SAmE CATEgORY OF THE ²OUTH gIVEN THAT ÊRAzI±
IS THE SEVENTH ±ARgEST ECONOmY IN THE WOR±D WITH A PER CAPITA INCOmE OF OVER
TWENTY TImES THAT OF MOzAmBIqUE. ½OT ON±Y IS ÊRAzI± AN “EmERgINg” ECONOmY
qUITE DISTINCT FROm mOST OTHERS IN THE G±OBA± ²OUTH, THE PROjECT ÊRAzI± IS
ImP±EmENTINg IN MOzAmBIqUE IS REA±±Y A TRI±ATERA± AgREEmENT BETWEEN ÊRAzI±
AND THE ½ORTH: THE ¶NITED ²TATES AND JAPAN.Ú ³VEN THE NOTION THAT ¸ORTUgUESE
ANCESTRY UNITES ÊRAzI± AND MOzAmBIqUE IS PROB±EmATIC gIVEN THAT ¸ORTUgA±’S
INflUENCE OVER ÊRAzI± ±ARgE±Y ENDED IN THE EAR±Y NINETEENTH CENTURY, WITH
¸ORTUgA± THE WEAkER OF THE TWO WHEN ÊRAzI± DEC±ARED INDEPENDENCE IN 1822.
¹N CONTRAST, ¸ORTUgA± ExERTED THE mOST INflUENCE IN MOzAmBIqUE DURINg THE
mID- TO ±ATE TWENTIETH CENTURY, WHEN ¸ORTUgA± WAS UNDER THE DICTATORSHIP OF
µNTONIO DE »±IVEIRA ²A±AzAR. ²A±AzAR ImP±EmENTED A AUTHORITARIAN FORm OF
NATIONA±ISTIC CORPORATISm IN MOzAmBIqUE THAT OPERATED THROUgH A SmA±± E±ITE
FOR THE PURPOSES OF INDIRECT CO±ONIzATION AND RESOURCE ExTRACTION.
¾O UNDERSTAND WHAT IS HAPPENINg IN MOzAmBIqUE BEYOND THE RHETORIC OF
PARA±±E±S, THEN, REqUIRES THAT WE ANA±YzE THE mAkINg OF SO-CA±±ED mODERN
AgRICU±TURE IN BOTH COUNTRIES. ¾O DO THIS, WE FOCUS ON THE THREE FACTORS OF
PRODUCTION NECESSARY FOR mARkET-BASED mODERN AgRICU±TURE: ±AND, ±ABOR, AND
CAPITA±. ¹N WHAT FO±±OWS, WE DISCUSS THE NATURE OF ±AND, ±ABOR, AND CAPITA± IN
MOzAmBIqUE BY SITUATINg THEm HISTORICA±±Y IN COmPARISON TO ÊRAzI±. ÓINg
SO HIgH±IgHTS THE ImPORTANCE OF DIffERENCE RATHER THAN SImI±ARITY.
Creating Land
°E fiRST DIffERENCE BETWEEN ÊRAzI± AND MOzAmBIqUE IS IN THE RE±ATIONSHIP
BETWEEN PEOP±E AND THE ±AND. LAND IS PERHAPS THE mOST ImPORTANT E±EmENT

OF RURA± SOCIETY. °E WAY IN WHICH IT IS ACCESSED, USED, OWNED, CARED FOR,
AND ±IVED ON IS FUNDAmENTA±±Y ImPORTANT FOR EVERYTHINg FROm THE WEA±TH OF
NATIONS TO HOUSEHO±D ±IVE±IHOODS. ºROm THE ENC±OSURES OF THE ³Ng±ISH
COmmONS STARTINg IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY TO ÉERNANDO DE ²OTO’S “OTHER
PATH” OF ±AND TIT±INg PROgRAmS AND THE FORmA±IzATION OF “DEAD” CAPITA±, THE
CONCEPT AND PROjECT OF DEVE±OPmENT HAS mEANT THE TRANSFORmATION OF ±IFE ON
THE ±AND.
¹N MOzAmBIqUE A±± ±AND IS STATE-OWNED AND HAS BEEN SINCE INDEPENDENCE
IN 1975. ¸OST-INDEPENDENCE MOzAmBIqUE WAS gOVERNED BY A SINg±E SOCIA±IST
PARTY, ºRE±ImO (ºRENTE DE LIBERTAüöO DE MOüAmBIqUE), WHICH ABO±ISHED CO±O-
NIA± P±ANTATIONS AND ESTAB±ISHED CO±±ECTIVE FARmS. °E RISE OF A COUNTERREVO±U-
TIONARY PARTY, ¼ENAmO (¼ESISTêNCIA ½ACIONA± MOüAmBICANA), PUSHED THE
COUNTY INTO A DEVASTATINg CIVI± WAR DURINg WHICH mANY OF THE CO±±ECTIVES WERE
ABANDONED, A±ONg WITH ANY SYSTEmATIC EffORT TO mODERNIzE AgRICU±TURE. ¹T WAS
NOT UNTI± THE ¼OmE ¸EACE µCCORDS IN 1992 THAT THE CONflICT ENDED AND ±AND
ISSUES BECAmE A PRIORITY OF THE NEW DEmOCRATIC gOVERNmENT. ¾WO kEY PIECES
OF ±EgIS±ATION WERE PASSED IN 1997, THE NATIONA± LAND ¸O±ICY AND LAND
LAW, THAT CODIfiED ±AND AS STATE-OWNED WHI±E A±SO RECOgNIzINg TRADITIONA±
±AND TENURE SYSTEmS THROUgH ±AND USE RIgHTS (OffiCIA±±Y CA±±ED ´¶µ¾S). °E
´¶µ¾ SYSTEm gIVES INDIVIDUA±S AND COmmUNITIES THE RIgHT TO CERTIFY THEIR
OCCUPANCY AND USE OF THE ±AND; THE mOST COmmON USE RIgHT IS FOR TRADITIONA±
COmmUNITIES THAT WORk THE ±AND CO±±ECTIVE±Y OR IN VERY SmA±± HOUSEHO±D AND
INDIVIDUA± P±OTS THAT RANgE FROm ONE TO fiVE HECTARES. µ fiVE-HECTARE P±OT, WE
WERE TO±D BY AN ASTONISHED ÊRAzI±IAN, IS A ±ARgE FARm IN MOzAmBIqUE. ¾ODAY,
MOzAmBIqUE IS STI±± ±ARgE±Y AN AgRARIAN SOCIETY, WITH A VAST mAjORITY OF ITS
POPU±ATION PEASANTS, mIgRANT ±ABORERS, COmmERCIA± FARmERS, AND TRADITIONA±
E±ITES.
°E ISSUE WITH ±AND USE IN MOzAmBIqUE IS THAT OffiCIA±±Y THERE IS NO FORmA±
±AND mARkET; ±AND CANNOT BE BOUgHT OR SO±D BECAUSE IT A±± BE±ONgS TO THE STATE.
·ORPORATIONS AND FOREIgNERS CAN APP±Y FOR USE RIgHTS, THOUgH THE ±ATTER CAN
ON±Y ACCESS ±EASES FOR UP TO 50 YEARS, RENEWAB±E FOR ANOTHER 49 (mAkINg IT THE
TRADITIONA± 99-YEAR ±EASE SO FAmI±IAR TO STUDENTS OF CO±ONIA± HISTORY). ¾O SAY
THAT ±ANDOWNERSHIP IN ÊRAzI± IS ±ARgE±Y PRIVATE AND THAT IN MOzAmBIqUE IT IS
±ARgE±Y STATE-OWNED IS TO g±OSS OVER A ±ONg AND ImPORTANT HISTORY WITH mANY
CAVEATS AND PARTICU±ARITIES—BUT IT IS BASICA±±Y ACCURATE.
ÈITHOUT gOINg INTO THE COmP±ExITIES OF UNCERTAIN TENURE, jURISDICTIONA±
OVER±AP, AND CORRUPTION, THERE ARE TWO ISSUES WITH THE STATE OWNERSHIP OF ±AND
FOR ¸RO²µÍµ½µ. ºIRST, ±ARgE-SCA±E AgRICU±TURA± PROgRAmS IN MOzAmBIqUE ARE

ON±Y ±IkE±Y TO BE PROfiTAB±E IF ±AND CAN BE FREE±Y BOUgHT AND SO±D. °IS IS WHY
OUTSIDE INTERESTS ±IkE THE ¶.². MI±±ENNIUm ·HA±±ENgE ·ORPORATION (M··)
ARE INVESTINg IN “±AND ADmINISTRATION” IN MOzAmBIqUE. µ±THOUgH IT IS AN AID
ORgANIzATION, THE M·· ON±Y INVESTS IN PROjECTS THAT DEmONSTRATE A VERY HIgH
ECONOmIC RATE OF RETURN (³¼»¼). °E CORPORATION BE±IEVES THAT INVESTINg IN
A ±AND mANAgEmENT SYSTEm WI±± gENERATE A HIgH ³¼»¼ BECAUSE THE VA±UE OF
±AND WI±± INCREASE DRAmATICA±±Y ONCE IT CAN BE BOUgHT, SO±D, AND TURNED TO
±ARgE-SCA±E COmmODITY PRODUCTION. °E M·· WENT AHEAD WITH ITS PROjECT
EVEN THOUgH THERE IS NO ±EgA± mARkET FOR ±AND IN MOzAmBIqUE BECAUSE
ImPROVINg THE mANAgEmENT SYSTEm WOU±D SHORE UP THE “INFORmA± ±AND mAR-
kET,” A±±OWINg INDIVIDUA±S TO ±EASE THEIR ±AND TO COmmERCIA± INTERESTS AND
RENDER A VERY HIgH RETURN.
²ECOND, IF ±AND NEEDS TO BE ACqUIRED AT SCA±E AND can BE ACqUIRED BECAUSE
OF A gROWINg INFORmA± ±AND mARkET, THEN IT WI±± ±IkE±Y BE WE±±-CAPITA±IzED
FOREIgNERS WHO PURCHASE ±ARgE PROPERTIES. µCCORDINg±Y, THE MOzAmBICAN
gOVERNmENT HAS SET ASIDE APPROxImATE±Y 14 mI±±ION HECTARES FOR FOREIgN INVES-
TORS WHO WI±± ENgAgE IN ±ARgE-SCA±E AgRICU±TURA± PRODUCTION. °IS AREA IS PRE-
CISE±Y WHERE ¸RO²µÍµ½µ IS TO BE RO±±ED OUT, AS REPRESENTATIVES OF BOTH THE
ÊRAzI±IAN AND MOzAmBICAN gOVERNmENTS SAY THAT THE ±AND IS EmPTY—“¹F YOU
RUN INTO ONE PERSON IN 25 mI±ES, THAT’S A ±OT,” ONE OffiCIA± TO±D US—BUT THIS
CHARACTERIzATION HAS gENERATED CONSIDERAB±E PROTEST, AS COmmUNITY gROUPS
ARgUE THAT THE ±AND IS EmPTY ON±Y BECAUSE THEY HAVE BEEN DISPOSSESSED.
Creating Labor
°E SECOND ImPORTANT DIffERENCE BETWEEN ÊRAzI± AND MOzAmBIqUE IS THE
ISSUE OF ±ABOR AND, SPECIfiCA±±Y, WHO WI±± WORk THE ±AND BEINg DEVE±OPED UNDER
¸RO²µÍµ½µ. »NE OF THE mUCH-ADmIRED EffECTS OF THE PRIVATIzATION OF ±AND
IS THE RE±EASE OF ±ABORERS WHO WERE FORmER±Y SUBSISTENCE FARmERS BUT WHO WI±±
SUBSEqUENT±Y WORk FOR A WAgE. ºROm THE PUTTINg-OUT SYSTEm IN SEVENTEENTH-
CENTURY ³UROPE TO INDUSTRIA± AgRICU±TURE, THE PRO±ETARIANIzATION OF AgRICU±-
TURA± ±ABOR HAS HISTORICA±±Y BEEN CONSIDERED ESSENTIA± FOR RURA± AND URBAN
DEVE±OPmENT A±IkE. ¹N MOzAmBIqUE TODAY, A±mOST 80 PERCENT OF THE POPU±A-
TION ±IVES IN RURA± AREAS, AND mORE THAN HA±F OF THE RURA± POPU±ATION ±IVES
BE±OW THE ABSO±UTE POVERTY ±INE. ³DUCATION ±EVE±S ARE ExTREmE±Y ±OW, HUNgER
AND mA±NUTRITION ±EVE±S ARE HIgH, AND VERY FEW PEOP±E HAVE ExPERIENCE WITH
±ARgE-SCA±E, TECHNO±OgICA±±Y INTENSIVE FARmINg mETHODS. µ ÊRAzI±IAN OffiCIA±
TO±D US THAT “µFRICANS ARE 40 PERCENT I±±ITERATE” AND THAT “ANY PROjECT mUST

HAVE A COmPONENT OF EDUCATION IF THEY ARE gOINg TO REA±IzE THE POTENTIA± OF
THEIR NATURA± RESOURCES.” ÊOTH ÊRAzI± AND MOzAmBIqUE ARE INVESTINg IN FARmER
EDUCATION AND TRAININg, BUT IT IS NOT CONSIDERED FAST OR DEEP ENOUgH, SO ±ABOR
WI±± BE gENERATED FOR ¸RO²µÍµ½µ IN mUCH THE SAmE WAY ±AND WI±± BE—FROm
ABROAD.
°E IDEA THAT WE HEARD SEVERA± TImES FROm kEY figURES IN THE MOzAmBICAN
gOVERNmENT IS THAT FARmERS WI±± BE ImPORTED TO WORk IN THE ¸RO²µÍµ½µ
REgION. ºARmERS WI±± (AND HAVE A±READY) COmE FROm ²OUTH µFRICA AND
ËImBABWE AS WE±± AS FROm ÊRAzI±. µS THE mINISTER OF AgRICU±TURE IN MOzAmBIqUE
SAID, THE COUNTRY HAS REACHED OUT TO ÊRAzI±IANS IN PARTICU±AR BECAUSE “ÊRAzI±IAN
FARmERS HAVE gAINED ExPERIENCE THAT IS VERY WE±COmE. ÈE WANT TO REPEAT IN
MOzAmBIqUE WHAT THEY DID THIRTY YEARS AgO IN THE ·ERRADO.” »ffiCIA± DE±EgA-
TIONS OF FARmERS HAVE TRAVE±ED THROUgH NORTHERN MOzAmBIqUE TO VISIT FARm-
±AND AND IT IS REPORTED THAT 6 mI±±ION HECTARES HAVE BEEN SET ASIDE SPECIfiCA±±Y
FOR ÊRAzI±IAN FARmERS, AN OffER DEEmED VERY TEmPTINg ACROSS THE µT±ANTIC: AS
THE µmAPá STATE REPRESENTATIVE FOR THE ÊRAzI±IAN µSSOCIATION OF ·OTTON
¸RODUCERS µSSOCIATION (µÊ¼µ¸µ), ·AR±OS ³RNESTO µUgUSTIN, STATED, “°E
PRICE OF THE ±AND THERE IS TOO gOOD TO IgNORE.” ÉE ADDED, “°E RISkS INHERENT IN
BUYINg ÊRAzI±IAN ±AND AS A PRODUCER WERE ENORmOUS BECAUSE OF HIgH [±AND]
COSTS AND STIff ENVIRONmENTA± REgU±ATIONS.” ³mBRAPA PROjECT mANAgERS AND
MOzAmBICAN OffiCIA±S WE±COmE THE INTRODUCTION OF ÊRAzI±IAN FARmERS BECAUSE,
A±THOUgH THEY PAY ±ITT±E FOR THE ±AND, THEY WI±± BRINg TECHNO±OgY, OR kNOW-HOW,
TO PRODUCTION ON THE ±AND. ¹N THIS SCENARIO, SmA±±-SCA±E FARmERS FROm
MOzAmBIqUE WI±± BE INCORPORATED INTO ¸RO²µÍµ½µ AS OUT-gROWERS—
FARmERS WHO gROW CROPS ON THEIR OWN ±AND UNDER CONTRACT TO THE ±ARgE FARmERS
OR DISTRIBUTORS AND PROCESSORS.
Creating Capital
°E THIRD kEY DIffERENCE BETWEEN MOzAmBIqUE AND ÊRAzI± IS ACCESS TO CAPITA±.
¹N ÊRAzI±, AgRO-INDUSTRIA± DEVE±OPmENT WAS fi NANCED BY A RE±ATIVE±Y STRONg
mIDWIFE STATE THAT HAD A±READY FOSTERED SIgNIfiCANT INDUSTRIA±IzATION BEgIN-
NINg IN THE 1930S. ÊO±STERED BY mI±ITARY AUTHORITY, THE ÊRAzI±IAN STATE IN THE
1970S WAS AB±E TO CENTRA±IzE DEVE±OPmENT PROgRAmS INTO kEY PO±ES OF ACTIVITY
SE±ECTED FOR EffiCIENCY RATHER THAN PO±ITICA± ExPEDIENCY. ¹N MOzAmBIqUE, ON
THE OTHER HAND, THE STATE IS SEEN AS TOO WEAk TO SHEPHERD THIS DE±ICATE DEVE±OP-
mENT PROCESS. µ CENTURY OF CO±ONIA± RESOURCE ExTRACTION FO±±OWED BY TWO
DECADES OF CIVI± WAR AND PO±ITICA± INfigHTINg AmONg A SmA±± E±ITE HAVE ±Eﬅ THE

STATE ExTREmE±Y WEAk fiNANCIA±±Y AND PO±ITICA±±Y. ¹N 2010, OVER 50 PERCENT OF
THE COUNTRY’S INCOmE CAmE FROm INTERNATIONA± AID, AND ANOTHER ±ARgE PERCENT-
AgE CAmE FROm THE SA±E OF NATURA± RESOURCES, INC±UDINg COA±, NATURA± gAS, AND
NOW PERHAPS ±AND.
µCCORDINg TO ONE OF THE PROgRAm DIRECTORS AT THE µÊ· IN ÊRASí±IA, TRIAN-
gU±ATINg DEVE±OPmENT PROjECTS BYPASSES SOmE OF ÊRAzI±’S FUNDINg REgU±ATIONS
AND ExPANDS DONOR OPPORTUNITIES. °IS IS THE CASE WITH ¸RO²µÍµ½µ: JAPAN
PROVIDED AN INVESTmENT OF ¶²$38 mI±±ION TO FUND EAR±Y RESEARCH AND THE
DRAWINg UP OF A mASTER P±AN. µCCORDINg TO MOzAmBIqUE’S mINISTER OF AgRICU±-
TURE, JOSé ¸ACHECO, THE HOPE OF THIS P±AN IS THAT “THERE WI±± BE A CONSIgNmENT
OF SPECIfiC RESOURCES FOR DEVE±OPmENT OF THE ½ACA±A ·ORRIDOR” IN ORDER TO
ENCOURAgE THE PRIVATE SECTOR TO fiNANCE THE PUB±IC mISSION OF DEVE±OPmENT.
¹N A 2013 SPEECH TO INVESTORS, THEN–VICE PRESIDENT FOR µFRICA AT THE ÈOR±D
ÊANk, »BIAgE±I (»BY) ³zEkWESI±I, ARgUED THAT INVESTORS SHOU±D “REDISCOVER
µFRICA” BECAUSE THE RATE OF RETURN ON INVESTmENTS WAS HIgH AND gOVERNmENTS
WERE CREATINg A FRIEND±Y ENVIRONmENT FOR INVESTmENT. µS THE ÈOR±D ÊANk
SAYS, “»VER THE PAST DECADE, µFRICA HAS BECOmE A CONTINENT OF OPPORTUNITIES.”
ÊRAzI±IANS ARE kEEN ON DEVE±OPINg THESE RE±ATIONSHIPS TO ESTAB±ISH A NEW mAR-
kET FOR THEIR mANUFACTURED gOODS AND TECHNO±OgIES. ¹N 2009, LU±A SAID OPTI-
mISTICA±±Y, “¹ WANT TO SE±± mUCH mORE TO THOSE WHO HAVE NEVER BOUgHT FROm
US IN A CONTINENT THAT WI±± HAVE 700 mI±±ION HABITANTS IN TWENTY-fiVE YEARS.”
°E PRIVATE SECTOR IS THE BEST OPTION, BECAUSE, ACCORDINg TO ¶²µ¹´,
PROgRESS HAS TO BE fast. ¸RACTITIONERS ARE ExHORTED TO HAVE DE±IVERAB±ES, BY
gOINg AﬅER WHAT JEffREY ²ACHS IN THE MI±±ENNIUm ÉVE±OPmENT GOA±S CA±±S
“±OW HANgINg FRUIT” ±IkE COmBATINg mA±ARIA BY HANDINg OUT mOSqUITO NETS.
¹N THE CASE OF ¸RO²µÍµ½µ, ACCORDINg TO ¶²µ¹´, “WE NEED TO SEIzE THE
mOmENT. . . . MOzAmBIqUE’S ±EADERS ARE ANxIOUS TO SEE qUICk RESU±TS.” µND THE
ON±Y SECTOR AB±E TO DE±IVER URgENT±Y NEEDED RESU±TS qUICk±Y IS THE PRIVATE SEC-
TOR: “ÊUI±DINg PUB±IC ExTENSION SERVICES THAT CAN REACH SmA±±HO±DERS REqUIRES
±ONg-TERm EffORTS TO ADDRESS CAPACITY AND gOVERNANCE ISSUES—BUT HARNESSINg
PRIVATE SECTOR DYNAmISm TO TRANSFER ImPROVED SEEDS AND PRODUCTION mETHODS
TO SmA±±HO±DERS AND PROVIDE THEm WITH INPUTS AND ACCESS TO mARkETS CAN
mOVE THIS PROCESS mORE qUICk±Y.”
²O, U±TImATE±Y, ÊRAzI±IAN ExPERTISE IN µFRICA IS FUNDED BY THE PUB±IC SECTOR
BUT IS PAVINg THE WAY FOR PRIVATE INVESTmENT. ÊRAzI±IAN fiRmS HAVE SET UP A
“½ACA±A FUND” BASED IN LUxEmBOURg TO ATTRACT PRIVATE FOREIgN CAPITA±, AND IN
THE WAkE OF gROWINg g±OBA± CONCERNS ABOUT RESOURCE SCARCITY, FOOD PRICES,
PEAk OI±, AND C±ImATE CHANgE, HUNDREDS OF mI±±IONS OF DO±±ARS (ROUgH±Y ¶.².$2

BI±±ION) ARE ExPECTED. ÊY ITS OWN ESTImATES, THE ½ACA±A FUND AImS TO gIVE ITS
INVESTORS A 12 PERCENT INITIA± RATE OF RETURN BASED ON THE PROjECTIONS OF
¸RO²µÍµ½µ “TO ACHIEVE SCA±E, PRODUCTIVITY, AND ATTRACTIVE PROfiTABI±ITY.”
µND EVEN ³mBRAPA HOPES TO mAkE A RETURN ON ITS INVESTmENT. ¹N 2003, ITS
FUNDINg WAS CUT AND A NEW ±AW WAS PASSED THAT INCENTIVIzES THE AgENCY TO
SUPP±EmENT ITS BUDgET FROm PRIVATE SOURCES, SO ³mBRAPA PERSONNE± ARE VERY
C±EAR THAT THE AgENCY NEEDS TO BE AB±E TO INCREASE ITS INflUENCE BY WORkINg
ABROAD. ÉAVINg ±OST ITS HISTORICA± DOmINANCE OVER THE DOmESTIC mARkET SHARE
IN SEEDS, ³mBRAPA IS kEEN TO ExPAND PUB±IC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS AND
STRENgTHEN PRIVATE SOURCES OF REVENUE ABROAD. ¹N 2012, A SPECIA± COmmISSION
PROPOSED THE CREATION OF A NEW PRIVATE SUBSIDIARY TO BE CA±±ED ³mBRAPA
¾ECNO±OgIAS (³mBRAPATEC) THAT WI±± ACT AS THE AgENCY’S mARkETINg AND INTE±-
±ECTUA± PROPERTY BRANCH. µCCORDINg TO THE COmmISSION’S AUTHOR, ²ENATOR
É±CíDIO DO µmARA±, “[³mBRAPATEC] WI±± SERVE AS AN ARm OF ³mBRAPA ABROAD.”
“ÈE HAVE FANTASTIC POTENTIA± ON OTHER CONTINENTS, INC±UDINg µFRICA,” HE CON-
TINUED, “WHERE THE COmPANY [³mBRAPA] P±AYS A FUNDAmENTA± RO±E IN COmBAT-
INg HUNgER.” ÈHI±E IT IS STI±± UNCERTAIN WHETHER THIS INITIATIVE WI±± BECOmE
REA±ITY, IT DOES REVEA± THE PO±ITICA± AND ECONOmIC mOTIVATIONS BEHIND THE
mOBI±IzATION OF ³mBRAPA’S SCIENCE AND SCIENTISTS ABROAD. ½EW INITIATIVES SUCH
AS THE ExPANSION OF INTE±±ECTUA± PROPERTY RIgHTS AS WE±± AS ³mBRAPA’S RO±E AS A
kEY STAkEHO±DER IN ÊRAzI±’S FOREIgN PO±ICY HAVE SEEN THE BUDgET gROW. °E
AgENCY NOW HAS WE±± OVER fiVE THOUSAND PUB±IC-PRIVATE AgREEmENTS, AND ITS
BUDgET HAS mORE THAN DOUB±ED IN THE PAST TEN YEARS.
conclusion: science and

technolo¿y in new enclosures
²O, FAR FROm ²OUTH-²OUTH CO±±ABORATION, ONE COU±D BE FORgIVEN FOR SEEINg IN
¸RO²µÍµ½µ THE TRIANg±E TRADE OF O±D. °E ±ARgEST FARmERS’ ORgANIzATION IN
MOzAmBIqUE, ¶NIöO ½ACIONA± DE ·AmPONESES (¶½µ·), PUT IT B±UNT±Y,
“¸RO²µÍµ½µ CAN BE SUmmED UP IN THIS SImP±E EqUATION: MOzAmBIqUE SUP-
P±IES THE ±AND, ÊRAzI± DOES THE FARmINg, AND JAPAN TAkES THE FOOD. ¹T IS A VAST
PROjECT BEINg COORDINATED BY THE gOVERNmENTS OF THE THREE COUNTRIES THAT
INVO±VES BI±±IONS OF DO±±ARS AND mI±±IONS OF HECTARES OF ±AND. ¹T mAY AmOUNT TO
THE BIggEST FARm±AND gRAB IN µFRICA.” ÊRAzI±’S DIRECTOR OF ²OUTH-²OUTH DEVE±-
OPmENT COUNTERED THIS STATEmENT, DESCRIBINg ±OCA± RESISTANCE TO THE ÊRAzI±IAN
PRESENCE AS “A SmA±± PORTION OF THE CIVI± SOCIETY IN THE REgION THAT DOESN’T HAVE

THE DISCIP±INE TO WORk WITH THE gOVERNmENT OR STAkEHO±DERS.” ÉVE±OPmENT
THROUgH ¸RO²µÍµ½µ PRESUPPOSES A TRANSFORmATION OF ±IFE ON THE ±AND
WHEREBY “EmPTY” ±AND BECOmES HIgH YIE±DINg AND “WASTEFU±” OR UNPRODUCTIVE
PEASANTS BECOmE DISCIP±INED OUT-gROWERS, COmmODITY PRODUCERS, OR URBAN
mIgRANTS.
°E DIVERSITY OF DEVE±OPmENT PROjECTS UNDER THE BANNER OF ²OUTH-²OUTH
DEVE±OPmENT DEmANDS FURTHER INVESTIgATION OF THE ImPORTANT DIffERENCES IN
±AND, ±ABOR, AND CAPITA± WITHIN THE BROAD CATEgORY OF THE G±OBA± ²OUTH.
ÊRAzI±IAN AgRICU±TURA± DEVE±OPmENT EffORTS IN MOzAmBIqUE CONSTITUTE A DIVERSE
SET OF INSTITUTIONS AND PROjECTS—FROm THE ESTAB±ISHmENT OF SEED BANkS AND
gERmP±ASm ExCHANgES TO FUNDINg THE PUB±IC PROCUREmENT OF “FAmI±Y FARm”
PRODUCE. °IS PROmOTION OF “FAmI±Y FARm” PO±ICIES IN CONjUNCTION WITH TECH-
NO±OgICA±, ±OgISTICA±, AND fiNANCIA± SUPPORT FOR AgRIBUSINESS IN MOzAmBIqUE
HAS BEEN DESCRIBED AS ÊRAzI± ExPORTINg ITS OWN DUA± mODE± OF A FAmI±Y FARm
SECTOR PRODUCINg FOR THE DOmESTIC mARkET A±ONgSIDE ExPORT-ORIENTED INDUSTRIA±
AgRICU±TURE. ÉOWEVER, SUCH A DICHOTOmY FAI±S TO ADEqUATE±Y CAPTURE THE DIffER-
ENCES AND INEqUA±ITIES BETWEEN MOzAmBIqUE AND ÊRAzI± HIgH±IgHTED ABOVE.
ºURTHERmORE, THE CASE OF THE mEgAPROjECT ¸RO²µÍµ½µ DEmONSTRATES WHERE
THE VAST mAjORITY OF RESOURCES ARE BEINg SPENT, BOTH BY THE ÊRAzI±IAN gOVERN-
mENT AND BY mU±TINATIONA±S, IN FURTHERINg THE DEVE±OPmENT OF AN AgRIBUSINESS
SECTOR IN MOzAmBIqUE.
µS WE WRITE THIS, IN EAR±Y 2015, IT IS UNC±EAR HOW ¸RO²µÍµ½µ WI±± UNFO±D,
BUT IT IS C±EAR THAT THE NATURE OF ITS UNFO±DINg WI±± BE SHAPED BY THE PARTICU±AR
INCORPORATION OF ±AND, ±ABOR, AND CAPITA± AS WE±± AS BY THE DISCOURSES AND
DEmANDS OF THE CURRENT CONjUNCTURE, A CONjUNCTURE DOmINATED BY WIDESPREAD
FEARS OF FOOD AND FUE± SECURITY mANIFESTED IN THE RUSH FOR ±AND. °ESE FEARS
mOTIVATE THE COmBINATION OF E±ITE ACTORS BEHIND THE DESIgN AND ImP±EmENTA-
TION OF ¸RO²µÍµ½µ IN SUCH A WAY THAT THE PROjECT IS PORTRAYED AS BOTH THE
BUI±DINg OF A PRODUCTIVE BREADBASkET AND THE PROfiTAB±E TRANSFER OF TECHNO±-
OgY. ÊRAzI±-MOzAmBIqUE COOPERATION RESTS SYmBO±ICA±±Y AND RHETORICA±±Y ON
THE INVOCATION OF EqUA±ITY AND SImI±ARITY, AND INDEED THE TWO P±ACES SHARE A
NUmBER OF ECO±OgICA±, HISTORICA±, AND CU±TURA± CHARACTERISTICS. ÊUT DEVE±OP-
mENT WI±± ±OOk VERY DIffERENT IN THE TWO P±ACES BECAUSE OF THE VERY gREAT DIF-
FERENCES IN THE WAY THAT ±AND, ±ABOR, AND CAPITA± ARE BEINg BROUgHT INTO THE
PROCESS. °IS SHOU±D COmE AS NO SURPRISE: THE COmmODIfiCATION OF ±AND, ±ABOR,
AND CAPITA± IS A PROCESS SHAPED BY THE RE±ATIONS BETWEEN SOCIA± C±ASSES IN PAR-
TICU±AR CONTExTS AT PARTICU±AR TImES, AND THE NATURE OF THAT PROCESS HAS TRE-
mENDOUS ImP±ICATIONS FOR THE NATURE OF DEVE±OPmENT. ÈHAT IS SURPRISINg IS

THAT gIVEN THE ImPORTANCE OF P±ACE-SPECIfiC ±AND-±ABOR-CAPITA± RE±ATIONS, DEVE±-
OPmENT PROjECTS ARE STI±± CONSTRUCTED IN WAYS THAT ASSUmE THEIR IRRE±EVANCE.
ÊORRAS, ². M., J. ·. ºRANCO, ². GómEz, ·. ÌAY, AND M. ²POOR

2012 “LAND GRABBINg IN LATIN µmERICA AND THE ·ARIBBEAN.” Journal of Peasant
Studies 39.3–4: 845–72.
´áVI±A, JERRY
2010 Hotel Trópico: Brazil and the Challenge of AÄican Decolonization, 1950–
1980. ÚRHAm, ½·: ÚkE ¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS.
³CONOmIST
1999 “GROWTH IN THE ¸RAIRIES.” 10 µPRI±, P. 30.
LEITE, ¹. ·., Ê. ²UYAmA, L. ¾. ÈAISBICH, M. ¸OmERY, J. ·ONSTANTINE, L. ½AVAS-µ±E-
máN, µ. ²HANk±AND, AND M. ÓOUNIS
2014 Brazil’s Engagement in International Development Cooperation: °e State of
the Debate. ³VIDENCE ¼EPORT 59. ²USSEx: ¹´².
»’LAUgH±IN, Ê.
1996 “°ROUgH A ÍVIDED G±ASS: ÚA±ISm, ·±ASS AND THE µgRARIAN ëUESTION IN
MOzAmBIqUE.” Journal of Peasant Studies 23.4: 1–39.
¶RIOSTE, M.
2012 “·ONCENTRATION AND ‘ºOREIgNISATION’ OF LAND IN ÊO±IVIA.” Canadian Journal
of Development Studies 33.4: 439–57.
ÈO±FORD, È.
2015 “ºROm ¸ANgAEA TO ¸ARTNERSHIP: °E MANY ºIE±DS OF ¼URA± ÉVE±OPmENT IN
MOzAmBIqUE.” Sociology of Development 1.2: 210–32.
ÈOR±D ÊANk
2011 Bridging the Atlantic, Brazil and Sub-Saharan AÄica: South-South Partner-
ing for Growth. ÈASHINgTON, ´·: ÈOR±D ÊANk.
notes
°E AUTHORS THANk THE SCIENTISTS, PO±ITICIANS, AND ACTIVISTS IN ÊRAzI± AND MOzAm-
BIqUE WHO AgREED TO BE INTERVIEWED FOR THIS PIECE. ÈE RECEIVED VERY HE±PFU± COm-
mENTS FROm CO±±EAgUES IN THE ·ONTESTED G±OBA± LANDSCAPES THEmE PROjECT AT ·OR-
NE±±, AS WE±± AS FROm TWO ANONYmOUS REVIEWERS FOR THE Canadian Journal of
Development Studies, WHERE THE PIECE ORIgINA±±Y APPEARED. ºUNDINg FOR THIS CHAPTER
CAmE FROm THE ½ATIONA± ²CIENCE ºOUNDATION (ÍRECTORATE FOR ²OCIA±, ÊEHAVIOURA±
AND ³CONOmIC ²CIENCES / ÍVISION OF ²OCIA± AND ³CONOmIC ²CIENCES, µWARD ½O.
1331265) AND THE ¹NSTITUTE FOR THE ²OCIA± ²CIENCES AT ·ORNE±± ¶NIVERSITY. ºINA±±Y, THE

AUTHORS THANk MATTHEW GUTmANN AND JEffREY LESSER FOR THEIR SUPPORT. µ±± mISTAkES
ARE OUR OWN.
1. ÊRAzI±IAN INVESTORS AND AgRO-INDUSTRIA± CAPITA±ISTS ARE A±SO INVO±VED IN ACqUIR-
INg ±AND AND PRODUCTIVE CAPACITY IN LATIN µmERICA, A TREND REFERRED TO AS “FOREIgNIzA-
TION,” OR ±AND gRABBINg, IN THE REgION (ÊORRAS ET A±. 2012; ¶RIOSTE 2012). ÊECAUSE
ÊRAzI±’S INVO±VEmENT IN LATIN µmERICA IS DISTINCT FROm ITS EffORTS IN µFRICA, WE FOCUS
ON±Y ON THE ±ATTER IN THIS CHAPTER.
2. °E RESEARCH IS CARRIED OUT TODAY BY A NONPROfiT ORgANIzATION, ºUNDAüöO ÊAHIA
(ÊAHIA ºOUNDATION), SUPPORTED BY SEED COmPANIES, AND INPUT AND AgRICU±TURA±
CHEmICA± fiRmS.
3. “GROWTH IN THE ¸RAIRIES,” Economist, 10 µPRI± 1999, 30.
4. °ANkS TO ²ARA ¸RITCHARD FOR POINTINg OUT THAT WHAT APPEARED TO BE A ²OUTH-
²OUTH CO±±ABORATION WAS REA±±Y A ½ORTH-²OUTH CO±±ABORATION IN mANY WAYS.

Perfecto Flores
Renato Rosaldo
ÊACk IN ºOW±ER, WHERE IT A±± BEgAN,

HE CARESSES A NAkED WOmAN’S mOIST CONTOURS,
A±±OWS A SCORPION, A NIñO DE TIERRA,
TO WITNESS THEIR UNION B±ESSED BY BREAkINg DAY.
Let my lust for Leonora be undiminished, HE PRAYS.
ÉE DRIVES A DI±APIDATED ·HEVY ·APRI,

±ABOR CAmP TO ±ABOR CAmP, gRAPES SHRIVE±INg IN THE SUN,
SHADOWS OF BIRDS BOBBINg ON WAVES OF HEAT.
Let me walk the valley of the shadow
beauty and grace by my side, HE PRAYS.
ÉE CARRIES A RED TOO± BOx FOR THE CHANCE ODD jOB.

°E OTHER mEN CA±± A jOB WE±± DONE A ¸ERFECTO º±ORES.
¾O BARTER FOR THE ±OYA±TY OF ³STRE±±A, THIRTEEN YEARS O±D,
HE OffERS kNOW-HOW, C±AW HAmmER AND CRESCENT WRENCH,
TOO±S FOR ±ITERACY, Í ±IkE THE SP±IT OF A HAmmERHEAD.
µT DUSk HE WA±kS FROm THE fiE±DS,

PUffS OF DUST DRAg BEHIND HIm,
ROW AﬅER ROW, SUN UPON SUN,
ÉE STANDS UNB±INkINg, REFUSES TO BE SHORT-CHANgED.
May the boss drown in a vat of molten cash, HE SAYS.
205
eleven
A Long Strange Trip

latin aÇerica’s contribution to world
dru¿ culture
Paul Gootenberg
Àerhaps it’s risKy, even foolhardy, FOR A HISTORIAN TO SUggEST THAT

DRUgS ARE ONE OF LATIN µmERICA’S ENDURINg CONTRIBUTIONS TO WOR±D CU±TURE.
¾ODAY, “DRUgS” mOST±Y CONjURES UP COCAINE, mETH, ADDICTION, CORRUPTION, TRAF-
fiCkERS, ´³µ DRUg WARS, AND THE UNFATHOmAB±Y BRUTA± B±OOD±ETTINg A±ONg THE
NORTHERN BORDERS OF MExICO. ¹T A±SO SUggESTS THE UNFORTUNATE TENDENCY OF
(½ORTH) µmERICANS TO B±AmE THEIR INTEmPERATE DESIRES FOR CONSUmINg DRUgS
ON EVI± FOREIgNERS, THE ¸AB±O ³SCOBARS AND ·HAPO GUzmáNS, OR WI±Y “CARTE±S”
(A TERm THAT mAkES SPECIA±ISTS CRINgE). ¹T A±SO SERVES TO SWEEP UNDER THE RUg THE
COmP±ICITY OF OUR INSTITUTIONS AND BAD±Y CONCEIVED DRUg ±AWS AND PO±ICIES—
NAmE±Y, g±OBA± DRUg PROHIBITION—IN IgNITINg THE kINDS OF mAYHEm THAT HAVE
AfflICTED P±ACES ±IkE ·O±OmBIA, ¸ERU, AND MExICO IN RECENT DECADES. ²O, HERE,
¹’D ±IkE TO STEP BACk AND SUggEST AS A CORRECTIVE A FEW ±ESS SENSATIONA±ISTIC, ±ESS
AHISTORICA±, ±ESS ¶.².-CENTRIC POINTS: THE RICHER, ±ONgER CORNUCOPIA OF mIND-
A±TERINg gOODS THE µmERICAS HAVE OffERED THE WOR±D; SOmE OF THE CHANgINg
HISTORICA± ENTANg±EmENTS OF THESE DRUgS WITH g±OBA± CU±TURE; AND, mOST RECENT±Y,
PROmISINg NEW SHIﬅS, COmINg FROm THE G±OBA± “²OUTH,” ON HOW TO RETHINk OUR
BE±±ICOSE CURRENT POSTURE ON I±±ICIT DRUgS. °IS ±ONg TRIP THROUgH HEmISPHERIC
DRUgS IS RICH IN HISTORICA± IRONIES.
psychedelic civiliZations
°OUSANDS OF YEARS AgO, PREHISTORIC µmERICANS INVENTED WHAT THE ETHNOBOTA-

NIST ÈINSTON LAÊARRE TERmED THE “µmERICAN DRUg COmP±Ex,” THE WOR±D’S WID-
EST AND WI±DEST mENU OF PSYCHOTROPIC DRUgS. ºOUR-fiﬅHS OF kNOWN mIND-
A±TERINg P±ANTS COmE FROm WHAT IS TODAY LATIN µmERICA, mOST±Y FROm HOT
207
SPOTS IN MESOAmERICA AND WESTERN µmAzONIA.× °EY INC±UDE WE±±-kNOWN SOﬅ
STImU±ANTS ±IkE COCA ±EAF, mATE, TOBACCO (THE mOST A±±- AND PAN-µmERICAN OF
INTOxICANTS), AND CACAO, THE ACTIVE INgREDIENT IN CHOCO±ATE. °ERE WERE A±SO
SCORES OF ½ATIVE µmERICAN RITUA± HA±±UCINOgENIC P±ANT-DRUgS SUCH AS PEYOTE
BUTTONS (mESCA±INE), “mAgIC mUSHROOmS” (USUA±±Y PSI±OCYBIN), ololiuhQui
(MExICAN B±UE mORNINg-g±ORY SEED), salvia divinorum, AYAHUASCA (YAjé OR
CAAPI), YOPO AND VIRO±á SNUffS, SAN PEDRO CACTUS (A ²OUTH µmERICAN mESCA-
±INE), AND THE COUNT±ESS DATURA, BRUgmANSIA, AND OTHER NIgHTSHADE SPECIES
BREWED BY mEDICINE mEN IN THE RAIN FORESTS OF TODAY’S ·O±OmBIA AND ³CUADOR.
²OmE PEOP±ES TAPPED TOxINS OF BRI±±IANT±Y CO±ORED POISON FROgS FOR SACRED CER-
EmONIES, ECSTASY, AND HEA±INg. °IS CORNUCOPIA WAS PART±Y ECO±OgICA± ACCIDENT:
mIND-BENDINg A±kA±OIDS, WHICH mAkE US HIgH, EVO±VED AS BUI±T-IN P±ANT INSEC-
TICIDES AgAINST THE VORACIOUS BUgS ON YEAR-ROUND TROPICS FO±IAgE. °E RAPID RISE
OF µmERICAN AgRICU±TURE kEPT INDIgENOUS PEOP±ES, WHO ±IkE±Y TREkkED IN
mUSHROOm CU±TS FROm ²IBERIA, FORAgINg AND DISCOVERINg THE ½EW ÈOR±D’S
WI±D DIVERSITY OF P±ANTS. µ±COHO± WAS kNOWN—mAIzE-BASED CHICHA BEER, AgAVE
PU±qUE (THE OCT±I “WINE” OF THE µzTECS)—BUT ITS ±OW POTENCY WAS UN±IkE±Y TO
DROWN OUT kNOW±EDgE OF ENTHEOgENIC DRUgS AS OCCURRED IN ANCIENT ³UROPE
AND THE MIDD±E ³AST.
ÈHEN THREE THOUSAND YEARS AgO STATE-±ED AgRARIAN CIVI±IzATIONS AND
EmPIRES AROSE IN THE µmERICAS, »±mECS, MAYAS, MExICAS (AkA THE µzTECS), AND
A kA±EIDOSCOPE OF PRE-¹NCAN STATES IN THE µNDES, EAR±IER DRUg CU±TURES BECAmE
SUBSUmED AND REgU±ATED BY PRIEST±Y CASTES. °EY AmP±IfiED AND REmADE IN STI±±
UNExP±ORED WAYS SHAmANISTIC PRACTICES, VISIONS, AND BE±IEFS AS THEIR SACRED
“¸±ANTS OF THE GODS.” °E µzTEC PRIESTHOOD, FOR ExAmP±E, INSTITUTED THE
“ÍVINE flESH” ¾EONANáCAT± AND ololiuhQui (WHICH CONTAINS L²´-±IkE ±YSERgIC
ACIDS) IN SPECIfiC flOWER gODS, XOCHIPI±±I, USED FOR OffiCIA± DIVINATION AND SAC-
RIfiCIA± RITES AND TO STEE± THEIR DOmINANT mI±ITARY CASTES. °E TRANSCENDENT
INTE±±ECTUA±ISm OF THE MAYAN NOBI±ITY WAS ENERgIzED BY CACAO, mUSHROOmS,
AND TRANCE STATES INDUCED BY A NARCOTIC WATER ±I±Y (ÓBkIN DE± ¼IOS 2009).
²ERIOUS ARCHAEO±OgY A±SO SUggESTS THAT THE DRUg-mOTIF OBE±ISkS OF ·HAVíN—
THE mOTHER OF µNDEAN CIVI±IzATIONS—RE±ATE TO PRIEST±Y CONTRO± OVER REmOTE
µmAzONIAN PSYCHEDE±ICS. »N THE ¸ACIfiC, THE mI±ITARIST POWER OF THE MOCHE
STATE—mOST±Y REmEmBERED TODAY FOR THE CU±TURE’S STUNNINg±Y EROTIC
POTTERY—A±SO CHANNE±ED THE COSmIC POWERS OF DRUg P±ANTS.
¹N A WAY, THEN, TODAY’S g±OBA± FASCINATION WITH THE COSmO±OgICA± COmP±ExI-
TIES AND VISIONARY AESTHETICS OF ANCIENT µmERICAN PEOP±ES ±IkE THE MAYANS
AND µzTECS IS, UNWITTINg±Y, A FASCINATION WITH THEIR ExOTIC DRUgS. µND ON THE
208 • ch a p t er elev en
mARgINS OF THESE CIVI±IzATIONS, COUNT±ESS SmA±± mOBI±E PEOP±ES CONSERVED A
WOR±D OF RE±IgIOUS AND CURATIVE PRACTICES AROUND DRUgS, SUCH AS NORTHERN
MExICO’S ÉUICHO± WITH THEIR STI±± CENTRA± PEYOTE CU±T. µS INTOxICANTS HAD
mEDICINA± VA±UES, EVEN THE EAR±Y AND OﬅEN SICk±Y ²PANIARDS (WHO DISDAINED
mOST THINgS NATIVE) SHOWED AN INTEREST IN SUPERIOR HERBA± CURES. °E UNTAPPED
DIVERSITY AND INTImATE kNOW±EDgE OF P±ANTS HAS IN OUR TImES DRAWN mODERN
PHARmACEUTICA± gIANTS INTO FORmA± “BIO-PROSPECTINg” CONTRACTS WITH RAIN FOR-
EST TRIBES IN ·ENTRA± µmERICA AND THE µmAzON IN SEARCH OF THE ±ATEST mIRAC±E
DRUgS.
°E ORIgINA± µmERICAN DRUg CORNUCOPIA HAS PASSED THROUgH mANY ACTS AND
PHASES OF SUPPRESSION AND REDISCOVERY BY THE OUTER WOR±D. ÚRINg CO±ONIA±
TImES (IN A PREVIEW OF TODAY’S DRUg PROHIBITIONS) ·ATHO±IC ²PANISH AUTHORITIES
PIOUS±Y ExTIRPATED AS PAgAN DEVI± WORSHIP THE mOST HA±±UCINOgENIC OF P±ANTS.
°EY SURVIVED AT jUNg±E OR DESERT mARgINS OR mOVED DEEP±Y UNDERgROUND,
SOmETImES FOR CENTURIES, IN MExICAN ¹NDIAN COmmUNITIES. MExICAN SOURCES
CRYPTICA±±Y SPOkE OF PRE-·ONqUEST tzitzinthlápatl P±ANTS AS A FORm OF INDIgE-
NOUS mYTH OR mADNESS. ³AR±Y IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY, PEYOTE SPREAD NORTH
OF THE BORDER, UNTI± THEN COmP±ETE±Y UNkNOWN, AS A RESTORATION CU±T AmONg
¶.². AND ·ANADIAN ½ATIVE µmERICANS, NOW ±EgA±±Y PROTECTED AS RE±IgIOUS
PRACTICES OF THE ½ATIVE µmERICAN ·HURCH. ¹N THE 1940S AND 1950S, ANTHRO-
PO±OgISTS, BOHEmIANS ±IkE µ±±EN GINSBERg, EmINENT ETHNOBOTANISTS ±IkE
ÉARVARD’S ¼ICHARD ³VANS ²CHU±TES, AND OTHER SEEkERS SCOURED MExICO AND
µmAzONIA FOR ±OST DRUg TRACES. ¹N THE mORE CU±TURA±±Y OPEN AND INDIgENOUS-
FRIEND±Y 1960S, SURVIVINg DRUg PRACTICES BEgAN TO COmE OUT IN THE OPEN. ¹N
MExICO, THE MAzATEC SHAmAN MARíA ²ABINA, WHO kNEW A ±OT ABOUT PSI±OCYBIN
mUSHROOmS, BECAmE A kIND OF g±OBA± CE±EBRITY. ÉER REmOTE VI±±AgE IN THE
mOUNTAINS OF SOUTHERN »AxACA STATE, ÉUAUT±A DE JIméNEz, TURNED INTO A kIND
OF HIPPIE TOURIST mECCA. °ESE PSYCHEDE±IC DISCOVERIES CONTRIBUTED IN NO SmA±±
WAY TO SCIENTIfiC STUDY OF SUCH DRUgS AND TO THE flOWERINg OF “DRUg CU±TURES”
AmONg mIDD±E-C±ASS YOUTH IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES AND ³UROPE. »NE ¶·Lµ-
TRAINED ANTHROPO±OgIST, ·AR±OS ·ASTAñEDA, EARNED A SmA±± FORTUNE (AND mUCH
PROFESSIONA± CHAgRIN) WITH HIS NEW-AgEY ÓN JUAN BOOk SERIES, A HOW-TO
VISION qUEST INSPIRED BY HIS ENCOUNTERS WITH A ÓAqUI curandero FROm ²ONORA.
°EY ±IkE±Y SO±D mORE COPIES IN ³Ng±ISH THAN A±± THE GARCíA MáRqUEz NOVE±S
COmBINED, IN FACT, SOmE 28 mI±±ION WOR±DWIDE. ½EW µgERS, ±ED BY gURUS ±IkE
¾ImOTHY LEARY AND ±ATER ¾ERRANCE MCÌENNA, ADmIRED NOT ON±Y THE INTRICATE
CHEmICA± kNOW±EDgE OF ¹NDIANS, BUT THE SUBT±E CRAﬅ AND VA±UES OF THE gUIDE,
WHO COU±D SAFE±Y mANAgE POWERFU± mIND DRUgS THROUgH TImE-HONORED SOCIA±
Á Üon¿ Ñt r a n¿e Ã r i p • 209

RITUA±S. ³VEN TODAY, THE ½ATIVE µmERICAN DRUgS kEEP COmINg: THE salvia CRAzE
A FEW YEARS AgO, WHICH BRIEflY PANICkED µmERICAN PARENTS, OR AS THE New Ãork
Times RECENT±Y REPORTED, THE NEW HIgH-C±ASS ½EW ÓORk FASHION OF INTROSPEC-
TIVE AYAHUASCA SOIREES, ImBIBINg THE jUICE OF THE µmAzONIAN “VINE OF THE SOU±”
(WIDE±Y POPU±AR AS WE±± WITH ½EW µgE ÊRAzI±IANS), WHICH CONTAINS THE NAUSE-
ATINg AND OﬅEN DISTURBINg ´M¾ COmPOUND.
psychoactive colonialisÇ
°E CONqUEST AND CO±ONIA± ExP±OITATION OF THE µmERICAS C±OSE±Y DOVETAI±ED

WITH WHAT THE WOR±D HISTORIAN OF DRUgS ÁVID ·OURTWRIgHT (2001) DUBS THE
“¸SYCHOACTIVE ¼EVO±UTION” OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. °E INflUx OF SUCH
NOVE± “DRUg-FOODS” (A kINDRED CONCEPT OF THE FOOD ANTHROPO±OgIST ²IDNEY
MINTz) TRANSFORmED ³UROPEAN CONSCIOUSNESS, CAPITA±ISm, AND CU±TURE.
MAIN±Y FROm LATIN µmERICA, THEY STImU±ATED THE RISE OF g±OBA± mARkETS, BOUR-
gEOIS mENTA±ITIES, AND EVEN SOmE REVO±UTIONARY PO±ITICA± IDEAS. ²E±ECT NATIVE
INTOxICANTS UNDERWENT COmP±Ex TRANSFORmATIONS INTO mAjOR ³UROPEAN TRADE
gOODS AND ADDICTIVE ³UROPEANIzED CUSTOmS.Ø ¾OBACCO ±EAF, THAT STRANgE AND
PERNICIOUS FOUNT OF A±kA±OIDS, BECAmE ONE OF THE fiRST TRUE WOR±D COmmODITIES
BEYOND PRECIOUS COINS, SOON TRADED AS FAR AWAY AS µFRICA AND µSIA. ¹TS EVO±U-
TION FROm AN INDIgENOUS mEDICINE, HA±±UCINOgEN, AND mEDITATIVE RITE INTO THE
SHOCkINg±Y NOVE± ³UROPEAN HABIT OF SmOkINg (AND SNUffiNg) HAS ±ONg FASCI-
NATED HISTORIANS. ²PAIN BRANDED ITS TOP qUA±ITY TOBACCO IN ÉAVANA FACTORIES,
THOUgH ³Ng±ISH RIVA±S mANAgED TO SmUgg±E STRAINS TO FOUND THE BROAD mARkET
AND WE±±-TAxED ÍIRgINIA TOBACCO INDUSTRY. ¹N REIgNINg GA±ENIC mEDICINE,
SmOkINg WAS THE “DRY INEBRIANT,” A RECOgNITION OF NICOTINE’S DRUg qUA±ITIES,
AND A fiNE WAY TO DRY OUT A±COHO±-DRENCHED ³UROPEAN PEOP±E. ÓET TOBACCO,
BOTH AmONg ARISTOCRATS AND THE mIDD±E C±ASS, RETAINED A SUBVERSIVE EVEN
INDIgENOUS SPIRITUA± EDgINESS, A NEW HISTORY REVEA±S, FOSTERED BY converso
(JEWISH) mERCHANTS AND P±EBEIAN SAI±ORS P±YINg IT ACROSS THE µT±ANTIC FOR
²PAIN (½ORTON 2008).
¹N CONTRAST, COffEE, ±IkE ±ATER CANNABIS, WAS A TRANSP±ANT TO THE µmERICAS,
NATIVE TO ³AST µFRICA, mO±DED BY ¹S±Am, BUT SEEDED BY THE ENTERPRISINg ÚTCH
IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY INTO A CO±ONIA± gOOD (HENCE, ITS STUBBORN NICk-
NAmES ±IkE mOCHA AND jAVA). ÉOWEVER, BY THE mID-EIgHTEENTH CENTURY THE
EPICENTER OF THE COffEE BOOm gRAVITATED TO THE ·ARIBBEAN, AS AN ODD ASSORT-
mENT OF ³UROPEAN POWERS (EVEN THE ÁNES) SEIzED POTENTIA±±Y FERTI±E TOBACCO
AND COffEE IS±ANDS. ÊY 1750, THE ºRENCH RAISED mOST OF THE WOR±D’S COffEE CROP
IN THEIR INFAmOUS±Y BRUTA± AND ±UCRATIVE S±AVE CO±ONY OF ²AINT-ÓmINgUE
(ÉAITI). µS HISTORIANS ±OVE TO RECOUNT, COffEE DRINkINg, THE gREAT “SOBERER,”
jO±TED ³UROPE INTO A mODERN BOURgEOIS AgE. °E INSTITUTION OF THE COffEE SHOP
PROVED THE kEY CIVI±IzINg A±TERNATIVE TO THE RAUCOUS ±OW-C±ASS BEER TAVERN.
°OUSANDS DOTTED LONDON AND ¸ARIS BY THE EIgHTEENTH CENTURY. ·OffEE SHOPS
INCU±CATED RISINg “¸ROTESTANT” VA±UES: SOBRIETY, INTE±±ECTUA±ITY AND COmmUNI-
CATION, TO±ERANCE OF FOREIgNERS, THE PUB±IC SPHERE, AND A CAPITA±IST BUSINESS
ETHOS (²CHIVE±BUSCH 1992). ·OffEE SHOPS BIRTHED gAzETTES AND NEWSPAPERS,
AND IN ONE PORT, L±OYDS OF LONDON TRANSFORmED FROm A P±ACE TO TA±k SHIPPINg
NEWS INTO THE PIONEER g±OBA± INSURANCE BROkER. MICHE±ET FAmOUS±Y ATTRIBUTED
THE OUTBREAk OF THE 1789 ºRENCH ¼EVO±UTION TO RATIONA±IST P±OTTERS IN THE CAFéS
OF ¸ARIS, A STUNNINg IRONY, FOR IF TRUE, SUCH REVO±UTIONISTS WERE WI±±FU±±Y
DEPENDENT ON S±AVE-gROWN CAffEINE FROm THE HE±±ISH ºRENCH P±ANTATIONS OF
ÉAITI. °E ¼IgHTS OF MAN SOON A±SO BEqUEATHED THE mONUmENTA± S±AVE REVO±T
kNOWN AS THE ÉAITIAN ¼EVO±UTION, WHOSE FURY AgAINST P±ANTERS, IN ANOTHER
IRONY, fiNA±±Y SHIﬅED COffEE’S BONANzA SOUTH TO NINETEENTH-CENTURY ÊRAzI±.
»THER CO±ONIA± STImU±ANTS P±AYED OUT qUITE DIffERENT±Y. MExICAN CACAO, SHED
OF PRIOR MAYAN AND µzTEC COSmO±OgY, BECAmE CREO±IzED BY THE SEVENTEENTH
CENTURY INTO THE WARmED AND SWEETENED-UP ²PANISH ·ATHO±IC CHOCO±ATE BEVER-
AgE. ¹F ANYTHINg, HISTORIANS STRESS ITS ±UxURIANT, ARISTOCRATIC, ANTI-¸ROTESTANT
RO±ES, AT ±EAST UNTI± THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, WHEN STRICT ¸ROTESTANTS IN ÉO±±AND,
³Ng±AND, ²WITzER±AND (AND SOmEWHAT ±ATER, ÉERSHEY, ¸µ) INDUSTRIA±IzED
CHOCO±ATE INTO COCOA POWDER AND A SUgAR-±ADEN SO±ID CANDY FOR THE mASSES.
²PAIN A±SO mINED THE mEDICINA± DRUgS OF THE µmERICAS, SUCH AS CINCHONA OR
¸ERU ÊARk, ANTImA±ARIA± qUININE ±ATER WHISkED OUT BY BOTANICA± SPIES AND
REmADE ON A P±ANTATION SCA±E TO SECURE THE INSA±UBRIOUS TROPICA± REA±mS OF THE
ÊRITISH ³mPIRE. µ VESTIgE OF THIS ÈHITE MAN’S BURDEN IS THE BITTER TONIC WE CA±±
“qUININE WATER.” µ±SO NOTAB±E IS COCA, THE “²ACRED LEAF OF THE ¹NCAS.” ÈITH ITS
SUBVERSIVE±Y A±IVE µNDEAN mEANINgS, ²PAIN COU±D ON±Y TO±ERATE ITS USE AS A SA±VE
TO THE ¹NDIANS FORCED TO HARSH±Y ±ABOR IN THE A±TIP±ANO SI±VER mINES OF ¸OTOSí,
mAkINg COCA INTO PART OF A PAN-µNDEAN COmmODITY CIRCUIT, RATHER THAN AN
ExPORT gOOD, AND INTO A DEgRADINg ¹NDIAN VICE. ÉOWEVER, INDIRECT±Y, THIS
mEANS THAT “COCAINE” (COCA’S mOST NOTORIOUS A±kA±OID) HE±PED STImU±ATE THE
ExPANSION OF THE EAR±Y mODERN ³UROPEAN WOR±D ECONOmY, FUE±ED, AS ANY ECO-
NOmIC HISTORIAN kNOWS, BY THE RICH BOUNTY OF ¸ERUVIAN SI±VER.

the dru¿s of nations
LATIN µmERICA’S INDEPENDENCE IN THE 1820S USHERED IN A ±ONg IF mURkY CEN-

TURY OF NASCENT NATIONA± DRUg CU±TURES. °E DIVIDE WIDENED BETWEEN COVETED
±EgA± WOR±D STImU±ANTS, NATIONA±-IDENTITY DRUgS, AND THE fiRST SIgNS OF SUB-
mERgINg DRUg CU±TURES. ÊY 1900, COffEE’S ExPONENTIA± gROWTH BECAmE PRACTI-
CA±±Y SYNONYmOUS WITH THE FREE TRADE ±IBERATION OF LATIN µmERICA, A gOOD
REmAkINg THE NEW NATIONA± ECONOmIES AND STATES OF ÊRAzI± AND ·O±OmBIA AND
THE mINI-NATIONS OF ·ENTRA± µmERICA.Ù ÊRAzI±’S RISE AS A WOR±D CAffEINE “SUPER-
POWER”—BY 1905, SOmE 20 mI±±ION BAgS A YEAR, fiVE TImES THE REST OF A±± WOR±D
PRODUCERS COmBINED—WAS INTImATE±Y ±INkED TO THE RISE OF THE mASS-mARkET
A±±-µmERICAN “CUP OF JOE,” A NEW PEOP±E’S STANDARDIzED COffEE CU±TURE
ADVANCED BY PATRIOTISm (ÊRITISH TEA BOYCOTTS), FRONTIER ROASTERS AND gROCERS,
·IVI± ÈAR CAffEINE RATIONS, AND INDUSTRIA± “COffEE BREAkS.” ÊY 1900, µmERICANS
gU±PED DOWN HA±F THE WOR±D’S COffEE, A SHARE THAT ROSE TO ITS PEAk IN THE 1960S.
¹N ÊRAzI±, S±AVES AND THEN ±EgIONS OF ImmIgRANTS, SUCH AS INDENTURED JAPANESE,
OPENED THE VAST HI±±Y P±ANTATION HINTER±ANDS ±INkED TO ²öO ¸AU±O’S PORT OF
²ANTOS. ÊRAzI±IAN SUPP±Y WAS SO AmP±E THAT BY 1906 THE COUNTRY ANNOUNCED
AN »¸³·-±IkE mONOPO±Y PRICE PO±ICY WITH THE CROP, “VA±ORIzATION,” A REVENUE
STABI±ITY THAT WAS TO HE±P THE COUNTRY SUCCESSFU±±Y TRANSFORm INTO AN INDUS-
TRIA± gIANT ±ATER IN THE CENTURY. ¹N CONTRAST, qUA±ITY HIgH±AND µRABICA
·O±OmBIAN AND ·ENTRA± µmERICAN COffEES mOST±Y flOWED TO PICkIER AND BET-
TER-HEE±ED ³UROPEAN DRINkERS (¾OPIk, MARICHA±, AND ËEPHYR 2006). °E SmI±-
INg, WE±±-kEmPT, FAIR-SkINNED “PEASANT” JUAN ÍA±Déz PERSONIfiED ·O±OmBIAN
ORIgINS—AT ±EAST UNTI± EC±IPSED BY SCARY mUg SHOTS OF ¸AB±O ³SCOBAR IN
THE 1980S. LATIN µmERICA’S CONTRIBUTION TO g±OBA± COffEE CU±TURE PROVED
DECISIVE—A RO±E ERODINg ON±Y IN RECENT DECADES WITH THE DIVERSIFYINg RISE OF
HIgH-END ÓUPPIE ·OffEE (THE COffEE ANTHROPO±OgIST ÊI±± ¼OSEBERRY’S mONIkER)
AND THE UNPRECEDENTED POST-1989 SPREAD OF COffEE FARmINg ACROSS THE TROPICA±
PEASANT BE±TS OF µSIA AND µFRICA.
¹N CONTRAST TO COffEE’S ±ASTINg ImPRINT IS THE CURIOUS CASE OF COCA. ÉNIgRATED
BY THE ²PANIARDS, THE µNDEAN STImU±ANT’S PRESTIgE SOARED WITH SCIENTIfiC FAS-
CINATION AﬅER 1850, INC±UDINg THE 1860 GERmAN ISO±ATION OF COCAINE. °IS
ACTUA±±Y ±ED—FROm 1860 TO 1910 AT ±EAST—TO A ±EgA± BOOm OF THE DRIED ±EAF AND
COCA SYRUPS TO ³UROPE AND THE ¶NITED ²TATES. °E COCA CRAzE, A STImU±ANT TO
COmBAT E±ITE AND FEmA±E NERVE FATIgUE, BEgAN WITH ºRENCH ÍIN MARIANI, A
C±ASSY AND SExY ¹NCAN-INflECTED RED WINE COCA BEVERAgE. ¹TS INNOVATIVE CE±EB-
RITY ENDORSEmENT CAmPAIgNS mADE ÍIN MARIANI A SENSATION ACROSS ³UROPE BY
THE 1870S. LESS kNOWN IS THAT µmERICAN ·OCA-·O±A ACTUA±±Y BEgAN ±IFE AS A
FRANk YET DRY ImITATION OF ÍIN MARIANI, CONCOCTED BY THE µT±ANTA PHARmACIST
JOHN ¸EmBERTON IN 1887 AS AN INVIgORATINg AND SExUA±±Y HEA±THY “SOﬅ” DRINk,
AND WHICH CONCEA±S TO THIS DAY A C±OSE BUT COVERT ±INk BETWEEN µNDEAN COCA
AND µmERICAN mASS CU±TURE (GOOTENBERg 2008). ÊY 1910, HOWEVER, THE BRIEF
AgE OF COCA WAS CUT SHORT BY ExAggERATED ASSOCIATIONS WITH THE NEW DRUg mEN-
ACE, COCAINE. ·OCA-·O±A WENT ON TO BECOmE THE µmERICAN TASTE OF THE TWEN-
TIETH CENTURY, SHORN OF ITS µNDEAN AND ºRENCH ORIgINS. ³NERgY DRINkS REmAIN
AN µmERICAN OBSESSION, INC±UDINg mANY NOW TAPPINg ImPORT ExTRACTS OF
µmAzONIAN gUARANá FRUIT, THE BASIS OF ExCITINg ÊRAzI±IAN NATIONA± BRAND
SODAS ±IkE GUARANá µNTARTICA.
°IS WAS A±SO AN AgE OF REgIONA± IDENTITY AND NATIONA± DRUgS, ExEmP±IfiED
BY TEqUI±A AND YERBA mATE. ¾EqUI±A IS ONE OF DOzENS OF AgE-O±D MExICAN FER-
mENTED AgAVE CACTUS “mESCA±S,” WHOSE JA±ISCAN ROOTS WHITENED AND E±EVATED IT
INTO A NATIONA± INSIgNIA OF MExICANIDAD. µT fiRST A HARD DRUg ASSOCIATED WITH
CHEAP MExICAN DRUNkS, THEN TIPSY POSTWAR TOURISTS, ¾EqUI±A HAS mORPHED
SINCE THE 1980S INTO THE U±TImATE HIgH-END ExPORT, WITH A REgISTERED MExICAN
DOmAIN à ±A ºRENCH CHAmPAgNE AND ARTISANA± $200 BOTT±ES THAT HINT AT A
DRUg±IkE COmmUNE WITH ANCIENT AND EARTHY AgAVE MAYAHUE± SPIRITS. µT THE
OTHER END OF THE µmERICAS IS YERBA mATE, A GUARANí xANTHINE-RICH TEA THAT
JESUITS TRADED FROm CO±ONIA± ¸ARAgUAY ACROSS THE gREATER ¼íO DE ±A ¸±ATA. ÊY
THE ±ATE TWENTIETH CENTURY, THE POPU±AR gAUCHO RITUA± OF mATE FROm SHARED
DRINkINg gOURDS CONSO±IDATED AS THE IDENTIFYINg µRgENTINE NATIONA± HABIT,
AND WITH AN EqUIVA±ENT DEVOTION IN NEIgHBORINg REPUB±ICS. ÉOWEVER, IN
HIgH±Y CIRCUITOUS WAYS, mATE IS ON±Y NOW BECOmINg A WOR±D DRUg. ´RUzE ±AB-
ORERS IN ÊUENOS µIRES CARRIED IT BACk TO THE MIDD±E ³AST, DISPERSINg IT AgAIN
AﬅER LEBANON’S mODERN CIVI± WARS. µND A DIASPORA FROm µRgENTINA’S ANTI-
²EmITIC DESPOTS OF THE 1970S, SmA±± ¹SRAE±I-µRgENTINE ENTREPRENEURS, ARE NOW
SPREADINg THEIR SCA±ED-UP mATE DRINkS WOR±DWIDE, POPPINg UP IN HIPSTER
ÊROOk±YN CAFéS AND THE SHE±VES OF ÈHO±E ºOODS.
ÊUT IN CONTRAST TO THESE SUCCESSFU± ±EgITImATED DRUgS, REgIONA± AND ETHNIC
DRUg COmP±ExES WERE EmERgINg THAT AﬅER 1900 BECOmE TARgETS OF gROWINg
C±ASS AND RACIA± TABOO. ·HINESE mINORITIES, AS IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES, WERE
DESPISED mOST EVERYWHERE AND BROUgHT THE RESPECTABI±ITY AND ±EgA±ITY OF
OPIUm DOWN WITH THEm. ·ANNABIS, ANOTHER ImPORT TO THE µmERICAS, SUR-
FACED IN A NUmBER OF WAYS ACROSS THE ±ONg NINETEENTH CENTURY. µFRICAN S±AVES
OR SAI±ORS BROUgHT CANNABIS TO ÊRAzI± (maconha) AND TO ·O±OmBIA’S ·ARIBBEAN
COAST (marimba); IN ÊRITISH CO±ONIES ±IkE JAmAICA AND ¾RINIDAD IT ARRIVED AS

ganja, A WORk AND SPIRITUA± AID OF INDENTURED ³AST ¹NDIAN WORkERS, THE SO-
CA±±ED gANjA COmP±Ex. µ REmARkAB±E STORY IS MExICO, A P±ACE THAT gRINgOS
REflExIVE±Y ImAgINE AS WEED’S ANCIENT ³DEN. µ NEW HISTORY BY ¹SAAC ·AmPOS
(2012) NOT ON±Y SHOWS HOW NEW IT WAS, gRADUA±±Y BRED BY RURA± FO±k INTO
“mARIhUANA” OUT OF CO±ONIA± ²PANISH HEmP fiE±DS, ITS USE AS A DRUg NOTICEAB±E
BY THE mID-NINETEENTH CENTURY. ÊY 1900, IT WAS STRONg±Y ASSOCIATED WITH THE
FEARED “DEgENERATIVE” UNDERC±ASSES—CONVICTS, ±UNATICS, CONSCRIPTS, AND, NATU-
RA±±Y, ¹NDIANS—AND ORIENTA±IzED AS A SPUR TO RANDOm VIO±ENCE AND mADNESS.
¹NDEED, SUCH mIND ASSOCIATIONS, ·AmPOS SUBT±Y ARgUES, mAY HAVE INDEED
mADE MExICAN WEED A mANIC, HARD, SOmETImES mURDEROUS DRUg. °E HYgIENIC
AND PURITANICA± mODERNIzERS WHO AROSE OUT OF THE MExICAN ¼EVO±UTION WERE
THUS IN THE 1920S AmONg THE fiRST IN THE HEmISPHERE TO BAN IT. ·AmPOS EVEN
SUggESTS THAT THIS MExICO BACkSTORY, NOT jUST THE USUA± ANTI-MExICAN RACISm,
WAS THE INSPIRATION FOR THE “¼EEFER MADNESS” PANIC USED TO PUSH THROUgH OUR
OWN mARIjUANA PROHIBITION IN THE ±ATE 1930S.
½OW THAT µmERICAN SOCIA± mORES ARE FAST TURNINg POSITIVE ABOUT CANNABIS
(AND, ACCORDINg TO FEDERA± STATISTICS, WE ARE EVO±VINg INTO A POT NATION) PER-
HAPS IT’S TImE TO STOP DENIgRATINg ITS HEmISPHERIC ROOTS. ÚRINg THE 1960S,
AﬅER CRACkDOWNS AT HOmE, PROxImATE AREAS SOUTH OF THE BORDER BECAmE THE
CHIEF PURVEYORS OF qUA±ITY mARIjUANA AND OF mARIjUANA CU±TURE—BRANDED, AS
O±D-TImERS mAY RECA±±, AS µCAPU±CO GO±D, »AxAqUEñO (A WORD THAT NICE±Y
RO±±ED Off THE BOOmER TONgUE), ¸ANAmA ¼ED, AND ·O±OmBIAN AND JAmAICAN
GO±DS. ÈE CAN ON±Y SPECU±ATE ABOUT ONE BIg HISTORICA± RIDD±E: THE CU±TURA±
TRANSFORmATION OF mANIC REEFER INTO OUR mE±±OW WEED. ÊY THE 1970S, ±ONg
FADED jAzz-ERA REFERENTS TO THE DRUg (“TEA”), OR ITS ³UROPEAN HASHISH mYSTIqUE,
WERE SUPP±ANTED BY CO±ORFU± ImAgES OF SPIRITUA± AND RESISTANT ÊOB MAR±EY–
STY±E µFRICAN-ROOTS ¼ASTAFARIANS, OR WITH A ±AIDBACk BORDER±ANDS CU±TURE—THE
STONERS NOW CA±±ED “¸ACHUCO” OR “¸ACHECO” BY MExICANS—SO INFAmOUS±Y
PORTRAYED BY THOSE S±APSTICk ²OUTHERN ·A±IFORNIANS ·HEECH & ·HONg. µ
STRIkINg TRANSITIONA± figURE HERE WAS ¾UCSON-BORN LA±O GUERRERO, THE “ºATHER
OF ·HICANO MUSIC” (HONORED AS SUCH WITH A 1996 ½ATIONA± ÉUmANITIES
MEDA±), WHOSE A±± BUT FORgOTTEN BI±INgUA± 1949 “MARIHUANA ÊOOgIE,” RIgHT
Off THE zOOT SUIT ERA, PUT A DECIDED±Y UPBEAT SPIN ON THE kI±±ER WEED. ÉOW
JERRY GARCIA, OF THE ESSAY TIT±E, THE ¶R-DRUggIE OF ÈEST ·OAST mUSIC, ±OST THESE
LATIN ROOTS (A±ONg WITH HIS apellido’S ACCENT) IS THE mYSTERY OF mARIjUANA’S
ASSImI±ATION NORTH WITH A HIPPY ETHOS. °E 1960S mAkEOVER OF A DRUg OF DUBI-
OUS ORIgINS INTO A PEACEFU±, DREAD±OCkED PEOP±E’S HERB IS PERHAPS ANOTHER
LATIN µmERICAN ADDITION TO DRUg CU±TURE.
dru¿ wars and dru¿ peaceÕ
µﬅER 1910, THE ¶NITED ²TATES BEgAN A CENTURY-±ONg CRUSADE TO BANISH

UNWANTED DRUgS, NOT jUST AT HOmE, BUT ACROSS THE µmERICAS, PERCEIVED FROm
THE START AS A CONTAmINATINg SOURCE OF DRUgS. µmONg THE mANY ExP±ANATIONS,
¹ ±IkE THE DRUg HISTORIAN ÁVID MUSTO’S NOTION OF “THE µmERICAN DISEASE”—A
kIND OF BIPO±AR “±OVE-HATE” RE±ATIONSHIP WITH DRUgS THAT TE±±S WHY WE RE±ISH
AND CONSUmE THEm WITH UNRIVA±ED PASSION, YET ExPECT OUR ±EADERS TO VIO±ATE
OUR CHERISHED FREEDOmS TO PURITANICA±±Y PUNISH USERS AND PERIODICA±±Y PRO-
HIBIT DRUgS (MUSTO 1973). ÈE A±SO ±IkE TO mIx OUR RACIA± CONTEmPT WITH
BANNED DRUgS, AgAINST DISTINCTIVE USER gROUPS AT HOmE (·ATHO±ICS IN
¸ROHIBITION, µFRICAN µmERICANS WITH EAR±Y COCAINE) OR AgAINST ENTIRE BROWNER
CONTINENTS AS ImAgINED g±OBA± PUSHERS. ÈHEN INTERNATIONA± BANS AgAINST NAR-
COTICS AND COCAINE BEgAN AﬅER 1910, WHICH WAS A NEW AND PROgRESSIVE HISTORI-
CA± CONCEPT, ¶.². AUTHORITIES TRIED TO CONVINCE OUR NEIgHBORS TOO. °ERE WAS
SOmE PUSH-BACk: ¸ERUVIANS IgNORED US FOR DECADES TO PROTECT THEIR TINY
COCAINE INDUSTRY; ÊO±IVIAN DE±EgATES AT THE LEAgUE OF ½ATIONS DEFENDED, IN
IRONICA±±Y RACIST TERmS, THEIR ¹NDIANS ±ABORINg NEEDS FOR BENIgN NATIONA± COCA
±EAF; LázARO ·áRDENAS ExPERImENTED WITH A SOCIA± PROgRAm OF mEDICA± TREAT-
mENT FOR MExICAN OPIATE ADDICTS. ÉOWEVER, DEEP-SEATED E±ITE (AND, IN SOmE
CASES, POPU±AR) FEARS AND PREjUDICES, FOR ExAmP±E, ABOUT mARIjUANA AND OPIUm
IN MExICO, ±ED AﬅER ÈOR±D ÈAR ¹¹ TO WIDESPREAD COmP±IANCE AND COmP±ICITY
WITH ¶.². PROHIBITION AND OUR AggRESSIVE DRUg INTERDICTION IDEA±S, SOmETImES
OffSET BY SOmE FOOT-DRAggINg OF DRUg-ENRICHED PO±ITICOS. °E ·O±D ÈAR
HE±PED TOO IN THIS CONSENSUS, BY mAgNIFYINg ¶.². STRATEgIC INflUENCE AND BY
PERSUADINg LATIN µmERICAN gOVERNmENTS AND mI±ITARIES THAT I±±ICIT DRUgS
WERE BASICA±±Y A PROB±Em OF SUBVERSION AND NATIONA± SECURITY. ÊY THE 1970S,
THE ¶.². DRUg WAR WAS gOINg HOT IN LATIN µmERICA, IN »PERATION ¹NTERCEPT,
»PERATION ·ONDOR, AND SO mANY mORE TO COmE. ÊY THEN, LATIN µmERICA WAS
THE C±OSEST AND BIggEST SOURCE OF DRUg TRAffiCkINg, POT, SOmE OPIATES, AND A
BI±±OWINg STREAm OF COCAINE INTO A POST-1960S DRUg-THIRSTY ½ORTH µmERICA.
°E REST, YOU mIgHT SAY, IS HISTORY, THOUgH IT STI±± NEEDS TO BE RIgOROUS±Y
RESEARCHED AND WRITTEN. °E LATIN µmERICAN BONANzA WITH I±±ICIT DRUgS,
PEAkINg IN THE 1980S–1990S AgE OF ·O±OmBIAN COCAINE, WAS SURE±Y ONE OF
HISTORY’S ±ARgEST AND mOST NOTORIOUS I±±ICIT TRADES. ÈE CA±± THEm “CARTE±S” AS IF
TO COVER THE g±ARINg FACT THAT TRAffiCkINg ORgANIzATIONS ARE HIgH±Y COmPETITIVE
CAPITA±ISTIC NETWORkS AND THAT DRUgS ARE VERY HOT COmmODITIES. °E SENSA-
TIONA±ISm OF I±±ICIT DRUgS NOW OVERSHADOWS AND EVEN ERASES OUR SENSE OF LATIN

µmERICA’S ±ONgER ESTAB±ISHED RO±E IN THE COmmERCE OF ACCEPTAB±E STImU±ANT
gOODS. °E »RgANIzATION OF µmERICAN ²TATES (»µ²) ESTImATES THE HEmI-
SPHERIC REVENUES IN I±±EgA± DRUgS TODAY AT $150 BI±±ION YEAR±Y, THOUgH PRECIOUS
±ITT±E (±ESS THAN ONE PERCENT) OF THAT EVER REACHES THE ImPOVERISHED PEASANT
gROWERS AT THE FAR END OF THE PROfiT CHAIN. µND DESPITE THE HYPE ABOUT DRUgS,
COffEE STI±± EmP±OYS mANY mORE PEOP±E ACROSS THE µmERICAS, IN A TRAI± FROm
HIgH±AND CAmPESINOS TO ²TARBUCkS BARISTAS AT THE mA±±. ²TI±±, THE SPIRA± OF
mI±ITARIzED AND INSTITUTIONA±IzED DRUg WARS SET Off BY ¼ICHARD ½IxON IN 1970,
RATCHETED UP AND ExTENDED ACROSS THE µNDES BY ¼ONA±D ¼EAgAN DURINg THE
mID-1980S CRACk SCARE, HAS, IN mOST ExPERT OPINION, UTTER±Y FAI±ED TO STEm ¶.².
DRUg USE. µT mOST, IT mAY HAVE CHANgED OUR DRUg mIx AND gEOgRAPHIES OVER
THE DECADES, AND NOT AS INTENDED. ¹T mOST±Y ±ED TO A SWE±±INg flOOD OF CHEAPER
DRUgS flOWINg INVISIB±Y ACROSS OUR BORDERS AS TRAffiCkERS AND gROWERS CON-
STANT±Y OUTWIT PROHIBITIONS WITH gREATER CROPPINg, SHIﬅINg ROUTES AND gROW
P±OTS, AND EVER mORE AB±E AND INgENIOUS SmUgg±INg ORgANIzATIONS. ÉSPITE
BI±±IONS THROWN AT THE PROB±Em, THERE HAVE BEEN FEW IF ANY PO±ICY SUCCESSES—
“¸±AN ·O±OmBIA” AﬅER 2005, PERHAPS, AT qUITE A COST TO ¶.². TAxPAYERS AND TO
THE ·O±OmBIAN PEOP±E.
°ERE’S P±ENTY OF gRASSROOTS “AgENCY” AT WORk HERE, AN A±WAYS TRENDY TERm
WITH ACADEmICS, BUT IT’S A STRETCH EVEN FOR mE TO TURN THIS DECADES-±ONg DRUg
ExPORTINg BOOm INTO A SHININg LATIN µmERICAN ACHIEVEmENT. ÓES, P±ACES ±IkE
MEDE±±íN AND ²INA±OA DISP±AYED AN ExTRAORDINARY BURST OF ENTREPRENEURIA±
VERVE AND CREATIVITY IN A ·ATHO±IC CU±TURE THAT AT ±EAST TRADITIONA±±Y IS REgARDED
BY OUTSIDERS AS ±OW IN BUSINESS ACUmEN. ´RUgS WERE A PREDOmINANT±Y “LATIN”
TRADE, STI±± IN ±OCA± HANDS, mANNED BY AmBITIOUS, OﬅEN RUSTIC, YET mODERNIz-
INg NEWCOmERS. MONEY-±AUNDERED PROfiTS HAVE REFASHIONED THE ARCHITECTURA±
FACADE AND SHOPPINg mA±±S OF mANY LATIN µmERICAN CITIES, MIAmI INC±UDED.
²OmE RURA± TOWNS OR DEC±ININg PEASANT DISTRICTS mAY HAVE SURVIVED ON DRUg
REmITTANCES AND NOT A FEW NATIONA± ExCHANgE RATES HAVE STAYED AflOAT WITH
RECYC±ED DO±±ARS. ²OmE mIgHT CE±EBRATE A CU±TURA± ExP±OSION WITH DRUgS: “NAR-
COCORRIDO” mUSICA± COmBOS (ÈA±D 2001), SENSUA±±Y VIO±ENT HIT telenovelas,
URBANE “NARCO” CRImE NOVE±S, THE CROSS-BORDER INflUENCE ON POPU±AR CU±TURE
IN Miami Æice, REmAkES OF Scarface, ½ETflIxED Narcos AND THE CARTE±-ACCENTED
B±ACk HUmOR OF Weeds AND Breaking Bad. »NE COU±D EVEN SUggEST, IN A STRICT
¶TI±ITARIAN CA±CU±US, THAT THE THOUSANDS OF DRUg-FUE±ED PARTIES AND ORgIES IN
ÉO±±YWOOD, ÈA±± ²TREET, DISCOS, SUBURBAN DENS, B±IgHTED gHETTOS, AND,
INCREASINg±Y, ÊRAzI±IAN C±UBS AND FAVE±AS (OR VAgUER DRUg-INSPIRED PERSONA±
INSIgHT, CREATIVITY, OR HEA±TH gAINS) HAVE SPREAD mORE HUmAN HAPPINESS THAN
WAS OffSET BY THE mISERY OF DRUg-RE±ATED ARREST, ADDICTION, mADNESS, USER DEg-
RADATION, OR PROHIBITION VIO±ENCE.
ÉOWEVER, THESE C±AImS ARE DUBIOUS IF NOT TRIVIA± COmPARED TO THE UNTO±D
DESTRUCTION AND SCA±E OF HUmAN SUffERINg THIS PERmANENT STATE OF HEmISPHERE
WAR HAS WROUgHT OVER THE PAST FOUR DECADES: THE mI±±IONS OF ·O±OmBIANS
DISP±ACED BY HARD-±INE DRUg ERADICATION STRATEgIES, TENS OF THOUSANDS OF
MExICANS BRUTA±±Y TORTURED AND mURDERED BY CARTE± WARFARE AND mI±ITARY
REPRESSION SINCE 2007 A±ONE, THE THOUSANDS OF DESPERATE ÉONDURAN kIDS flEE-
INg DRUg gANg VIO±ENCE NOW ON OUR DOORSTEP, ENVIRONmENTA± DEgRADATION OF
THE mARVE±OUS±Y BIODIVERSE µNDEAN TROPICS, DESTABI±IzINg INSURgENCIES, mAS-
SIVE CORRUPTION, AND, IN A HOST OF NATIONS, A gRAVE UNDERmININg OF HUmAN
RIgHTS, ±EgITImACY, CITIzEN SECURITY AND TRUST, AND PERHAPS EVEN DEmOCRATIC
FUTURES. ½OT TO mENTION OUR OWN COST±Y POST-1980 PO±ICE-STATE ROUNDUP, IN
THE NAmE OF A “DRUg-FREE µmERICA,” OF mI±±IONS OF mOST±Y POOR DISENFRAN-
CHISED B±ACk AND LATINO YOUTH, mAkINg US DISgRACEFU±±Y, AS MICHE±±E
µ±ExANDER TE±±S US, THE mOST INCARCERATINg DEmOCRACY IN THE HISTORY OF THE
WOR±D.
ÊUT HERE’S THE PARADOx ¹’D ±IkE TO END ON: PERHAPS THE NOTAB±E NEW CONTRI-
BUTION OF LATIN µmERICA TO g±OBA± DRUgS HAS BEEN TO fiNA±±Y BREAk THEIR PO±ITI-
CA± SI±ENCE AND DIVERSIFY THE g±OBA± DEBATE ABOUT DRUgS. ¶NTI± RECENT±Y, LATIN
µmERICAN O±IgARCHS, FEARINg THE UNDERmININg OF VA±UES BY I±±ICIT DRUgS, gENER-
A±±Y FO±±OWED THE HARD-±INE ¶.². DOCTRINES. ¹N FACT, THEY SERVED AS A PI±±AR OF
THE INTER-µmERICAN DRUg WAR WAgED SINCE THE 1970S, THOUgH THESE gUARDIAN
E±ITES qUIET±Y gRIPED THAT THE REA± PROB±Em IS THE VORACIOUS ¶.². DEmAND FOR
DRUgS. ÉOWEVER, IN 2008 A HANDFU± OF EmINENT LATIN µmERICAN ±EADERS IN THE
LATIN µmERICAN ·OmmISSION ON ´RUgS AND ÉmOCRACY (FO±±OWED BY A
DEEPER AND BROADER OffiCIA± 2013 »µ² REPORT) BEgAN TO CA±± ON WOR±D ±EADERS
TO FUNDAmENTA±±Y RETHINk THE WAYS WE CONTRO± DRUgS (»µ² 2013). LEﬅ AND
RIgHT, LATIN µmERICAN NATIONS HAVE ENTERED THIS DEBATE, ÊO±IVIA, ·O±OmBIA,
¶RUgUAY, ÊRAzI±, ³CUADOR, GUATEmA±A, AmONg THEm. »UR mOST DEVOTED
A±±IES—THE ·O±OmBIAN PO±ITICA± AND mI±ITARY CASTE THAT WAgED A DECADES-±ONg
figHT AgAINST TRAffiCkERS, gUERRI±±AS, AND PEASANTS ON OUR BEHA±F—NOW ±OUD±Y
VOICE CONCERNS FOR SUSTAINAB±E PO±ICIES IN THEIR RECOVERY FROm DRUg WAR.
ºO±±OWINg DEEP-SEATED ±EgA±IST TRADITIONS, ²OUTH µmERICAN SUPREmE COURTS
kEEP DEC±ARINg DRUg POSSESSION ±AWS UN±AWFU± INFRINgEmENTS OF ±IBERTY. ´RUgS
±IkE CANNABIS ARE qUIET±Y DECRImINA±IzED AS A DRAIN ON PO±ICE RESOURCES ACROSS
THE HEmISPHERE OR IN ¶RUgUAY’S CASE, AND SOON JAmAICA, FU±±Y ±EgA±IzED BY THE
DEmOCRATIC PROCESS (AS IN OUR OWN STATES OF ·O±ORADO AND ÈASHINgTON). ´RUg

SENTENCINg IS mOVINg FROm PUNITIVE mODE±S, FOR ExAmP±E, IN ³CUADOR, WHICH
WITH A DECIDED±Y ·ATHO±IC flAIR HAS mADE THE PARDON OF PERSONA± DRUg SIN INTO
A PO±ICY OF NATIONA± RECONCI±IATION. ÊO±IVIAN PEASANT UNIONS AND NATIONA±IST
PO±ITICIANS ±IkE ³VO MORA±ES HAVE SINCE 2006 SUCCESSFU±±Y DEfiED THE ´³µ
(WHICH PU±±ED OUT OF THE COUNTRY) AND THE ¶½ REgImE TO UPHO±D THE CU±TURA±
VA±UE OF TRADITIONA± COCA ±EAF AND TO ExPERImENT WITH PEACEFU± ±OCA± PO±ICIES
TO STOP ITS PROCESSINg INTO COCAINE. °E REASONS FOR THESE SHIﬅS ARE NO DOUBT
COmP±Ex BUT SURE±Y RE±ATE TO HOW LATIN µmERICANS—WITNESSINg FROm THE
FRONT ±INES THE DISASTROUS VIO±ENCE AND HAVOC IN MExICO, AND THE ±ATEST WAVE
OF TRAffiCkINg WARS UNFO±DINg ACROSS A VU±NERAB±E ·ENTRA± µmERICA—HAVE
BORNE THE DESTABI±IzINg COST OF THE STUBBORN ¶.². CRUSADE TO RID ITSE±F OF
DRUgS. ÈASHINgTON, WITH ITS HISTORICA±±Y ¸URITAN “jUST SAY NO” RE±IgION, IS OUT
OF TOUCH WITH THESE DI±EmmAS AND PERHAPS WITH A mORE flExIB±E LATIN CU±TURE
ITSE±F. °E DEBATE A±SO REflECTS THE gROWINg SOVEREIgNTY OF LATIN µmERICAN
STATES, DEFYINg THE ¶NITED ²TATES ON A kEY ISSUE IN WAYS UNTHINkAB±E BEFORE OR
DURINg THE ·O±D ÈAR.
³UROPEANS HAVE A gROWINg SOCIA± DEmOCRATIC “HARm REDUCTION” VERSION OF
DRUg REFORm, AND IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES WE HAVE OUR OWN BRAND OF ±IBERTARIAN
DISSENT TO DRUg PROHIBITION, AT ±AST CATCHINg fiRE AROUND POT DECRImINA±IzATION
AND UNjUST RACIA± SENTENCINg. ²OmE LATIN µmERICAN NATIONS ±IkE MExICO AND
¸ERU, AND OﬅEN THE POPU±AR C±ASSES, REmAIN WARY ABOUT DRUgS. ÊUT THE DRUg
REFORm mOVEmENT IN LATIN µmERICA, SHOU±D IT CONTINUE, OffERS A POSSIB±Y DIS-
TINCTIVE APPROACH, FOCUSED ON REDUCINg THE DAmAgE INflICTED IN P±YINg AND
TRANSITINg DRUg COmmODITIES TO THE OUTSIDE WOR±D, ESPECIA±±Y IN mUCH-NEEDED
PROgRAmS OF VIO±ENCE PREVENTION. µT THE VERY ±EAST, IT IS SHAkINg A PI±±AR OF A ±ONg
HEmISPHERIC DRUg WAR. MOREOVER, THE NUmBER OF LATIN µmERICAN STATES jOININg
THIS DEBATE COU±D HAVE AN ImPACT ON THE ±ARgER ¶½ DRUgS SYSTEm, RECENT±Y CON-
TESTED OUT ±OUD IN mEETINgS AROUND THE 2016 ¶½Gµ²² REFORm OF WOR±D DRUg
CONVENTIONS. ¸ERHAPS ½ORTH µmERICANS—WHO SEEm INCAPAB±E ON THEIR OWN OF
ENDINg THEIR OVERSEAS DRUg WARS AND PROHIBITIONIST INSTITUTIONS—WI±± BE
PRODDED A±ONg BY OUTSPOkEN LATIN µmERICAN REFORmERS. ¹T’S A NEW TWIST IN THE
±ONg SAgA OF LATIN µmERICAN DRUgS, WITH THEIR mANY CONTRIBUTIONS TO WOR±D
CU±TURE, THEIR IRONIC WOR±D±Y ENTANg±EmENTS, AND THE CHANgINg mEANINgS OF
DRUgS THEmSE±VES.
µRE THERE ANY ±ESSONS FROm THIS mI±±ENNIUm OF TANg±ED DRUg HISTORIES? ¹
THINk SO. MIND DRUgS WENT FROm BEINg THE SPIRITUA± g±UE OF C±OSE-kNIT COm-
mUNITIES TO TOO±S OF PRIEST±Y, mI±ITARIST, AND mERCHANT POWER TO ExPANSIVE AND
ADDICTIVE CO±ONIA± AND CAPITA±IST WOR±D gOODS AND (UNDER THE DURESS OF mOD-
ERN g±OBA± PROHIBITIONS) TO THE SAVAgE±Y I±±ICIT, ±EAN AND mEAN COmmODITIES OF
TODAY’S WOR±D ORDER. µS WE INCH OURSE±VES TO DRUg REFORm, WE mIgHT WE±± PON-
DER THE HISTORICA± ERROR OF COmmODIFYINg THE SPECIA± POWERS OF DRUgS. ÈE
mIgHT SEEk CREATIVE SO±UTIONS BEYOND SImP±Y REPACkAgINg CANNABIS AND OTHER
UNTAmED DRUgS ±EgA±±Y A±ONg THE ±INES OF ÊIg ¾OBACCO OR ÊIg ¸HARmA. ÈAYS
THAT TAkE US BACk, HOWEVER ImPERFECT±Y, TO THE PEACEFU± AND ±ESS COmmERCIA±
gARDEN.
·AmPOS, ¹SAAC
2012 Home Grown: Marijuana and the Origins of Mexico’s War on Drugs. ·HAPE±
ÉI±±: ¶NIVERSITY OF ½ORTH ·ARO±INA ¸RESS.
·OURTWRIgHT, ÁVID ¾.
2001 Forces of Habit: Drugs and the Making of the Modern World. ·AmBRIDgE,
Mµ: ÉARVARD ¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS.
ÓBkIN DE± ¼IOS, MAR±ENE
2009 °e Psychedelic Journey of Marlene Dobkin del Rios: 45 Ãears with Shamans,
AyahuasQueros, and Ethnobotanists. ¼OCHESTER, Í¾: ¸ARk ²TREET ¸RESS.
GOOTENBERg, ¸AU±
2008 Andean Cocaine: °e Making of a Global Drug. ·HAPE± ÉI±±: ¶NIVERSITY OF
½ORTH ·ARO±INA ¸RESS.
»RgANIzATION OF µmERICAN ²TATES (»µ²) (²ECRETARY-GENERA± JOSé MIgUE±
¹NSU±zA)
2013 °e Drug Problem in the Americas. ÈASHINgTON, ´·: »µ².
MUSTO, ÁVID
1973 °e American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control. ½EW ÓORk: »xFORD
¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS.
½ORTON, MARCY
2008 Sacred Giﬅs, Profane Pleasures: A History of Tobacco and Chocolate in the
Atlantic World. ¹THACA, ½Ó: ·ORNE±± ¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS.
²CHIVE±BUSCH, ÈO±FgANg
1992 Tastes of Paradise: A Social History of Spices, Stimulants, and Intoxicants.
½EW ÓORk: ÍINTAgE ÊOOkS.
²CHU±TES, ¼ICHARD ³VANS, AND µ±BERT ÉOffmAN
1992 Plants of the Gods: °eir Sacred, Healing, and Hallucinogenic Powers.
¼OCHESTER, Í¾: ÉEA±INg µRTS ¸RESS.
¾OPIk, ²TEVEN, ·AR±OS MARICHA±, AND ºRANk ËEPHYR, EDS.
2006 From Silver to Cocaine: Latin American Commodity Chains and the Build-
ing of the World Economy, 1500–2000. ÚRHAm, ½·: ÚkE ¶NIVERSITY
¸RESS.

ÈA±D, ³±IjAH
2001 Narcocorridos: A Journey into the Music of Drugs, Guns, and Guerrillas.
½EW ÓORk: ¼AYO.
notes
1. ÈINSTON LAÊARRE, “»±D AND ½EW ÈOR±D ½ARCOTICS: µ ²TATISTICA± ëUESTION

AND ³THNO±OgICA± ¼EP±Y,” Economic Botany 24 (1970): 73–80. °IS PRE-·O±UmBIAN
SECTION IS BASED ±ARgE±Y ON ÓBkIN DE± ¼IOS, Psychedelic Journey (2009); AND ²CHU±TES
AND ÉOffmAN, Plants of the Gods (1992).
2. °IS DISCUSSION OF CO±ONIA±ISm AND DRUgS DRAWS ±IBERA±±Y FROm ·OURTWRIgHT,
Forces of Habit (2001); ²CHIVE±BUSCH, Tastes of Paradise (1992); AND ½ORTON, Sacred
Giﬅs, Profane Pleasures (2008).
3. ²TImU±ANT AND ExPORT COmmODITIES OF THE AgE ARE ExAmINED IN ¾OPIk,
MARICHA±, AND ºRANk, From Silver to Cocaine (2006); AND GOOTENBERg, Andean
Cocaine (2008), CHAPS. 1 AND 2.
pa r t f ou r
Communities
introduction
Òy default or desi¿n, ¿eo¿raphy OﬅEN DETERmINES HOW WE DRAW

±INES BETWEEN “US” AND “THEm.” ²OCIA± gROUPS COHERE AROUND SPATIA± CONSTRUC-
TIONS ±IkE THE barrio (NEIgHBORHOOD), pueblo (VI±±AgE), AND nación (NATION).
Global Latin America CHA±±ENgES THIS FAmI±IAR ±INk BETWEEN gEOgRAPHY AND
COmmUNITY BY SUggESTINg THE REgION IS SImU±TANEOUS±Y UNBOUNDED BY SPACE
(I.E., g±OBA±) AND SPATIA±±Y SPECIfiC (I.E., “LATIN µmERICAN”). ¹N AN AgE WHEN DIS-
TANCE SEEmS TO mATTER ±ESS THAN EVER BEFORE, g±OBA± LATIN µmERICANS ARE HE±PINg
TO DEVE±OP A±TERNATIVE FORmS OF COmINg TOgETHER AS gROUPS, WHETHER THROUgH
NEIgHBORHOODS, REgIONS, OR SOCIETIES. ¹N PART 4, fiVE AUTHORS PROfi ±E DIVERSE INDI-
VIDUA±S AND A RANgE OF INflUENCES HE±PINg TO mAkE AND REmAkE COmmUNITIES.
¹F COmmUNITIES ARE NOT STATIC, fixED, PREDETERmINED ENTITIES, THEN WHO
HE±PS TO CREATE THEm? ÌEY PARTICIPANTS ARE THOSE INVO±VED IN SOCIA± mOVE-
mENTS, WHO, NOT SURPRISINg±Y, HAVE CENTRA± RO±ES IN mANY OF THIS PART’S CHAP-
TERS. ¹N ASSUmINg THE REPRESENTATION OF gROUPS OF INDIVIDUA±S, ACTIVISTS OﬅEN
HE±P TO DEfiNE THE CONTOURS AND COmPOSITION OF COmmUNITIES. ²UCH IS THE CASE
OF THE FAmOUS INDIgENOUS ±EADER ¼IgOBERTA MENCHú ¾Um, WHO gAVE VOICE TO
THE VICTImS OF gENOCIDE IN THE mIDST OF ·O±D ÈAR–FUE±ED CIVI± WAR IN
GUATEmA±A (1960–96). MENCHú’S RO±E AS A CHARISmATIC AND mOVINg SPOkESPER-
SON FOR LATIN µmERICAN INDIgENOUS RIgHTS HE±PED TO PROPE± A NOW-g±OBA±
INDIgENOUS PEOP±E’S mOVEmENT THAT AImS TO FORgE NEW NETWORkS OF COmmU-
NA± BE±ONgINg ACROSS VAST STRETCHES OF SPACE.
ÈHI±E FAmI±IAR PERHAPS TO SOmE READERS, MENCHú’S CASE STANDS OUT AS AN
ExCEPTION AmONg THE NARRATIVES CO±±ECTED HERE. °E PAST THREE DECADES OF
g±OBA±IzATION AND DIgITA± REVO±UTION HAVE mADE THE ABI±ITY TO COmmUNICATE
AND TRANSmIT mEDIA mORE RAPID AND DIffUSE THAN EVER BEFORE. °ESE CHANgES
HAVE RESHAPED SOCIA± mOVEmENTS, WHICH HAVE BECOmE ±ESS CENTRA±IzED, AT
TImES EVEN RE±ATIVE±Y ±EADER±ESS. °E CATEgORY “COmmUNITY ±EADER” SEEmS TO
HAVE RECEDED AS THE POWER TO PARTICIPATE IN—AND SOmETImES IgNITE—SOCIA±
AND PO±ITICA± CHANgE HAS SHRUNk TO A HANDHE±D DEVICE. °E SEEmINg INSIgNIfi-
CANCE OF PHYSICA± SPACE IN THIS g±OBA± DIgITA± AgE mEANS THAT CERTAIN mANIFES-
TATIONS OF COmmUNITIES CAN ExIST IN DIgITA± SPACE WITH mEmBERS WHOSE ±IVES
SPAN THE g±OBE.
¼EADERS WI±± ENCOUNTER A CASE OF COmmUNITY ±INkED THROUgH SUCH DIgITA±
SINEWS IN ÉNISE ÊRENNAN’S CHAPTER ON SEx WORk IN THE ·ARIBBEAN AND ²OUTH
µmERICA. ·HANNE±INg VOICES FROm HER fiE±DWORk WITH SEx WORkER ACTIVISTS,
ÊRENNAN URgES gOVERNmENT AgENCIES AND HUmAN RIgHTS ACTIVISTS TO PAY ATTEN-
TION TO THE OﬅEN-mUDD±ED DISTINCTION BETWEEN HUmAN TRAffiCkINg AND SEx
WORk. ÊRENNAN EmPHASIzES THAT mANY OF THE TRANSPEOP±E, WOmEN, AND mEN
WHO HAVE BUI±T A SPRAW±INg NETWORk OF SUPPORT OVER THE PAST TWO DECADES DO
NOT SEE THEmSE±VES AS TRAffiCkED PERSONS. °EY IDENTIFY THEmSE±VES AS WORkERS
AND HEADS OF FAmI±IES AND HAVE SUCCESSFU±±Y ±OBBIED FOR RIgHTS AND PROTECTION
FROm NATIONA± gOVERNmENTS; A FEW HAVE RUN SUCCESSFU±±Y FOR PUB±IC OffiCE. °IS
CO±±ECTIVE—WHAT ÊRENNAN TERmS “TRANSNATIONA± kIN”—HAS PIONEERED mODE±S
OF ABOVEgROUND AND UNDERgROUND SO±IDARITY INflUENCINg mOVEmENTS E±SE-
WHERE IN THE G±OBA± ½ORTH AND ²OUTH.
ÊRENNAN’S PIECE INTERSECTS ON mU±TIP±E FRONTS WITH º±ORENCE ÊABB’S CHAPTER,
WHICH TRACkS THE FOOTSTEPS AND PRECONCEPTIONS OF ¶.². TOURISTS AS THEY VISIT
LATIN µmERICA AND RETURN TO THEIR HOmES. ÊABB SHOWS HOW A FORm OF COm-
mUNITY CAN TAkE SHAPE THROUgH INTImATE VACATION ENCOUNTERS BETWEEN ±OCA±S
AND TOURISTS. ÈHI±E SUCH ENCOUNTERS ARE FRAUgHT WITH ExOTIC ExPECTATIONS AND
ASYmmETRICA± RE±ATIONSHIPS OF POWER, WE ±EARN THAT mANY ON BOTH SIDES
DESCRIBE THE FORmATION OF gENUINE AffECTIVE TIES. ²UCH RE±ATIONSHIPS SOmE-
TImES BECOmE A±TERNATIVE OR PARA±±E± FAmI±IES STRETCHINg THOUSANDS OF mI±ES,
WITH ±ONg gAPS BETWEEN VISITS PUNCTUATED BY CONTINUED COmmUNICATION AND
fiNANCIA± SUPPORT. ²OmE READERS mAY fiND SImI±ARITIES IN THE ImmIgRANT FAmI-
±IES WHO HAVE ±ONg mAINTAINED INTImATE AND PRACTICA± TIES DESPITE VAST DIS-
TANCES BETWEEN P±ACES IN LATIN µmERICA AND HOmE OR DESTINATION ±ANDS E±SE-
WHERE. ÉOWEVER, ÊABB AND ÊRENNAN SHOW US HOW “ExPERIENTIA± TOURISm” IS
gENERATINg NOVE± TYPES OF TRANSNATIONA± AND TRANSACTIONA± RE±ATIONSHIPS THAT
IN TURN AffECT CONVENTIONA± FORmS OF FAmI±Y STRUCTURE AND gENDER RO±ES.
ÉE±PINg TO SITUATE THE IDEA OF g±OBA± LATIN µmERICA IN HISTORICA± CONTExT,
THE ÊRAzI±IAN ANTHROPO±OgIST ¼UBEN »±IVEN TAkES THE SCA±E OF ANA±YSIS FROm
222 • pa rt fou r
THE mORE ±OCA±IzED FRAmES OF SOCIA± mOVEmENTS AND FAmI±IES TO THE NATION AS
A WHO±E. ÊENEDICT µNDERSON, AN INflUENTIA± INTERNATIONA± STUDIES SCHO±AR,
DESCRIBED THE NATION AS AN “ImAgINED COmmUNITY” BOUND BY THE “DEEP, HORI-
zONTA± COmRADESHIP” OF ITS mEmBERS, mOST OF WHOm WI±± NEVER mEET THEIR
COmRADES IN PERSON. ¹N A FAR-REACHINg FEW PAgES, »±IVEN OUT±INES HOW
ÊRAzI±IAN E±ITES HAVE ImAgINED THE NATIONA± COmmUNITY AT INflUENTIA±
mOmENTS OVER fiVE CENTURIES—A PROCESS FUNDAmENTA±±Y INFORmED BY qUES-
TIONS AND INTERNATIONA± CONVERSATIONS ABOUT ETHNIC AND RACIA± IDENTITY.
LINkINg ±ONg-TERm HISTORICA± COmmENTARY TO THE CURRENT CENTURY, »±IVEN
DISCUSSES THE RISE OF mI±±IONS INTO ÊRAzI±’S mIDD±E C±ASS AND INITIATIVES FOR
AffiRmATIVE ACTION TO ADDRESS RACIA± DISPARITIES. µS WITH THE CHAPTERS BY ÊABB
AND ÊRENNAN, »±IVEN TE±±S THE STORIES OF POPU±ATIONS THROUgHOUT THE WESTERN
HEmISPHERE THAT ARE PIONEERINg NEW FORmS OF SO±IDARITY ACROSS BORDERS IN THE
SERVICE OF STRUgg±ES FOR RECOgNITION AND EqUITY WITHIN THEm.
¼EADERS WI±± fiND A COHESIVE TONE AND THEmATIC SImI±ARITY IN THE CHAPTERS
ASSEmB±ED IN THIS PART. °REE OF THE AUTHORS ARE TRAINED ANTHROPO±OgISTS
(ÊRENNAN, ÊABB, AND »±IVEN) WHO TE±± STORIES OF PEOP±ES AND CU±TURES AND
SUPPORT THEIR C±AImS WITH A mIx OF fiE±D OBSERVATIONS AND SCHO±AR±Y ±ITERATURE.
LINES FROm ¼ENATO ¼OSA±DO AND ¼IgOBERTA MENCHú COmP±EmENT THE ANTHRO-
PO±OgISTS’ CHAPTERS WITH fiRSTHAND PERSPECTIVES. ¾AkEN TOgETHER, THESE AUTHORS
INVITE US TO THINk ABOUT COmmUNITIES AS THEY WERE, ARE, AND WI±± BE. ºROm
FAmI±IES STRETCHINg THOUSANDS OF mI±ES TO NETWORkS OF g±OBA± ACTIVISTS, INDI-
VIDUA±S FROm LATIN µmERICAN AND THE ·ARIBBEAN CONTINUE TO WRITE NEW
CHAPTERS IN THE g±OBA± HISTORY OF COmmUNITIES.

Introduction to Rigoberta Menchú Tum
Åo one could Çiss the SIgNIfiCANCE OF ¼IgOBERTA MENCHú ¾Um ON THE

½OBE± STAgE IN »S±O, ½ORWAY, IN 1992. ²HE WAS THE fiRST WOmAN AND THE fiRST
NONWHITE PERSON FROm LATIN µmERICA TO RECEIVE THE ½OBE± ¸EACE ¸RIzE. ²HE
DE±IVERED THE SPEECH ExACT±Y fiVE HUNDRED YEARS AﬅER ·O±UmBUS ARRIVED IN THE
·ARIBBEAN IN 1492, BEgINNINg A SERIES OF ENCOUNTERS THAT WOU±D ANNIHI±ATE
mI±±IONS OF NATIVES OVER THE FO±±OWINg fiVE CENTURIES. MENCHú’S ½OBE± ¸RIzE
WAS A TRIBUTE TO CENTURIES OF STRUgg±ES AgAINST OPPRESSION BY INDIgENOUS POPU-
±ATIONS IN LATIN µmERICA, INC±UDINg THE VERY CONTEmPORARY VICTImS OF THE
GUATEmA±AN CIVI± WAR (1960–96) THAT WAS THEN ONgOINg. µmONg THE THOU-
SANDS mURDERED IN THAT CONflICT WERE MENCHú’S OWN mOTHER, FATHER, AND
BROTHER. MENCHú ESCAPED DEATH AND WAS ExI±ED TO MExICO. ÉER POWERFU± 1984
TESTImONIA±, I, Rigoberta Menchú: An Indian Woman in Guatemala, mADE
HER A g±OBA± VOICE FOR HUmAN RIgHTS.
¹N HER ½OBE± SPEECH IN »S±O, MENCHú EmBRACED THE SYmBO±ISm OF THE
AWARD AS AN HONOR TO INDIgENOUS PEOP±E AND SOUgHT TO mAkE THE HONOR AN
INSTRUmENT FOR g±OBA± ACTION. ²HE APPEA±ED FOR PEACE, RECONCI±IATION, AND jUS-
TICE AND DECRIED DISCRImINATION AND RACISm. ²HE URgED THE ¶NITED ½ATIONS TO
HASTEN ITS PARTICIPATION IN THE GUATEmA±AN PEACE PROCESS AND TO BROADEN ITS
ATTENTION TO HUmAN RIgHTS ABUSES E±SEWHERE. ²HE ARgUED FOR THE RECOgNITION OF
INDIgENOUS ±AND RIgHTS AND FOR RESOURCES TO ImPROVE THE mOST BASIC mEASURES
OF HUmAN WE±±-BEINg, SUCH AS INFANT mORTA±ITY, ±ITERACY, AND NUTRITION.
°OUgH DE±IVERED NEAR±Y TWENTY-fiVE YEARS BEFORE THE PUB±ICATION OF Global
Latin America, THE SPEECH REmAINS AS A±IVE AS EVER. ¾RIA±S FOR RECONCI±IATION
AND jUSTICE FROm THE GUATEmA±AN CONflICT CONTINUE BEFORE INTERNATIONA±
TRIBUNA±S. µ g±OBA± INDIgENOUS PEOP±E’S mOVEmENT PROPE±±ED BY gRASSROOTS
ACTIVISm AND INTERNATIONA± ORgANIzATIONS ±IkE THE ¶NITED ½ATIONS PROC±AImED
225
TWO OffiCIA± ÉCADES OF THE ÈOR±D’S ¹NDIgENOUS ¸EOP±ES (1993–2004 AND
2005–14) AND THE ÉC±ARATION ON THE ¼IgHTS OF ¹NDIgENOUS ¸EOP±ES (2007).
°IS mOVEmENT THAT MENCHú HE±PED SPARk NOW REPRESENTS mORE THAN 350
mI±±ION INDIgENOUS PERSONS ACROSS NINETY COUNTRIES AND INCREASINg±Y OVER±APS
WITH OTHER SOCIA± mOVEmENTS ±IkE C±ImATE CHANgE ACTIVISm AND ENVIRONmEN-
TA±ISm mORE BROAD±Y.
¼IgOBERTA MENCHú’S ±EgACY ENDURES THROUgH HER FAmOUS 1984 TESTImONIA±
BOOk AND ONgOINg ±EADERSHIP IN HUmAN RIgHTS CAmPAIgNS. ¼ECOgNIzED BY THE
½OBE± COmmITTEE IN 1992 “FOR HER WORk FOR SOCIA± jUSTICE AND ETHNO-CU±TURA±
RECONCI±IATION BASED ON RESPECT FOR THE RIgHTS OF INDIgENOUS PEOP±ES,” MENCHú
ExEmP±IfiES THE REACH AND ±EADERSHIP OF g±OBA± LATIN µmERICANS.
ÊY µNDREW ÊRITT
226 • Ï n t roduct ion to Â i¿oberta Ö ench ÷

t w e lv e
Nobel Lecture
Rigoberta Menchú Tum
ÓOUR MAjESTIES, THE ÌINg AND äUEEN OF ½ORWAY,

°E ÉONORAB±E MEmBERS OF THE ½OBE± ¸EACE ·OmmITTEE,
ÓOUR ³xCE±±ENCY, THE ¸RImE MINISTER,
ÓOUR ³xCE±±ENCIES, MEmBERS OF THE GOVERNmENT AND THE ÍP±OmATIC ·ORPS,
ÉAR GUATEmA±AN COUNTRYmEN AND WOmEN,
LADIES AND GENT±EmEN,
¹ FEE± A DEEP EmOTION AND PRIDE FOR THE HONOR OF HAVINg BEEN AWARDED THE ½OBE±
¸EACE ¸RIzE FOR 1992. µ DEEP PERSONA± FEE±INg AND PRIDE FOR mY COUNTRY AND ITS
VERY ANCIENT CU±TURE. ºOR THE VA±UES OF THE COmmUNITY AND THE PEOP±E TO WHICH
¹ BE±ONg, FOR THE ±OVE OF mY COUNTRY, OF MOTHER ½ATURE. ÈHOEVER UNDERSTANDS
THIS RESPECTS ±IFE AND ENCOURAgES THE STRUgg±E THAT AImS AT SUCH OBjECTIVES.
¹ CONSIDER THIS ¸RIzE, NOT AS A REWARD TO mE PERSONA±±Y, BUT RATHER AS ONE OF
THE gREATEST CONqUESTS IN THE STRUgg±E FOR PEACE, FOR ÉUmAN ¼IgHTS AND FOR
THE RIgHTS OF THE INDIgENOUS PEOP±E, WHO, FOR 500 YEARS, HAVE BEEN SP±IT, FRAg-
mENTED, AS WE±± AS THE VICTImS OF gENOCIDES, REPRESSION AND DISCRImINATION.
¸±EASE A±±OW mE TO CONVEY TO YOU A±±, WHAT THIS ¸RIzE mEANS TO mE.
¹N mY OPINION, THE ½OBE± ¸EACE ¸RIzE CA±±S UPON US TO ACT IN ACCORDANCE
WITH WHAT IT REPRESENTS, AND THE gREAT SIgNIfiCANCE IT HAS WOR±DWIDE. ¹N ADDI-
TION TO BEINg A PRICE±ESS TREASURE, IT IS AN INSTRUmENT WITH WHICH TO figHT FOR
PEACE, FOR jUSTICE, FOR THE RIgHTS OF THOSE WHO SUffER THE ABYSmA± ECONOmICA±,
SOCIA±, CU±TURA± AND PO±ITICA± INEqUA±ITIES, TYPICA± OF THE ORDER OF THE WOR±D IN
WHICH WE ±IVE, AND WHERE THE TRANSFORmATION INTO A NEW WOR±D BASED ON THE
© °E ½OBE± ºOUNDATION 1992.
227
VA±UES OF THE HUmAN BEINg, IS THE ExPECTATION OF THE mAjORITY OF THOSE WHO
±IVE ON THIS P±ANET.
°IS ½OBE± ¸RIzE REPRESENTS A STANDARD BEARER THAT ENCOURAgES US TO CON-
TINUE DENOUNCINg THE VIO±ATION OF ÉUmAN ¼IgHTS, COmmITTED AgAINST THE
PEOP±E IN GUATEmA±A, IN µmERICA AND IN THE WOR±D, AND TO PERFORm A POSITIVE
RO±E IN RESPECT OF THE PRESSINg TASk IN mY COUNTRY, WHICH IS TO ACHIEVE PEACE
WITH SOCIA± jUSTICE.
°E ½OBE± ¸RIzE IS A SYmBO± OF PEACE, AND OF THE EffORTS TO BUI±D UP A REA±
DEmOCRACY. ¹T WI±± STImU±ATE THE CIVI± SECTORS SO THAT THROUgH A SO±ID NATIONA±
UNITY, THESE mAY CONTRIBUTE TO THE PROCESS OF NEgOTIATIONS THAT SEEk PEACE,
REflECTINg THE gENERA± FEE±INg—A±THOUgH AT TImES NOT POSSIB±E TO ExPRESS BECAUSE
OF FEAR—OF GUATEmA±AN SOCIETY: TO ESTAB±ISH PO±ITICA± AND ±EgA± gROUNDS THAT
WI±± gIVE IRREVERSIB±E ImPU±SES TO A SO±UTION TO WHAT INITIATED THE INTERNA± ARmED
CONflICT.
°ERE IS NO DOUBT WHATSOEVER THAT IT CONSTITUTES A SIgN OF HOPE IN THE
STRUgg±E OF THE INDIgENOUS PEOP±E IN THE ENTIRE ·ONTINENT.
¹T IS A±SO A TRIBUTE TO THE ·ENTRA± µmERICAN PEOP±E WHO ARE STI±± SEARCHINg
FOR THEIR STABI±ITY, FOR THE STRUCTURINg OF THEIR FUTURE, AND THE PATH FOR THEIR
DEVE±OPmENT AND INTEgRATION, BASED ON CIVI± DEmOCRACY AND mUTUA± RESPECT.
°E ImPORTANCE OF THIS ½OBE± ¸RIzE HAS BEEN DEmONSTRATED BY A±± THE
CONgRATU±ATIONS RECEIVED FROm EVERYWHERE, FROm ÉEADS OF GOVERNmENT—
PRACTICA±±Y A±± THE µmERICAN ¸RESIDENTS—TO THE ORgANIzATIONS OF THE INDIgE-
NOUS PEOP±E AND OF ÉUmAN ¼IgHTS, FROm A±± OVER THE WOR±D. ¹N FACT, WHAT THEY
SEE IN THIS ½OBE± ¸EACE ¸RIzE IS NOT ON±Y A REWARD AND A RECOgNITION OF A SINg±E
PERSON, BUT A STARTINg POINT FOR THE HARD STRUgg±E TOWARDS THE ACHIEVEmENT OF
THAT REVINDICATION WHICH IS YET TO BE FU±fi ±±ED.
µS A CONTRAST, AND PARADOxICA±±Y, IT WAS ACTUA±±Y IN mY OWN COUNTRY WHERE
¹ mET, ON THE PART OF SOmE PEOP±E, THE STRONgEST OBjECTIONS, RESERVE AND INDIF-
FERENCE, FOR THE AWARD OF THE ½OBE± ¸EACE ¸RIzE TO THIS ëUICHé ¹NDIAN.
¸ERHAPS BECAUSE IN LATIN µmERICA, IT IS PRECISE±Y IN GUATEmA±A WHERE THE
DISCRImINATION TOWARDS THE INDIgENOUS, TOWARDS WOmEN, AND THE REPRESSION
OF THE ±ONgINg FOR jUSTICE AND PEACE, ARE mORE DEEP±Y ROOTED IN CERTAIN SOCIA±
AND PO±ITICA± SECTORS.
¶NDER PRESENT CIRCUmSTANCES, IN THIS DISORDERED AND COmP±Ex WOR±D, THE
DECISION OF THE ½ORWEgIAN ½OBE± ¸EACE ¸RIzE ·OmmITTEE TO AWARD THIS HON-
ORAB±E DISTINCTION TO mE, REflECTS THE AWARENESS OF THE FACT THAT, IN THIS WAY,
COURAgE AND STRENgTH IS gIVEN TO THE STRUgg±E OF PEACE, RECONCI±IATION AND
jUSTICE; TO THE STRUgg±E AgAINST RACISm, CU±TURA± DISCRImINATION, AND HENCE
228 • ch a p t er t w elv e
CONTRIBUTES TO THE ACHIEVEmENT OF HARmONIOUS CO-ExISTENCE BETWEEN OUR
PEOP±E.
ÈITH DEEP PAIN, ON ONE SIDE, BUT WITH SATISFACTION ON THE OTHER, ¹ HAVE TO
INFORm YOU THAT THE ½OBE± ¸EACE ¸RIzE 1992 WI±± HAVE TO REmAIN TEmPORARI±Y
IN MExICO ·ITY, IN WATCHFU± WAITINg FOR PEACE IN GUATEmA±A. ÊECAUSE THERE
ARE NO PO±ITICA± CONDITIONS IN mY COUNTRY THAT WOU±D INDICATE OR mAkE mE
FORESEE A PROmPT AND jUST SO±UTION. °E SATISFACTION AND gRATITUDE ARE DUE TO
THE FACT THAT MExICO, OUR BROTHER NEIgHBOR COUNTRY, THAT HAS BEEN SO DEDI-
CATED AND INTERESTED, THAT HAS mADE SUCH gREAT EffORTS IN RESPECT OF THE NEgO-
TIATIONS THAT ARE BEINg CONDUCTED TO ACHIEVE PEACE, THAT HAS RECEIVED AND
ADmITTED SO mANY REFUgEES AND ExI±ED GUATEmA±ANS, HAS gIVEN US A P±ACE IN
THE MUSEO DE± ¾EmP±O MAYOR (THE CRAD±E OF THE ANCIENT µzTECS) SO THAT THE
½OBE± ¸RIzE mAY REmAIN THERE, UNTI± PEACEFU± AND SAFE CONDITIONS ARE ESTAB-
±ISHED IN GUATEmA±A TO P±ACE IT HERE, IN THE ±AND OF THE ëUETzA±.
ÈHEN EVA±UATINg THE OVERA±± SIgNIfiCANCE OF THE AWARD OF THE ¸EACE ¸RIzE,
¹ WOU±D ±IkE TO SAY SOmE WORDS ON BEHA±F OF A±± THOSE WHOSE VOICE CANNOT BE
HEARD OR WHO HAVE BEEN REPRESSED FOR HAVINg SPOkEN THEIR OPINIONS, OF A±±
THOSE WHO HAVE BEEN mARgINA±IzED, WHO HAVE BEEN DISCRImINATED, WHO ±IVE
IN POVERTY, IN NEED, OF A±± THOSE WHO ARE THE VICTImS OF REPRESSION AND VIO±A-
TION OF HUmAN RIgHTS. °OSE WHO, NEVERTHE±ESS, HAVE ENDURED THROUgH CENTU-
RIES, WHO HAVE NOT ±OST THEIR CONSCIENCE, DETERmINATION, AND HOPE.
¸±EASE A±±OW mE, ±ADIES AND gENT±EmEN, TO SAY SOmE WORDS ABOUT mY
COUNTRY AND THE CIVI±IzATION OF THE MAYAS. °E MAYA PEOP±E DEVE±OPED AND
SPREAD gEOgRAPHICA±±Y THROUgH SOmE 300,000 SqUARE km; THEY OCCUPIED PARTS
OF THE ²OUTH OF MExICO, ÊE±IzE, GUATEmA±A, AS WE±± AS ÉONDURAS AND ³±
²A±VADOR; THEY DEVE±OPED A VERY RICH CIVI±IzATION IN THE AREA OF PO±ITICA±
ORgANIzATION, AS WE±± AS IN SOCIA± AND ECONOmIC fiE±DS; THEY WERE gREAT SCIEN-
TISTS IN THE fiE±DS OF mATHEmATICS, ASTRONOmY, AgRICU±TURE, ARCHITECTURE AND
ENgINEERINg; THEY WERE gREAT ARTISTS IN THE fiE±DS OF SCU±PTURE, PAINTINg, WEAV-
INg AND CARVINg.
°E MAYAS DISCOVERED THE zERO VA±UE IN mATHEmATICS, AT ABOUT THE SAmE
TImE THAT IT WAS DISCOVERED IN ¹NDIA AND ±ATER PASSED ON TO THE µRABS. °EIR
ASTRONOmIC FORECASTS BASED ON mATHEmATICA± CA±CU±ATIONS AND SCIENTIfiC
OBSERVATIONS WERE AmAzINg, AND STI±± ARE. °EY PREPARED A CA±ENDAR mORE
ACCURATE THAN THE GREgORIAN, AND IN THE fiE±D OF mEDICINE THEY PERFORmED
INTRACRANIA± SURgICA± OPERATIONS.
»NE OF THE MAYA BOOkS, WHICH ESCAPED DESTRUCTION BY THE CONqUISTADORES,
kNOWN AS °E ·ODEx OF ´RESDEN, CONTAINS THE RESU±TS OF AN INVESTIgATION ON
Åobel Üect u r e by Â i¿oberta Ö ench ÷ Ã u Ç • 229

EC±IPSES AS WE±± AS A TAB±E OF 69 DATES, IN WHICH SO±AR EC±IPSES OCCUR IN A ±APSE
OF 33 YEARS.
¾ODAY, IT IS ImPORTANT TO EmPHASIzE THE DEEP RESPECT THAT THE MAYA CIVI±I-
zATION HAD TOWARDS ±IFE AND NATURE IN gENERA±.
ÈHO CAN PREDICT WHAT OTHER gREAT SCIENTIfiC CONqUESTS AND DEVE±OPmENTS
THESE PEOP±E COU±D HAVE ACHIEVED, IF THEY HAD NOT BEEN CONqUERED BY B±OOD
AND fiRE, AND SUBjECTED TO AN ETHNOCIDE THAT AffECTED NEAR±Y 50 mI±±ION PEOP±E
IN THE COURSE OF 500 YEARS.
¹ WOU±D DESCRIBE THE mEANINg OF THIS ½OBE± ¸EACE ¸RIzE, IN THE fiRST P±ACE
AS A TRIBUTE TO THE ¹NDIAN PEOP±E WHO HAVE BEEN SACRIfiCED AND HAVE DISAP-
PEARED BECAUSE THEY AImED AT A mORE DIgNIfiED AND jUST ±IFE WITH FRATERNITY
AND UNDERSTANDINg AmONg HUmAN BEINgS. ¾O THOSE WHO ARE NO ±ONgER A±IVE
TO kEEP UP THE HOPE FOR A CHANgE IN THE SITUATION IN RESPECT OF POVERTY AND
mARgINA±IzATION OF THE ¹NDIANS, OF THOSE WHO HAVE BEEN BANISHED, OF THE HE±P-
±ESS IN GUATEmA±A AS WE±± AS IN THE ENTIRE µmERICAN ·ONTINENT.
°IS gROWINg CONCERN IS COmFORTINg, EVEN THOUgH IT COmES 500 YEARS ±ATER,
TO THE SUffERINg, THE DISCRImINATION, THE OPPRESSION AND THE ExP±OITATION THAT
OUR PEOP±ES HAVE BEEN ExPOSED TO, BUT WHO, THANkS TO THEIR OWN COSmOVISION—
AND CONCEPT OF ±IFE, HAVE mANAgED TO WITHSTAND AND fiNA±±Y SEE SOmE PROmISINg
PROSPECTS. ÉOW THOSE ROOTS, THAT WERE TO BE ERADICATED, NOW BEgIN TO gROW WITH
STRENgTH, HOPE AND VISIONS OF THE FUTURE!
¹T A±SO REPRESENTS A SIgN OF THE gROWINg INTERNATIONA± INTEREST FOR, AND UNDER-
STANDINg OF THE ORIgINA± ¼IgHTS OF THE ¸EOP±E, OF THE FUTURE OF mORE THAN 60
mI±±ION ¹NDIANS THAT ±IVE IN OUR µmERICAS, AND THEIR OUTCRY BECAUSE OF THE 500
YEARS OF OPPRESSION THAT THEY HAVE ENDURED. ºOR THE gENOCIDE BEYOND COmPARI-
SON THAT THEY HAVE HAD TO SUffER THROUgHOUT THIS EPOCH, AND FROm WHICH OTHER
COUNTRIES AND THE E±ITE OF THE µmERICAS HAVE PROfiTED AND TAkEN ADVANTAgE.
LET THERE BE FREEDOm FOR THE ¹NDIANS, WHEREVER THEY mAY BE IN THE
µmERICAN ·ONTINENT OR E±SEWHERE IN THE WOR±D, BECAUSE WHI±E THEY ARE A±IVE,
A g±OW OF HOPE WI±± BE A±IVE AS WE±± AS A TRUE CONCEPT OF ±IFE.
°E ExPRESSIONS OF gREAT HAPPINESS BY THE ¹NDIAN »RgANIzATIONS IN THE
ENTIRE ·ONTINENT AND THE WOR±DWIDE CONgRATU±ATIONS RECEIVED FOR THE AWARD
OF THE ½OBE± ¸EACE ¸RIzE, C±EAR±Y INDICATE THE gREAT ImPORTANCE OF THIS DECI-
SION. ¹T IS THE RECOgNITION OF THE ³UROPEAN DEBT TO THE µmERICAN INDIgENOUS
PEOP±E; IT IS AN APPEA± TO THE CONSCIENCE OF ÉUmANITY SO THAT THOSE CONDITIONS
OF mARgINA±IzATION THAT CONDEmNED THEm TO CO±ONIA±ISm AND ExP±OITATION
mAY BE ERADICATED; IT IS A CRY FOR ±IFE, PEACE, jUSTICE, EqUA±ITY AND FRATERNITY
BETWEEN HUmAN BEINgS.
°E PECU±IARITIES OF THE VISION OF THE ¹NDIAN PEOP±E ARE ExPRESSED ACCORDINg
TO THE WAY IN WHICH THEY ARE RE±ATED TO EACH OTHER. ºIRST, BETWEEN HUmAN
BEINgS, THROUgH COmmUNICATION. ²ECOND, WITH THE EARTH, AS WITH OUR mOTHER,
BECAUSE SHE gIVES US OUR ±IVES AND IS NOT mERE mERCHANDISE. °IRD, WITH
NATURE, BECAUSE WE ARE AN INTEgRA± PART OF IT, AND NOT ITS OWNERS.
¾O US MOTHER ³ARTH IS NOT ON±Y A SOURCE OF ECONOmIC RICHES THAT gIVE US
THE mAIzE, WHICH IS OUR ±IFE, BUT SHE A±SO PROVIDES SO mANY OTHER THINgS THAT
THE PRIVI±EgED ONES OF TODAY STRIVE FOR. °E ³ARTH IS THE ROOT AND THE SOURCE OF
OUR CU±TURE. ²HE kEEPS OUR mEmORIES, SHE RECEIVES OUR ANCESTORS AND SHE,
THEREFORE, DEmANDS THAT WE HONOR HER AND RETURN TO HER, WITH TENDERNESS AND
RESPECT, THOSE gOODS THAT SHE gIVES US. ÈE HAVE TO TAkE CARE OF HER SO THAT OUR
CHI±DREN AND gRANDCHI±DREN mAY CONTINUE TO BENEfiT FROm HER. ¹F THE WOR±D
DOES NOT ±EARN NOW TO SHOW RESPECT TO NATURE, WHAT kIND OF FUTURE WI±± THE
NEW gENERATIONS HAVE?
ºROm THESE BASIC FEATURES DERIVE BEHAVIOR, RIgHTS AND OB±IgATIONS IN THE
µmERICAN ·ONTINENT, FOR THE INDIgENOUS PEOP±E AS WE±± AS FOR THE NON-
INDIgENOUS, WHETHER THEY BE RACIA±±Y mIxED, B±ACkS, WHITES OR µSIAN. °E WHO±E
SOCIETY HAS AN OB±IgATION TO SHOW mUTUA± RESPECT, TO ±EARN FROm EACH OTHER AND
TO SHARE mATERIA± AND SCIENTIfiC ACHIEVEmENTS, IN THE mOST CONVENIENT WAY. °E
INDIgENOUS PEOP±ES NEVER HAD, AND STI±± DO NOT HAVE, THE P±ACE THAT THEY SHOU±D
HAVE OCCUPIED IN THE PROgRESS AND BENEfiTS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNO±OgY, A±THOUgH
THEY REPRESENTED AN ImPORTANT BASIS FOR THIS DEVE±OPmENT.
¹F THE INDIgENOUS CIVI±IzATION AND THE ³UROPEAN CIVI±IzATIONS COU±D HAVE
mADE ExCHANgES IN A PEACEFU± AND HARmONIOUS mANNER, WITHOUT DESTRUCTION,
ExP±OITATION, DISCRImINATION AND POVERTY, THEY COU±D, NO DOUBT, HAVE ACHIEVED
gREATER AND mORE VA±UAB±E CONqUESTS FOR ÉUmANITY.
LET US NOT FORgET THAT WHEN THE ³UROPEANS CAmE TO µmERICA, THERE WERE
flOURISHINg AND STRONg CIVI±IzATIONS THERE. »NE CANNOT TA±k ABOUT A “DISCOVERY
OF µmERICA,” BECAUSE ONE DISCOVERS THAT WHICH ONE DOES NOT kNOW ABOUT, OR
THAT WHICH IS HIDDEN. ÊUT µmERICA AND ITS NATIVE CIVI±IzATIONS HAD DISCOVERED
THEmSE±VES ±ONg BEFORE THE FA±± OF THE ¼OmAN ³mPIRE AND MEDIEVA± ³UROPE.
°E SIgNIfiCANCE OF ITS CU±TURES FORmS PART OF THE HERITAgE OF HUmANITY AND
CONTINUES TO ASTONISH THE ±EARNED.
¹ THINk IT IS NECESSARY THAT THE INDIgENOUS PEOP±ES, OF WHICH ¹ Am A mEm-
BER, SHOU±D CONTRIBUTE THEIR SCIENCE AND kNOW±EDgE TO HUmAN DEVE±OPmENT,
BECAUSE WE HAVE ENORmOUS POTENTIA± AND WE COU±D COmBINE OUR VERY ANCIENT
HERITAgE WITH THE ACHIEVEmENTS OF ³UROPEAN CIVI±IzATION AS WE±± AS WITH CIVI-
±IzATIONS IN OTHER PARTS OF THE WOR±D.

ÊUT THIS CONTRIBUTION, THAT TO OUR UNDERSTANDINg IS A RECOVERY OF THE NATU-
RA± AND CU±TURA± HERITAgE, mUST TAkE P±ACE BASED ON A RATIONA± AND CONSENSUA±
BASIS IN RESPECT OF THE RIgHT TO mAkE USE OF kNOW±EDgE AND NATURA± RESOURCES,
WITH gUARANTEES FOR EqUA±ITY BETWEEN GOVERNmENT AND SOCIETY.
ÈE THE INDIgENOUS ARE WI±±INg TO COmBINE TRADITION WITH mODERNISm, BUT
NOT AT ANY COST. ÈE WI±± NOT TO±ERATE OR PERmIT THAT OUR FUTURE BE P±ANNED AS
POSSIB±E gUARDIANS OF ETHNO-TOURISTIC PROjECTS ON A CONTINENTA± ±EVE±.
µT A TImE WHEN THE COmmEmORATION OF THE ºIﬅH ·ENTENARY OF THE ARRIVA±
OF ·O±UmBUS IN µmERICA HAS REPERCUSSIONS A±± OVER THE WOR±D, THE REVIVA± OF
HOPE FOR THE OPPRESSED INDIgENOUS PEOP±ES DEmANDS THAT WE REASSERT OUR ExIS-
TENCE TO THE WOR±D AND THE VA±UE OF OUR CU±TURA± IDENTITY. ¹T DEmANDS THAT WE
ENDEAVOR TO ACTIVE±Y PARTICIPATE IN THE DECISIONS THAT CONCERN OUR DESTINY, IN
THE BUI±DINg-UP OF OUR COUNTRIES/NATIONS. ²HOU±D WE, IN SPITE OF A±±, NOT BE
TAkEN INTO CONSIDERATION, THERE ARE FACTORS THAT gUARANTEE OUR FUTURE: STRUgg±E
AND ENDURANCE; COURAgE; THE DECISION TO mAINTAIN OUR TRADITIONS THAT HAVE
BEEN ExPOSED TO SO mANY PERI±S AND SUffERINgS; SO±IDARITY TOWARDS OUR STRUg-
g±E ON THE PART OF NUmEROUS COUNTRIES, gOVERNmENTS, ORgANIzATIONS AND CITI-
zENS OF THE WOR±D.
°AT IS WHY ¹ DREAm OF THE DAY WHEN THE RE±ATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE INDIg-
ENOUS PEOP±ES AND OTHER PEOP±ES IS STRENgTHENED; WHEN THEY CAN COmBINE
THEIR POTENTIA±ITIES AND THEIR CAPABI±ITIES AND CONTRIBUTE TO mAkE ±IFE ON THIS
P±ANET ±ESS UNEqUA±, A BETTER DISTRIBUTION OF THE SCIENTIfiC AND CU±TURA± TREAS-
URES ACCUmU±ATED BY ÉUmANITY, flOURISHINg IN PEACE AND jUSTICE.
¾ODAY, IN THE 47TH PERIOD OF SESSIONS OF THE GENERA± µSSEmB±Y, THE ¶NITED
½ATIONS (¶½) WI±± PROC±AIm 1993 AS THE “¹NTERNATIONA± ÓEAR OF THE ÈOR±D’S
¹NDIgENOUS ¸EOP±E,” IN THE PRESENCE OF WE±±-kNOWN CHIEFS OF THE ORgANIzATIONS
OF THE ¹NDIAN PEOP±E AND OF THE COORDINATION OF THE ·ONTINENTA± MOVEmENT
OF ¹NDIgENOUS, Ê±ACkS AND ¸OPU±AR ¼ESISTANCE. °EY WI±± A±± FORmA±±Y PARTICI-
PATE IN THE OPENINg OF THE WORkINg SESSIONS IN ORDER TO mAkE 1993 A YEAR OF
SPECIfiC ACTIONS TO TRU±Y P±ACE THE INDIgENOUS PEOP±ES WITHIN THEIR NATIONA±
CONTExTS AND TO mAkE THEm PART OF mUTUA± INTERNATIONA± AgREEmENTS.
°E ACHIEVEmENT OF THE “¹NTERNATIONA± ÓEAR OF THE ÈOR±D’S ¹NDIgENOUS
¸EOP±E” AND THE PROgRESS REPRESENTED BY THE PREPARATION OF THE PROjECT FOR THE
¶NIVERSA± ÉC±ARATION ARE THE RESU±T OF THE PARTICIPATION OF NUmEROUS ¹NDIAN
BROTHERS, NONgOVERNmENTA± ORgANIzATIONS AND THE SUCCESSFU± EffORTS OF THE
ExPERTS IN THE ÈORkINg gROUP, IN ADDITION TO THE COmPREHENSIVENESS SHOWN
BY mANY COUNTRIES IN THE ¶NITED ½ATIONS.
ÈE HOPE THAT THE FORmU±ATION OF THE PROjECT IN RESPECT OF THE ÉC±ARATION
ON THE ¼IgHTS OF THE INDIgENOUS ¸EOP±E WI±± ExAmINE AND gO DEEP±Y INTO THE
ExISTINg DIffiCU±TY REA±ITY THAT WE, THE ¹NDO-µmERICANS, ExPERIENCE.
»UR PEOP±E WI±± HAVE A YEAR DEDICATED TO THE PROB±EmS THAT AfflICT THEm
AND, IN THIS RESPECT, ARE NOW gETTINg READY TO CARRY OUT DIffERENT ACTIVITIES
WITH THE PURPOSE OF PRESENTINg PROPOSA±S AND PUTTINg PRESSURE ON ACTION
P±ANS. µ±± THIS WI±± BE CONDUCTED IN THE mOST REASONAB±E WAY AND WITH THE
mOST CONVINCINg AND jUSTIfiED ARgUmENTS FOR THE E±ImINATION OF RACISm,
OPPRESSION, DISCRImINATION AND THE ExP±OITATION OF THOSE WHO HAVE BEEN
DRAggED INTO POVERTY AND OB±IVION. µ±SO FOR “THE CONDEmNED OF THE EARTH,”
THE AWARD OF THE ½OBE± ¸EACE ¸RIzE REPRESENTS A RECOgNITION, AN ENCOURAgE-
mENT AND AN OBjECTIVE FOR THE FUTURE.
¹ WISH THAT A CONSCIOUS SENSE OF PEACE AND A FEE±INg OF HUmAN SO±IDARITY
WOU±D DEVE±OP IN A±± PEOP±ES, WHICH WOU±D OPEN NEW RE±ATIONSHIPS OF RESPECT
AND EqUA±ITY FOR THE NExT mI±±ENNIUm, TO BE RU±ED BY FRATERNITY AND NOT BY
CRUE± CONflICTS.
»PINION IS BEINg FORmED EVERYWHERE TODAY, THAT IN SPITE OF WARS AND VIO-
±ENCE, CA±±S UPON THE ENTIRE HUmAN RACE TO PROTECT ITS HISTORICA± VA±UES AND TO
FORm UNITY IN DIVERSITY. µND THIS CA±±S UPON US A±± TO REflECT UPON THE INCOR-
PORATION OF ImPORTANT E±EmENTS OF CHANgE AND TRANSFORmATION IN A±± ASPECTS
OF ±IFE ON EARTH, IN THE SEARCH FOR SPECIfiC AND DEfiNITE SO±UTIONS TO THE DEEP
ETHICA± CRISIS THAT AfflICTS ÉUmANITY.
°IS WI±±, NO DOUBT, HAVE DECISIVE INflUENCE ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE
FUTURE.
°ERE IS A POSSIBI±ITY THAT SOmE CENTERS OF PO±ITICA± AND ECONOmIC POWER,
SOmE STATESmEN AND INTE±±ECTUA±S, HAVE NOT YET mANAgED TO SEE THE ADVANTAgES
OF THE ACTIVE PARTICIPATION OF THE INDIgENOUS PEOP±ES IN A±± THE fiE±DS OF HUmAN
ACTIVITY. ÉOWEVER, THE mOVEmENT INITIATED BY DIffERENT PO±ITICA± AND INTE±-
±ECTUA± “µmERINDIANS” WI±± fiNA±±Y CONVINCE THEm THAT, FROm AN OBjECTIVE
POINT OF VIEW, WE ARE A CONSTITUENT PART OF THE HISTORICA± A±TERNATIVES THAT ARE
BEINg DISCUSSED AT THE INTERNATIONA± ±EVE±.
LADIES AND gENT±EmEN, A±±OW mE TO SAY SOmE CANDID WORDS ABOUT mY
COUNTRY.
°E ATTENTION THAT THIS ½OBE± ¸EACE ¸RIzE HAS FOCUSED ON GUATEmA±A,
SHOU±D ImP±Y THAT THE VIO±ATION OF THE HUmAN RIgHTS IS NO ±ONgER IgNORED
INTERNATIONA±±Y. ¹T WI±± A±SO HONOR A±± THOSE WHO DIED IN THE STRUgg±E FOR SOCIA±
EqUA±ITY AND jUSTICE IN mY COUNTRY.

¹T IS kNOWN THROUgHOUT THE WOR±D THAT THE GUATEmA±AN PEOP±E, AS A RESU±T
OF THEIR STRUgg±E, SUCCEEDED IN ACHIEVINg, IN »CTOBER 1944, A PERIOD OF DEmOC-
RACY WHERE INSTITUTIONA±ITY AND HUmAN RIgHTS WERE THE mAIN PHI±OSOPHIES. µT
THAT TImE, GUATEmA±A WAS AN ExCEPTION IN THE µmERICAN ·ONTINENT, BECAUSE
OF ITS STRUgg±E FOR COmP±ETE NATIONA± SOVEREIgNTY. ÉOWEVER, IN 1954, A CONSPIRACY
THAT ASSOCIATED THE TRADITIONA± NATIONA± POWER CENTERS, INHERITORS OF CO±ONIA±-
ISm, WITH POWERFU± FOREIgN INTERESTS, OVERTHREW THE DEmOCRATIC REgImE AS A
RESU±T OF AN ARmED INVASION, THEREBY RE-ImPOSINg THE O±D SYSTEm OF OPPRESSION
WHICH HAS CHARACTERIzED THE HISTORY OF mY COUNTRY.
°E ECONOmIC, SOCIA± AND PO±ITICA± SUBjECTION THAT DERIVED FROm THE ·O±D
ÈAR, WAS WHAT INITIATED THE INTERNA± ARmED CONflICT. °E REPRESSION AgAINST
THE ORgANIzATIONS OF THE PEOP±E, THE DEmOCRATIC PARTIES AND THE INTE±±ECTUA±S,
STARTED IN GUATEmA±A ±ONg BEFORE THE WAR STARTED. LET US NOT FORgET THAT.
¹N THE ATTEmPT TO CRUSH REBE±±ION, DICTATORSHIPS HAVE COmmITTED THE gREAT-
EST ATROCITIES. °EY HAVE ±EVE±ED VI±±AgES, AND mURDERED THOUSANDS OF PEASANTS
PARTICU±AR±Y ¹NDIANS, HUNDREDS OF TRADE UNION WORkERS AND STUDENTS, OUT-
STANDINg INTE±±ECTUA±S AND PO±ITICIANS, PRIESTS AND NUNS. °ROUgH THIS SYSTEm-
ATIC PERSECUTION IN THE NAmE OF THE SAFETY OF THE NATION, ONE mI±±ION PEASANTS,
WERE REmOVED BY FORCE FROm THEIR ±ANDS; 100,000 HAD TO SEEk REFUgE IN THE
NEIgHBORINg COUNTRIES. ¹N GUATEmA±A, THERE ARE TODAY A±mOST 100,000
ORPHANS AND mORE THAN 40,000 WIDOWS. °E PRACTICE OF “DISAPPEARED” PO±ITI-
CIANS WAS INVENTED IN GUATEmA±A, AS A gOVERNmENT PO±ICY.
µS YOU kNOW, ¹ Am mYSE±F A SURVIVOR OF A mASSACRED FAmI±Y.
°E COUNTRY CO±±APSED INTO A CRISIS NEVER SEEN BEFORE AND THE CHANgES IN
THE WOR±D FORCED AND ENCOURAgED THE mI±ITARY FORCES TO PERmIT A PO±ITICA±
OPENINg THAT CONSISTED IN THE PREPARATION OF A NEW ·ONSTITUTION, IN AN
ExPANSION OF THE PO±ITICA± fiE±D, AND IN THE TRANSFER OF THE gOVERNmENT TO CIVI±
SECTORS. ÈE HAVE HAD THIS NEW REgImE FOR EIgHT YEARS AND IN CERTAIN fiE±DS
THERE HAVE BEEN SOmE OPENINgS OF ImPORTANCE.
ÉOWEVER, IN SPITE OF THESE OPENINgS, REPRESSION AND VIO±ATION OF HUmAN
RIgHTS PERSISTS IN THE mIDD±E OF AN ECONOmIC CRISIS, THAT IS BECOmINg mORE AND
mORE ACUTE, TO THE ExTENT THAT 84% OF THE POPU±ATION IS TODAY CONSIDERED AS
POOR, AND SOmE 60% ARE CONSIDERED AS VERY POOR. ¹mPUNITY AND TERROR CON-
TINUE TO PREVENT PEOP±E FROm FREE±Y ExPRESSINg THEIR NEEDS AND VITA± DEmANDS.
°E INTERNA± ARmED CONflICT STI±± ExISTS.
°E PO±ITICA± ±IFE IN mY COUNTRY HAS ±ATE±Y CENTERED AROUND THE SEARCH FOR A
PO±ITICA± SO±UTION TO THE g±OBA± CRISIS AND THE ARmED CONflICT THAT HAS ExISTED
IN GUATEmA±A SINCE 1962. °IS PROCESS WAS INITIATED BY THE µgREEmENT SIgNED
IN THIS ·ITY OF »S±O, BETWEEN THE ·OmISIóN ½ACIONA± DE ¼ECONCI±IACIóN WITH
gOVERNmENT mANDATE AND THE ¶NIDAD ¼EVO±UCIONARIA ½ACIONA± GUATEmA±TECA
(¶¼½G) AS A NECESSARY STEP TO INTRODUCE TO GUATEmA±A THE SPIRIT OF THE
µgREEmENT OF ³SqUIPU±AS.
µS A RESU±T OF THIS µgREEmENT AND CONVERSATIONS BETWEEN THE ¶¼½G AND
DIffERENT SECTORS OF GUATEmA±AN SOCIETY, DIRECT NEgOTIATIONS WERE INITIATED UNDER
THE gOVERNmENT OF ¸RESIDENT ²ERRANO, BETWEEN THE gOVERNmENT AND THE gUERRI±-
±AS, AS A RESU±T OF WHICH THREE AgREEmENTS HAVE A±READY BEEN SIgNED. ÉOWEVER, THE
SUBjECT OF ÉUmAN ¼IgHTS HAS TAkEN A ±ONg TImE, BECAUSE THIS SUBjECT CONSTITUTES
THE CORE OF THE GUATEmA±AN PROB±EmS, AND AROUND THIS CORE ImPORTANT DIffER-
ENCES HAVE ARISEN. ½EVERTHE±ESS, THERE HAS BEEN CONSIDERAB±E PROgRESS.
°E PROCESS OF NEgOTIATIONS AImS AT REACHINg AgREEmENTS IN ORDER TO ESTAB-
±ISH THE BASIS FOR A REA± DEmOCRACY IN GUATEmA±A AND FOR AN END TO THE WAR. µS
FAR AS ¹ UNDERSTAND, WITH THE gOODWI±± OF THE PARTIES CONCERNED AND THE ACTIVE
PARTICIPATION OF THE CIVI± SECTORS, ADAPTINg TO A gREAT NATIONA± UNITY, THE PHASE
OF PURPOSES AND INTENTIONS COU±D BE ±Eﬅ BEHIND SO THAT GUATEmA±A COU±D BE
PU±±ED OUT OF THE CROSSROADS THAT SEEm TO HAVE BECOmE ETERNA±.
ÍA±OgUES AND PO±ITICA± NEgOTIATIONS ARE, NO DOUBT, ADEqUATE mEANS TO SO±VE
THESE PROB±EmS, IN ORDER TO RESPOND IN A SPECIfiC WAY TO THE VITA± AND URgENT
NEEDS FOR ±IFE AND FOR THE ImP±EmENTATION OF DEmOCRACY FOR THE GUATEmA±AN
PEOP±E. ÉOWEVER, ¹ Am CONVINCED THAT IF THE DIVERSE SOCIA± SECTORS WHICH INTE-
gRATE GUATEmA±AN SOCIETY fiND BASES OF UNITY, RESPECTINg THEIR NATURA± DIffER-
ENCES, THEY WOU±D TOgETHER fiND A SO±UTION TO THOSE PROB±EmS AND THEREFORE
RESO±VE THE CAUSES WHICH INITIATED THE WAR WHICH PREVAI±S IN GUATEmA±A.
»THER CIVI± SECTORS AS WE±± AS THE INTERNATIONA± COmmUNITY mUST DEmAND
THAT THE NEgOTIATIONS BETWEEN THE GOVERNmENT AND THE ¶¼½G SURPASS THE
PERIOD IN WHICH THEY ARE fiNDINg THEmSE±VES IN DISCUSSINg ÉUmAN ¼IgHTS AND
mOVE AHEAD AS SOON AS POSSIB±E TO A VERIfiAB±E AgREEmENT WITH THE ¶NITED
½ATIONS. ¹T IS NECESSARY TO POINT OUT, HERE IN »S±O, THAT THE ISSUE OF ÉUmAN
¼IgHTS IN GUATEmA±A CONSTITUTES, AT PRESENT, THE mOST URgENT PROB±Em THAT
HAS TO BE SO±VED. MY STATEmENT IS NEITHER INCIDENTA± NOR UNjUSTIfiED.
µS HAS BEEN ASCERTAINED BY INTERNATIONA± INSTITUTIONS, SUCH AS °E ¶NITED
½ATIONS ·OmmISSION ON ÉUmAN ¼IgHTS, °E ¹NTERAmERICAN ·OmmISSION OF
ÉUmAN ¼IgHTS AND mANY OTHER HUmANITARIAN ORgANIzATIONS, GUATEmA±A IS
ONE OF THE COUNTRIES IN µmERICA WITH THE ±ARgEST NUmBER OF VIO±ATIONS OF THESE
RIgHTS, AND THE ±ARgEST NUmBER OF CASES OF ImPUNITY WHERE SECURITY FORCES ARE
gENERA±±Y INVO±VED. ¹T IS ImPERATIVE THAT THE REPRESSION AND PERSECUTION OF
THE PEOP±E AND THE ¹NDIANS BE STOPPED. °E COmPU±SORY mOBI±IzATION AND

INTEgRATION OF YOUNg PEOP±E INTO THE ¸ATRO±S OF ·IVI± ²E±F ÉFENSE, WHICH
PRINCIPA±±Y AffECTS THE ¹NDIAN PEOP±E, mUST A±SO BE STOPPED.
ÉmOCRACY IN GUATEmA±A mUST BE BUI±T-UP AS SOON AS POSSIB±E. ¹T IS NECES-
SARY THAT ÉUmAN ¼IgHTS AgREEmENTS BE FU±±Y COmP±IED WITH, I.E., AN END TO
RACISm; gUARANTEED FREEDOm TO ORgANIzE AND TO mOVE WITHIN A±± SECTORS OF THE
COUNTRY. ¹N SHORT, IT IS ImPERATIVE TO OPEN A±± fiE±DS TO THE mU±TI-ETHNIC CIVI±
SOCIETY WITH A±± ITS RIgHTS, TO DEmI±ITARIzE THE COUNTRY AND ESTAB±ISH THE BASIS
FOR ITS DEVE±OPmENT, SO THAT IT CAN BE PU±±ED OUT OF TODAY’S UNDERDEVE±OPmENT
AND POVERTY.
µmONg THE mOST BITTER DRAmAS THAT A gREAT PERCENTAgE OF THE POPU±ATION
HAS TO ENDURE, IS THE FORCED ExODUS. ÈHICH mEANS, TO BE FORCED BY mI±ITARY
UNITS AND PERSECUTION TO ABANDON THEIR VI±±AgES, THEIR MOTHER ³ARTH, WHERE
THEIR ANCESTORS REST, THEIR ENVIRONmENT, THE NATURE THAT gAVE THEm ±IFE AND THE
gROWTH OF THEIR COmmUNITIES, A±± OF WHICH CONSTITUTED A COHERENT SYSTEm OF
SOCIA± ORgANIzATION AND FUNCTIONA± DEmOCRACY.
°E CASE OF THE DISP±ACED AND OF REFUgEES IN GUATEmA±A IS HEARTBREAkINg;
SOmE OF THEm ARE CONDEmNED TO ±IVE IN ExI±E IN OTHER COUNTRIES, BUT THE gREAT
mAjORITY ±IVE IN ExI±E IN THEIR OWN COUNTRY. °EY ARE FORCED TO WANDER FROm
P±ACE TO P±ACE, TO ±IVE IN RAVINES AND INHOSPITAB±E P±ACES, SOmE NOT RECOgNIzED
AS GUATEmA±AN CITIzENS, BUT A±± OF THEm ARE CONDEmNED TO POVERTY AND HUNgER.
°ERE CANNOT BE A TRUE DEmOCRACY AS ±ONg AS THIS PROB±Em IS NOT SATISFACTORI±Y
SO±VED AND THESE PEOP±E ARE REINSTATED ON THEIR ±ANDS AND IN THEIR VI±±AgES.
¹N THE NEW GUATEmA±AN SOCIETY, THERE mUST BE A FUNDAmENTA± REORgANIzA-
TION IN THE mATTER OF ±AND OWNERSHIP, TO A±±OW FOR THE DEVE±OPmENT OF THE
AgRICU±TURA± POTENTIA±, AS WE±± AS FOR THE RETURN OF THE ±AND TO THE ±EgITImATE
OWNERS. °IS PROCESS OF REORgANIzATION mUST BE CARRIED OUT WITH THE gREATEST
RESPECT FOR NATURE, IN ORDER TO PROTECT HER AND RETURN TO HER, HER STRENgTH AND
CAPABI±ITY TO gENERATE ±IFE.
½O ±ESS CHARACTERISTIC OF A DEmOCRACY IS SOCIA± jUSTICE. °IS DEmANDS A SO±U-
TION TO THE FRIgHTENINg STATISTICS ON INFANT mORTA±ITY, OF mA±NUTRITION, ±ACk OF
EDUCATION, ANA±PHABETISm, WAgES INSUffiCIENT TO SUSTAIN ±IFE. °ESE PROB±EmS
HAVE A gROWINg AND PAINFU± ImPACT ON THE GUATEmA±AN POPU±ATION AND ImP±Y
NO PROSPECTS AND NO HOPE.
µmONg THE FEATURES THAT CHARACTERIzE SOCIETY TODAY, IS THAT OF THE RO±E OF
WOmEN, A±THOUgH FEmA±E EmANCIPATION HAS NOT, IN FACT, BEEN FU±±Y ACHIEVED
SO FAR BY ANY COUNTRY IN THE WOR±D.
°E HISTORICA± DEVE±OPmENT IN GUATEmA±A REflECTS NOW THE NEED AND THE
IRREVERSIBI±ITY OF THE ACTIVE CONTRIBUTION OF WOmEN TO THE CONfigURATION OF THE
NEW GUATEmA±AN SOCIA± ORDER, OF WHICH, ¹ HUmB±Y BE±IEVE, THE ¹NDIAN WOmEN
A±READY ARE A C±EAR TESTImONY. °IS ½OBE± ¸EACE ¸RIzE IS A RECOgNITION TO THOSE
WHO HAVE BEEN, AND STI±± ARE IN mOST PARTS OF THE WOR±D, THE mOST ExP±OITED OF
THE ExP±OITED; THE mOST DISCRImINATED OF THE DISCRImINATED, THE mOST mARgIN-
A±IzED OF THE mARgINA±IzED, BUT STI±± THOSE WHO PRODUCE ±IFE AND RICHES.
ÉmOCRACY, DEVE±OPmENT AND mODERNIzATION OF A COUNTRY ARE ImPOSSIB±E
AND INCONgRUOUS WITHOUT THE SO±UTION OF THESE PROB±EmS.
¹N GUATEmA±A, IT IS jUST AS ImPORTANT TO RECOgNIzE THE ¹DENTITY AND THE
¼IgHTS OF THE ¹NDIgENOUS ¸EOP±ES, THAT HAVE BEEN IgNORED AND DESPISED
NOT ON±Y DURINg THE CO±ONIA± PERIOD, BUT A±SO DURINg THE ¼EPUB±IC. ¹T IS NOT
POSSIB±E TO CONCEIVE A DEmOCRATIC GUATEmA±A, FREE AND INDEPENDENT, WITHOUT
THE INDIgENOUS IDENTITY SHAPINg ITS CHARACTER INTO A±± ASPECTS OF NATIONA±
ExISTENCE.
¹T WI±± UNDOUBTED±Y BE SOmETHINg NEW, A COmP±ETE±Y NEW ExPERIENCE, WITH
FEATURES THAT, AT THE mOmENT, WE CANNOT DESCRIBE. ÊUT IT WI±± AUTHENTICA±±Y
RESPOND TO HISTORY AND THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE REA± GUATEmA±AN NATIONA±ITY.
°E TRUE PROfi±E THAT HAS BEEN DISTORTED FOR SUCH A ±ONg TImE.
°IS URgENCY OF THIS VITA± NEED, ARE THE ISSUES THAT URgE mE, AT THIS mOmENT,
FROm THIS ROSTRUm, TO URgE NATIONA± OPINION AND THE INTERNATIONA± COmmU-
NITY, TO SHOW A mORE ACTIVE INTEREST IN GUATEmA±A.
¾AkINg INTO CONSIDERATION THAT IN CONNECTION WITH mY RO±E AS A ½OBE±
¸RIzE ÈINNER, IN THE PROCESS OF NEgOTIATIONS FOR PEACE IN GUATEmA±A mANY
POSSIBI±ITIES HAVE BEEN HAND±ED, BUT NOW ¹ THINk THAT THIS RO±E IS mORE ±IkE±Y
TO BE THE RO±E OF A PROmOTOR OF PEACE, OF NATIONA± UNITY, FOR THE PROTECTION OF
THE RIgHTS OF THE INDIgENOUS PEOP±ES. ¹N SUCH A WAY, THAT ¹ mAY TAkE INITIATIVES
IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE NEEDS, AND THEREBY PREVENT THE ¸EACE ¸RIzE FROm
BECOmINg A PIECE OF PAPER THAT HAS BEEN PIgEONHO±ED.
¹ CA±± UPON A±± THE SOCIA± AND ETHNIC SECTORS THAT CONSTITUTE THE PEOP±E OF
GUATEmA±A TO PARTICIPATE ACTIVE±Y IN THE EffORTS TO fiND A PEACEFU± SO±UTION TO
THE ARmED CONflICT, TO BUI±D-UP A SOUND UNITY BETWEEN THE “±ADINOS,” THE
B±ACkS AND THE ¹NDIANS, A±± OF WHOm mUST CREATE WITHIN THEIR DIVERSE gROUPS,
A “GUATEmA±ITY.”
µ±ONg THESE SAmE ±INES, ¹ INVITE THE INTERNATIONA± COmmUNITY TO CONTRIB-
UTE WITH SPECIfiC ACTIONS SO THAT THE PARTIES INVO±VED mAY OVERCOmE THE DIffER-
ENCES THAT AT THIS STAgE kEEP NEgOTIATIONS IN A WAIT-AND-SEE STATE, SO THAT THEY
WI±± SUCCEED, fiRST OF A±±, IN SIgNINg AN AgREEmENT ON ÉUmAN ¼IgHTS. µND
THEN, TO RE-INITIATE THE ROUNDS OF NEgOTIATION AND IDENTIFY THOSE ISSUES ON
WHICH TO COmPROmISE, TO A±±OW FOR THE ¸EACE µgREEmENT TO BE SIgNED AND

ImmEDIATE±Y RATIfiED, BECAUSE ¹ HAVE NO DOUBT THAT THIS WI±± BRINg ABOUT gREAT
RE±IEF IN THE PREVAI±INg SITUATION IN GUATEmA±A.
MY OPINION IS A±SO THAT THE ¶½ SHOU±D HAVE A mORE DIRECT PARTICIPATION,
WHICH WOU±D gO FURTHER THAN P±AYINg THE RO±E OF OBSERVER, AND COU±D HE±P
SUBSTANTIA±±Y TO mOVE THE PROCESS AHEAD.
LADIES AND gENT±EmEN, THE FACT THAT ¹ HAVE gIVEN PREFERENCE TO THE
µmERICAN ·ONTINENT, AND IN PARTICU±AR TO mY COUNTRY, DOES NOT mEAN THAT ¹
DO NOT HAVE AN ImPORTANT P±ACE IN mY mIND AND IN mY HEART FOR THE CONCERN
OF OTHER PEOP±ES OF THE WOR±D AND THEIR CONSTANT STRUgg±E IN THE DEFENSE OF
PEACE, OF THE RIgHT TO A ±IFE AND A±± ITS INA±IENAB±E RIgHTS. °E mAjORITY OF US
WHO ARE gATHERED HERE TODAY, CONSTITUTE AN ExAmP±E OF THE ABOVE, AND A±ONg
THESE ±INES ¹ WOU±D HUmB±Y ExTEND TO YOU mY gRATITUDE.
MANY THINgS HAVE CHANgED IN THESE ±AST YEARS. °ERE HAVE BEEN gREAT
CHANgES OF WOR±DWIDE CHARACTER. °E ³AST-ÈEST CONFRONTATION HAS CEASED TO
ExIST AND THE ·O±D ÈAR HAS COmE TO AN END. °ESE CHANgES, THE ExACT FORmS
OF WHICH CANNOT YET BE PREDICTED, HAVE ±Eﬅ gAPS THAT THE PEOP±E OF THE WOR±D
HAVE kNOWN HOW TO mAkE USE OF IN ORDER TO COmE FORWARD, STRUgg±E AND WIN
NATIONA± TERRAIN AND INTERNATIONA± RECOgNITION.
¾ODAY, WE mUST figHT FOR A BETTER WOR±D, WITHOUT POVERTY, WITHOUT RACISm,
WITH PEACE IN THE MIDD±E ³AST AND IN ²OUTHEAST µSIA, TO WHERE ¹ ADDRESS
A P±EA FOR THE ±IBERATION OF MRS. µUNg ²AN ²UU ÌYI, WINNER OF THE ½OBE±
¸EACE ¸RIzE 1991; FOR A jUST AND PEACEFU± SO±UTION, IN THE ÊA±kANS; FOR THE
END OF THE APARTHEID IN ²OUTH µFRICA; FOR THE STABI±ITY IN ½ICARAgUA, THAT
THE ¸EACE µgREEmENT IN ³± ²A±VADOR BE OBSERVED; FOR THE RE-ESTAB±ISHmENT
OF DEmOCRACY IN ÉAITI; FOR THE COmP±ETE SOVEREIgNTY OF ¸ANAmA; BECAUSE A±±
OF THESE CONSTITUTE THE HIgHEST AImS FOR jUSTICE IN THE INTERNATIONA±
SITUATION.
µ WOR±D AT PEACE THAT COU±D PROVIDE CONSISTENCY, INTERRE±ATIONS AND CON-
CORDANCE IN RESPECT OF THE ECONOmIC, SOCIA± AND CU±TURA± STRUCTURES OF THE
SOCIETIES WOU±D INDEED HAVE DEEP ROOTS AND A ROBUST INflUENCE.
ÈE HAVE IN OUR mIND THE DEEPEST FE±T DEmANDS OF THE ENTIRE HUmAN RACE,
WHEN WE STRIVE FOR PEACEFU± CO-ExISTENCE AND THE PRESERVATION OF THE ENVIRON-
mENT. °E STRUgg±E WE figHT PURIfiES AND SHAPES THE FUTURE.
»UR HISTORY IS A ±IVINg HISTORY, THAT HAS THROBBED, WITHSTOOD AND SURVIVED
mANY CENTURIES OF SACRIfiCE. ½OW IT COmES FORWARD AgAIN WITH STRENgTH. °E
SEEDS, DORmANT FOR SUCH A ±ONg TImE, BREAk OUT TODAY WITH SOmE UNCERTAINTY,
A±THOUgH THEY gERmINATE IN A WOR±D THAT IS AT PRESENT CHARACTERIzED BY CONFU-
SION AND UNCERTAINTY.
°ERE IS NO DOUBT THAT THIS PROCESS WI±± BE ±ONg AND COmP±Ex, BUT IT IS NO
¶TOPIA AND WE, THE ¹NDIANS, WE HAVE NEW CONfiDENCE IN ITS ImP±EmENTATION.
°E PEOP±ES OF GUATEmA±A WI±± mOBI±IzE AND WI±± BE AWARE OF THEIR STRENgTH
IN BUI±DINg UP A WORTHY FUTURE. °EY ARE PREPARINg THEmSE±VES TO SOW THE
FUTURE, TO FREE THEmSE±VES FROm ATAVISmS, TO REDISCOVER THEIR HERITAgE. ¾O
BUI±D A COUNTRY WITH A gENUINE NATIONA± IDENTITY. ¾O START A NEW ±IFE.
ÊY COmBININg A±± THE SHADES AND NUANCES OF THE “±ADINOS,” THE “gARíFUNAS”
AND ¹NDIANS IN THE GUATEmA±AN ETHNIC mOSAIC, WE mUST INTER±ACE A NUmBER
OF CO±ORS WITHOUT INTRODUCINg CONTRADICTIONS, WITHOUT BECOmINg gROTESqUE
NOR ANTAgONISTIC, BUT WE mUST gIVE THEm BRIgHTNESS AND A SUPERIOR qUA±ITY,
jUST THE WAY OUR WEAVERS WEAVE A TYPICA± HUIPI± B±OUSE, BRI±±IANT±Y COmPOSED,
A gIﬅ TO ÉUmANITY.
°ANk YOU VERY mUCH.

thirteen
Sex Worker Activism and Labor

Denise Brennan
“We’re bad, but we could be worse.”

“Lost women are the most wanted.”
“Before the show, tune your instrument.”
°ESE CHEEkY SAYINgS ARE EmB±AzONED ON ¾-SHIRTS, HATS, THONgS, AND OTHER
C±OTHINg UNDER THE ±ABE± ´µ²¸¶. ´µ²¸¶, A SEx WORkER–RUN ÊRAzI±IAN FASH-
ION HOUSE, STANDS FOR “ÁS PUTAS” (»F THE WHORES). ¹T A±SO RIff S ON THE ÊRAzI±IAN
±UxURY BRAND ´µ²L¶ (WHICH THREATENED—AND EVENTUA±±Y DROPPED—A ±AW-
SUIT). ·HIC STORES ±IkE ¸ARIS’S GA±ERIES LAFAYETTE HAVE SO±D ´µ²¸¶’S FASHION,
mEDIA FROm AROUND THE WOR±D HAVE COVERED THEIR RUNWAY SHOWS STAgED IN
ÊRAzI±’S STREETS, AND CE±EBRATED ³UROPEAN DESIgNERS HAVE DESIgNED PIECES
FOR THEIR CO±±ECTION. ÊUT ´µ²¸¶ IS NOT jUST A C±OTHINg COmPANY; IT HAS
BEEN IN THE VANgUARD OF A ±ARgER g±OBA± SEx WORkER RIgHTS mOVEmENT THAT
DEmANDS jUSTICE FOR ±OW-WAgE WORkERS, TRANSgENDER PEOP±E, AND COmmUNITIES
OF CO±OR.
¸O±ITICA±±Y ORgANIzED, VOCA±, AND CREATIVE, SEx WORkER RIgHTS ACTIVISTS IN
LATIN µmERICA AND THE ·ARIBBEAN HAVE FOUgHT FOR—AND WON—gAINS THAT ARE
A mODE± FOR ACTIVISTS (SEx WORkER AND OTHERWISE) WOR±DWIDE. ·O±OmBIA’S
²UPREmE ·OURT RECOgNIzED SEx WORkERS’ AgREEmENTS WITH C±IENTS AS BINDINg
CONTRACTS. µRgENTINE SEx WORkERS SUCCESSFU±±Y ±OBBIED FOR REgU±ARIzINg
THEIR WORk TO RECEIVE BENEfiTS SUCH AS SOCIA± SECURITY. µND IN ÊRAzI± GABRIE±E
LEITE, THE FOUNDER OF ´µ²¸¶ AND THE NONgOVERNmENTA± ORgANIzATION
(½G») ÁVIDA, RAN FOR ·ONgRESS. °ESE PO±ITICA± AND ECONOmIC WINS
STAND OUT AgAINST THE BACkDROP OF DANgERS THAT SEx WORkERS THE WOR±D OVER
FACE DAI±Y: CRImINA±IzATION, VIO±ENCE, RAPE, INCARCERATION, AND DISCRImINATION.
240
²Ex WORkERS IN LATIN µmERICA AND THE ·ARIBBEAN OF COURSE ARE NO
ExCEPTION.
²Ex WORkERS HAVE FOUgHT BACk. °EY OﬅEN ARE ExPERT AND COURAgEOUS ACTIV-
ISTS WHO RISk ARREST, VIO±ENCE, AND STIgmA EVERY TImE THEY SPEAk OUT. “¹SABE±,”
FOR ExAmP±E, WENT INTO HIDINg AﬅER TESTIFYINg AgAINST PO±ICE ABUSE IN THE
ÊRAzI±IAN CITY OF ½ITERóI. µﬅER HER TESTImONY, SHE WAS kIDNAPPED BY FOUR mEN
WHO CUT HER WITH A RAzOR AND THREATENED HER WITH PICTURES THEY HAD TAkEN OF
HER SON. ÈHI±E SHE WAS IN HIDINg, SHE WAS NOT ON HER OWN. °E SEx WORkER
RIgHTS COmmUNITY IS PARTICU±AR±Y SkI±±FU± AT ±EVERAgINg SOCIA± mEDIA AND RAISED
FUNDS ON HER BEHA±F WHI±E BRINgINg INTERNATIONA± mEDIA ATTENTION TO ONgOINg
PO±ICE BRUTA±ITY IN ÊRAzI±.
ÈITH SOCIA± mEDIA ±INkINg ACTIVISTS ACROSS THE G±OBA± ½ORTH AND ²OUTH,
WORkER ACTIONS IN LATIN µmERICA AND THE ·ARIBBEAN HAVE AT TImES OUTPACED
AND INSPIRED ACTIONS IN THE ½ORTH. ¹N FACT, SEx WORkER RIgHTS ACTIVISTS IN THE
¶NITED ²TATES CITE ´µ²¸¶ AND GABRIE±A LEITE’S RUN FOR ·ONgRESS AS AmONg
THE g±OBA± SEx WORkER COmmUNITY’S mOST INSPIRINg ExAmP±ES OF WORkER SO±I-
DARITY. ²Ex WORkERS’ DEmANDS AND STRATEgIES fiND COmmON gROUND WITH g±OBA±
figHTS FOR RACIA±, gENDER, SExUA±, mIgRANT, AND POOR PEOP±E’S jUSTICE. µS A RESU±T,
SEx WORkER RIgHTS ACTIVISTS IN LATIN µmERICA AND THE ·ARIBBEAN HAVE ±ED THE
WAY FOR mOVEmENT BUI±DERS IN OTHER PARTS OF THE WOR±D. °IS CHAPTER SHINES A
±IgHT ON THE WAYS THE REgION’S SEx WORkERS NAVIgATE THE VU±NERABI±ITIES INHER-
ENT IN SExUA± ECONOmIES—SUCH AS PO±ICE VIO±ENCE AND STATES’ AND ½G»S’
ATTEmPTS TO “RESCUE” THEm IN THE NAmE OF ENDINg TRAffiCkINg—WHI±E THEY A±SO
mODE± CUTTINg-EDgE ACTIVISm ON THE g±OBA± STAgE.
Îuasi-le¿al: safety froÇ arrest or “rescue”
²Ex WORk IS NOT I±±EgA± IN mOST LATIN µmERICAN COUNTRIES, BUT A NUmBER OF
RE±ATED ACTIVITIES ARE CRImINA±IzED. ÈORkERS IN THE SEx SECTOR, CONSEqUENT±Y,
±IVE WITH CHRONIC FEAR OF ARREST. ³VERY DAY THEY RISk ±OSINg EVERYTHINg. µS THE
HOST OF mAjOR INTERNATIONA± EVENTS, ÊRAzI± HAS UNDERTAkEN A NUmBER OF HIgH±Y
PUB±ICIzED CAmPAIgNS TO “C±EAN UP” ITS STREETS. »N THE EVE OF THE ¶½¼IO+20
·ONFERENCE IN 2012, A WAVE OF ARRESTS AND SHUTTERINg OF BROTHE±S—INC±UDINg
THE FAmED ·ENTAUROS, A PRICEY BROTHE± THAT JUSTIN ÊIEBER ±ATER VISITED IN
2013—SHOOk SEx WORkERS’ COmmUNITIES. ÈHEN PO±ICE RAIDS AgAIN BEgAN IN
FU±± FORCE BEFORE THE ÈOR±D ·UP, SEx WORkERS WERE READY. »N 16 µPRI± 2014,
HUNDREDS OF SEx WORkERS IN ½ITERóI TOOk TO THE STREETS TO PROTEST THE CHRONIC
Ñe ô ïor K er Áct i v isÇ a n d Ü a bor • 241

fi¿ure 13.1. ²Ex WORkERS IN ½ITERóI, ¼IO DE JANEIRO, PROTEST
PO±ICE HARASSmENT AND I±±EgA± ARREST OF THEIR CO±±EAgUES IN FRONT
OF CITY HA±± ON µPRI± 16, 2014. °EIR SIgNS READ: “ÈE WANT TO
WORk,” “¸ROSTITUTION ISN’T A ·RImE,” “ÈE DON’T WANT TO gO TO
ÊANgU [mAxImUm SECURITY PRISON].” ¸HOTO BY LAURA MURRAY,
USED WITH PERmISSION.
ARRESTS OF THEIR CO±±EAgUES WITH SIgNS SAYINg, “¸ROSTITUTION IS NOT A CRImE” AND
“ÈE WANT TO WORk.” µ ±ITT±E mORE THAN A mONTH ±ATER, THE PO±ICE RAIDED AN
APARTmENT BUI±DINg WHERE WOmEN WORkED, BREAkINg DOWN THE DOORS, STEA±INg
THEIR mONEY, AND CONDEmNINg THE APARTmENTS. MORE THAN ONE HUNDRED
SEx WORkERS WERE ARRESTED. ²EVERA± REPORTED BEINg RAPED DURINg THE RAID—
INC±UDINg “¹SABE±.”
²Ex WORkERS ImmEDIATE±Y ORgANIzED. °EY SPOkE OUT AT PUB±IC HEARINgS AND
POSTED PROTEST SIgNS ON THE BUI±DINg. ²PORTINg ´µ²¸¶ ¾-SHIRTS DESIgNED AS
SOCCER jERSEYS FOR THE C±OTHINg ±INE’S 2014 ÈOR±D ·UP CO±±ECTION, THEY P±AYED A
SEmI-NAkED gAmE OF SOCCER—AS PROTEST—OUTSIDE THE STEPS OF ½ITERóI’S mAIN
mUNICIPA± BUI±DINg. °E ¾-SHIRTS READ, “°ERE ÈI±± ÊE ²Ex”—A P±AY ON THE
PROTEST PHRASE “½öO ÍAI ¾ER ·OPA” (°ERE ÈI±± ÊE ½O ÈOR±D ·UP), THUS
CONNECTINg THEIR DEmANDS WITH THOSE OF BROADER mOVEmENTS OF POOR COm-
mUNITIES. °EY A±SO WORE ANOTHER PROTEST ¾-SHIRT, “º¹ºµ ²TANDARD ËONE,”
WHICH BOTH REFERRED TO “PROSTITUTION zONES” (RED-±IgHT DISTRICTS) AND ECHOED
POPU±AR OPPOSITION TO THE $11 BI±±ION THE ÊRAzI±IAN gOVERNmENT SPENT BUI±DINg
ACCORDINg TO º¹ºµ STANDARDS. ¹F STADIUmS WERE TO gOINg TO BE WOR±D C±ASS, WHY
WEREN’T ORDINARY ÊRAzI±IANS’ HOUSINg, HEA±TH C±INICS, AND SCHOO±S UP TO THE
SAmE STANDARDS? ¼EjECTINg THE STRUCTURA± VIO±ENCE AND STATE SURVEI±±ANCE AND
CONTRO± ExPERIENCED BY THE POOR DAI±Y, SEx WORkERS P±ACED THEIR DEmANDS
242 • ch a p t er t h i rt e e n
A±ONgSIDE THOSE OF OTHER mARgINA±IzED CITIzENS. µ mEmBER OF ÁVIDA ExP±AINS
THAT THEIR PROTESTS NOT ON±Y HARNESSED THE OUTRAgE OVER THE COST OF THE ÈOR±D
·UP BUT A±SO AffiRmED THEIR RIgHT TO WORk: “°ERE IS NOTHINg I±±EgA± ABOUT ADU±T
WOmEN WORkINg DURINg THE ÈOR±D ·UP WITH FOREIgN TOURISTS.”
LIkE THEIR ÊRAzI±IAN COUNTERPARTS, SEx WORkERS THROUgHOUT LATIN µmERICA
AND THE ·ARIBBEAN ARE SEASONED CHANgE AgENTS. °EY HAVE FOUgHT FOR THEIR
RIgHTS THROUgH gRASSROOTS ACTIONS AS WE±± AS THROUgH FORmA± PO±ITICA± POWER.
¸ARAgUAYAN SEx WORkERS, FOR ExAmP±E, HAVE ISSUED STATEmENTS TO THE INTERNA-
TIONA± PRESS AgAINST AN ORDINANCE THAT PROHIBITS THEm FROm WORkINg IN THE
STREETS. µRgENTINE SEx WORkERS ±AUNCHED A ÊANkSY-STY±E gRAffiTI PROjECT IN
ÊUENOS µIRES THAT FEATURES PROVOCATIVE±Y DRESSED WOmEN ON ONE WA±± WITH
THEIR HANDS STRETCHINg AROUND THE CORNER TO PUSH A STRO±±ER. °E VISUA±±Y ARREST-
INg CAmPAIgN HAmmERS HOmE THEIR mESSAgE THAT SEx WORkERS ARE NOT CRImI-
NA±S—BUT mOTHERS TRYINg TO PUT FOOD ON THE TAB±E. MEmBERS OF ¸Lµ¸³¼¾²
(¸±ATAFORmA LATINOAmERICANA DE ¸ERSONAS qUE ³jERCEN E± ¾RABAjO ²ExUA±) IN
ëUITO, ³CUADOR, ISSUED A RIgHTS mANIFESTO THAT ENDS WITH THE FO±±OWINg CA±± TO
ARmS: ²Ex ÈORk IS ÈORk! ÈHORES VOTE! ÈE ARE ·ITIzENS WITH ¼IgHTS! ¹N
ÊE±Em, ÊRAzI±, SEx WORkERS C±EVER±Y DRAW mEDIA ATTENTION TO THEIR RIgHTS CAm-
PAIgNS THROUgH A “¸ANTIES ¼ACE” AND AN “»RgASm ÈORkSHOP” ON JUNE 2,
¹NTERNATIONA± ²Ex ÈORkERS ¼IgHTS ÁY. µND GABRIE±A LEITE IS NOT THE ON±Y SEx
WORkER WHO HAS TRIED TO EffECT CHANgE BY RUNNINg FOR PO±ITICA± OffiCE. MARIA
µPARECIDA ÍIEIRA ±OST A BID FOR ·ONgRESS IN ÊRAzI±, WHI±E JAqUE±INE MONTERO
WON A SEAT ON THE CITY COUNCI± IN ÉAINA, ÓmINICAN ¼EPUB±IC.
²Ex WORkER–±ED CAmPAIgNS FOR WORkER jUSTICE ARE A±± THE mORE REmARkAB±E
IN THE mIDST OF gOVERNmENTS’ ImP±EmENTATION OF ANTITRAffiCkINg PROgRAmS,
WHICH mOST OﬅEN HAVE TAkEN THE FORm OF ANTI–SEx WORk CRACkDOWNS.
¶NDERSTOOD AS AN ExTREmE FORm OF ±ABOR ExP±OITATION, TRAffiCkINg INTO
FORCED ±ABOR IS NOTHINg NEW. ÊUT SINCE 2000 A±± gOVERNmENTS HAVE HAD
TO CONTEND WITH THE RO±E OF THE ¶NITED ²TATES AS WHAT THE ±EgA± SCHO±AR
JANIE ·HUANg DESCRIBES AS “g±OBA± SHERIff.” °ROUgH ITS ANNUA± REPORT
CARD (THE ¾RAffiCkINg ¹N ¸ERSONS—¾¹¸—¼EPORT) ON COUNTRIES’ EffORTS TO
figHT TRAffiCkINg, THE ¶NITED ²TATES ImPOSES NONHUmANITARIAN ECONOmIC
SANCTIONS ON COUNTRIES THAT RECEIVE A BAD gRADE IN THIS WIDE±Y CRITICIzED REPORT.
µS gOVERNmENTS HAVE SCRAmB±ED TO ImP±EmENT ANTITRAffiCkINg EffORTS,
SEx WORkERS THE WOR±D OVER HAVE BEEN REBRANDED AS TRAffiCkED PERSONS, EVEN
WHI±E THEY INSIST OTHERWISE. µROUND THE SAmE TImE THAT THE ¶NITED ²TATES
±AUNCHED ITS ¾¹¸ ¼EPORT, THE GEORgE È. ÊUSH ADmINISTRATION A±SO BEgAN
REqUIRINg ORgANIzATIONS THAT RECEIVE ¶.². gOVERNmENT FUNDS THROUgH

¸³¸ºµ¼ (¸RESIDENT’S ³mERgENCY ¸±AN FOR µ¹´² ¼E±IEF) TO ExP±ICIT±Y OPPOSE
PROSTITUTION.
ÊRAzI±IAN SEx WORkERS mOBI±IzED AND jOINED FORCES WITH PUB±IC HEA±TH
ExPERTS. °EY STUNNED THE INTERNATIONA± DEVE±OPmENT COmmUNITY BY REFUSINg
TO SIgN THE “ANTI-PROSTITUTION P±EDgE.” ÊRAzI±’S THEN ±Eﬅ-±EANINg gOVERNmENT
WA±kED AWAY FROm $40 mI±±ION IN ¶.². É¹Í/µ¹´² FUNDINg. ¹N SO DOINg, THEY
kEPT INTACT PROgRAmS THAT INTERNATIONA± PUB±IC HEA±TH ExPERTS HAVE ±AUDED FOR
STEmmINg THE TIDE OF É¹Í IN VU±NERAB±E COmmUNITIES. °ESE É¹Í-PREVENTION
PROgRAmS’ SUCCESS CAN BE ATTRIBUTED IN PART TO SEx WORkERS’ ExPERTISE AND PEER-
TO-PEER OUTREACH—THE VERY SAmE HARm-REDUCTION PROgRAmS THE ÊUSH ADmIN-
ISTRATION SOUgHT TO DISBAND. ¹N AN ARTIC±E IN °e Nation, ÊRAzI±’S NATIONA±
µ¹´² COmmISSIONER ACkNOW±EDgED SEx WORkERS’ CENTRA± RO±E IN COmBATINg
É¹Í: “²Ex WORkERS ARE PART OF ImP±EmENTINg OUR µ¹´² PO±ICY AND DECIDINg
HOW TO PROmOTE IT. °EY ARE OUR PARTNERS. ÉOW COU±D WE ASk PROSTITUTES TO
TAkE A POSITION AgAINST THEmSE±VES?”
GABRIE±A LEITE, THEN COORDINATOR OF THE ÊRAzI±IAN ½ETWORk OF ¸ROSTITUTES,
P±AYED A HIgH-PROfi±E RO±E IN THE ¸³¸ºµ¼ NEgOTIATIONS. ÊRAzI±’S SNUBBINg OF
THE ¶.². mONEY AND LEITE’S INVO±VEmENT ATTRACTED A gREAT DEA± OF mEDIA ATTEN-
TION. ¹N AN INTERVIEW WITH THE Wall Street Journal, LEITE ExP±AINED THAT SHE
HAD ASSURED ¶²µ¹´ THAT THE mONEY A±±OCATED TO EIgHT SEx WORkERS’ ORgANIzA-
TIONS WOU±D BE USED ON±Y FOR µ¹´² EDUCATION AND PREVENTION. ÊUT WHEN SHE
AND THE OTHER SEx WORkER ORgANIzATIONS REFUSED TO SIgN THE ANTI-PROSTITUTION
P±EDgE, THE DEA± FE±± APART. ÊRAzI±’S PUB±IC HEA±TH OffiCIA±S AND SEx WORkER EDU-
CATORS EARNED THE RESPECT OF THEIR COUNTERPARTS THROUgHOUT THE WOR±D. °IS
mOmENT IN THE HISTORY OF figHTINg É¹Í/µ¹´² IS STI±± REFERENCED IN PUB±IC
HEA±TH, ANTITRAffiCkINg, AND SEx WORkER NETWORkS AS A RESOUNDINg WIN FOR SEx
WORkER–±ED HARm-REDUCTION PROgRAmS.
ÈITH ANTITRAffiCkINg CAmPAIgNS UNDER WAY THROUgHOUT LATIN µmERICA,
SEx WORkERS IRONICA±±Y HAVE BECOmE ±ESS SAFE. ¹N THIS CURRENT ANTITRAffiCkINg
ERA, SEx WORkERS HAVE BEEN ROUTINE±Y TARgETED, BECOmINg WHAT THE G±OBA±
µ±±IANCE µgAINST ¾RAffiC IN ÈOmEN DESCRIBES AS “CO±±ATERA± DAmAgE” IN THE
g±OBA± figHT AgAINST TRAffiCkINg. ÈHEN PO±ICY mAkERS, ±AW ENFORCEmENT, AND
THE mEDIA CONflATE “SEx WORk” WITH “TRAffiCkINg,” A±± SEx WORkERS—REgARD±ESS
OF THEIR WORkINg CONDITIONS—RISk BEINg C±ASSIfiED AS “TRAffiCkED.” ²O TOO DO
mIgRANT WORkERS WHO mAY NOT BE IN SITUATIONS OF ExTREmE ABUSE. °IS WAS THE
CASE WITH ÓmINICAN WOmEN WORkINg IN µRgENTINA IN THE EAR±Y 2000S WHEN
OffiCIA±S IN THE ÓmINICAN EmBASSY IN ÊUENOS µIRES WERE ACCUSED OF RUNNINg
A PROSTITUTION RINg. µS BOTH gOVERNmENTS RACED TO REDEEm THEIR STANDINg IN
THE ¶.². ¾¹¸ ¼EPORT, ÓmINICAN WOmEN WHO ExPERIENCED A RANgE OF ExP±OI-
TATION—SOmE OF WHICH DID NOT APPEAR TO mEET THE STANDARD OF TRAffiCkINg—
WERE HASTI±Y SENT BACk TO THE IS±AND AS “TRAffiCkED PERSONS.”
²Ex WORkERS A±SO HAVE BEEN ABUSED AND ARRESTED IN ANTITRAffiCkINg RAIDS
DESIgNED TO “RESCUE” THEm. °OSE WHO CHOOSE WORk IN THE SEx SECTOR mAkE
C±EAR THAT THEIR ±ABOR IS NOT COERCED, BUT THESE ATTEmPTS TO “RESCUE” THEm ARE.
²UCH coercive rescues CAN ±EAD TO PO±ICE VIO±ENCE, RAPE, ExTORTION, INDEfiNITE
DETENTION, AND DEPORTATION. ¹NCREASED SURVEI±±ANCE DRIVES WORkERS TO kEEP A
±OW PROfi±E, THUS COmPROmISINg THEIR ABI±ITY TO VET C±IENTS AHEAD OF TImE AND
TO ACCESS HEA±TH SERVICES.
pioneerin¿ public health caÇpai¿ns and

eÇpowerin¿ leaders
²Ex WORkERS IN LATIN µmERICA AND THE ·ARIBBEAN ±ONg HAVE BEEN ORgANIzED.
LOCA± ORgANIzATIONS THROUgHOUT SmA±± TOWNS AND BIg CITIES BRINg SEx WORkERS
TOgETHER. µTTENDINg THE fiRST NATIONA± mEETINg FOR SEx WORkER RIgHTS IN THE
ÓmINICAN ¼EPUB±IC IN 1995, FOR ExAmP±E, ¹ WITNESSED WHAT WAS THEN UNFUR±-
INg THROUgHOUT LATIN µmERICA AND THE ·ARIBBEAN: WOmEN, mEN, AND TRANS-
gENDER PEOP±E IN THE SEx SECTOR WERE BUI±DINg A mOVEmENT. ²Ex WORkER
RIgHTS ACTIVISTS THROUgHOUT THE REgION WERE ExCHANgINg BEST PRACTICES
AND BUI±DINg WORkER POWER THROUgH NATIONA±-±EVE± mEETINgS. ²OON AﬅER,
IN 1997, WORkERS jOINED FORCES AS ¼ED¾RA²Ex (¼ED DE MUjERES ¾RABAjADORAS
²ExUA±ES DE LATINOAméRICA Y ³± ·ARIBE) FOR THE fiRST REgIONA± mEETINg.
µN ESPECIA±±Y ACTIVE REgIONA± ORgANIzATION, ¼ED¾RA²Ex HAS mEmBER ORgANI-
zATIONS IN SIxTEEN COUNTRIES, SENDS REPRESENTATIVES TO INTERNATIONA± CONFER-
ENCES, AND WORkS ON A HOST OF CAmPAIgNS TO INCREASE WORkER EmPOWERmENT.
¹N AN INTERVIEW WITH THE ¹NTERNATIONA± »RgANIzATION FOR MIgRATION, ³±ENA
¼EYNAgA, ¼ED¾RA²Ex’S ExECUTIVE SECRETARY, COUNTERED THOSE WHO TRY TO SPEAk
FOR THEm: “²Ex WORkERS ARE NOT PART OF THE PROB±Em, WE ARE PART OF THE
SO±UTION.”
ÈITH SCARCE FUNDINg, ±OW ±ITERACY RATES, AND CORRUPT—AND OﬅEN ABUSIVE—
±OCA± PO±ICE, LATIN µmERICAN AND ·ARIBBEAN SEx WORkERS HAVE HAD TO fiND A
WAY TO kEEP THEIR CO±±EAgUES SAFE AND kNOW±EDgEAB±E ABOUT THEIR RIgHTS.
·ONSEqUENT±Y, SINCE THE EAR±Y 1990S, SEx WORkER ORgANIzATIONS HAVE BEEN PER-
FECTINg ±OW-COST AND EffECTIVE PEER-TO-PEER OUTREACH TO “HARD TO REACH” POPU-
±ATIONS. ²Ex WORkERS IN LATIN µmERICA WERE AmONg SOmE OF THE fiRST PEER

EDUCATORS TO USE gRAPHIC NOVE±S AND TO STAgE P±AYS IN BOARDINgHOUSES, BARS,
BROTHE±S, AND THE STREET—STANDARD FARE IN PUB±IC HEA±TH CAmPAIgNS TODAY.
ÌNOW±EDgE ExCHANgE, EmPOWERmENT BUI±DINg, AND OTHER FORmS OF ASSIST-
ANCE SEx WORkERS OffER ONE ANOTHER CAN BE HIgH±Y ORCHESTRATED AS WE±± AS INFOR-
mA±. ²INCE BEINg AB±E TO NEgOTIATE CONDOm USE AND PAYmENT WOU±D REDUCE THE
±IkE±IHOOD OF VIO±ENCE AND UNSAFE SEx WITH FOREIgN TOURISTS DURINg THE ÈOR±D
·UP, THE SEx WORkERS’ ASSOCIATION IN MINAS GERAIS, ÊRAzI±, OffERED FREE ³Ng±ISH
C±ASSES TO SEx WORkERS IN THE AREA. ²Ex WORkERS TOOk PEER EDUCATION TO NEW
HEIgHTS. °EY A±SO NEgOTIATED A DEA± WITH ÊRAzI±’S STATE BANk, ·AIxA
³CONOmICA, FOR INDIVIDUA± SEx WORkERS TO PROCESS C±IENTS’ CREDIT CARD PAY-
mENTS THROUgH mOBI±E DEVICES. »N A mORE INFORmA± ±EVE± SEx WORkERS ±OOk OUT
FOR ONE ANOTHER EVERY DAY. °EY fi±± IN WHERE THE STATE ±EAVES Off. ²Ex WORkERS
SHARE C±OTHES, FOOD, AND BABYSITTINg. °EY BAI± ONE ANOTHER OUT OF jAI±—TAkINg
UP A CO±±ECTION TO PAY BRIBES NECESSARY FOR THEIR FRIENDS’ RE±EASE. °EY A±SO TIP
Off ONE ANOTHER ABOUT C±IENTS kNOWN TO BE VIO±ENT. µND THEY qUICk±Y gET OUT
THE WORD ABOUT PO±ICE RAIDS BY SENDINg TExT A±ERTS OR SImP±Y kNOCkINg ON
WOmEN’S DOORS. ¹N SmA±± TOWNS THIS kIND OF INFORmA± A±ERT SYSTEm CAN BE AS
EffECTIVE AS mORE SOPHISTICATED—AND CAPITA±IzED—SAFETY PROgRAmS.
ÈHI±E PO±ITICIANS, PO±ICY mAkERS, HEA±TH OffiCIA±S, AND THE mEDIA ±AVISH A
gREAT DEA± OF ATTENTION ON mONITORINg, RESTRICTINg, AND mORA±IzINg ABOUT SEx
WORkERS’ EVERY mOVE, SEx WORkERS OﬅEN ARE ±Eﬅ OUT OF DISCUSSIONS ABOUT THEm.
¹NTERNATIONA± ORgANIzATIONS—±IkE THE ¹NTERNATIONA± LABOUR »RgANIzATION
(¹L») AND ¶½µ¹´²—HAVE RECENT±Y URgED THAT SEx WORkERS HAVE A SEAT AT THE
TAB±E IN A HOST OF PO±ICY SETTINgS. ÓET THEY mORE OﬅEN THAN NOT REmAIN
ExC±UDED. ÈHI±E OTHER VU±NERAB±E gROUPS WHO HAVE BEEN INVITED—AND
FUNDED—TO ATTEND THE ANNUA± ¹NTERNATIONA± µ¹´² ·ONFERENCE (¹µ·), FOR
ExAmP±E, SEx WORkERS CONTINUA±±Y AND CONSPICUOUS±Y HAVE BEEN ±Eﬅ OUT. ÈHEN
THEY HAVE CA±±ED ATTENTION TO SUCH ExC±USIONS THEY HAVE FACED INFANTI±IzINg
TREATmENT, THREATS, AND SANCTIONS. ÚRINg THE 2008 ¹µ· IN MExICO ·ITY, FOR
ExAmP±E, A ±OCA± SEx WORkERS’ ORgANIzATION, ÊRIgADA ·A±±EjERA, PROTESTED THEIR
mAYOR’S “zERO TO±ERANCE” PO±ICY, WHICH HAD ±ED TO mASS ARRESTS OF SEx WORkERS
AND HEA±TH EDUCATORS WHO DISTRIBUTED CONDOmS IN THE STREETS. °E ¹µ·
THREATENED TO BAR THE ORgANIzATION FROm FUTURE CONFERENCES, WHICH IgNITED AN
OUTCRY FROm SEx WORkER RIgHTS ORgANIzATIONS AROUND THE WOR±D. LIgHTINg UP
THE ¾WITTERSPHERE, SEx WORkERS’ ±EADINg RO±E AS ExPERTS WAS C±EAR IN THEIR HASH-
TAgS: #SExWORkERS ARE THE ExPERTS IN OUR COmmUNITY; ½OTHINg ABOUT ¶S
WITHOUT ¶², DECRImINA±IzE #SExWORk TO #ENDÉ¹Í; #²ExÈORkERS SPEAk WITH
ExPERIENCE, DON’T SI±ENCE US, DON’T SPEAk ON OUR BEHA±F; AND #STIgmA kI±±S.
navi¿atin¿ seôual econoÇies:
perforÇance as labor
ÈHI±E SEx WORkER COmmUNITIES figHT FOR THEIR RIgHTS, THEY A±SO ARE TRYINg TO
EARN A ±IVINg. ÈORkERS mAY SEEk TO DEVE±OP RE±ATIONSHIPS THAT ARE ±ONg TERm
A±ONgSIDE ONE-TImE PAID ENCOUNTERS. °ESE ±ONg-TERm RE±ATIONSHIPS CAN BRINg
A±± kINDS OF mATERIA± gOODS AND CASH INTO THE HOUSEHO±D. MANY SEx WORkERS
TRY TO DEVE±OP AT ±EAST ONE ONgOINg ±OCA± TRANSACTIONA± RE±ATIONSHIP SINCE THESE
C±IENTS/±OVERS CAN HE±P PAY THE RENT OR CHI±DREN’S SCHOO± FEES WHEN mONEY IS
TIgHT.
½OT A±± C±IENTS ARE ±OCA±. ¸ARTS OF LATIN µmERICA AND THE ·ARIBBEAN HAVE
BECOmE DESTINATIONS FOR INTERNATIONA± TOURISTS SEEkINg PAID SExUA± ENCOUN-
TERS. ÍVERSIFYINg C±IENTE±E AmONg ±OCA±S AND FOREIgN TOURISTS CAN SECURE
AgAINST ECONOmIC CRISES THAT CUT INTO ±OCA± C±IENTS’ PURCHASINg POWER OR THE
VAgARIES OF ±OW TOURIST SEASONS. ½OT qUITE ±OVERS, NOT qUITE C±IENTS, THE FOREIgN-
ERS INVO±VED IN THESE RE±ATIONSHIPS ARE NOT EASI±Y PIgEONHO±ED. °E TERm “SEx
TOURIST,” FOR ExAmP±E, ImP±IES SOmE kIND OF fixED CATEgORY THAT INVO±VES P±AN-
NINg AND INTENTIONA±ITY. µND THE TERm “SEx TOURISm” FAI±S TO CAPTURE THE WIDE
RANgE OF CONTExTS IN WHICH TRAVE±ERS ENgAgE IN TRANSACTIONA± SExUA± ENCOUN-
TERS. “²Ex TOURISm” CAN BE P±ANNED (AND EVEN PREPAID) BUT A±SO AN ON-THE-flY
DECISION. ³COTOURISm, ROOTS TOURISm, AND “gAY TOURISm” A±SO BRINg FOREIgN
TOURISTS TO LATIN µmERICA AND THE ·ARIBBEAN. ¾OURISTS IN THESE kINDS OF
ExCHANgES mAY ImAgINE A SHARED “SO±IDARITY” THROUgH RACIA±/ETHNIC OR SExUA±
IDENTITY. °US (ASSUmED) SAmENESS—OR DIffERENCE—CAN BE WHAT TOURISTS SEEk
AND ±OCA±S PERFORm. °E SEx SECTOR INVO±VES A RANgE OF TRANSACTIONS BETWEEN A
RANgE OF ACTORS WHOSE gENDER, SExUA±, RACIA±, ETHNIC, AND C±ASS IDENTITIES—AND
NATIONA±ITY AND ACCESS TO VISAS TO TRAVE±—SHAPE DESIRE, POWER, AND CONTRO±. ¹T
CAN BE WI±D±Y ±UCRATIVE, OR BARE±Y A±±OW WORkERS TO gET BY. ÍffERENT SETTINgS
AffORD DIffERENT DEgREES OF WORkER CONTRO±. »NE COmmONA±ITY ACROSS THIS
BROAD ±ABOR SECTOR, HOWEVER, IS THE RO±E OF PERFORmANCE.
µ±± kINDS OF ASSUmPTIONS ARE IN P±AY WHEN INDIVIDUA±S TRAVE± TO PAY FOR
SExUA± ENCOUNTERS—WHEN THEY COU±D jUST AS WE±± PURCHASE SExUA± ExPERIENCES
AT HOmE. ÈITH A HOST OF WEBSITES PERPETUATINg STEREOTYPES OF LATIN µmERICAN
AND ·ARIBBEAN SEx WORkERS AS “HOT” AND “fiERY,” FOREIgN TOURISTS mAY ImAgINE
P±ACES IN LATIN µmERICA AS OffERINg HYPERSExUA± AND, OﬅEN, RACIA±IzED BODIES.
¹T IS NOT UNCOmmON FOR FOREIgN TOURISTS TO ASSOCIATE gREATER SExUA± PROfiCIENCY
WITH A PERSON’S SkIN CO±OR AS WE±± AS WITH TROPICA± C±ImATES. »NE WHITE GERmAN
TOURIST WHO HAD BEEN PAYINg FOR SEx EVERY NIgHT OF HIS VACATION TO±D mE

kNOWINg±Y AT A BAR ON A ÓmINICAN BEACH, “ÈITH GERmAN WOmEN IT’S OVER
qUICk±Y. ÊUT ÓmINICAN WOmEN HAVE fiERY B±OOD.” ÉE ATTRIBUTED ÓmINICANS’
“NATURA±” SkI±± AT ±OVEmAkINg IN PART TO THE C±ImATE: “ÈHEN THE SUN IS SHININg
IT gIVES YOU mORE HORmONES.”
ÈORkERS, OF COURSE, CAPITA±IzE ON THESE ExOTICIzINg AND EROTICIzINg STEREO-
TYPES, FOR ExAmP±E, BY DANCINg ExPERT±Y TO LATIN RHYTHmS THAT ³UROPEAN AND
½ORTH µmERICAN TOURISTS OﬅEN FUmB±E THROUgH. µS THEY ADVERTISE THEIR SEx-
UA± AVAI±ABI±ITY, THEY A±SO ASSERT THEIR COmmAND OF CERTAIN CU±TURA± PRACTICES
THAT CAN BEFUDD±E FOREIgN VISITORS. °EY TRY TO gRASP THE UPPER HAND IN CU±-
TURA±—AND SExUA±—mATTERS ON THEIR HOmE TURF. µ gROUP OF ÓmINICAN
WOmEN SEx WORkERS HOW±ED WHEN ¹ ASkED HOW THEY THOUgHT FOREIgN mA±E
TOURISTS SAW THEm: “HOT,” “SExY,” AND “ÓmINICANA.” ºOR THESE WOmEN, THEIR
dominicanidad (ÓmINICANNESS) NOT ON±Y WAS SExUA±±Y CHARgED, BUT A±SO
ECONOmICA±±Y VA±UAB±E. °EY CASHED IN BY EmP±OYINg A VARIETY OF STRATEgIES,
SUCH AS TRYINg TO mOVE INTO A FOREIgN TOURIST’S HOTE± ROOm, THUS SECURINg PAY-
mENT FOR EACH NIgHT OF THE VACATION. °EY A±SO DEVE±OP ONgOINg TRANSNATIONA±
RE±ATIONSHIPS—OﬅEN BY FEIgNINg ±OVE—TO INSPIRE C±IENTS TO SEND ÈESTERN
¶NION mONEY WIRE TRANSFERS ONCE THEY RETURN HOmE AND TO RETURN FOR REPEAT
VACATIONS (WITH gIﬅS FOR THEm AND THEIR CHI±DREN). µND, IN CASES WHEN mEN
SEEk WOmEN WHO ADHERE TO TRADITIONA± gENDER RO±ES, WOmEN WORk TO APPEAR
±ESS DEmANDINg AND mORE COmP±IANT THAN TOURISTS’ WIVES AND gIR±FRIENDS’ BACk
HOmE WHI±E SImU±TANEOUS±Y CU±TIVATINg THE RE±ATIONSHIPS TO YIE±D REgU±AR
mONEY WIRES AND VISITS.
°US SEx WORkERS NOT ON±Y PERFORm DESIRE FOR THEIR C±IENTS BUT A±SO SOmE-
TImES PERFORm EmOTION. ¾O DO SO, THEY mUST ImAgINE HOW C±IENTS ImAgINE
THEm. ¹N THE CASE OF C±IENTS FROm OTHER COUNTRIES, THE ImAgININgS BECOmE
mORE ±AYERED—OﬅEN INFORmED BY RACIA±IzED AND C±ASSED DESIRES. µ±± THE WHI±E
WORkERS mUST APPEAR TO NOT BE WORkINg. °IS IS THE CENTRA± SEDUCTION. ºOR
THOSE C±IENTS WHO WANT THE RE±ATIONSHIPS TO S±IP INTO EmOTIONA± TERRAIN—BUT
WITHOUT OB±IgATIONS—WORkERS (mEN, WOmEN, AND TRANSgENDER PEOP±E) mAY
STRATEgICA±±Y USE ±ANgUAgE OF ±OVE AND EmOTION. ·A±±ED “ROmANCE TOURISm” OR
THE “gIR±FRIEND (OR BOYFRIEND) ExPERIENCE,” THESE kINDS OF FUzzY RE±ATIONSHIPS
FA±± WITHIN A REgISTER THAT DISTURBS EASY AND C±EAR CATEgORIzATIONS. ·±IENTS
(±OCA± AND FOREIgN) AND SEx WORkERS THROUgHOUT LATIN µmERICA AND THE
·ARIBBEAN HAVE DESCRIBED THEIR RE±ATIONSHIPS IN A VARIETY OF TERmS THAT PRO-
DUCE A VARIETY OF OUTCOmES: mATERIA± gAIN, P±EASURE, ±OVE, CHI±DREN, mARRIAgE,
mIgRATION, DIVORCE, AND DISAPPOINTmENT. LOVE AND DESIRE, OF COURSE, CANNOT
BE mEASURED. µCTIONS, HOWEVER, CAN REVEA± DEgREES OF COmmITmENT. ²Ex WORk-
ERS COACH ONE ANOTHER ON TECHNIqUES TO ±ImIT TImE—AND ±ABOR—WITH C±IENTS.
°OSE WHO CAN AffORD TO DEC±INE C±IENTS REFUSE TO WORk WITH ANYONE WHO mAY
BE DRUNk, RUDE, OR DIRTY OR WHO DO NOT AgREE TO THEIR TERmS (FEE, CONDOm USE,
AND P±ACE FOR THE ENCOUNTER). µND C±IENTS, OF COURSE, CAN STOP RETURNINg—AND
SENDINg gIﬅS AND mONEY—AT ANY TImE.
ÉSPITE C±IENTS’ CONTRO± OVER PAYmENT AND gIﬅ gIVINg, SEx WORkERS work AT
BUI±DINg THEm INTO THEIR SExUA± AND AffECTIVE NETWORkS. ÈITH A THIN OR NON-
ExISTENT SOCIA± SAFETY NET IN mOST OF LATIN µmERICA AND THE ·ARIBBEAN, THESE
RE±ATIONSHIPS CAN SUPP±Y FORmS OF SECURITY THAT THE STATE DOES NOT. ¹N HIS
RESEARCH WITH mA±E SEx WORkERS IN ÊRAzI±, THE ANTHROPO±OgIST GREgORY
MITCHE±± mET FOREIgN mA±E ±OVERS/C±IENTS WHO WERE TA±kED ABOUT AS “UNC±ES”
AND “gODFATHERS.” ÓOUNg mA±E ÊRAzI±IAN SEx WORkERS (SOmE OF WHOm WERE
mARRIED TO WOmEN AND DID NOT IDENTIFY AS gAY) BUI±T THESE NEW qUEER kIN
NETWORkS BY DRAWINg ON TRADITIONA± NOTIONS OF ÊRAzI±IAN kINSHIP. µS “gODFA-
THER gRINgOS” ATTEND BAPTISmS AND OTHER FAmI±Y-ORIENTED EVENTS, TRANSACTIONA±
SExUA± RE±ATIONSHIPS THAT OﬅEN REmAIN OffSTAgE BECOmE VISIBI±IzED. ëUEER SEx
TOURISm AND THE TRANSNATIONA± kIN IT PRODUCES A±±OW NEW NOTIONS OF FAmI±Y TO
BE VERY mUCH ON STAgE AND IN SO DOINg RECONfigURES AND SUBVERTS TRADITIONA±
UNDERSTANDINgS OF mASCU±INITY, gENDER RO±ES, AND FAmI±Y STRUCTURE.
°IS TWIST ON TRADITIONA± kINSHIP HAS CONSEqUENCES NOT ON±Y FOR SEx WORk-
ERS BUT A±SO FOR C±IENTS. °EY TOO PUT work INTO BUI±DINg AND mAINTAININg
THESE RE±ATIONSHIPS. °EY WI±±INg±Y ENTER TERRITORY FAR FROm THE BEDROOm; AﬅER
A±±, THEY COU±D PAY FOR SEx AT HOmE. ³VEN THOUgH IT CAN BE WORk TO mAINTAIN
THESE ±ONg-DISTANCE RE±ATIONSHIPS, THE PAYOff mAY ExTEND BEYOND ImmEDIATE
P±EASURES. ºOR THE FOREIgN ±OVERS, THERE mAY BE THE BENEfiTS OF A SENSE OF
BE±ONgINg THAT COmES WITH FEE±INg A PART OF TWO SPACES—AND TWO FAmI±IES.
ÈHI±E LATIN µmERICAN AND ·ARIBBEAN PARTNERS ARE NOT INCORPORATED IN THEIR
FOREIgN ±OVERS’ ±IVES BACk HOmE, THE FOREIgN PARTNERS CAN ENjOY A±± THE AffECTIVE
jOYS THAT ACCOmPANY “BEINg FAmI±Y.”
ÉOWEVER ±ONg C±IENTS’ gENEROSITY ±ASTS IS UP TO THEm. °EY CAN—AND DO—
TURN Off THE SPIgOT ON A WHIm. ºOR THIS REASON, AgINg SEx WORkERS TRY TO SECURE
INVESTmENTS—IN jEWE±RY, THEIR HOmES, AND THEIR CHI±DREN’S EDUCATION.
»B±IgATINg A C±IENT BY ASkINg HIm TO BE A gODFATHER IS ONE mORE WAY TO SECURE
A STREAm OF mONEY FOR ONE’S CHI±D. ²Ex WORkERS, THUS, mIgHT BUI±D ±ONg-TERm
SAFETY NETS OUT OF A COmBINATION OF ±OCA± AND FOREIgN C±IENTS WITH WHOm THEIR
RE±ATIONSHIPS mAY INVO±VE EmOTION AND CARE.

conclusion: on¿oin¿ stru¿¿les
³VERY DAY SEx WORkERS IN LATIN µmERICA AND THE ·ARIBBEAN UNDERTAkE CREATIVE
STRATEgIES TO STAY SAFE, mAkE A ±IVINg, AND POSSIB±Y CRAﬅ ±ONg-TERm mOBI±ITY
STRATEgIES. °EY DO SO WHI±E A±SO DEmANDINg THEIR RIgHTS AND A SEAT AT PO±ICY-
SETTINg TAB±ES. °EY HAVE CA±±ED FOR PO±ICIES THAT DECRImINA±IzE SEx WORk AND
DISENTANg±E SEx WORk FROm TRAffiCkINg. °EIR ACTIVISm AND kNOW±EDgE—
WHETHER ON THE RUNWAY, IN THE STREETS, OR AT INTERNATIONA± CONFERENCES—HAVE
±AUNCHED PIONEERINg HARm-REDUCTION PROgRAmS, REDUCED É¹Í INFECTIONS, AND
INSPIRED OTHER mOVEmENT BUI±DERS AROUND THE WOR±D. °EY OﬅEN PAY DEAR±Y FOR
SPEAkINg OUT. ¹N THE fi±m A Kiss for Gabriela GABRIE±A LEITE ExP±AINS WHY SUCH
RISkS ARE WORTH IT: “ÓOU DON’T mAkE ANY mOVEmENT HIDINg UNDER THE TAB±E.”
µgUSTíN, LARA MARíA

2007 Sex at the Margins: Migration, Labour Markets and the Rescue Industry.
½EW ÓORk: ¸A±gRAVE MACmI±±AN.
µSOCIACIóN DE ¾RABAjADORA µUTóNOmAS “22 DE JUNIO” DE ³± »RO EN ºUNDACIóN
ëUImERA
2002 Trabajadoras del sexo, Memorias Æivas. MACHA±A, ³qUADOR: MAmA ·ASH.
ÊRENNAN, ÉNISE
2004 What’s Love Got to Do with It? Transnational Desires and Sex Tourism in
the Dominican Republic. ÚRHAm, ½·: ÚkE ¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS.
2014A Life Interrupted: Trafficking into Forced Labor in the United States. ÚR-
HAm, ½·: ÚkE ¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS.
2014B “¾RAffiCkINg, ²CANDA±, AND µBUSE OF MIgRANT ÈORkERS IN µRgENTINA AND THE
¶NITED ²TATES.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sci-
ence 653 (MAY): 107–23.
G±OBA± µ±±IANCE µgAINST ¾RAffiC IN ÈOmEN
2007 Collateral Damage: °e Impact of Anti-Trafficking Measures on Human
Rights around the World. ÊANgkOk: Gµµ¾È.
M»´³M¶ (MOVImIENTO DE MUjERES ¶NIDAS)
2001 Rien mis labrios, llora mi alma. ²ANTO ÓmINgO, ÓmINICAN ¼EPUB±IC:
M»´³M¶.
MURRAY, LAURA
2013 A Kiss for Gabriela. ÓCUmENTARY. WWW.AkISSFORgABRIE±A.COm/.
»PEN ²OCIETY ºOUNDATIONS
2013 “10 ¼EASONS TO ÉCRImINA±IzE ²Ex ÈORk.” ½EW ÓORk. WWW.OPENSOCIETY-
FOUNDATIONS.ORg/SITES/DEFAU±T/fi±ES/DECRImINA±IzE-SExWORk-20120713.PDF.
Family Adjustments
Renato Rosaldo
MY FATHER SHRINkS TOWARD HIS SOU±,

CHATS WITH HIS gRANDmOTHER, MAmA MECHE.
²HE WATCHES mE FROm A FADINg PHOTOgRAPH

TAkEN IN ½EW »R±EANS IN 1881
BEFORE SHE REACHED ÍERA ·RUz.
²HE STARES STERN±Y, HER ±OWER ±IP PROTRUDES.
ÁY AﬅER DAY SHE STUDIES THE NEWSPAPER,
Estos papeles no traen nada.*
°E ³Ng±ISH SHE NO ±ONgER SPEAkS
STI±± SPEAkS THROUgH HER.
MY FATHER TE±±S mE MAmA MECHE

HO±DS SOmE AT THE DOOR,
ADmITS OTHERS TO THE ±IVINg ROOm,
DINES WITH A SE±ECT FEW.
¹F THEY OVERSTAY, SHE DISSO±VES THEIR ±AUgHTER.
²HE TE±±S HIm, Place a broom behind the door,
don’t move, it’ll sweep them away.
MY FATHER CHUCk±ES IN BOYISH WICkEDNESS.
ÉE DOzES. ¹ ASk WHAT HE’S THINkINg ABOUT.

ÉE SAYS HE’S WRITINg A SHORT STORY
* °ESE PAPERS HAVE NOTHINg IN THEm. ¹N ²PANISH A SHEET OF PAPER IS A papel, BUT A NEWSPAPER
IS A periódico.
252
Ajustes Familiares
Renato Rosaldo
¸OCO A POCO mI PADRE SE ENCOgE A±mA ADENTRO,

SONRíE, P±ATICA
CON SU ABUE±ITA, MAmA MECHE.
³±±A mE mIRA DESDE UNA FOTO qUE SE mARCHITA,

TOmADA EN ½UEVA »R±EANS
ANTES DE SU ±±EgADA A ÍERACRUz EN 1881.
³±±A NO PARPADEA, ±E SA±E E± ±ABIO INFERIOR.
´íA TRAS DíA ESTUDIA E± PERIóDICO
Y DICE: Estos papeles no traen nada.
³± INg±éS qUE YA NO HAB±A
HAB±A A TRAVéS DE E±±A.
¸APá mE CUENTA Y RECUENTA qUE MAmA MECHE

DETIENE A A±gUNAS VISITAS EN ±A PUERTA,
RECIBE A OTRAS EN ±A SA±A,
COmE CON POCOS.
²I SE DI±ATAN, SE DESVANECE ±A RISA.
³±±A ±E HACE UNA SEñA, Coloca la escoba detrás de la puerta,
no te muevas, les barrerá fuera.
³± SE RíE ENTRE DIENTES, SE HINCHA CON mA±DAD DE CHAmACO.
·ABECEA. LE PREgUNTO DE qUE PIENSA.

ÍCE qUE ESCRIBE UN CUENTO SOBRE SU ABUE±ITA.
253
ABOUT HIS gRANDmOTHER. MY mOTHER SAYS
HE’S SAID THAT SINCE CO±±EgE.
¹N mY DREAm A SEA CAPTAIN, TRADINg ±UmBER,

MAmA MECHE’S FATHER, WEARS SAVAgE HAIR,
A B±UE AND WHITE SHIRT, RED BANDANNA.
Sit down, HE BARkS AT mE. Eyes Äont,
stretch, breathe. °EN HE HEA±S mE
WITH A WOODEN BEAm, A SmACk mID-BACk,
to loosen, HE SAYS, the grip of family,
holding it together is not your job.
254
MI mADRE DICE qUE HA DICHO ESO
DESDE qUE ASISTIó A ±A UNIVERSIDAD.
³N UN SUEñO UN CAPITáN DE BARCO mERCANTE DE mADERA,

PADRE DE E±±A, CON E± PE±O SA±VAjE,
CAmISA AzU± Y B±ANCA, BANDANA CO±ORADA.
Siéntate, mE DICE gRUñENDO. Ojos de Äente,
estírate, respira. Ó ±UEgO mE SANA
CON UN PA±AzO A mEDIA ESPA±DA,
para aflojar, mE DICE, el peso de los deberes familiares.
No te toca sostenerlo todo.
255
f ou r t e e n
Latin American Travel

the other side of tourisÇ encounters
Florence E. Babb
Ãravel posters froÇ the early TWENTIETH CENTURY OﬅEN FEATURED

ImAgES THAT CA±±ED ON NORTHERNERS TO ImAgINE THE WEA±TH OF CU±TURA± ExPERI-
ENCE THAT BECkONED FROm LATIN µmERICA AND THE ·ARIBBEAN. ³xOTIC ±OCA±ES
AND BEAUTIFU± WOmEN WERE OﬅEN THE SENSUA± ENTICEmENTS TO ±EAVE THE CHI±±Y
½ORTH AND VENTURE TO mORE INVITINg AND SEDUCTIVE DESTINATIONS. »NE POSTER
FOR TRAVE± TO MExICO SHOWED A VO±UPTUOUS, SmI±INg WOmAN WEARINg A “PEAS-
ANT” B±OUSE AND ±ONg BRAIDS (AND OTHERWISE RATHER µNg±O FEATURES) HO±DINg
OUT A BOUNTY OF TROPICA± FRUIT AgAINST A ±USH BACkDROP. µND A POSTER ADVERTIS-
INg TRAVE± TO PREREVO±UTIONARY ·UBA SHOWED AN ExUBERANT WOmAN ±EAPINg,
mARACAS IN HAND, WITH THE C±EVER TExT, “²O NEAR AND YET SO FOREIgN.” °US WE
SEE THAT CA±±INg ON NOTIONS OF CU±TURA± DIffERENCE AND PROmISES OF P±EASURAB±E
ExPERIENCE ARE NOTHINg NEW TO THE LATIN µmERICAN TOURISm INDUSTRY, AND
TODAY WE fiND UPDATED VERSIONS OF FAmI±IAR NARRATIVES AND ImAgES DESIgNED TO
ATTRACT ANOTHER gENERATION OF TRAVE±ERS.
¹ HAVE ±OOkED AT THE TOURISm ExPERIENCE IN LATIN µmERICAN NATIONS
REBUI±DINg FO±±OWINg PERIODS OF CONflICT, REVO±UTION, AND ECONOmIC HARDSHIP,
CONSIDERINg BOTH SIDES OF THE TOURISm ENCOUNTER IN ·UBA, MExICO, ½ICARAgUA,
AND ¸ERU (ÊABB 2011). ÈHAT WERE TRAVE±ERS’ ENCOUNTERS WITH ±OCA± HOSTS AND
SERVICE PROVIDERS? µND HOW DID ±OCA± RESOURCEFU± HOSTS SATISFY TRAVE±ERS’
DESIRES FOR A BRUSH WITH DIffERENT CU±TURES? ÈHAT IS IT THAT TRAVE±ERS TOOk AWAY
WITH THEm FROm THESE DIVERSE TOURISm ENCOUNTERS? ¹ HAVE FOUND THAT IN
ADDITION TO THE mATERIA± CU±TURA± SOUVENIRS, TExTI±ES, BASkETS, RUm, AND CIgARS,
THEY TAkE HOmE THE TROPHIES WON THROUgH THEIR EmBRACE WITH THE »THER—
TROPHIES OF THEIR DIffERENT, ExOTIC, AND EVEN AT TImES DANgEROUS ExPERIENCES.
ºREqUENT±Y, A TROVE OF PHOTOgRAPHS PROVIDES THE INDISPUTAB±E EVIDENCE OF
FASCINATINg P±ACES VISITED AND PEOP±E mET, FOOD AND mUSIC ENjOYED, AND SO ON.
256
fi¿ure 14.1. ¹TEmS FOR SA±E IN A ÉAVANA TOURIST mARkET. ¸HOTO BY º±ORENCE ³. ÊABB.
°ESE ARE ACCOmPANIED BY TRAVE± NARRATIVES, AND IF THE TRAVE±ER HAS BEEN DAR-
INg ENOUgH TO ±EAVE THE FO±D OF OTHER TOURISTS AND mAkE mORE mEANINgFU±
CONNECTIONS WITH THOSE ±OCA±S ENCOUNTERED, THIS mAY PROVE PARTICU±AR±Y RICH
mATERIA± FOR BRAggINg RIgHTS. µmONg A CERTAIN kIND OF TRAVE±ERS, SUCH BRUSHES
WITH ±OCA± CU±TURE mAY INC±UDE INTImATE AND AmOROUS RE±ATIONS OR DARINg
ENTANg±EmENTS WITH ADVENTUROUS INDIVIDUA±S ONE WOU±D NOT mEET BACk HOmE.
»F COURSE, mANY OTHERS mIgHT RETURN FROm A PERIOD OF TRAVE± WITH A NEW
UNDERSTANDINg OF THE P±ACE VISITED, A BETTER APPRECIATION FOR ITS PEOP±ES AND
CU±TURES, AND A SENSE OF THE VA±UE OF FOREIgN ExPERIENCE IN BRINgINg TOgETHER
HUmANITY FROm DISTANT SHORES. µT ITS BEST, TRAVE± mAY CONTRIBUTE TO OUR g±OBA±
CONSCIOUSNESS AND OPENNESS TO ±EARNINg OTHER WAYS OF BEINg IN THE WOR±D. ¹F ¹
EmPHASIzE IN THIS CHAPTER THE FREqUENT mISUNDERSTANDINgS THAT TRAVE±ERS TAkE
AWAY FROm THEIR ExPERIENCES IN LATIN µmERICA, IT IS TO mAkE A CASE FOR RECOg-
NIzINg AND OVERCOmINg OUR OWN mISPERCEPTIONS, WHICH ARE COmmON±Y BASED
ON THE WIDE±Y HE±D ASSUmPTIONS WE HAVE ABOUT LATIN µmERICA AND THE
·ARIBBEAN.
µS WE CONSIDER WHAT TRAVE±ERS TO LATIN µmERICA PAST AND PRESENT ANTICIPATE
AND DESIRE IN HEADINg ²OUTH, WE WI±± SEE THAT THEIR ASSUmPTIONS mAY ±EAD TO
SOmEWHAT PROB±EmATIC TRAVE± ACCOUNTS AND A ±IkE±IHOOD OF REINFORCINg STERE-
OTYPED NOTIONS OF DIffERENCE BETWEEN “US” AND “THEm,” ½ORTH AND ²OUTH.
Ü at i n Á Ç er ic a n Ã r av el • 257
²UCH mISPERCEPTIONS CAN REINFORCE THE DURAB±E INEqUA±ITIES BETWEEN OUR
REgIONS IN THE HEmISPHERE. ÊEFORE CONC±UDINg, ¹ COmmENT ON SOmE AUSPICIOUS
SIgNS THAT PEOP±E-TO-PEOP±E TOURISm CAN SERVE TO CHA±±ENgE THE DUSTY NOTIONS
OF CU±TURA± DIffERENCE AND THE “NATURA±” ORDER OF THINgS. ²OmE OF WHAT ¹ OffER
HERE WOU±D fiND PARA±±E±S IN TRAVE± TO OTHER WOR±D REgIONS, BUT ¹ HIgH±IgHT THE
SPECIfiC SORTS OF ExPERIENCES THAT EmERgE FROm TOURISm IN LATIN µmERICA AND
THE ·ARIBBEAN, ESPECIA±±Y AmONg TRAVE±ERS FROm THE ¶NITED ²TATES.
what do travelers to latin aÇerica

anticipate they will findÕ
ÈHI±E WE COU±D gO BACk TO NINETEENTH-CENTURY ¶.². TRAVE± TO LATIN µmERICA,

±ET US BEgIN IN THE EAR±Y DECADES OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY, A TImE WHEN HISTO-
RIANS OF TRAVE± AND TOURISm HAVE SHOWN THAT THOSE WITH THE RESOURCES TO TRAVE±
BECAmE mORE CURIOUS ABOUT THEIR NEAR NEIgHBORS IN MExICO AND THE
·ARIBBEAN. °E TROPICA± HO±IDAY BECAmE A STATUS SYmBO± FOR THOSE INTREPID
ENOUgH TO SET OUT FOR P±ACES THAT WERE STI±± ±ITT±E kNOWN IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES.
¹N THE 1930S, A YOUNg TOURISm INDUSTRY IN MExICO ATTRACTED TRAVE±ERS WHO WERE
SEEkINg A RICH NATURA± ENVIRONmENT, HERITAgE-STEEPED ARCHAEO±OgICA± SITES, AND
FAmED CITIES TO ExP±ORE (ÊERgER AND ÈOOD 2010). µﬅER ÈOR±D ÈAR ¹¹, TRAVE±
TO THE ·ARIBBEAN A±SO BECAmE POPU±AR, AS PRIVI±EgED WHITE µmERICANS OVER-
CAmE THEIR FEARS OF THE HEA±TH HAzARDS THEY mIgHT ENCOUNTER AND ExPRESSED THE
DESIRE TO ExPERIENCE THE SA±UBRIOUS WARm C±ImATES AND ExOTIC CU±TURES THEY
WOU±D DISCOVER ON THE IS±ANDS. °EIR ADOPTION OF “TROPICA± WHITE” DRESS gAVE
WAY TO A WI±±INgNESS TO ExPOSE THEmSE±VES TO THE SUN, AND BECOmE PERHAPS A
±ITT±E mORE ±IkE THEIR DARkER-SkINNED HOSTS. ¼ECENT HISTORICA± ACCOUNTS SUggEST
THAT THIS WAS A TImE OF CONSIDERAB±E REImAgININg, THOUgH NOT ACCEPTANCE, OF
CU±TURA± AND RACIA± DIffERENCE IN THE µmERICAS. ½ONETHE±ESS, THESE SOjOURNS
WERE, NOT SURPRISINg±Y, FODDER FOR TRAVE±ERS’ STEREOTYPED IDEAS OF THE FRIEND±Y IF
SOmEWHAT INDO±ENT NATIVES WHO PROVIDED HOSPITA±ITY TO THEm (·OCkS 2013).
MASS TOURISm CAmE ON THE SCENE ±ATER, WITH THE ADVENT OF INCREASED AIR
TRAVE±, AND WAS BOOmINg BY THE 1970S, WHEN mIDD±E-C±ASS µmERICAN FAmI±IES
BEgAN TO VIEW gOINg ON VACATION AS A WE±±-DESERVED ENTIT±EmENT. ·ANCúN WAS
DEVE±OPED AS A DESTINATION FOR THOSE WISHINg TO SOAk UP THE SUN AT AN A±±-
INC±USIVE RESORT, FROm WHICH THEY HARD±Y NEEDED TO VENTURE DURINg THEIR
HEDONISTIC HO±IDAY. »N THE OTHER END OF THE TOURISm SPECTRUm, BACkPACkER
TRAVE± EmERgED AROUND THE SAmE TImE AS A SORT OF RITE OF PASSAgE FOR STUDENTS
258 • ch a p ter fou rteen

AND YOUNg ADU±TS WHO WISHED TO BREAk FREE OF PARENTS AND SEE THE WOR±D.
MANY TURNED TO PARTS OF LATIN µmERICA AS AffORDAB±E AND REASONAB±Y C±OSE,
YET SUITAB±Y ExOTIC DESTINATIONS. ¹ mYSE±F WAS AmONg THOSE IN THE SEVENTIES
WHO EAgER±Y SET Off FOR MExICO TO ±EARN A ±ITT±E ²PANISH AND gAIN ExPERIENCE
FROm THE FREEWHEE±INg jOURNEY.
ÈHI±E BACkPACkERS TRAVE±ED ON THE CHEAP AND OﬅEN IDENTIfiED AS A±TERNA-
TIVE TRAVE±ERS RATHER THAN AS TOURISTS, THEY BETRAYED THEIR FAmI±Y PRIVI±EgE AS
THEY EAgER±Y CONSUmED MExICAN CU±TURE, CONSO±IDATINg THEIR OWN POWER IN
THE PROCESS. ºA±±INg BETWEEN THE ±EISURE TRAVE±ERS AND THE mORE ADVENTUROUS
YOUTH WERE mANY OTHERS WHO fi±±ED THE NICHES BEgINNINg TO DEfiNE TOURISm’S
VAST OffERINgS: CU±TURA± AND HISTORICA± TOURISm, ECOTOURISm, AND ADVENTURE-
SPORT TOURISm WERE jUST A FEW OF THE CATEgORIES THAT EmERgED BY THE ±ATE TWEN-
TIETH CENTURY. ÊY THE YEAR 2000, TOURISm WAS ARgUAB±Y THE WOR±D’S ±EADINg
INDUSTRY, AND TRAVE±ERS COU±D CHOOSE AmONg ANY NUmBER OF OPTIONS, FROm
HIgH-END AND ExC±USIVE TO TRAVE± ON A SHOESTRINg BUDgET. °ERE WERE TOURISm
PROVIDERS READY TO RESPOND TO NEAR±Y ANY TASTE AND ANY SIzED POCkETBOOk.
“Æisiting Latin America is like going back in time”

½OTAB±Y, TRAVE±ERS TO LATIN µmERICA FREqUENT±Y ImAgINE THAT THEY WI±± BE VISIT-
INg NOT ON±Y ANOTHER P±ACE BUT A±SO ANOTHER TImE. ¸ART OF THE APPEA± OF TRAVE±
FOR THEm IS A kIND OF NOSTA±gIA FOR A TImE THEY HAVE NOT kNOWN OR RECA±± ON±Y
REmOTE±Y. »F COURSE, A VISIT TO AN ARCHAEO±OgICA± SITE ±IkE MACHU ¸ICCHU IN
¸ERU, OR TO A CO±ONIA± CITY ±IkE GRANADA IN ½ICARAgUA, TRANSPORTS TRAVE±ERS TO
THE TImE WHEN THESE SITES OF CONTEmPORARY mEmORY-mAkINg WERE CON-
STRUCTED—jUST AS HISTORICA± TOURISm IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES, FOR ExAmP±E, TO
ÈI±±IAmSBURg, COUNTS ON VISITORS COmINg AWAY WITH SOmE DEEPER kNOW±EDgE
OF THE HERITAgE SITE. ÊUT WHAT ABOUT TRAVE± TO VIBRANT CITIES ±IkE ÉAVANA (AN
INCREASINg POSSIBI±ITY NOW FOR ¶.². CITIzENS) OR TO RURA± COmmUNITIES IN THE
µNDES? ÈHY IS IT THAT THESE TRAVE± DESTINATIONS, WHICH ARE FU±± OF ±IFE AND
EVERY BIT A PART OF TODAY’S WOR±D, ARE SO OﬅEN VIEWED AS ±OCkED IN TImE, EVEN
AS “±IVINg HISTORY” mUSEUmS, FOR THOSE WHO ARE ATTRACTED TO THEm? MUCH HAS
BEEN mADE OF ÉAVANA’S CRUmB±INg RUINS, THE FADED g±ORY OF ITS BEAUTIFU±
ARCHITECTURE, AS WE±± AS ITS mORE RECENT AND SPECTACU±AR mAkEOVER OF THE HIS-
TORIC CO±ONIA± SECTOR—WHERE mOST TOURISTS flOCk.
MANY kNOW ABOUT AND WISH TO SEE ÉAVANA’S mID-TWENTIETH-CENTURY CARS,
ÊUICkS AND ·HEVYS THAT CAN BE HIRED AS TAxIS AT E±EVATED PRICES TO gET AROUND
THE CITY. µND CITY TOURS ARE RARE±Y COmP±ETE WITHOUT A VISIT TO ONE OF THE
fi¿ure 14.2. ÁNCER PERFORmINg AT THE
¾ROPICANA NIgHTC±UB IN ÉAVANA. ¸HOTO
BY º±ORENCE ³. ÊABB.
ÉEmINgWAY BARS, WHERE THE WRITER CONSUmED HIS FAmED DAIqUIRIS AND mOjI-
TOS DURINg THE 1940S AND 1950S. µ±± OF THIS CONSPIRES TO TRANSPORT THE TRAVE±ER
TO ANOTHER TImE, EVEN IF ÉAVANA’S PRESENT IS VERY mUCH A PRODUCT OF ITS PAST
AND NOT SImP±Y A RESIDUE OF IT. ·UBA’S POST-²OVIET ECONOmIC CRISIS OF THE 1990S
HAS mARkED THE PRESENT PERIOD jUST AS mUCH AS THE PREREVO±UTIONARY ±ICEN-
TIOUSNESS OF THE ¾ROPICANA NIgHTC±UB, THOUgH IT IS THE ±ATTER THAT mORE TOURISTS
WISH TO DISCOVER ON A TRIP TO ÉAVANA.
µ VERY DIffERENT C±ASS OF TRAVE±ERS OPTS FOR WHAT HAS BEEN CA±±ED ExPERIENTIA±
TOURISm IN THE HIgH µNDEAN COmmUNITIES ±IkE ÍICOS, ¸ERU, YET THEY TOO ARE
ATTRACTED BY THE NOTION THAT THEY WI±± gET TO kNOW A P±ACE THAT “TImE FORgOT”
AND THAT IS UNmARRED BY mODERN CU±TURA± AND ECONOmIC DEVE±OPmENT. °AT
AgRICU±TURA± COmmUNITY, WHICH HAS BEEN OF kEEN INTEREST TO SOCIA± SCIENTISTS
SINCE THE TImE WHEN IT WAS A HACIENDA, HAS RECENT±Y ±AUNCHED A SmA±± TOURISm
PROjECT TO DRAW VISITORS, mANY OF THEm YOUNg AND IDEA±ISTIC, WHO WANT TO
ExPERIENCE THE “AUTHENTICITY” OF µNDEAN TRADITIONA± ±IFE C±OSE UP OVER THE
COURSE OF SEVERA± DAYS. µRRIVINg IN SmA±± gROUPS, THEY ARE SHOWN THE COm-
mUNITY’S ·ASA DE ±OS µBUE±OS (±ITERA±±Y, “gRANDPARENTS’ HOUSE”), A ONE-ROOm
HISTORY mUSEUm OF PHOTOgRAPHS AND OTHER DOCUmENTS OF SEVERA± CENTURIES OF
ÍICOS’S PAST, HIgH±IgHTINg THE PERIOD FROm THE 1950S WHEN ·ORNE±± ¶NIVERSITY
±AUNCHED A DECADE-±ONg PROjECT IN APP±IED ANTHROPO±OgY.
¾ODAY’S RESIDENTS HAVE CONTINUED TO SEEk “PROgRESS” FOR THE COmmUNITY, IN
PART BY RE-CREATINg THE PAST FOR ITS VISITORS. GUESTS STAY IN ±ODgES BUI±T NExT

fi¿ure 14.3. ²E±±INg TO TOURISTS BOARDINg A TRAIN TO MACHU ¸ICCHU. ¸HOTO BY º±ORENCE
³. ÊABB.
DOOR TO THEIR HOSTS AND ARE INVITED TO jOIN THE FAmI±IES IN PREPARINg AND EATINg
mEA±S, WORkINg ON THE ±AND, AND PARTICIPATINg IN OTHER ACTIVITIES, SUCH AS A
BAPTISm OR A WEDDINg (AS ¹ DID DURINg A RECENT VISIT THERE). ÉOSTS mAkE A POINT
OF TA±kINg TO THEIR gUESTS ABOUT THE ENDURINg TRADITIONS THAT gIVE mEANINg TO
THEIR ±IVES, PERFORmINg RITUA±S WITH COCA ±EAVES OR SPEAkINg REVERENT±Y ABOUT
THE mOUNTAIN gODS. ¹F THEIR OWN mODEST HOUSES NOW HAVE E±ECTRICITY A±±OWINg
THEm TO ENjOY ¾ÍS, RADIOS, AND OTHER mODERN CONVENIENCES, THIS IS NOT mEN-
TIONED IN THEIR NARRATIVES OF TRADITIONA± ±IFEWAYS. ¹NDEED, A PROmOTIONA± BRO-
CHURE FOR ExPERIENTIA± TOURISm IN ÍICOS STATES THAT “TO gET ACqUAINTED WITH
P±ACES WHERE PEOP±E ONCE ±IVED IN ANCIENT CIVI±IzATIONS AND TO SHARE A FEW DAYS
OF THEIR DAI±Y ±IVES, A±± THIS WI±± HE±P YOU UNDERSTAND THIS PART OF THE WOR±D’S
RICHNESS, WHICH ONE NEVER ImAgINED ExISTED FAR AWAY FROm THE CITIES” (ÊABB
2011: 87). ¹T IS NO WONDER THEN IF TRAVE±ERS COmE AWAY WITH A SENSE THAT THEY
HAVE PARTICIPATED IN CU±TURES THAT HAVE BEEN PRESERVED IN TImE.
ÈE mIgHT ASk WHICH CAmE fiRST, TOURISTS’ ExPECTATIONS OF fiNDINg ±ANDS
±OCkED IN TImE OR THEIR HOSTS’ DESIRE TO OffER SOmE CONfiRmATION THAT THIS IS IN
FACT WHAT THEY HAVE TO OffER. °E COmmODIfiCATION OF CU±TURA± DIffERENCE AND
EVEN CU±TURA± IDENTITY—IT IS OﬅEN ICONIC PEASANTS OR mARkET WOmEN IN CO±OR-
FU± SETTINgS WHO SERVE TO SE±± A DESTINATION—IS A PHENOmENON THAT IS WIDE-
SPREAD TODAY. °ERE IS IN FACT A mUTUA± COmP±ICITY IN SUCH PERFORmANCES AND
CONSUmPTION OF AgE-O±D TRADITION IN P±ACES THAT mAY ACTUA±±Y BE VERY mUCH
ON THE mOVE AS ±OCA± RESIDENTS STRIVE TO BETTER THEIR ±IVES WITH THE AmENITIES
THEY SEE AROUND THEm IN THE WIDER SOCIETY, IN THE mEDIA, AND SO ON. ¹F ±OCA±
HOSTS P±AY TO THE ROmANTIC DESIRES OF THEIR VISITORS FOR “AUTHENTIC ExPERIENCE,”
IT mAY BE OUT OF CU±TURA± PRIDE or OUT OF A NEED TO EARN A ±IVE±IHOOD IN ORDER TO
SEND THEIR CHI±DREN TO SCHOO± SO THAT THEY mAY BE PREPARED FOR EmP±OYmENT
OUTSIDE THE COmmUNITY (AND SOmETImES BOTH).
ÈHAT FUE±S THIS ROUTE TO ECONOmIC DEVE±OPmENT, HOWEVER, mAY WE±± BE THE
SORT OF “ImPERIA±IST NOSTA±gIA” THAT THE ANTHROPO±OgIST ¼ENATO ¼OSA±DO fi NDS
IN THE ENCOUNTERS OF NORTHERNERS WITH THEIR CU±TURA± COUNTERPARTS IN THE
G±OBA± ²OUTH. °ERE IS OﬅEN A fiNE ±INE BETWEEN THE RESPECT FOR TRADITION THAT
VISITORS mAY SHARE WITH THEIR HOSTS AND A kIND OF THINkINg THAT CAN SERVE TO
CONSO±IDATE AND ±EgITImIzE DIffERENCES OF POWER. °US THE DANgER OF TOURISTS
TAkINg HOmE A SENSE THAT THEY HAVE TRU±Y COmE TO kNOW A mORE “PRImITIVE” OR
“SImP±ER” WAY OF ±IFE THAT THEY mAY INDU±gE IN FOR THE DURATION OF THEIR VISIT
AND THEN HAPPI±Y RETURN TO THEIR mORE STATE-OF-THE-ART, ¹NTERNET- AND CE±±
PHONE–DEPENDENT ±IVES.
“Latin America is a continent where

conflict and instability are the norm”
°E HISTORIANS ÍNA ÊERgER AND µNDREW ÈOOD WRITE ABOUT ¶.². SO±DIERS IN THE
mID-NINETEENTH CENTURY WHO WERE figHTINg IN THE ¶.².-MExICAN WAR WHO FOUND
TImE TO ExP±ORE CENTRA± MExICO’S WONDROUS P±ACES AS THE fiRST TOURISTS TO THAT
COUNTRY. ³VEN IN THE mIDST OF CONflICT, THESE SO±DIERS WISHED TO SEE THE ±AND THEY
WERE STRUgg±INg OVER AND WROTE OF IT IN RAPTUROUS TONES. ²INCE THEN, WHEN VISIT-
INg LATIN µmERICAN CO±ONIA± CITIES DURINg PEACETImE, TOURISTS HAVE BEEN EAgER
TO VISIT SITES OF BATT±E, WHETHER TO HEAR STORIES OF THE LIBERA± AND ·ONSERVATIVE
¸ARTY STRUgg±ES IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY ½ICARAgUA OR OF ³mI±IANO ËAPATA’S AND
¸ANCHO ÍI±±A’S SUCCESSES IN THE MExICAN ¼EVO±UTION. °ESE TWO COUNTRIES HAVE
IN FACT ATTRACTED “TOURISTS OF REVO±UTION” IN mORE RECENT DECADES, WITH SO±IDARITY
ACTIVISTS HEADINg TO ½ICARAgUA AﬅER THE ²ANDINISTA ¼EVO±UTION TRIUmPHED IN
1979 AND TO ·HIAPAS IN SOUTHERN MExICO FO±±OWINg THE ËAPATISTA UPRISINg IN
1994. ·UBA, OF COURSE, HAS HAD ITS SHARE OF REVO±UTIONARY TOURISTS FROm THE SEC-

OND HA±F OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY, DRAWINg THOSE WHO FORgO THE BEACH FOR A VISIT
TO THE MUSEUm OF THE ¼EVO±UTION OR THE ºEDERATION OF ·UBAN ÈOmEN.
¹N ¸ERU, IN CONTRAST, THE VIO±ENT WAR OF THE 1980S BETWEEN THE mI±ITARY AND
THE ²HININg ¸ATH mOVEmENT kEPT TOURISTS AWAY UNTI± THE ±ATE 1990S, WHEN
EffORTS WERE mADE TO BRINg THEm BACk WITH ASSURANCES THAT THE NATION HAD
BEEN PACIfiED. µDVERTISINg THAT HAD EAR±IER USED µNDEAN PEOP±E TO DRAW VISI-
TORS WERE ±ATER FEATURINg “SAFE” ARCHAEO±OgICA± SITES SO TOURISTS COU±D STEER C±EAR
OF REmINDERS OF THE RECENT µNDEAN CONflICT. ½OW THAT mORE TImE HAS PASSED,
SOmE TOURISTS ARE VENTURINg INTO “mEmORY” mUSEUmS WHERE THEY CAN ±EARN
ABOUT THIS HIDDEN HISTORY OF B±OODY WAR.
ÈHETHER TOURISTS IN LATIN µmERICA SHUN SITES OF CONflICT OR OCCASIONA±±Y
SEEk THEm OUT, THEY FREqUENT±Y COmE AWAY FROm THEIR TRAVE± ExPERIENCE WITH
A VIEW OF A CONTINENT THAT HAS ON±Y RECENT±Y SEEN VIO±ENCE ABATE. ¾OURISm
PROmOTERS ARE AWARE OF THE DOUB±E-EDgED SWORD OF DRAWINg TRAVE±ERS WITH
PROmISES OF THEIR SAFETY AND COmFORT AT THE SAmE TImE THAT THEY kNOW IT IS
OﬅEN RECENT DRAmA SUBDUED THAT CAPTURES POTENTIA± VISITORS’ ImAgINATIONS.
ÈE HAVE ON±Y TO READ THE New Ãork Times ¾RAVE± ²ECTION TO kNOW THE RATHER
FORmU±AIC NARRATIVE OF FORmER HOT SPOTS NOW PUTTINg OUT THE WE±COmE mAT FOR
TOURISm. ¼EADERS kNOW THAT IF THEY ARE AmONg THE fiRST TO ARRIVE IN SUCH FOR-
mER±Y FORBIDDEN AREAS, THEY WI±± BEAT THE RUSH AND fiND FEWER TOURISTS COmPET-
INg FOR SPACE IN HOTE±S AND RESTAURANTS. µND FOR THEIR PART, ±OCA± TOURISm
OPERATORS WI±± SAY THAT IN THE AﬅERmATH OF CONflICT THEY ARE gRATEFU± THAT IT
kEPT THEIR DESTINATION SAFE FROm OVERDEVE±OPmENT; THEY NOW CAN REAP THE
BENEfiTS. °US, ONCE AgAIN WE mAY DISCOVER A CERTAIN COmP±ICITY BETWEEN
HOSTS AND gUESTS IN THE TOURISm ENCOUNTER WHEREBY BOTH BUY INTO THE INSTA-
BI±ITY AS NATURA±IzED AND WANT TO BE AmONg THOSE WHO CAN TAkE ADVANTAgE OF
THE PEACEFU± INTER±UDES.
MExICAN SO±DIER-TOURISTS, REVO±UTIONARY TOURISTS, AND HISTORY BUffS kEEN ON
SEEINg SITES OF CONflICT A±± mAY RETURN FROm THEIR LATIN µmERICAN SOjOURNS
WITH STORIES OF PAST CONflICT, mEmORIES OF VIO±ENCE THAT WERE SHARED WITH
THEm, AND A SENSE OF THE FRAgI±ITY OF THE NATIONS THEY VISITED. ¾O SOmE ExTENT,
THIS mAY REflECT THE VERY REA± PO±ITICA± CONflICTS THESE NATIONS HAVE ENDURED,
BUT TOURISTS OﬅEN APPEAR TO fiND CONfiRmATION OF THEIR ExPECTATIONS OF PEOP±ES
AND CU±TURES THAT ARE FUNDAmENTA±±Y, EVEN INHERENT±Y, VO±ATI±E. ¾OURISm IS
SOmETImES TOUTED AS A STRATEgY FOR BUI±DINg PEACE AND ECONOmIC SECURITY, YET
IT IS FOUNDED ON A PREmISE THAT TOURISTS CAN READI±Y PERCEIVE: INSTABI±ITY AND
CONflICT ARE A DEFAU±T SETTINg FOR mUCH OF THE REgION.
“Latin Americans are Äiendly and easygoing,
but they lack the drive for development”
¼E±ATED TO THE VIEW THAT LATIN µmERICAN NATIONS ARE INHERENT±Y UNSTAB±E IS
THE VIEW THAT LATIN µmERICANS THEmSE±VES ARE A FRIEND±Y AND AgREEAB±E PEOP±E
BUT NOT DRIVEN TOWARD THE mEASURES OF DEVE±OPmENT THAT ARE OﬅEN TAkEN FOR
gRANTED IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES OR ³UROPE. °IS VIEW mAY STEm FROm THE HISTORY
OF CO±ONIA±ISm IN THE REgION AND THE UNFORTUNATE CONC±USION THAT IF LATIN
µmERICA REmAINED UNDERDEVE±OPED SO ±ONg IT WAS OWINg TO THE FAI±INgS OF THE
REgION’S OWN PEOP±ES. ·ONSIDER THE FAmI±IAR CARICATURE OF LATIN µmERICANS’
EASYgOINg ATTITUDES, SOmETImES NEgATIVE±Y REPRESENTED BY µmERICANS’ USE OF
THE TERm mañana. °E NOTION IS THAT LATIN µmERICANS ARE IN NO HURRY,
WHETHER TO RACE THROUgH A mEA± OR TO CARRY OUT A BUSINESS PROPOSITION. ÈHI±E
TOURISTS mIgHT ENjOY A S±OWED PACE DURINg A HO±IDAY, THEY BRIST±E AT THE
THOUgHT OF A PEOP±E WHO ARE NOT INTENT ON EmBRACINg “PROgRESS” AND BECOm-
INg mORE “DEVE±OPED”—THAT IS, BECOmINg THE WAY THOSE IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES
PRIDE THEmSE±VES ON BEINg.
°US, TOURISTS COmE TO ExPECT FRIEND±Y SERVICE WHEN THEY TRAVE± TO LATIN
µmERICA AND THE ·ARIBBEAN, BUT IF THE HOSPITA±ITY FA±±S SHORT IN THEIR ESTImA-
TION, THEY mAY SUggEST THAT A VENUE IS NOT UP TO THE ExPECTED STANDARDS OF
ACCOmmODATINg TOURISTS’ NEEDS. ¹N ·UBA, FOR ExAmP±E, WHI±E SERVICE IS gENER-
A±±Y FRIEND±Y, ¹ HAVE SEEN TOURISTS COmP±AIN THAT THE SOCIA±IST-ORIENTED ECON-
OmY HAS NOT TAUgHT WORkERS TO BE EffiCIENT AND TO AIm TO P±EASE. »F COURSE,
NOW THAT A±± ARE WAITINg FOR THE flOODgATES TO OPEN FOR ¶.². TRAVE± TO ·UBA, WE
mAY fiND THAT THERE WI±± SOON BE A NOSTA±gIA FOR THE DAYS BEFORE mASS TOURISm
mADE A TRIP TO THE IS±AND NATION INDISTINgUISHAB±E FROm TRAVE± E±SEWHERE IN
THE REgION. ¹N THE ·ARIBBEAN gENERA±±Y, TOURISm SCHO±ARS HAVE DISCUSSED WHAT
IS “BEHIND THE SmI±E” THAT IS ExPECTED OF A±± SERVICE PROVIDERS. ÈHI±E TOURISTS
mAY BE±IEVE THAT A gENUINE DESIRE TO SATISFY THE NEEDS OF THEIR VISITORS IS BEHIND
THE SmI±E, THE STORY IS A±WAYS mORE COmP±Ex. ·±EAR±Y, THE ECONOmIC mOTIVATION
TO HO±D ON TO NEEDED EmP±OYmENT IS A STRONg FORCE IN PRESENTINg A FRIEND±Y
TONE AT TOURIST VENUES, YET INTERVIEWS WITH WORkERS REVEA± gREATER AmBIVA±ENCE
ABOUT THE NATURE OF THE WORk REqUIRED AND THE BEHAVIORS OF SOmE TOURISTS
WHOSE ExPECTATIONS ABOUT ±OCA± SERVICE PROVIDERS mAY REST ON STEREOTYPED
IDEAS ABOUT THEm.
°E µNTIgUAN-BORN WRITER JAmAICA ÌINCAID, IN HER ExTENDED ESSAY TIT±ED A
Small Place, DISSECTS THE TOURISm ENCOUNTER FROm THE VANTAgE POINT OF A ±OCA±
OBSERVER. ²HE IS mOST TRENCHANT IN HER VIEW OF THE IgNORANT TRAVE±ER WHO SEES

ON±Y ±USH ENVIRONmENT AND jOYFU± PEOP±E RATHER THAN INADEqUATE RESOURCES,
DEPENDENCE ON FOREIgN FOOD SOURCES, INSUffiCIENT SCHOO±S AND HOSPITA±S. ÉER
WORDS REBUkE THE TRAVE±ER WHO WOU±D NAIVE±Y THINk THAT µNTIgUANS SImP±Y
ENjOY SERVINg OR THAT THEY DO NOT AT TImES mOCk THE PA±E WHITE BODIES THAT
BECOmE BRIgHT PINk IN THE TROPICA± SUN, AND THE STRANgE mANNERS OF THESE
INDIVIDUA±S. ¹F THERE IS RESENTmENT, IT IS BECAUSE THE VISITOR HAS A±± THE POWER
IN THE RE±ATIONSHIP, BRIEF THOUgH IT mAY BE, AND THE ±OCA± HOST gENERA±±Y ANTICI-
PATES NO SUCH OPPORTUNITY TO SEE THE WOR±D AS A ±EISURE TRAVE±ER. A Small Place
IS NOT EASY READINg FOR ANYONE WHO HAS TRAVE±ED TO THE ·ARIBBEAN, BUT IT mAY
BE BETTER THAN ANY TOUR gUIDE AS PREPARATION FOR YOUR NExT TRIP THERE.
»N THE flIP SIDE OF THAT POETIC AND ACERBIC NARRATIVE OF THE ±OCA± ExPERIENCE
OF TOURISm, WE mAY ±OOk FOR TOURISTS’ ACCOUNTS OF THEIR ExPERIENCE AND
WHAT THEY TAkE AWAY FROm VISITS TO LATIN µmERICA. ¾RAVE± WRITINg IS ABUNDANT
AND RANgES FROm E±OqUENT AND PASSIONATE ACCOUNTS ONE mAY fiND IN BOOk-
STORES TO B±OggERS’ CANDID ASSESSmENTS OF P±ACES VISITED. ³THNOgRAPHERS ±IkE
mE HAVE gATHERED STORIES FROm TRAVE±ERS THAT OﬅEN REVEA± EmBEDDED NOTIONS
OF THE DIffERENCES BETWEEN TRAVE±ERS’ HOmES AND THE P±ACES VISITED. ¹T IS NOT
UNCOmmON TO HEAR POSITIVE REVIEWS FROm TRAVE±ERS WHO WERE g±AD TO ±EAVE
BEHIND THEIR OWN COmmODIfiED CU±TURES OF ADVANCED CAPITA±ISm; THEIR ExPERI-
ENCES WITH TRAVE± mAY BE IDEA±IzED ACCOUNTS OF P±ACES THEY BE±IEVE TO BE FREE
OF SUCH UNFETTERED AVARICE. ¹F THEY WERE TO READ THE WORDS OF JAmAICA ÌINCAID,
WOU±D THEY COmE TO OTHER CONC±USIONS? µDDRESSINg HER ImAgINED TOURIST
READER, SHE WRITES, “Ó YOU kNOW WHY PEOP±E ±IkE mE ARE SHY ABOUT BEINg
CAPITA±ISTS? ÈE±±, IT’S BECAUSE WE, FOR AS ±ONg AS WE HAVE kNOWN YOU, were CAPI-
TA±, ±IkE BA±ES OF COTTON AND SACkS OF SUgAR, AND YOU WERE THE COmmANDINg,
CRUE± CAPITA±ISTS, AND THE mEmORY OF THIS IS SO STRONg, THE ExPERIENCE SO RECENT,
THAT WE CAN’T qUITE BRINg OURSE±VES TO EmBRACE THIS IDEA THAT YOU THINk SO
mUCH OF.” °IS INDICTmENT OF CO±ONIA±ISm AND ITS ±EgACY OF DURAB±E INEqUA±I-
TIES UNDER CAPITA±ISm UNDER±IE ÌINCAID’S SEARINg CRITIqUE OF THOSE WHO WOU±D
CHARgE THAT THE SmA±± ·ARIBBEAN NATION ±ACkS AmBITION OR A DESIRE FOR
DEVE±OPmENT.
¹T BEARS mENTIONINg HERE THAT EVEN gIVEN THE PERSISTENT ECONOmIC INEqUA±I-
TIES IN LATIN µmERICA AND THE ·ARIBBEAN AND THE PRECARIOUSNESS OF mANY ±IVES
THERE, WE SHOU±D NOT OVER±OOk THE VERY NOTAB±E DEVE±OPmENT UNDER WAY IN A
NUmBER OF NATIONS. MExICO AND ¸ERU, FOR ExAmP±E, HAVE SHOWN DRAmATIC
gROWTH IN RECENT YEARS, AND ÊRAzI± IS AmONg THE NATIONS IDENTIfiED BY THE
ACRONYm Ê¼¹· (ÊRAzI±, ¼USSIA, ¹NDIA, AND ·HINA), CONSIDERED TO BE mAjOR
P±AYERS IN THE RECONfigURED g±OBA± ECONOmY.
“Sensual pleasure is on prominent display in Latin America”
¹F TOURISTS jUDgE LATIN µmERICA WANTINg IN AmBITION OR ENTREPRENEURIA± SPIRIT,
THEY OﬅEN fiND THE REgION TO HAVE AN ExCESS OF SENSUA±ITY AND SEDUCTION. °IS
HAS NOT ESCAPED THE ATTENTION OF TOURISm SCHO±ARS, WHOSE BOOk TIT±ES SO FRE-
qUENT±Y INVOkE THIS qUA±ITY, EVEN IF IRONICA±±Y: Negotiating Paradise, Peddling
Paradise, Pleasure Island, Caribbean Pleasure Industry, AND Take Me to My
Paradise ARE A FEW OF THESE TIT±ES.× ·ERTAIN±Y THE ·ARIBBEAN HAS RECEIVED A
gREAT DEA± OF SUCH ATTENTION, THOUgH ÊRAzI± AND PARTS OF ·ENTRA± µmERICA HAVE
A±SO CAPTURED A SHARE OF BOTH THE SCHO±AR±Y AND POPU±AR ImAgINATION. ÈHY
WOU±D THIS BE? ²URE±Y TROPICA± C±ImATE AND RICH NATURA± ENVIRONmENT ARE A
PART OF IT, A±ONg WITH AN UNDERSTANDAB±Y ±ANgUID PACE AS THE B±AzINg SUN BEATS
DOWN. ÊUT RECENT DECADES HAVE A±SO BROUgHT SEx TOURISm TO THE REgION, AS
TRAVE±ERS HAVE mADE THEIR WAY TO DESTINATIONS WHERE COmmERCIA±IzED SEx HAS
BECOmE A mEANS OF ±IVE±IHOOD FOR mANY WHO ±ACk A±TERNATIVES OR fiND THEm SO
POOR±Y PAID THAT THEY CANNOT SUPPORT THE NEEDS OF THEIR FAmI±IES.
¸REREVO±UTIONARY ÉAVANA WAS kNOWN AS A P±AYgROUND FOR THE ¶.². mI±ITARY
AND THE MAfiA, WITH gAmB±INg AND PROSTITUTION AP±ENTY. LARgE±Y E±ImINATED
BY THE REVO±UTIONARY gOVERNmENT AﬅER 1959, SEx WORk RETURNED IN THE 1990S
WHEN ·UBA’S ECONOmY P±UmmETED AND THE NATION’S PEOP±E ±OOkED TO B±ACk
mARkET ACTIVITY ( jineterismo) OF ONE kIND AND ANOTHER. ¹N ½ICARAgUA AND
·UBA DURINg THE ±AST COUP±E OF DECADES mANY WOmEN AND SOmE mEN HAVE
BEEN SE±±INg SExUA± FAVORS TO BOTH NATIONA±S AND TOURISTS, SOmE OF WHOm COmE
ExP±ICIT±Y FOR THE OPPORTUNITY TO fiND SEx AND SOmETImES ROmANCE ON THE
mARkET. ÊOTH SHORT- AND ±ONgER-TERm RE±ATIONSHIPS HAVE FORmED BETWEEN
TOURISTS AND ±OCA±S IN THIS WAY, AND WHETHER mONEY OR OTHER gIﬅS ARE OffERED,
THERE IS OﬅEN THE APPEARANCE IF NOT THE REA±ITY OF AffECTION BETWEEN THE PAR-
TIES. ¹N DIVERSE WAYS WE SEE INTImATE A±±IANCES THROUgHOUT THE ·ARIBBEAN AND
LATIN µmERICA, mANY INVO±VINg mA±E TOURISTS AND FEmA±E ±OCA±S, OTHERS INVO±V-
INg gAY mA±E TOURISTS AND ±OCA± mEN WHO AT ±EAST perform AS gAY SEx WORkERS,
AND STI±± OTHER CASES IN WHICH WOmEN TOURISTS COmE FOR AmOROUS ADVENTURES
WITH mEN, OffERINg THEm CASH OR OTHER gIﬅS AND ENTERTAINmENT THEY COU±D NOT
OTHERWISE AffORD.
ÈHI±E LATIN µmERICAN NATIONS HAVE mADE EffORTS TO CURTAI± SEx TOURISm,
ESPECIA±±Y WHEN IT INVO±VES mINORS, THEY HAVE SOmETImES A±SO TURNED A B±IND
EYE TO THE PRACTICE, WHICH DOES AﬅER A±± BRINg REVENUES. ºOR THE TOURISTS THEm-
SE±VES, THERE IS AT ±EAST SHORT-TERm gRATIfiCATION AND THE SENSE THAT THE REgION
OffERS mORE OPEN-mINDED ACCEPTANCE OF SExUA± INDU±gENCE. »R, IN THE CASE OF

fi¿ure 14.4. ¾OURISTS IN LImA, ¸ERU. ¸HOTO BY º±ORENCE ³. ÊABB.
±ONgER-TERm RE±ATIONSHIPS, AﬅER THE HO±IDAY THERE mAY BE REPEAT VISITS TO

RECONNECT AS WE±± AS REmITTANCES OF FUNDS TO HE±P SUPPORT THE ±OCA± PARAmOUR.
¹N RARE CASES, ±OCA± WOmEN OR mEN mAY BE gRANTED VISAS TO ±EAVE THEIR COUN-
TRIES AND mARRY THEIR TOURIST-SUITORS. °E POWER DYNAmIC UNDER±YINg SUCH
ARRANgEmENTS CAN PRODUCE DISTINCT±Y UNEqUA± TERmS IN THE RE±ATIONSHIP, AND
THE TOURIST mAY EmBRACE THE NOTION THAT HE OR SHE IS “RESCUINg” THE VU±NERAB±E
±OCA± INDIVIDUA± FROm DESPERATE ±IFE CIRCUmSTANCES. °IS THEN BECOmES PART OF
THE TOURISm NARRATIVE AS mUCH AS IT IS PART OF THE ROmANCE NARRATIVE FOR THOSE
INVO±VED.
¼ESEARCHERS DEBATE WHETHER ±OCA± SEx WORkERS should BE VIEWED AS VU±NER-
AB±E VICTImS OF TOURISm’S COmmODIfiCATION OF CU±TURE AND IDENTITY. ²OmE ARgUE
THAT THERE IS ±ITT±E CONSENT WHEN ECONOmIC CONDITIONS INflUENCE LATIN
µmERICANS TO mARkET THEIR BODIES AND SExUA± SERVICES; WHEN RACIA± DIffERENCE
ENTERS THE PICTURE, THERE mAY BE THE ADDED WEIgHT OF RACE AS WE±± AS gENDER
INEqUA±ITY TO CONSIDER. °IS VIEW IS COUNTERED BY OTHERS, WHO P±ACE mORE
ImPORTANCE ON THE RIgHT OF SEx WORkERS TO EARN A ±IVE±IHOOD HOWEVER THEY
CHOOSE AND ON THEIR DEgREE OF AUTONOmY IN ESTAB±ISHINg BOTH ECONOmICA±±Y
DRIVEN AND AmOROUS RE±ATIONSHIPS. °ERE IS mUCH AgREEmENT, HOWEVER, THAT
TOURISTS AND THEIR PARTNERS FREqUENT±Y COmE TOgETHER WITH VERY DIffERENT STAkES
AND THAT POWER DIffERENCES DEfiNE THE TERmS OF THESE INTImATE RE±ATIONS.
If you go. . .
¹N JANUARY 2015, THE New Ãork Times ¾RAVE± ²ECTION ISSUED ITS “52 ¸±ACES TO
GO IN 2015” (½EW ÓORk ¾ImES 2015). ¹N THE ±INEUP, THE LATIN µmERICAN AND
·ARIBBEAN REgION WAS WE±± REPRESENTED, WITH NINE SITES OffERED. °E ±ISTINg OF
RECOmmENDED DESTINATIONS AND THE BANNERS EAgER±Y DESCRIBINg WHY TO gO
THERE WERE REVEA±INg:
#2 ·UBA—µS RE±ATIONS WARm, A ·ARIBBEAN IS±AND IS WITHIN REACH.

#5 ³±qUI ÍA±±EY, ·HI±E—²TARgAzE, WHI±E YOU CAN, IN NORTHERN ·HI±E.
#8 ÊO±IVIA—ºINA±±Y STAB±E AND OPENINg UP TO THE WOR±D.
#11 MEDE±±íN, ·O±OmBIA—¶RBAN RENEWA± WITH INNOVATIVE ARCHITECTURE AND
DESIgN.
#12 ²T. ÍINCENT AND THE GRENADINES—µ NEW AIRPORT AND DIVE CENTER AWAIT.
#18 °E ½ORTH ·OAST OF ¸ERU—µ DESERT COAST BEgS TO BE ExP±ORED.
#27 ·AmPECHE, MExICO—µ ±ESS-TOURISTED ANCIENT MAYA CITY.
#34 ²T. ÌITTS—¶PSCA±E IN THE ·ARIBBEAN, BUT SUSTAINAB±E.
#37 ²AN JOSé DE± ·ABO, MExICO—°E mE±±OWER ·ABO BOUNCES BACk IN STY±E.
°IS SAmP±INg SUggESTS THAT LATIN µmERICA mAY HAVE SOmETHINg FOR EVERYONE,
WHETHER HISTORY BUffS, ±AID-BACk ±EISURE TOURISTS, NATURE ±OVERS, OR THOSE
SEEkINg TO BE THE fiRST TO gET TO P±ACES RECENT±Y Off-±ImITS TO TOURISm. ¸±ACES
ARE BRANDED AS THE NEW AND THE DIffERENT, THE jUST-RESTORED, THE Off-THE-
BEATEN-TRACk, OR THE ENVIRONmENTA±±Y CONSCIOUS, AND TRAVE±ERS fiND THEIR NICHE
AmONg AN INCREASINg±Y WIDE ARRAY OF OffERINgS.
¹N THIS CHAPTER ¹ HAVE EmPHASIzED WAYS IN WHICH SOmE PRECONCEIVED WISDOm

ABOUT LATIN µmERICA HAS SHAPED mANY TOURISTS’ ExPERIENCES AND THE STORIES THEY
BRINg HOmE WITH THEm. ¹ HAVE gIVEN ExAmP±ES OF THE PITFA±±S OF BINARY THINkINg
ABOUT US AND THEm, TRADITIONA± AND mODERN, AND HOW THIS CAN RESU±T IN THE
TOURISm NARRATIVES THAT ARE SO OﬅEN REPEATED. ºREqUENT±Y, THE mEmORIES
BROUgHT HOmE SERVE TO PERPETUATE STEREOTYPES AND REINFORCE NOTIONS OF INDE±IB±E

DIffERENCE. ÊUT WE CAN CHANgE THE SCRIPT, AND INDEED THERE ARE DIVERSE TRAVE±ERS
WHO ENjOY AND BENEfiT FROm A WEA±TH OF NEW TRAVE± ExPERIENCES AND RETURN FROm
THEIR jOURNEYS THE WISER FOR IT. µT ITS BEST, TRAVE± TO LATIN µmERICA ±EADS TO THE
g±OBA± CIRCU±ATION OF IDEAS AND UNDERSTANDINgS AND A NEW AWARENESS OF jUST WHAT
HAS SEPARATED US AND WHAT BRINgS US TOgETHER ACROSS THE µmERICAS. ÈHAT TOURISTS
BE±IEVE AT THE OUTSET IS “UNIqUE” ABOUT LATIN µmERICA mAY BE CHA±±ENgED WHEN
THEY DE±VE DEEP±Y INTO THE REgION; WHEN THIS OCCURS, TRAVE±ERS ARE ±IkE±Y TO BE
REWARDED BY DISCOVERINg FAR mORE THAN THEY WOU±D EVER HAVE ImAgINED.
ÊABB, º±ORENCE ³.
2011 °e Tourism Encounter: Fashioning Latin American Nations and Histories.
²TANFORD, ·µ: ²TANFORD ¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS.
ÊERgER, ÍNA, AND µNDREW GRANT ÈOOD
2010 Holiday in Mexico: Critical Reflections on Tourism and Tourist Encounters.
ÚRHAm, ½·: ÚkE ¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS.
ÊOWmAN, ÌIRk ².
2013 Peddling Paradise: °e Politics of Tourism in Latin America. ÊOU±DER, ·»:
LYNNE ¼IENNER.
·OCkS, ·ATHERINE
2013 Tropical Whites: °e Rise of the Tourist South in the Americas. ¸HI±ADE±PHIA:
¶NIVERSITY OF ¸ENNSY±VANIA ¸RESS.
·OHEN, ·O±±EEN ÊA±±ERINO
2010 Take Me to My Paradise: Tourism and Nationalism in the British Æirgin
Islands. ½EW ÊRUNSWICk: ¼UTgERS ¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS.
ÌINCAID, JAmAICA
1988 A Small Place. ½EW ÓORk: ºARRAR, ²TRAUS AND GIROUx.
LITT±E, ÈA±TER ³.
2004 Mayas in the Marketplace: Tourism, Globalization, and Cultural Identity.
µUSTIN: ¶NIVERSITY OF ¾ExAS ¸RESS.
MERRI±±, ÉNNIS
2009 Negotiating Paradise: U.S. Tourism and Empire in Twentieth-Century Latin
America. ·HAPE± ÉI±±: ¶NIVERSITY OF ½ORTH ·ARO±INA ¸RESS.
½EW ÓORk ¾ImES
2015 “52 ¸±ACES TO GO IN 2015.” New Ãork Times, JANUARY 11.
¸ADI±±A, MARk
2007 Caribbean Pleasure Industry: Tourism, Sexuality, and AIDS in the Domini-
can Republic. ·HICAgO: ¶NIVERSITY OF ·HICAgO ¸RESS.
²CHWARTz, ¼OSA±IE
1997 Pleasure Island: Tourism and Temptation in Cuba. LINCO±N: ¶NIVERSITY OF
½EBRASkA ¸RESS.
note
1. ÉNNIS MERRI±±, Negotiating Paradise; ÌIRk ². ÊOWmAN, Peddling Paradise;

¼OSA±IE ²CHARTz, Pleasure Island; MARk ¸ADI±±A, Caribbean Pleasure Industry; AND
·O±±EEN ÊA±±ERINO ·OHEN, Take Me to My Paradise.

fifteen
Brazil Circles the Globe

Ruben George Oliven
around the world in five centuries
¸ORTUgUESE AND ²PANISH ExP±ORATION AT THE END OF THE fiﬅEENTH CENTURY ±ED TO
THE BUI±DINg OF THE WOR±D’S TWO ±ARgEST EmPIRES. ÈHI±E THE CONTEmPORARY
WORD globalization mIgHT NOT BE APPROPRIATE FOR THAT HISTORICA± mOmENT, EAR±Y
³UROPEAN ExPANSION PRODUCED AN UNDENIAB±Y g±OBA± ECONOmY OF PEOP±E,
gOODS, AND CU±TURE. ³UROPEANS BOUgHT S±AVES IN µFRICA, TOOk THEm TO THE
µmERICAS, AND BROUgHT mINERA±S AND AgRICU±TURA± COmmODITIES BACk TO
³UROPE IN A CYC±E THAT REVO±VED THROUgH AND AROUND THE µT±ANTIC. ÊRAzI± POS-
SESSED PRECIOUS STONES AND gO±D AND PRODUCED SUgAR AND OTHER AgRICU±TURA±
COmmODITIES THAT CIRC±ED THROUgHOUT THE WOR±D SYSTEm, OﬅEN RETURNINg TO
ÊRAzI± IN A CHANgED FORm. ºOR THE PAST fiVE HUNDRED YEARS ÊRAzI±’S ECONOmY,
POPU±ATION, RACIA± COmPOSITION, AND CU±TURE HAVE BEEN CONSTANT±Y INTERACTINg
WITH THE REST OF THE g±OBE.
ºROm A REgION SPARSE±Y POPU±ATED BY NATIVES, ÊRAzI± HAS BECOmE HOmE TO
VAST CONTINgENTS OF PEOP±E FROm DIffERENT CONTINENTS AND A CENTRA± P±AYER IN
g±OBA± LATIN µmERICA. ¹N 1500, THE ¸ORTUgUESE ARRIVED IN A ±AND WITH BETWEEN
FOUR mI±±ION AND fiVE mI±±ION NATIVES. ·ONTACT WITH ³UROPEANS mEANT THE
NEAR-ExTERmINATION OF THIS POPU±ATION TO A POINT THAT IN THE 1950S SEVERA±
ANTHROPO±OgISTS FEARED IT WOU±D DISAPPEAR. °IS TREND HAS CHANgED, gRADUA±±Y,
AND INDIgENOUS POPU±ATIONS ARE gROWINg AS THEY REgAIN THEIR TRADITIONA±
±ANDS. ²INCE IT WAS CO±ONIzED, ÊRAzI± WAS SHAPED BY THE CONTRIBUTION OF PEOP±E
OF DIffERENT ORIgINS WHO HAD ARRIVED FROm AROUND THE g±OBE. ²±AVES WERE
BROUgHT FROm µFRICA. ¹mmIgRANTS CAmE FROm ³UROPE AND µSIA AND INC±UDED,
AmONg OTHERS, ¸ORTUgUESE, ²PANIARDS, GERmANS, ¹TA±IANS, ¶kRAINIANS,
LEBANESE, ³UROPEAN AND MIDD±E ³ASTERN JEWS, AND JAPANESE. ¾ODAY mANY
271
fi¿ure 15.1. ¸OSITIVIST TEmP±E IN ¸ORTO µ±EgRE, ÊRAzI±. ²OURCE: ÈIkImEDIA ·OmmONS.
°IS fi±E IS ±ICENSED UNDER THE ·REATIVE ·OmmONS µTTRIBUTION 2.0 GENERIC ±ICENSE. HTTPS://
COmmONS.WIkImEDIA.ORg/WIkI/ºI±E.¾EmP±O_POSITIVISTA.jPg.
ÊRAzI±IANS OF ImmIgRANT DESCENT ±IVE OUTSIDE OF THE COUNTRY: IN ³UROPE, ½ORTH

µmERICA, AND µSIA.
°E CIRCU±ATION OF IDEAS TO AND FROm ÊRAzI± BECAmE ESPECIA±±Y ImPORTANT
FO±±OWINg TWO mAjOR PO±ITICA± mOmENTS: THE COUNTRY’S INDEPENDENCE FROm
¸ORTUgA± IN 1822 (WHEN ÊRAzI± DEC±ARED ITSE±F AN EmPIRE) AND THE mI±ITARY’S
PROC±AmATION OF THE REPUB±IC IN 1889. °E REPUB±ICAN ±EADERS WERE STRONg±Y
INflUENCED BY POSITIVISm, DEVE±OPED BY THE NINETEENTH-CENTURY PHI±OSOPHER
µUgUSTE ·OmTE. °OUgH DEVE±OPED IN ºRANCE, POSITIVISm FOUND ITS gREATEST
SUCCESS IN ÊRAzI±, WHERE IT BECAmE AN A±mOST OffiCIA± IDEO±OgY UNTI± 1930. °E
ÊRAzI±IAN flAg HAS AS ITS mOTTO THE PHRASE “»RDER AND ¸ROgRESS,” DEmONSTRAT-
INg THE CENTRA±ITY OF ·OmTE’S BE±IEFS IN THE COUNTRY’S SYmBO±ISm. ³VEN TODAY
ÊRAzI± IS fi±±ED WITH POSITIVIST ARCHITECTURE AND TEmP±ES IN CITIES ±IkE ¼IO DE
JANEIRO AND ¸ORTO µ±EgRE.
¸OSITIVISm WAS CONCEIVED IN EVO±UTIONARY AND ±INEAR STAgES THAT CONFORmED
TO THE PHI±OSOPHY’S EmPHASIS, ACCORDINg TO ·OmTE’S FORmU±A, “±OVE AS A PRIN-
CIP±E, ORDER AS A FOUNDATION, AND PROgRESS AS A gOA±.” ÉE BE±IEVED THAT POSITIV-
ISm WAS THE WAY OF ACHIEVINg THE REPUB±ICAN IDEA±S OF BETTER SOCIA± CONDITIONS
AND THE ADVANCEmENT OF THE NATION. ºROm THE POINT OF VIEW OF ÊRAzI±’S E±ITES,
272 • ch a p t er f i f t een
POSITIVISm WAS AN IDEO±OgY THAT FORESHADOWED mODERNITY AND jUSTIfiED
AUTHORITARIAN mEANS OF ATTAININg IT. °E POSITIVIST SO±DIER ºIE±D MARSHA±
·æNDIDO ¼ONDON, FOR ExAmP±E, DEDICATED HIS ±IFE TO THE INDIgENOUS CAUSE AND
URgED THAT INDIgENOUS PEOP±ES BE RESPECTED AND NOT E±ImINATED, EVEN THOUgH
EVENTUA±±Y THEY NEEDED, IN HIS VIEW, TO BE INTEgRATED INTO WHAT HE DEfi NED AS
“CIVI±IzATION.” ¸OSITIVISm THUS BECAmE A WAY FOR ÊRAzI± TO mODERNIzE ITSE±F IN
RE±ATION TO ³UROPE AND FOR ¹NDIANS TO “CIVI±IzE” THEmSE±VES IN RE±ATION TO
ÊRAzI±. ¼ONDON HAD A DEEP ImPACT ON g±OBA± IDEAS ABOUT NATURE AND INDIgE-
NOUS PEOP±E, ESPECIA±±Y AﬅER °EODORE ¼OOSEVE±T jOINED HIm IN THE ExP±ORA-
TION OF THE µmAzON REgION OF THE “¼IVER OF ÓUBT” IN 1913 AND 1914. ¹NDEED,
¼OOSEVE±T FREqUENT±Y CIRCU±ATED ¼ONDON’S IDEAS IN SPEECHES BEFORE SUCH INTER-
NATIONA±±Y ImPORTANT ORgANIzATIONS AS THE ½ATIONA± GEOgRAPHIC ²OCIETY IN
ÈASHINgTON, ´·, AND THE ¼OYA± GEOgRAPHICA± ²OCIETY IN LONDON.
µNOTHER ImPORTANT NINETEENTH-CENTURY ºRENCH BE±IEF THAT CIRCU±ATED TO
AND FROm ÊRAzI± WAS SPIRITISm, WHICH PRESENTS ITSE±F AT ONCE AS A SCIENCE, A
PHI±OSOPHY, AND A RE±IgION. µCCORDINg TO ITS FOUNDER, µ±±AN ÌARDEC, SPIRITISm
WAS BASED ON THE RE±ATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE mATERIA± WOR±D AND THE INVISIB±E
WOR±D, THE ±ATTER BEINg INHABITED BY SPIRITS. LIkE POSITIVISm, SPIRITISm HAS AN
EVO±UTIONARY APPROACH WHERE SPIRITS PROgRESS AND TRAVE± TO HIgHER SPHERES, AND
IT TOO WAS mORE INflUENTIA± IN ÊRAzI± THAN IN ºRANCE. ²PIRITIST CENTERS CAN BE
FOUND IN mOST ÊRAzI±IAN CITIES, AND SEVERA± HAVE HOSPITA±S FOUNDED BY PHYSI-
CIANS COmmITTED TO THE IDEO±OgY. ¹NDEED, mANY mIDD±E-C±ASS INTE±±ECTUA±S AND
PO±ITICIANS ARE SPIRITISTS. ÓET SPIRITISm DID NOT HAVE A ONE-WAY TRAjECTORY.
¼ATHER, ÊRAzI±IANS HAVE mIgRATED TO ºRANCE TO OPEN CENTERS AS THE DOCTRINE
TRAVE±ED FROm ³UROPE TO LATIN µmERICA AND THEN BACk TO THE »±D ·ONTINENT.
²PIRITUA± AND SOCIA± EVO±UTION, mODERNITY AND PROgRESS, THESE HAVE A±± BEEN
CONCERNS OF ÊRAzI±IAN INTE±±ECTUA±S AS THEY HAVE mOVED AROUND THE WOR±D AND
ASkED A SERIES OF qUESTIONS: ·AN ÊRAzI± BECOmE A mODERN AND DEVE±OPED COUN-
TRY? ·AN CIVI±IzATION BE BUI±T IN THE TROPICS? µRE THE ÊRAzI±IAN PEOP±E READY
FOR THE COUNTRY’S CHA±±ENgES? ²HOU±D ÊRAzI± DEVE±OP ITS OWN CU±TURE OR TRY TO
EmU±ATE THAT OF mORE ADVANCED NATIONS? °ESE qUERIES HAVE A±WAYS BEEN
PRESENT IN ÊRAzI±IAN INTE±±ECTUA± ±IFE SINCE A±± DEA± WITH THE RO±E OF E±ITES AND
PO±ITICIANS, THE RE±ATION BETWEEN POPU±AR AND ERUDITE CU±TURE, AND THE P±ACE
OF µFRICA, µSIA, THE MIDD±E ³AST, AND ³UROPE IN ÊRAzI±.
·ONTEmP±ATINg ÊRAzI± AND DISCUSSINg THE VIABI±ITY OF A CIVI±IzATION IN THE
TROPICS ORIgINATED WHEN ÊRAzI± BECAmE A REPUB±IC IN 1889. µT THIS CRUCIA±
mOmENT, INTE±±ECTUA±S PERCEIVED TWO OBSTAC±ES TO THEIR CIVI±IzINg PROjECT—
Òr a Zi l åi rcles th e Ðlobe • 273

RACE AND C±ImATE. MANY IN THE EDUCATED E±ITE WERE PROFOUND±Y PESSImISTIC AND
PREjUDICED, BE±IEVINg THE ÊRAzI±IAN POPU±ATION (BECAUSE OF THE INTERACTION OF
RACE AND THE gEOgRAPHIC ENVIRONmENT) WAS APATHETIC AND INDO±ENT. °E COUN-
TRY’S INTE±±ECTUA± ±IFE WAS SEEN AS INFECTED WITH A SUBjECTIVE AND mORBID ±YRI-
CISm AND AS PHI±OSOPHICA±±Y AND SCIENTIfiCA±±Y ImPOVERISHED.
ÊY THE 1920S THIS PESSImISm DImINISHED AS mEmBERS OF THE E±ITE STARTED TO
APPROPRIATE CU±TURA± ExPRESSIONS ORIgINA±±Y RESTRICTED TO CERTAIN gROUPS AND TO
TRANSFORm THEm INTO SYmBO±S OF NATIONA± IDENTITY. ºOR ExAmP±E, ¶mBANDA, A
ÊRAzI±IAN POPU±AR RE±IgION THAT SYNTHESIzES µFRICAN, ·ATHO±IC, AND SPIRITIST
INflUENCES, WAS CREATED IN ¼IO DE JANEIRO AT THE BEgINNINg OF THE ±AST CENTURY.
ÈHI±E mANY µFRO-ÊRAzI±IAN RE±IgIONS WERE REPRESSED BY THE PO±ICE AND FRE-
qUENT±Y HAD TO DISgUISE THEIR orixás (A mANIFESTATION OF DIVINE SPIRIT) AS
·ATHO±IC SAINTS, THEY WERE gRADUA±±Y APPROPRIATED BY ³UROPEANIzED mIDD±E-
C±ASS INTE±±ECTUA±S. ¾ODAY µFRO-ÊRAzI±IAN RE±IgIONS ARE PART OF WHAT IS CONSID-
ERED ÊRAzI±IAN CU±TURE, BOTH IN ÊRAzI± AND ABROAD. ¹NDEED, mANY ¶.². µFRICAN
µmERICANS HAVE COmE TO SEE ÊRAzI± AS A kIND OF ETHNIC/SPIRITUA± HOmE, WITH
mUCH OF THE FOCUS ON THE CITY OF ·ACHOEIRA (IN THE STATE OF ÊAHIA) AND ITS
ANNUA± FESTIVA± ½OSSA ²ENHORA DA ÊOA MORTE, OR »UR LADY OF THE GOOD
ÉATH. °IS IS AN ExAmP±E OF HOW mIDD±E-C±ASS PEOP±E gRADUA±±Y APPROPRIATED
A SYNCRETIC CU±TURA± ExPRESSION THAT ORIgINATED AmONg S±AVES AND THEIR
DESCENDANTS AND THEN HE±PED IT TRAVE± AROUND THE g±OBE. °IS PROCESS A±SO
HAPPENED HISTORICA±±Y, FOR ExAmP±E, WHEN ¶.². ·ONFEDERATES mOVED TO ÊRAzI±
AﬅER THE ·IVI± ÈAR TO REDEEm THEIR “LOST ·AUSE” IN A COUNTRY THAT WOU±D NOT
ABO±ISH S±AVERY UNTI± 1888, BECOmINg THE ±AST NATION IN THE HEmISPHERE TO DO
SO. MORE RECENT±Y, THE ÊRAzI±IAN mUSICA± gENRE SAmBA, DEVE±OPED mAIN±Y BY
DESCENDANTS OF S±AVES, HAS BECOmE A WOR±D mUSIC PHENOmENON.
°E SYmBO±S OF ÊRAzI±IAN NATIONA± CU±TURE A±SO TRAVE±ED IN OPPOSITE
WAYS. ·ARNIVA± AND SOCCER, FOR ExAmP±E, ORIgINATED IN ³UROPE AND WERE fi RST
ADOPTED BY THE ÊRAzI±IAN UPPER C±ASSES AND THEN gRADUA±±Y BECAmE POPU±AR
ACTIVITIES AND SYmBO±S OF NATIONA± IDENTITY. ÈHEN ÊRAzI±IANS DEBATE THEIR
NATIONA± IDENTITY THEY OﬅEN C±AIm THAT ÊRAzI± mANAgES TO DIgEST WHAT
COmES FROm ABROAD AND ADAPT IT TO ITS REA±ITY. »NE OF THE mOST ImPORTANT
DOCUmENTS OF ÊRAzI±IAN mODERNISm, »SWA±D DE µNDRADE’S 1928 Cannibalist
Manifesto, OUT±INED PRECISE±Y THIS VISION OF NATIONA± DISTINCTIVENESS. µNDRADE
C±AImED THE mANIFESTO HAD BEEN COmPOSED IN THE “ÓEAR OF 374 OF THE
ÉVOURINg OF ÊISHOP ²ARDINHA,” A REFERENCE TO THE ·ATHO±IC C±ERIC ¸ERO
ºERNANDES ²ARDINHA WHO WAS SHIPWRECkED Off THE COAST OF ÊRAzI± AND EATEN
BY THE ¹NDIANS IN 1554.
fi¿ure 15.2. ÊRAzI±IAN µmERICAN ·O±ONIzATION ²OCIETY ADVER-
TISEmENT PUB±ISHED IN Crisis (MARCH 1921). ·OURTESY OF THE ·ARTER
ÈOODSON ¸APERS, MANUSCRIPT, µRCHIVES, AND ¼ARE ÊOOkS LIBRARY,
³mORY ¶NIVERSITY.
reflections on race
MANY ÊRAzI±IANS BE±IEVE THAT CERTAIN IDEAS AND CU±TURA± PRACTICES APPROPRI-
ATED FROm ABROAD ARE “OUT OF P±ACE,” PARTICU±AR±Y IN REgARD TO PO±ITICA± PHI±OSO-
PHIES. ºOR INSTANCE, A±THOUgH THE ÊRAzI±IAN ECONOmY WAS BASED ON THE
WIDESPREAD ExP±OITATION OF S±AVE ±ABOR FOR THREE CENTURIES, PART OF THE ImPERIA±
PO±ITICA± E±ITE FOR mOST OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY ADHERED TO THE ±IBERA±
IDEAS CREATED IN AND APP±IED TO ³UROPE. °E ÊRAzI±IAN INTE±±ECTUA± ¼OBERTO

²CHWARz HAS ARgUED THAT THIS ±IBERA± IDEO±OgY WAS “OUT OF P±ACE” IN ÊRAzI±:
WHAT PREVAI±ED IN THE COUNTRY WAS NOT THE IDEA OF HUmAN RIgHTS BUT RATHER
THE OPPRESSION OF S±AVES AND PATERNA±ISTIC FAVOR TOWARD WHITES WHO DID NOT
OWN ±AND.
°E CONCEPT “IDEAS OUT OF P±ACE” mAkES ±ESS SENSE WHEN WE REmEmBER THAT
ÊRAzI±IAN IDEAS mOVED AROUND THE g±OBE AS mUCH AS FOREIgN IDEAS mOVED TO
ÊRAzI±. ¹N OTHER WORDS, NOTHINg IS EVER “IN P±ACE” SINCE EVERYTHINg ±EAVES
ONE P±ACE AND ENTERS ANOTHER AS IT IS ADAPTED TO THE INTERESTS OF DIffERENT gROUPS
AND CHANgINg CIRCUmSTANCES. ·U±TURA± BORROWINg IS A CONSTANT, AND, AS HISTO-
RIANS AND ANTHROPO±OgISTS HAVE SHOWN, CU±TURA± DYNAmICS ImP±Y A PROCESS
WHEREBY IDEAS AND PRACTICES THAT ORIgINATE IN ONE SPACE END UP mIgRATINg TO
OTHERS. »NE OF THE CREATIVE ASPECTS OF ÊRAzI± HAS BEEN PRECISE±Y THE CAPACITY TO
APPROPRIATE WHAT COmES FROm OUTSIDE, REE±ABORATE IT, AND gIVE IT ÊRAzI±IAN CHAR-
ACTERISTICS, TRANSFORmINg IT INTO SOmETHINg DIffERENT AND NEW. ¸ERHAPS mORE
THAN ANY OTHER SOCIETA± FEATURE, ÊRAzI±’S “WAY” OF RACE RE±ATIONS HAS mADE ITS
WAY AROUND THE g±OBE, INflUENCINg IDEAS ABOUT RACE AND ÊRAzI±IANS.
ÊRAzI± ImPORTED APPROxImATE±Y FOUR mI±±ION S±AVES, TEN TImES AS mANY AS
THE ¶NITED ²TATES. ¹N THE ¶NITED ²TATES S±AVERY WAS CONCENTRATED IN THE ²OUTH,
WHI±E IN ÊRAzI± IT WAS NATIONWIDE. ºO±±OWINg ¸UERTO ¼ICO AND ·UBA, ÊRAzI±
fiNA±±Y ABO±ISHED S±AVERY IN 1888, ±ARgE±Y IN RESPONSE TO PRESSURE FROm ÊRITAIN.
µROUND THE TImE OF µBO±ITION, ÊRAzI± ImPORTED mANY NINETEENTH-CENTURY
IDEAS ABOUT RACE FROm ³UROPE AND THE ¶NITED ²TATES. ÉSPITE ITS COmmITmENT
TO S±AVERY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, ÊRAzI± BECAmE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
A mODE± FOR SUPPOSED±Y POSITIVE RACE RE±ATIONS, ESPECIA±±Y IN THE µmERICAS
WHERE µFRICAN S±AVERY HAD BEEN THE NORm. °E FAmED µFRICAN µmERICAN
INTE±±ECTUA± È. ³. Ê. ÚÊOIS CRITICIzED ¶.². RACE RE±ATIONS IN THE fiRST HA±F OF
THE ±AST CENTURY AND ENCOURAgED B±ACkS TO mIgRATE TO ÊRAzI± IN HIS NEWSPAPER
Crisis. µﬅER ÈOR±D ÈAR ¹¹ AND IN THE WAkE OF THE ÉO±OCAUST, ÊRAzI± DREW THE
ATTENTION OF THE ¶NITED ½ATIONS ³DUCATIONA±, ²CIENTIfiC, AND ·U±TURA±
»RgANIzATION (¶½³²·»), WHICH COmmISSIONED A STUDY OF ÊRAzI±IAN RACE
RE±ATIONS. ²OmE ¶½³²·» ADmINISTRATORS AND OTHERS THROUgHOUT THE WOR±D
SAW ÊRAzI± AS A RACIA± DEmOCRACY, AND THIS ImAgE HAS CONTINUED INTO THE
TWENTY-fiRST CENTURY, CAUSINg PARTICU±AR CONTROVERSY IN 2001 WHEN THE ²PIkE
LEE–DIRECTED ¸Ê² fi ±m, A Huey P. Newton Story, WAS SHOWN IN ÊRAzI±. ²OmE
µFRO-ÊRAzI±IAN ACTIVISTS WERE SHOCkED TO DISCOVER THAT ½EWTON, A ±EADER OF
THE Ê±ACk ¸ANTHERS, BE±IEVED ÊRAzI± WAS A RACIA± PARADISE.
µNOTHER ASPECT OF ÊRAzI±IAN RACE RE±ATIONS THAT HAS mADE A g±OBA± ImPACT
IS mISCEgENATION. ²INCE THE SIxTEENTH CENTURY THE ¸ORTUgUESE COURT HAD
ENCOURAgED THE mOST±Y SINg±E mA±E CO±ONISTS TO mIx WITH NATIVE AND µFRICAN
WOmEN. »VER CENTURIES, SUCH RE±ATIONSHIPS PRODUCED A mIxED POPU±ATION AND
A SOCIETY WITH FEWER qUA±mS ABOUT INTERRACIA± INTERCOURSE THAN THE OTHER
DOmINANT S±AVE SOCIETY OF THE µmERICAS, THE ¶NITED ²TATES. µS EUgENICS CAmE
TO THE FORE IN THE ±ATE NINETEENTH CENTURY, ³UROPEANS AND ½ORTH µmERICANS
±ED THE WAY IN CRITICIzINg RACIA± mIxTURE AND CODIFYINg RACIA± HIERARCHIES.
²OmE ÊRAzI±IAN INTE±±ECTUA±S RESPONDED TO THESE IDEAS BY ATTEmPTINg TO
“WHITEN” THE NATIONA± POPU±ATION THROUgH ImmIgRATION FROm ³UROPE. ÓET AT
THE HEIgHT OF SCIENTIfiC RACISm IN THE 1930S, THE SOCIO±OgIST GI±BERTO ºREYRE
PROPOSED A NEW RACIA± VISION THAT PROmOTED ÊRAzI± AS A TROPICA± CIVI±IzATION
WITH UNIqUE CHARACTERISTICS, SUCH AS mestiçagem (RACIA± mIxTURE) AND “RACIA±
DEmOCRACY.” ºREYRE WAS STRONg±Y INflUENCED BY ºRANz ÊOAS, THE FOUNDINg
FATHER OF µmERICAN ANTHROPO±OgY, UNDER WHOm HE DID HIS gRADUATE STUDIES AT
·O±UmBIA ¶NIVERSITY. ÊOAS HE±PED TO DEBUNk THE THEN-PREVAI±INg ImPORTANCE
OF RACE AS AN ExP±ANATION FOR DIffERENCES BETWEEN SOCIETIES. ¹NSTEAD, HE EmPHA-
SIzED CU±TURE AS THE mAIN ExP±ANATORY FACTOR.
¹N ºREYRE’S VISION, ÊRAzI±’S RACIA± mIxTURE WAS NOT A PROB±Em TO BE “WHIT-
ENED” BUT AN ADVANTAgE IN RE±ATION TO OTHER NATIONS. ÉE PRAISED THE WISDOm
OF THE ¸ORTUgUESE, WHO HAD BUI±T WHAT HE CA±±ED A “TROPICA± CIVI±IzATION” IN
ÊRAzI±. ºREYRE ARgUED THAT RACIA± mIxTURE WAS PERFECT±Y ADAPTED TO ÊRAzI±’S
ENVIRONmENT, mAkINg IT DIffiCU±T TO DEfiNE RACE IN THE BINARY WAY (WHITE/
B±ACk) THAT IT WAS IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES. ºREYRE THUS BECAmE THE FOUNDER OF
WHAT IS kNOWN AS “THE mYTH OF ÊRAzI±IAN RACIA± DEmOCRACY,” WHICH BECAmE AN
OffiCIA± IDEO±OgY OF THE COUNTRY FOR DECADES. °IS mID-TWENTIETH-CENTURY IDE-
O±OgY PERmEATES NOT ON±Y ASPECTS OF SOCIO±OgICA± THINkINg BUT A±SO ÊRAzI±IAN
POPU±AR THOUgHT. ¹NDEED, NUmEROUS ImPORTANT ½ORTH µmERICAN AND
³UROPEAN SOCIA± SCIENTISTS ARgUED THAT ÊRAzI±IAN RACIA± DEmOCRACY SHOU±D BE
ExPORTED TO THE REST OF THE WOR±D, A±THOUgH TODAY “RACIA± DEmOCRACY” IS SEEN
AS A mYTH, NOT A REA±ITY.
braZil: country of the presentÕ
“GIANT BY ITS VERY NATURE,” AS ÊRAzI±’S NATIONA± ANTHEm DEC±ARES, OR “COUNTRY OF

CONTINENTA± DImENSIONS,” AS A FREqUENT ExPRESSION STATES, ÊRAzI± SEES ITSE±F AND
IS SEEN BY OTHERS AS UNDENIAB±Y grande—VAST, ImPRESSIVE, AND ImPORTANT. ¹N
TERmS OF SIzE, ÊRAzI± IS THE fiﬅH ±ARgEST COUNTRY IN THE WOR±D, BEINg SURPASSED
ON±Y BY ¼USSIA, ·ANADA, ·HINA, AND THE ¶NITED ²TATES. ¹T IS THE ±ARgEST COUNTRY

IN THE SOUTHERN HEmISPHERE AND THE SECOND ±ARgEST CONTIgUOUS COUNTRY IN THE
µmERICAS. ÈITH OVER 200 mI±±ION INHABITANTS, IT IS A±SO THE fi ﬅH mOST POPU-
±ATED COUNTRY IN THE WOR±D, SURPASSED BY ·HINA, ¹NDIA, ¶NITED ²TATES, AND
¹NDONESIA. ¹N TERmS OF G´¸, ÊRAzI± RANkS SEVENTH AﬅER THE ¶NITED ²TATES,
·HINA, JAPAN, GERmANY, ºRANCE, AND THE ¶NITED ÌINgDOm. ½EVERTHE±ESS, IF
WE ±OOk AT INCOmE DISTRIBUTION, IN 2012 ÊRAzI± WAS RANkED 81ST, A mUCH WORSE
RESU±T.
G±OBA±IzATION HAS STRONg±Y DIVERSIfiED ÊRAzI±’S INTERACTION WITH THE REST OF
THE WOR±D, IN ECONOmIC ExCHANgES, INTERNATIONA± RE±ATIONS, AND CU±TURA±
ExPRESSIONS SUCH AS RE±IgION, mUSIC, CINEmA, TE±EVISION, AND SPORTS. ºOR CENTU-
RIES, THE COUNTRY WAS AN ExPORTER OF AgRICU±TURA± PRODUCTS, mAIN±Y SUgAR AND
COffEE, AND AN ImPORTER OF A±± SORTS OF mANUFACTURED gOODS. µgRICU±TURA±
ExPORT COmmODITIES ARE STI±± A VERY ImPORTANT ECONOmIC ACTIVITY, RESPONSIB±E
FOR 23 PERCENT OF ÊRAzI±’S G´¸. ·HINA, FOR INSTANCE, HAS BECOmE A mAjOR
ImPORTER OF ÊRAzI±IAN gOODS ±IkE SOYBEANS. ÊUT ÊRAzI± IS NO ±ONgER A RURA± SOCI-
ETY, AND INDUSTRY AND SERVICES ARE NOW kEY SECTORS OF ITS ECONOmY. °E COUNTRY
HAS BECOmE A mAjOR INDUSTRIA± ExPORTER OF SOPHISTICATED mANUFACTURED gOODS.
MANY ÊRAzI±IAN COmPANIES HAVE BECOmE INTERNATIONA±, COmPETINg ON THE
WOR±D mARkET BY SE±±INg AIRP±ANES ABROAD, PRODUCINg STEE± IN DIffERENT COUN-
TRIES, gROWINg ORANgES IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES FOR jUICE, AND ExP±ORINg FOR AND
SE±±INg OI± VIA ¸ETROBRáS, THE ÊRAzI±IAN STATE-RUN OI± COmPANY AND ONE OF THE
±ARgEST IN THE WOR±D. »F COURSE, ExCHANgES BETWEEN DIffERENT COUNTRIES ARE
UNEqUA± AND DEPEND ON THEIR POSITIONS IN THE g±OBA± PO±ITICA±-ECONOmIC SYS-
TEm, BUT ÊRAzI± HAS ENTERED A NEW ±EVE± OF g±OBA± INflUENCE AND INTERACTION.
°INgS ARE A±SO CHANgINg IN TERmS OF DEmOgRAPHY. ÊRAzI± HAS BECOmE AN
URBAN SOCIETY, WITH APPROxImATE±Y 85 PERCENT OF ITS INHABITANTS ±IVINg IN CITIES.
¹TS AgE PYRAmID HAS CHANgED DRAmATICA±±Y. ²OmE DECADES AgO THE COUNTRY’S
POPU±ATION WAS PREDOmINANT±Y YOUNg, WITH 50 PERCENT OF INHABITANTS UNDER
THE AgE OF EIgHTEEN. ÈITH URBANIzATION AND BIRTH CONTRO±, POPU±ATION gROWTH
HAS DECREASED DRAmATICA±±Y AND ±IFE ExPECTANCY IS INCREASINg RAPID±Y. ¹N THE
FUTURE, THE AgINg OF THE ÊRAzI±IAN POPU±ATION WI±± POSE A CHA±±ENgE FOR NEWER
gENERATIONS WHO WI±± HAVE TO SUPPORT THE O±DER ONES.
MIgRATIONS flOWS HAVE SHIﬅED, SOmETImES REVERSINg. ¹F HISTORICA±±Y ÊRAzI±
RECEIVED A VAST NUmBER OF ImmIgRANTS FROm ABROAD, ÊRAzI±IANS ARE INCREAS-
INg±Y EmIgRATINg, WITH CURRENT±Y mORE THAN THREE mI±±ION ±IVINg E±SEWHERE IN
SEARCH OF BETTER ECONOmIC CONDITIONS. ÊRAzI±IAN mIgRANTS gO mAIN±Y TO THE
¶NITED ²TATES, ³UROPE, AND JAPAN, REVERSINg THE HISTORICA± DIRECTIONS OF INTER-
NATIONA± mIgRATION. ÊUT AS ÊRAzI± BECOmES A mAjOR ECONOmIC POWER, IT IS A±SO
RECEIVINg NEWCOmERS, OﬅEN FROm POORER COUNTRIES ±IkE ÉAITI, ÊO±IVIA, ²ENEgA±,
AND GHANA, AmONg OTHERS.
³mIgRANTS CARRY THEIR CU±TURE WITH THEm. ÊRAzI±IANS THUS NOT ON±Y PRESERVE
WHAT THEY BE±IEVE IS TYPICA±±Y ÊRAzI±IAN, BUT THEY A±SO TEND TO DEVE±OP AND
mARkET “ÊRAzI±IAN CU±TURE” FOR THE REST OF THE POPU±ATION. °IS CAN BE SEEN IN
ÊRAzI±IAN RESTAURANTS AND mUSICA± SHOWS AROUND THE WOR±D AND IN HUgE
·ARNIVA± PARADES IN P±ACES ±IkE LONDON AND ²AN ºRANCISCO. ¹N mANY ½ORTH
µmERICAN AND ³UROPEAN CITIES CAPOEIRA, INITIA±±Y CREATED BY ÊRAzI±IAN S±AVES AS
A DANCE, HAS BECOmE VERY POPU±AR AND IS TAUgHT BY ÊRAzI±IAN mASTERS. ¹NDEED
CAPOEIRA AND “ÊRAzI±IAN jUjITSU” HAVE BECOmE WIDESPREAD IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES
AND ARE TODAY HIPSTER HOBBIES IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES, ³UROPE, AND JAPAN.
¹N THE PAST ÊRAzI± WAS OﬅEN SEEN AS CONSTANT±Y ADOPTINg IDEAS AND mODES
OF ExPRESSION FROm THE NORTHERN HEmISPHERE AND OF COURSE CONTINUES TO
RECEIVE OUTSIDE INflUENCES IN THE SPHERE OF CINEmA AND mUSIC. µmONg THESE
ARE TE±EVISION AND mUSICA± PRODUCTS mANUFACTURED BY mU±TINATIONA± CORPORA-
TIONS AND ÉO±±YWOOD CINEmA WITH ITS POSITION OF WOR±D HEgEmONY. ÓET FOR
SOmE TImE ÊRAzI± HAS A±SO BEEN AN ExPORTER OF CU±TURA± AND SPIRITUA± gOODS.
ºOR ExAmP±E, ÊRAzI±IAN mUSIC HAS HAD A g±OBA± PRESENCE SINCE THE 1920S AND
1930S WHEN SAmBA SINgERS TOURED ºRANCE AND WHEN ·ARmEN MIRANDA WAS
ÉO±±YWOOD’S BEST-PAID FEmA±E SINgER AND ACTRESS. ÊOSSA NOVA, WHICH INTER-
ACTED STRONg±Y WITH µmERICAN mUSIC, WAS FROm ITS OUTSET IN THE 1960S A mUSIC
gENRE THAT HAD WOR±DWIDE FANS. ÓET WHEN ÊRAzI± STARTED TO PRODUCE ITS OWN
ROCk AND RO±± IN THE 1970S mANY CRITICS ATTACkED IT AS NOT BEINg “ÊRAzI±IAN
mUSIC.” ¾ODAY, HOWEVER, THERE ARE ÊRAzI±IAN ROCk BANDS THAT COmPOSE SONgS
IN ³Ng±ISH AND ARE SUCCESSFU± IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES AND ³UROPE. ÈHEN THE
mEmBERS OF THE ÊRAzI±IAN mETA± BAND ²EPU±TURA WENT TO A XAVANTE INDIgENOUS
VI±±AgE IN MATO GROSSO IN SEARCH OF THEIR CU±TURA± ORIgINS, THE RESU±TINg DISC
Roots BECAmE ONE OF THE BIggEST-SE±±INg A±BUmS IN ³UROPE IN jUST fiﬅEEN DAYS,
SURPASSINg MICHAE± JACkSON AND MADONNA IN ÊRITAIN, AND SE±±INg mORE THAN
500,000 COPIES IN ON±Y TWO mONTHS. »N THE ONE HAND, THE “ROOTS” WERE NATIVE
TO ÊRAzI±, BUT ON THE OTHER, ³Ng±ISH WAS THE ±INgUA FRANCA USED IN ORDER TO
COmPETE IN A g±OBA±IzED mARkET.
ÉfiNINg ÊRAzI±IAN CU±TURA± ExPRESSIONS HAS BECOmE mUCH mORE COmP±I-
CATED THAN IT USED TO BE. ÚRINg THE POPU±IST PHASE OF ÊRAzI±’S HISTORY (1945–
64), WHAT CAmE FROm OUTSIDE WAS OﬅEN SEEN AS FOREIgN AND THEREFORE ImPURE
AND DANgEROUS. °US, ·OCA-·O±A AND ÉO±±YWOOD fi±mS WERE USUA±±Y CITED AS
ExAmP±ES OF ½ORTH µmERICAN CU±TURA± ImPERIA±ISm, WHI±E SAmBA AND ·INEmA
½OVO (½EW ·INEmA), OF WHICH THE fi±mS DIRECTED BY G±AUBER ¼OCHA ARE THE

BEST kNOWN, WERE REgARDED AS AUTHENTICA±±Y NATIONA±. ÓET ·INEmA ½OVO, EVEN
WHI±E ITS TOPICS WERE FOCUSED ON ÊRAzI±, WAS INTERNATIONA±±Y kNOWN, AND THE
gENRE’S fi±mS WERE ExPORTED FAR AND WIDE AND WON PRIzES ABROAD.
¾ODAY THE SITUATION IS mORE COmP±Ex: THE ·OCA-·O±A ±OgO CAN BE FOUND ON
THE jERSEYS OF ÊRAzI±IAN SOCCER TEAmS, AND THE ³Ng±ISH ROCk STAR ²TINg, SPON-
SORED BY THE SAmE SOﬅ-DRINk CORPORATION, PROFESSES TO DEFEND THE NATIVES OF
ÊRAzI±. °E fi±m A grande arte, IN SPITE OF BEINg DIRECTED BY A ÊRAzI±IAN AND
fi±mED IN ÊRAzI±, HAS ³Ng±ISH DIA±OgUE. »THER fi±mS STAR TE±EVISION ACTORS AND
COmPETE FOR »SCARS, THEIR PRODUCERS HIRINg PROFESSIONA± ±OBBYISTS TO HE±P
THEm WIN AWARDS. ¾ODAY, mOST ÊRAzI±IAN fi±mS ARE PRODUCED WITH AN EYE
TOWARD THE INTERNATIONA± mARkET.
ºI±mS ±IkE Cidade de Deus (·ITY OF GOD) AND Tropa de Elite (³±ITE ²qUAD)
HAVE mADE IT INTERNATIONA±±Y. °EY SHOW AN ImAgE OF ÊRAzI± THAT IS AT THE SAmE
TImE VIO±ENT AND ROmANTIC, mIxINg THE POVERTY OF THE FAVE±AS WITH THE BEAUTY
OF ¼IO DE JANEIRO AS SEEN FROm ITS HI±±S. »N THE OTHER SIDE OF THE EqUATOR
ÊRAzI±IAN ACTORS ±IkE ²ûNIA ÊRAgA AND ¼ODRIgO ²ANTORO ARE INCORPORATED INTO
ÉO±±YWOOD fi±mS AND HAVE BECOmE “LATINO” OUTSIDE ÊRAzI±.
µ±THOUgH IT STARTED ITS ±IFE WITH A PO±EmICA± AgREEmENT WITH ¾ImE-LIFE,
¹NC., G±OBO, ÊRAzI±’S ±ARgEST TE±EVISION NETWORk, HAS FOR SOmE TImE BEEN PRO-
DUCINg THE mAjORITY OF THE PROgRAmS IT SHOWS. ¹T A±SO ExPORTS ITS SOAP OPERAS
AND SERIES TO COUNTRIES ±IkE ¸ORTUgA±, ºRANCE, AND ·HINA, HE±PINg TO mAkE IT
A mASS-mEDIA mU±TINATIONA±. ÈHEN G±OBO ExPORTS SOAP OPERAS IT IS NOT ON±Y
SE±±INg A COmmODITY, BUT A WAY OF ±IFE, DEA±INg WITH ImAgES OF THE BODY AND
OF SExUA±ITY. ¹F IN THE PAST FOREIgN TRAVE±ERS WHO CAmE TO ÊRAzI± ImAgINED THAT
THERE WAS NO SIN BENEATH THE EqUATOR, mODERN ÊRAzI± HAS INCREASINg±Y BRANDED
ITSE±F IN THE g±OBA± ARENA AS A COUNTRY WITH BREATHTAkINg NATURE, CARNIVA±,
mUSIC, BEACHES, BEAUTIFU± BODIES SCANTI±Y DRESSED, AND RE±AxED WAYS OF BEHAV-
INg WITH REgARD TO EVERYTHINg FROm SExUA±ITY TO SPORTS. ¹N THIS SENSE THE
COUNTRY IS mARkETINg ITSE±F AS HAVINg A NATIONA± IDENTITY THAT CAN BE ExPORTED
WOR±DWIDE. ÊRAzI±IAN COmmODITIES AND CU±TURA± PRODUCTS ARE USUA±±Y ASSOCI-
ATED WITH A “ÊRAzI±IAN WAY OF ±IFE.”
¼E±IgION IS ANOTHER AREA IN WHICH THE TRANSNATIONA±IzATION OF ÊRAzI±IAN
SYmBO±IC gOODS HAS OCCURRED IN A REmARkAB±E WAY. ÊRAzI± HAS A±WAYS BEEN A
COUNTRY OF DEEP±Y ROOTED RE±IgIOSITY, TRADITIONA±±Y ·ATHO±IC, A±BEIT WITH VERY
PARTICU±AR AND POPU±AR FORmS OF THAT RE±IgION. µ±THOUgH ÊRAzI± STI±± IS THE
±ARgEST ·ATHO±IC COUNTRY IN THE WOR±D, THE PANORAmA IS qUICk±Y CHANgINg WITH
THE gROWTH OF µFRO-ÊRAzI±IAN RE±IgIONS AND PENTECOSTA±ISm. ÈHAT IS mOST
ImPRESSIVE IS THE mIgRATION OF µFRO-ÊRAzI±IAN RE±IgIONS INTO ¶RUgUAY AND
µRgENTINA, COUNTRIES THAT gENERA±±Y SEE THEmSE±VES AS “³UROPEAN,” SECU±AR,
AND WITH ±ITT±E µFRICAN INflUENCE.
¸ENTECOSTA±ISm HAS gROWN AT AN ImPRESSIVE SPEED AND IS NOW THE SECOND-
±ARgEST RE±IgION IN ÊRAzI±. ¹T IS NOT ON±Y A RE±IgIOUS ENTERPRISE BUT A±SO A PO±ITI-
CA± AND ECONOmIC ONE. MANY PASTORS HAVE BEEN E±ECTED TO ·ONgRESS, WHERE
THEY FORm A gROUP THAT VOTES TOgETHER WHENEVER A RE±IgIOUS ISSUE IS AT STAkE
(ABORTION, RE±IgIOUS EDUCATION, ETC.). °E ¶NIVERSA± ·HURCH OF THE ÌINgDOm
OF GOD, ESTAB±ISHED IN ÊRAzI± IN 1977, HAS CHURCHES IN 116 OTHER COUNTRIES,
INC±UDINg IN ½ORTH µmERICA AND THE ³UROPEAN ¶NION, mOBI±IzINg mI±±IONS
OF FAITHFU± FO±±OWERS AND ±ARgE SUmS OF mONEY. ¹TS FOUNDER IS THE OWNER OF
¼EDE ¼ECORD, ÊRAzI±’S SECOND-±ARgEST TE±EVISION NETWORk.
µ±THOUgH ÊRAzI± DID NOT CREATE SOCCER, IT HAS mANAgED TO ESTAB±ISH ITSE±F AS
A COUNTRY WE±± kNOWN FOR THE PRACTICE OF THAT SPORT, WINNINg THE ÈOR±D ·UP
fiVE TImES. ÊRAzI± IS SUPPOSED TO HAVE A SPECIA± STY±E OF P±AYINg SOCCER, FAmOUS
FOR ITS ImPROVISATION AND A±mOST CHOREOgRAPHIC PERFORmANCES. ºOR YEARS
ÊRAzI± HAS BEEN AN ExPORTER OF SOCCER P±AYERS WHO P±AY mAIN±Y FOR ³UROPEAN
TEAmS. ÊRAzI± HOSTED THE SOCCER ÈOR±D ·UP IN 2014 AND WI±± HOST THE ²UmmER
»±YmPICS IN ¼IO DE JANEIRO IN 2016. ÉAVINg THESE TWO mAjOR INTERNATIONA±
SPORTS EVENTS IN ÊRAzI± mEANS TENS OF THOUSANDS OF VISITORS AND PROVIDES EVI-
DENCE THAT ÊRAzI± IS CAPAB±E OF ORgANIzINg mEgA EVENTS THAT ENTAI± INTERNA-
TIONA± TOURISm, AN AREA WHERE ÊRAzI± OﬅEN FA±±S SHORT.
¹N FOREIgN RE±ATIONS ÊRAzI± HAS BEEN INVO±VED IN THE ¶NITED ½ATIONS mIS-
SION IN ÉAITI, IN TRAININg ½AmIBIA’S NAVY, AND IN OTHER ACTIVITIES ±IkE THE
CONflICT OVER ¹RANIAN NUC±EAR ARmS. ¼ECENT±Y, A ÊRAzI±IAN DIP±OmAT WAS E±ECTED
CHAIR OF THE ÈOR±D ¾RADE »RgANIzATION, A FORUm IN WHICH ÊRAzI± HAS BEEN
ACTINg TO ENSURE THAT THERE IS FAIR COmPETITION AS REgARDS ITS ExPORTS. ºOR YEARS,
ÊRAzI± HAS BEEN TRYINg TO OBTAIN A PERmANENT SEAT AT THE ¶NITED ½ATIONS
²ECURITY ·OUNCI± IN AN EffORT TO ESTAB±ISH ITSE±F AS A DIP±OmATIC ACTOR THAT IS
RECOgNIzED ACCORDINg TO ITS ECONOmIC AND PO±ITICA± ImPORTANCE.
new Çiddles
¹N ORDER TO BE A g±OBA± P±AYER, ÊRAzI± STI±± HAS TO FACE mANY CHA±±ENgES, INC±UD-
INg THE ISSUE OF SOCIA± jUSTICE. ÉISTORICA±±Y, ÊRAzI± HAS ±AggED BEHIND mOST
COUNTRIES IN TERmS OF INCOmE DISTRIBUTION. ¹N 1989, ITS GINI INDEx—WHICH
mEASURES A COUNTRY’S DEgREE OF INEqUA±ITY IN TERmS OF INCOmE (RANgINg FROm
0 TO 1, WITH 1 INDICATINg HIgH INEqUA±ITY)—WAS ONE OF THE WOR±D’S HIgHEST AT

0.634. µCCORDINg TO THE ÈOR±D ÊANk, THAT YEAR THE 20 PERCENT OF RICHEST
ÊRAzI±IANS CONCENTRATED 67.5 PERCENT OF A±± INCOmE, WHEREAS THE 20 PERCENT OF
ÊRAzI±’S POOREST HAD ON±Y 2.1 PERCENT. ºOR A ±ONg WHI±E, THE mONTH±Y mINImUm
WAgE IN ÊRAzI± REmAINED BE±OW ¶²$100, DIRECTINg THE ECONOmY TOWARD A RE±A-
TIVE±Y SmA±± AND WEA±THY CONSUmER BASE.
¹N 1994, THE FEDERA± gOVERNmENT ±AUNCHED THE ¼EA± ¸±AN, WHICH INTRO-
DUCED A NEW CURRENCY AND SUCCEEDED IN CURBINg INflATION, E±ImINATINg ONE OF
THE mOST NEgATIVE ImPACTS ON THE POPU±AR C±ASSES. ¹N JANUARY 2003, THE
¸ARTIDO DOS ¾RABA±HADORES (¸¾), OR ÈORkERS’ ¸ARTY, ACCEDED TO THE ÊRAzI±IAN
PRESIDENCY, WHERE IT SHOU±D REmAIN UNTI± (AT ±EAST) 2018. °E NEW ADmINISTRA-
TION BENEfiTED FROm THE PREVIOUS±Y ACHIEVED ECONOmIC STABI±ITY AND A FAVORA-
B±E INTERNATIONA± SCENARIO. »NE OF THE NEW gOVERNmENT’S ACTIONS WAS TO DIS-
TRIBUTE INCOmE BY EffECTIVE±Y RAISINg THE mINImUm WAgE, WHICH IN ÉCEmBER
2015 WAS AROUND ¶²$200 PER mONTH.
µNOTHER INITIATIVE WAS A SERIES OF SOCIA± PROgRAmS BASED ON CONDITIONA±
CASH TRANSFERS. µmONg THEm IS ÊO±SA ºAmí±IA, A fiNANCIA± AID PROgRAm THAT
ENCOURAgES POOR FAmI±IES TO kEEP THEIR CHI±DREN IN SCHOO± AND AWARDS fiNAN-
CIA± BONUSES TO ±OW-INCOmE PEOP±E. °IS ACTION ±ED TO A FAST AND STEEP DEC±INE
IN ÊRAzI±’S INCOmE INEqUA±ITY; THE COUNTRY’S GINI COEffiCIENT FE±± TO 0.566 IN
2005, AND THIS HAD A POWERFU± ImPACT ON THE ECONOmY. µ±± OF A SUDDEN A ±ARgE
PORTION OF THE SO-CA±±ED ·±ASS ´ (WHICH THE ÊRAzI±IAN gOVERNmENT C±ASSIfiES
AS FAmI±IES WITH A mONTH±Y INCOmE BETWEEN 768 AND 1,065 REAIS [OR ABOUT
¶²$220 TO 305 AT AN ExCHANgE RATE OF Ê¼$3.5 TO ¶²$1]) mIgRATED TO ·±ASS ·
(COmPRISINg FAmI±IES WITH A mONTH±Y INCOmE BETWEEN 1,065 AND 4,591 REAIS
[¶²$305 TO $1,311]). ¹T IS ESTImATED THAT, WITHIN SIx YEARS, TWENTY mI±±ION
ÊRAzI±IANS mIgRATED FROm ·±ASS ´ TO ·±ASS ·. µ STUDY BASED ON DATA FROm THE
ÊRAzI±IAN ¹NSTITUTE OF GEOgRAPHY AND ²TATISTICS SHOWED THAT IN 2008, FOR THE
fiRST TImE IN HISTORY, THE TOTA± INCOmE OF THE 91 mI±±ION PEOP±E IN ·±ASS · WAS
gREATER THAN THE SUm TOTA± OF ·±ASSES µ AND Ê (I.E., THOSE WITH INCOmE ABOVE
4,591 REAIS [¶²$1,311]). ½OWADAYS, ·±ASS · HOUSEHO±DS ACCOUNT FOR 46 PERCENT
OF THE TOTA± NATIONA± INCOmE, VERSUS 44 PERCENT OF ·±ASSES µ AND Ê, WHICH
HAVE TRADITIONA±±Y PREVAI±ED IN THE ÊRAzI±IAN ECONOmY.
°IS SUBSTANTIA± mOVEmENT OF PEOP±E FROm ·±ASS ´ TO ·±ASS · HAD A RIPP±E
EffECT, CAUSINg CONSUmPTION TO INCREASE SIgNIfiCANT±Y. ÈHI±E THE POPU±AR
C±ASSES HAVE A±WAYS BEEN CONSUmERS, CHIEflY OF BASIC FOOD PRODUCTS, C±OTHES,
AND OTHER ESSENTIA± ITEmS, NOW THEY BEgAN PURCHASINg gOODS NOT TRADITIONA±±Y
PURCHASED BY THE POOR, SUCH AS NEW REFRIgERATORS, STOVES, TE±EVISION SETS, AND
SO FORTH. °IS gROWTH IN POPU±AR CONSUmPTION IS REflECTED IN mANY SECTORS,
CHIEflY IN DURAB±E gOODS (APP±IANCES, E±ECTRONICS, AND FURNITURE), WHICH HAS
gROWN TWICE AS FAST AS THE OVERA±± mARkET AT 30 PERCENT PER YEAR SINCE 2005.
°E NEW mEmBERS OF ·±ASS · ARE COPIOUS±Y BUYINg FURNITURE AND APP±IANCES,
SUggESTINg THAT A CONSIDERAB±E SECTOR OF THE POPU±ATION NOW HAS ACCESS TO
gOODS THAT WERE PREVIOUS±Y RESTRICTED TO THE mIDD±E C±ASS. °E gOVERNmENT
PREDICTS THAT IN THE FUTURE ÊRAzI± WI±± BE mAIN±Y A mIDD±E-C±ASS COUNTRY.
paths of inclusion
¾RADITIONA±±Y SOCIA± SCIENTISTS AND THE POPU±ATION IN gENERA± BE±IEVED THAT

ÊRAzI±IAN NONWHITES WERE WORSE Off BECAUSE THEY WERE PART OF THE POORER SEC-
TORS OF THE POPU±ATION. ¼ECENT DATA AND INTERPRETATIONS SHOW THAT IN FACT THEY
ARE DOUB±Y DISCRImINATED AgAINST: FOR BEINg POOR AND FOR BEINg B±ACk. ¹F FOR A
±ONg TImE ÊRAzI± SAW ITSE±F AND WAS SEEN AS A mestiço NATION WHERE RACIA±
DEmOCRACY PREVAI±ED, TODAY THERE IS A gROWINg AWARENESS THAT THIS IS NOT SO.
¹N FACT, mANY PEOP±E NOW SPEAk ABOUT WHAT IS CA±±ED “CORDIA± RACISm,” WHICH
BEgINS WITH THE CU±TURA± DIffiCU±TY OF ACkNOW±EDgINg THAT ÊRAzI± HAS PREjU-
DICE, DISCRImINATION, AND RACIA± INEqUA±ITY. °IS IS C±EAR IN OffiCIA± STATISTICS
THAT SHOW THAT B±ACkS ARE WORSE Off ON ANY SOCIA± INDICATOR, INC±UDINg EDUCA-
TION, INCOmE, ±ITERACY, INFANTI±E mORTA±ITY, AND ±IFE ExPECTANCY.
²OCIA± mOVEmENTS HAVE gRADUA±±Y ±ED ÊRAzI±IAN OffiCIA± INSTITUTIONS TO
ImP±EmENT INC±USION PO±ICIES. °IS OﬅEN HAPPENS THROUgH AffiRmATIVE ACTION
PO±ICIES, mAIN±Y AT PUB±IC INSTITUTIONS, WITH REgARD TO RECRUITmENT FOR CIVI±
SERVICE jOBS AND VACANCIES IN PUB±IC UNIVERSITIES. »NE OF THE P±ACES WHERE A
NEWER AND mUCH mORE DIVERSE POPU±ATION HAS SEEN DRAmATIC gROWTH IS IN
CO±±EgE EDUCATION. µS THE ÊRAzI±IAN mIDD±E C±ASS gROWS, mORE PARENTS WANT
THEIR CHI±DREN TO gO TO CO±±EgE, WHICH THEY SEE AS A ROAD TO UPWARD SOCIA±
mOBI±ITY. ²UCH ACCESS, HOWEVER, CONTINUES TO BE DIffiCU±T. ¸RIVATE UNIVERSITIES
CHARgE FEES THAT ARE HARD TO fiT INTO POORER FAmI±IES’ BUDgETS. °E BEST RESEARCH
UNIVERSITIES ARE THE FREE PUB±IC ONES USUA±±Y OPERATED BY THE FEDERA± gOVERN-
mENT, BUT THE ON±Y WAY TO ENTER IS VIA A VERY COmPETITIVE ENTRANCE ExAm CA±±ED
vestibular, WHICH INC±UDES mATHEmATICS, PHYSICS, CHEmISTRY, BIO±OgY, ±ITERA-
TURE, HISTORY, COmPOSITION, AND FOREIgN ±ANgUAgES. ²INCE PUB±IC SCHOO±S IN
ÊRAzI± OﬅEN HAVE ±OW ±EVE±S OF gRADUATION PROfiCIENCY, STUDENTS FROm RICHER
FAmI±IES WHO CAN AffORD PRIVATE SCHOO±S HAVE BETTER CHANCES OF SUCCEEDINg ON
THIS ExAm. ÈEA±THIER STUDENTS A±SO TAkE SPECIA±, YEAR±ONg PRIVATE TEST-PREP
COURSES.

¾RADITIONA±±Y THE vestibular WAS SEEN AS A UNIVERSA± AND TRANSPARENT WAY OF
SE±ECTINg UNIVERSITY STUDENTS, BASED ON mERIT AND WITHOUT PATRONAgE. ÓET THE
RESU±T WAS THAT POORER STUDENTS HAD TO PAY FOR PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES AND THAT
VERY FEW PEOP±E OF µFRICAN DESCENT ENTERED PUB±IC UNIVERSITIES. ¹N PRACTICE THE
WHITE mIDD±E AND UPPER C±ASSES WERE AB±E TO APPROPRIATE FEDERA± TAx mONEY IN
ORDER TO STUDY FOR FREE AT THE BEST UNIVERSITIES. ¸UB±IC UNIVERSITIES THUS BECAmE
ANOTHER AmONg NUmEROUS P±ACES ±ARgE±Y RESERVED FOR THE ÊRAzI±IAN WHITE E±ITE.
µT THE BEgINNINg OF THIS CENTURY, SEVERA± PUB±IC UNIVERSITIES BEgAN AffiRmA-
TIVE ACTION PROgRAmS THAT BENEfiT PUB±IC SCHOO± STUDENTS AND THOSE WHO
DEC±ARE THEmSE±VES OF µFRICAN DESCENT. °IS mOVE E±ICITED STRONg REACTIONS IN
FAVOR AND AgAINST SUCH PO±ICIES. °OSE OPPOSED ARgUED THAT THIS mODE± WAS
COPIED FROm THE ¶NITED ²TATES EVEN THOUgH AffiRmATIVE ACTION PO±ICIES WERE
IN FACT CHA±±ENgED (AND qUOTAS WERE DISmANT±ED) BY THE ½ORTH µmERICAN
COURTS. »PPONENTS A±SO ARgUED THAT IN ÊRAzI± IT WAS NOT POSSIB±E TO DEfiNE WHO
WAS WHITE AND WHO WAS NOT AND THAT BY ADOPTINg AffiRmATIVE ACTION PO±ICIES
THE COUNTRY WAS INTRODUCINg RACE AND RACISm WHERE IT DID NOT ExIST BEFORE.
°EY FURTHER C±AImED THAT SE±ECTION WOU±D NO ±ONgER BE BASED ON mERIT BUT
ON CO±OR AND SOCIA± C±ASS AND THAT STUDENTS SE±ECTED THROUgH AffiRmATIVE ACTION
WOU±D ±OWER THE STANDARD OF TEACHINg AND ±EARNINg. ÊRAzI±IAN SOCIA± SCIENTISTS
WERE DIVIDED, WRITINg mANIFESTOS IN FAVOR OF AND AgAINST AffiRmATIVE ACTION IN
PUB±IC UNIVERSITIES. ¶±TImATE±Y ·ONgRESS APPROVED A ±AW RESERVINg 50 PERCENT
OF A±± FEDERA± UNIVERSITY P±ACES FOR STUDENTS COmINg FROm PUB±IC SCHOO±S AND
HA±F OF THOSE FOR STUDENTS WHO DEC±ARE THEmSE±VES AS BEINg OF µFRICAN DESCENT.
°E ±AW WAS CONTESTED IN THE ²UPREmE ·OURT, BUT THE jUSTICES DECIDED UNANI-
mOUS±Y THAT THE PO±ICIES WERE CONSTITUTIONA±.
the ¿ood, the bad, and the ur¿ent
°INgS ARE gRADUA±±Y CHANgINg IN ÊRAzI±. ¹N RECENT YEARS ImPORTANT SOCIA±

jUSTICE PO±ICIES WERE ImP±EmENTED AND HAD AN ENORmOUS ImPACT ON THE COUN-
TRY. ÊRAzI± IS fiNA±±Y ACkNOW±EDgINg THE RACIA± qUESTION AND TAkINg STEPS
TOWARD REDUCINg THE CO±OR gAP. °ERE ARE OF COURSE mANY CHA±±ENgES AHEAD.
¸UB±IC EDUCATION, PUB±IC HEA±TH, AND CRUCIA± ECONOmIC SECTORS, PARTICU±AR±Y
INFRASTRUCTURE, ARE IN NEED OF gREAT INVESTmENT.
°E mASS PROTESTS THAT SWEPT ÊRAzI± IN JUNE 2013 SHOW THAT THE POPU±ATION
DECIDED TO TAkE TO THE STREETS TO VOICE THEIR DEmANDS. °E PROTESTS INITIA±±Y
AROSE AS A mOVEmENT AgAINST BUS FARE INCREASES BUT RAPID±Y EVO±VED INTO DEmAND
FOR BETTER HEA±TH, BETTER EDUCATION, AND AN END TO CORRUPTION. °E mOVEmENT
SUggESTS THAT A PORTION OF THE POPU±ATION REPRESENTED BY YOUNg PEOP±E—
mEmBERS OF A gROUP WITH ACCESS TO mORE CONSUmER gOODS THAN THEIR PARENTS
HAD—NOW WANT SOmETHINg mORE. °ESE YOUNg PEOP±E DO NOT TRUST THE FORmA±
ORgANIzATIONS OF A REPRESENTATIVE DEmOCRACY: gOVERNmENT, PO±ITICA± PARTIES,
AND mAINSTREAm mEDIA. °ERE IS OF COURSE A ±INk BETWEEN THOSE PROTESTS AND
THE »CCUPY mOVEmENT AND µRAB ²PRINg THAT HAD OCCURRED IN OTHER COUNTRIES,
AND ±IkE THEm, THE ÊRAzI±IAN PROTESTS BECAmE INSPIRATIONA± IN OTHER PARTS OF THE
WOR±D. ÈITH THE INSTANT COmmUNICATION PROVIDED BY SOCIA± mEDIA THERE IS A
RECIPROCA± INflUENCE OF WHAT IS HAPPENINg IN DIffERENT P±ACES OF THE g±OBE.
ÊRAzI± HAS BECOmE HIgH±Y DIVERSIfiED, WITH THE INCREASINg EmERgENCE OF
FRESH SOCIA± P±AYERS WHO BUI±D NEW IDENTITIES AND DEmAND RECOgNITION AND
SPECIfiC RIgHTS. µS ÊRAzI± BECOmES ±ESS UNEqUA± AND mORE EDUCATED, mYRIAD
YOUNg PEOP±E ARE mAkINg C±AImS AND VOICINg THEIR DEmANDS. ¹F ÊRAzI± IS TO
BECOmE EVEN mORE g±OBA±, ITS ±EADERS AND CITIzENS HAVE TO mAkE IT WIDE±Y
INC±USIVE, NOT A NATION WHERE g±OBA± IDEAS OF RIgHTS OR EmP±OYmENT ARE ON±Y
FOR THOSE IN THE DOmINANT C±ASSES.
ºRY, ¸ETER
2000 “¸O±ITICS, ½ATIONA±ITY, AND THE MEANINgS OF ‘¼ACE’ IN ÊRAzI±.” Daedalus
129.2: 83–118.
LESSER, JEffREY
1999 Negotiating National Identity: Immigrants, Minorities, and the Struggle for
Ethnicity in Brazil. ÚRHAm, ½·: ÚkE ¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS.
»±IVEN, ¼UBEN GEORgE, AND ¼OSANA ¸INHEIRO-MACHADO
2012 “ºROm ‘·OUNTRY OF THE ºUTURE’ TO ³mERgENT ·OUNTRY: ¸OPU±AR ·ONSUmP-
TION IN ÊRAzI±.” ¹N Consumer Culture in Latin America, ED. JOHN ²INC±AIR
AND µNNA ·RISTINA ¸ERTIERRA, 53–65. LONDON: ¸A±gRAVE MACmI±±AN.
²CHWARCz, LI±IA MORITz
1999 °e Spectacle of the Races: Scientists, Institutions and the Race Éuestion in
Brazil, 1870–1930. ½EW ÓORk: ÉI±± AND ÈANg.
²CHWARz, ¼OBERTO
1977 Ao vencedor as batatas. ²öO ¸AU±O: ÚAS ·IDADES.

pa r t f i v e
Art MoVes the World
Ïntroduction
õonned by the Àortu¿uese ÒraZilian PERFORmER ·ARmEN

MIRANDA FROm THE 1930S TO THE 1950S, THE TUTTI-FRUTTI HAT SYmBO±IzED THE SUP-
POSED±Y ExOTIC, BEAUTIFU±, AND qUAINT ±ANDS OF LATIN µmERICA. MIRANDA mAY
WE±± HAVE BEEN THE fiRST “LATIN µmERICAN” PERFORmER TO mOVE AUDIENCES ON
BIg SCREENS AND ÊROADWAY STAgES IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES, BUT THE TUTTI-FRUTTI HAT
FAI±S TODAY mORE THAN EVER TO CAPTURE THE FRESHNESS OF CREATIVE PRODUCTION
WITHIN AND ABOUT THE REgION. ÈITH CHAPTERS FROm TWO jOURNA±ISTS, AN ANTHRO-
PO±OgIST, AND A CU±TURA± CRITIC, “µRT MOVES THE ÈOR±D” ±IﬅS UP NARRATIVES OF
WHAT mAY WE±± BE A NEW ExPORT BOOm FOR THE REgION. ³xP±ORINg THE DIffERENT
DYNAmICS BETWEEN g±OBA±±Y P±UggED-IN PRODUCERS AND CONSUmERS, THESE CHAP-
TERS SHOWCASE ARTISTS FROm LATIN µmERICA AS mUCH mORE THAN mERE±Y P±AYERS
ON A g±OBA± STAgE.
ºROm STORIES OF NINETEENTH-CENTURY NOVE±S TO TWENTY-fiRST-CENTURY telen-
ovelas, THESE CHAPTERS OffER g±ImPSES INTO THE mAkINg OF g±OBA± LATIN µmERICA
THROUgH ART. °E ESSAYIST AND SCHO±AR ¹±AN ²TAVANS ExAmINES HOW LATIN
µmERICAN ±ITERATURE BECAmE g±OBA±±Y RECOgNIzED AND REVERED. ÉSPITE PRECE-
DENTS IN THE NINETEENTH AND EAR±Y TWENTIETH CENTURY, ²TAVANS ±OCATES THE mOVE
FROm THE ±OCA± AND NATIONA± TO THE g±OBA± IN THE boom gENERATION OF THE 1960S.
JORgE LUIS ÊORgES AND GABRIE± GARCíA MáRqUEz—TWO OF THE TOWERINg ±UmI-
NARIES OF THAT ERA—INNOVATED POSTmODERNIST AND mAgICA± REA±IST FORmS THAT
HAVE INflUENCED gENERATIONS OF ±ETTERED THINkERS SINCE. ¹N ANOTHER CHAPTER, THE
fi±m mEgASTAR GAE± GARCíA ÊERNA± ARTICU±ATES THE AmBIVA±ENCES OF BEINg AN
ARTIST AND PERFORmER FROm LATIN µmERICA ON A g±OBA± STAgE. »VER COffEE WITH
THE CRITICA±±Y ACC±AImED jOURNA±IST µ±mA GUI±±ERmOPRIETO, GARCíA ÊERNA±
qUESTIONS WHY NATIONA± OR REgIONA± ±ABE±S SO OﬅEN ACCOmPANY—AND SEEm TO
qUA±IFY—THE NAmES OF ARTISTS AND PERFORmERS FROm THE REgION. ¾OgETHER THESE
CHAPTERS REVEA± HOW ART SERVES AS A VEHIC±E FOR THE NEgOTIATION OF IDENTITIES AND
gEOgRAPHIES OF BE±ONgINg IN g±OBA± LATIN µmERICA.
¾RAVERSINg AND SOmETImES TRANSgRESSINg BORDERS THROUgHOUT g±OBA± LATIN
µmERICA, THIS PART OffERS STORIES OF WHAT IS gAINED IN TRANS±ATION WHEN ART UPSETS
THE FAmI±IAR. °E ANTHROPO±OgIST ». ÉUgO ÊENAVIDES SHOWS HOW telenovelas
DISTURB RACIA±, gENDER, AND ½ORTH-²OUTH HIERARCHIES. °ESE SOAP-STY±E PRODUC-
TIONS HAVE DRAWN ±OYA± AUDIENCES FROm THE MIDD±E ³AST AND ·HINA TO THE
¶NITED ÌINgDOm, ¼USSIA, AND ÈEST ·ENTRA± µFRICA. °OUgH SET IN THE DRAmA
OF EVERYDAY ±IFE, THESE TE±EVISION SHOWS REflECT THE gEOPO±ITICA± TImES A-CHANgINg,
ESPECIA±±Y THE ASCENDENCY OF SOmE LATIN µmERICAN COUNTRIES AND THE INCREASE
IN CONNECTIONS BETWEEN PEOP±ES OF THE G±OBA± ²OUTH. »THER NARRATIVES REVEA±
PERFORmERS BREAkINg THE RU±ES OF ARTISTIC CANONS AND IDENTITIES IN ONE STROkE.
°E jOURNA±IST ºABIANO MAISONNAVE NARRATES THE CAREER OF LISA »NO, THE
ÊRAzI±IAN mUSICIAN AND DAUgHTER OF JAPANESE ImmIgRANTS WHO OWNED A NIgHT-
C±UB IN ²öO ¸AU±O. µT TEN YEARS O±D, »NO RETURNED WITH HER FAmI±Y TO JAPAN,
WHERE HER PARENTS OPENED ANOTHER VENUE. ÉERE THE YOUNg »NO BEgAN P±AYINg
AND TRANSFORmINg SOUNDS FROm HER ²öO ¸AU±O YOUTH. ºO±±OWINg »NO’S FASCI-
NATINg TRAjECTORY, THE CHAPTER ENDS UP TEACHINg US HOW A SUPPOSED±Y NATIONA±
mUSIC STAP±E ±IkE “ÊRAzI±IAN” BOSSA NOVA CAN BE TRANSFORmED INTO A “JAPANESE”
TREND IN ·HINESE POPU±AR CU±TURE.
°E SUBVERSIVE CAPACITY OF ART TO UPSET THE NORmATIVE IS NEVER gUARANTEED,
HOWEVER. °E PRO±IFERATION OF ImAgES AND SOUNDS THROUgH THE CHANNE±S OF
g±OBA± LATIN µmERICA CAN REINFORCE SImP±ISTIC AND DISPARAgINg mISCONCEP-
TIONS. ¾AkE PERCEPTIONS OF VIO±ENCE AND INEqUA±ITY, FOR INSTANCE. ²OmE COUN-
TRIES IN LATIN µmERICA HAVE OCCUPIED TOP SPOTS IN INDICES OF BOTH, EVEN
THOUgH RECENT DEVE±OPmENT PROjECTS AND SOCIA± PROgRAmS HAVE CREATED NEW
RUNgS OF SOCIA± mOBI±ITY FOR SOmE. ²TORIES OF INEqUA±ITY AND VIO±ENCE REmAIN
PROmINENT IN fi±mS PRODUCED IN AND ABOUT THE REgION, ExEmP±IfiED BY
ºERNANDO MEIRE±±ES’S AND ÌáTIA LUND’S City of God (2002).
¹N 2015, THE ½ETflIx CRImE DRAmA TRACINg THE RISE AND FA±± OF ¸AB±O ³SCOBAR,
Narcos, HAD BOTH A TRANSNATIONA± REACH AND A STAR AND DIRECTOR WHO fiRST
ACHIEVED INTERNATIONA± NOTORIETY FOR STORIES OF VIO±ENT CO±±ISIONS BETWEEN
PO±ICE, DRUg TRAffiCkERS, AND THE PUB±IC IN ¼IO DE JANEIRO NEIgHBORHOODS.
ÈHI±E THESE SORTS OF REPRESENTATIONS CAN mARSHA± INCREASED ATTENTION TO THE
HARSH REA±ITIES OF EVERYDAY ±IFE IN LATIN µmERICA, THEIR INCREASINg ACC±AIm
SHOU±D A±SO gIVE US PAUSE. °E ±INE BETWEEN DRAmATIzATION, ON ONE SIDE, AND
288 • pa rt f i v e
SImP±IfiCATION AND ExP±OITATION, ON THE OTHER, CAN BE mURkY DESPITE EVEN THE
BEST INTENTIONS.
¹N THE SECOND DECADE OF THE TWENTY-fiRST CENTURY, mANY TAkE g±OBA± CON-
NECTIVITY FOR gRANTED, AND SOmE ARE ASkINg WHETHER EVER DENSER AND SPEEDIER
CONNECTIONS ARE THE PANACEA ONCE PROmISED. µRTISTS WITHIN THE CIRCUITS OF
g±OBA± LATIN µmERICAN ARE, NOT SURPRISINg±Y, WEIgHINg IN ON SUCH qUESTIONS.
»NE BEST-SE±±INg ExAmP±E IS THE E±ECTRIC AmBIVA±ENCE ABOUT THE “REflECTIVE AgE”
THAT ANImATES ·ANADA-BASED µRCADE ºIRE’S A±BUm Reflektor (2013). °E A±BUm
DRAWS HEAVI±Y ON RHYTHmIC STY±ES AND SPIRITUA± SYmBO±S FROm THE ·ARIBBEAN,
ESPECIA±±Y ÉAITI (THE NATIVE COUNTRY OF ONE OF THE BAND mEmBER’S PARENTS),
AND THE mUSIC VIDEO FOR THE SONg “µﬅER±IFE” mASHES TOgETHER SCENES FROm
Black Orpheus (1959), A fi±m SET IN ¼IO DE JANEIRO’S ·ARNAVA± AND mADE BY THE
ºRENCH DIRECTOR MARCE± ·AmUS. ÈHETHER BORN IN THE REgION OR NOT, ARTISTS
±IkE µRCADE ºIRE CONTINUE TO SHAPE g±OBA± LATIN µmERICA THROUgH THE BUR-
gEONINg mARkETP±ACE FOR CREATIVE ImAgES, WORDS, AND SOUNDS THAT CAST g±OBA±
REflECTIONS.

siôteen
°e Latin American Novel as

International Merchandise
Ilan Stavans
Al fin me encuentro
con mi destino sudamericano.
—èor¿e luis bor¿es, “¸OEmA CONjETURA±” (1943)
Á seisÇic chan¿e tooK place in LATIN µmERICAN CU±TURE IN THE

1960S: UNDER THE BANNER OF A mOVEmENT kNOWN AS El Boom, gROUPED UNDER
THE AESTHETICS OF WHAT CAmE TO BE kNOWN—AND OﬅEN CONTESTED—AS mAgICA±
REA±ISm (lo real maravilloso), THE REgION’S ±ITERARY TRADITION, OBSCURE AND EVEN
PROVINCIA± UNTI± THEN, SUDDEN±Y WENT g±OBA± BY mEANS OF qUICk, ACCOmP±ISHED
TRANS±ATIONS OF STEAmY, ExOTIC, PO±ITICA±±Y ENgAgED NOVE±S.
LED BY AUTHORS FROm AN ASSORTmENT OF COUNTRIES, FROm ·O±OmBIA’S GABRIE±
GARCíA MáRqUEz TO ¸ERU’S MARIO ÍARgAS L±OSA, A±ONg WITH µRgENTINA’S JU±IO
·ORTázAR, MExICO’S ·AR±OS ºUENTES, ÊRAzI±’S JORgE µmADO, AND ·HI±E’S JOSé
ÓNOSO, THE EffECT OF THIS mOVEmENT WAS DEEP AND FAR-REACHINg. ¹T CREATED A
SHARED CONTINENTA± HISTORY AND IDENTITY, OR AT ±EAST THE mIRAgE OF ONE. ¹T P±ACED
URgENT TOPICS AffECTINg ITS POPU±ATION, SUCH AS mI±ITARY REPRESSION, SExUA±
SUBjUgATION, AND ECONOmIC HOPE±ESSNESS, IN THE EYES OF THE WOR±D. µND IT
FOSTERED AN ATmOSPHERE OF CU±TURA± TRANSACTION THAT mADE mOVIES, THEATER,
mUSIC, AND FO±k±ORE FROm THE REgION BANkAB±E EVERYWHERE. ¹N SHORT, ³± ÊOOm
mADE LATIN µmERICA mARkETAB±E IN ³UROPE, µSIA, THE MIDD±E ³AST, µFRICA,
AND THE ¶NITED ²TATES, ±ET A±ONE WITHIN ITS OWN CONfiNES, mAkINg ITS PEOP±E
CONTEmPORARIES FOR THE REST OF THE WOR±D.
¾O UNDERSTAND THIS RADICA± TRANSFORmATION, IT IS CRUCIA± TO HAVE A PICTURE OF
LATIN µmERICAN CU±TURE BEFORE THE 1960S. µﬅER THE RAmPANT WARS OF INDE-
PENDENCE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, THE ±INEUP OF NEW±Y AUTONOmOUS COUN-
TRIES, FROm µRgENTINA TO MExICO, SOUgHT TO DEfiNE THEIR NATIONA± SE±VES BY
291
STRESSINg INDIgENOUS mYTHS. ÈHAT THEY UNDERSTOOD BY “INDIgENOUS” WAS,
OBVIOUS±Y, OPEN TO DEBATE. ¹N µRgENTINA, THE COUNTRY’S IDENTITY COA±ESCED
AROUND gAUCHO ±ORE, WITH THE mEN ON HORSEBACk PROmINENT±Y REPRESENTED BY
THE ±ITERATURE OF ÉI±ARIO µSCASUBI, ÊENITO LYNCH, ÉI±ARIO DE± ·AmPO, ¼ICARDO
GþIRA±DES, AND, ESPECIA±±Y, JOSé ÉERNáNDEz’S EPIC POEm °e Gaucho Martín
Fierro (1872). ¹N THE COUNTRY, THEN AS NOW, THERE IS A DEBATE ON THE DIffERENCE
BETWEEN gaucho AND gauchesco ±ITERATURE. °E FORmER IS A BY-PRODUCT OF THE
gAUCHOS THEmSE±VES, RURA± COWBOYS WITH AN IDIOSYNCRATIC VIEWPOINT, WHEREAS
THE ±ATTER IS AN APPROPRIATION BY CITY DWE±±ERS OF THE gAUCHO STY±E. ÉERNáNDEz’S
POEm, IN SPITE OF ITS NATIONA± STATUS, IS gAUCHESCO IN THAT HE WAS NOT A gAUCHO
HImSE±F, mEANINg HIS CE±EBRATION OF THE BUCO±IC ±IFE OF gAUCHOS IS DERIVATIVE,
AN ImITATION AND NOT AN AUTHENTIC DEPICTION.
²ImI±AR±Y, IN MExICO, NATIONA± IDENTITY WAS BUI±T AROUND THE IDEA±IzED VIEW OF
THE mESTIzO, AS SHOWCASED IN THE WORkS OF JOSé ¼OSAS MORENO, ¹gNACIO MANUE±
µ±TAmIRANO, AND, PROmINENT±Y, JOSé JOAqUíN ºERNáNDEz DE LIzARDI’S NOVE± °e
Itching Parrot (1816). °E mESTIzO IS A HA±F-BREED, PART ABORIgINA± AND PART
³UROPEAN. °E WAR OF INDEPENDENCE PUSHED A±ONg THE CONCEPT THAT MExICO’S
IDENTITY WAS DEfiNED BY THIS HA±F-BREED, AND BY THE BEgINNINg OF THE TWENTIETH
CENTURY, JOSé ÍASCONCE±OS WAS AB±E TO BUI±D THE ESSENTIA±IST PHI±OSOPHY—IN HIS
BOOk °e Cosmic Race (1925)—THAT mestizaje WOU±D U±TImATE±Y DEfiNE NOT ON±Y
MExICAN CIVI±IzATION, BUT THE ENTIRE WOR±D POPU±ATION.
°ESE EffORTS WERE, FOR THE mOST PART, ±OCA±. ÈHAT WAS mANUFACTURED AT HOmE
STAYED AT HOmE BECAUSE LATIN µmERICA DID NOT REgISTER AS AN ENgINE OF CU±TURA±
ExPORTS. ¹NDEED, UP UNTI± ÈOR±D ÈAR ¹, THE REgION’S ±ITERATURE WAS mADE FOR INTER-
NA± CONSUmPTION. GIVEN THE ENORmOUS gEOgRAPHIC SPREAD AND THE ±ImITED mEANS
OF BOOk PRODUCTION, ±ITERARY DISTRIBUTION WAS PENURIOUS ACROSS THE CONTINENT,
WHICH mEANT THAT NATIONA± ±ITERATURES WERE DEfiNED BY THE ±OCA± AND A±mOST
ENTIRE±Y SE±F-CONTAINED. °E gENERATION OF WRITERS WHO BROkE THIS PATTERN, THE
fiRST TO BE READ OUTSIDE THE CONfiNES OF THEIR OWN COUNTRIES, WERE THE modernistas.
ÊETWEEN 1885 AND 1915, THIS CADRE OF AUTHORS FROm VARIOUS COUNTRIES BUI±T A DIS-
TINCT REgIONA± ±ITERATURE WITH ITS OWN ETHOS. ¼UBéN ÁRíO AND JOSé MARTí WERE
READ, IN NEWSPAPERS AND mAgAzINES AND TO A ±ESSER DEgREE IN BOOkS, NOT ON±Y AS
½ICARAgUAN OR ·UBAN BUT A±SO, SURPRISINg±Y, AS LATIN µmERICANS.
°EIR EffECT REACHED ON±Y SO FAR, THOUgH. µ CONTINENTA± AUDIENCE COA±ESCED
AROUND THE modernistas, AND, TO A ±ESSER ExTENT, THEY WERE EmBRACED IN ²PAIN
AﬅER BEINg CE±EBRATED BY INTE±±ECTUA±S SUCH AS MIgUE± DE ¶NAmUNO AND JUAN
¼AmóN JIméNEz, WHO APP±AUDED THE FACT THAT VOICES FROm THE FORmER CO±ONIES
WERE fiNA±±Y fiNDINg THEIR P±ACE. ÓET, THAT A±mOST NO REACTION TOOk P±ACE E±SE-
292 • ch a p t er si ô t een
WHERE IN ³UROPE AND IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES—IN SPITE OF MARTí’S ExI±E IN º±ORIDA
AND ½EW ÓORk—EmPHASIzES THEIR ±ImITED SCOPE. °IS gENERATION WAS NOT READY
FOR g±OBA± STARDOm. ¹T WOU±D TAkE TImE FOR THEm TO BE SEEN EVEN AS PRECURSORS.
°E mISSINg TOO± THAT kEPT THEm AT BAY WAS TRANS±ATION. ÈHI±E THEY STRUg-
g±ED AgAINST TRITE ²PANISH mODE±S DATINg BACk TO THE ·OUNTER-¼EFORmATION AND
THE SA±VOS OF THE ²PANISH ³mPIRE AS IT ±OST CONTRO± OF THE µmERICAS THROUgHOUT
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, THE modernistas WERE INFATUATED WITH ºRENCH AND
µmERICAN ±ITERATURES. °EY TRANS±ATED THEIR FAVORITE AUTHORS INTO ²PANISH THEm-
SE±VES, OR AT ±EAST ACTIVE±Y REflECTED ON THEIR SENSIBI±ITY AND OVERA±± ImPACT: ÁRíO
CHAmPIONED THE WORk OF THE ºRENCH WRITERS ¸AU± ÍER±AINE AND ÍICTOR ÉUgO,
JOSé MARíA ÉEREDIA TRANS±ATED ÈI±±IAm ·U±±EN ÊRYANT, AND MARTí PRAISED
ÈHITmAN. ÓET THE modernistas THEmSE±VES WOU±D NOT REACH OTHER ±ANgUAgES
(ºRENCH, ³Ng±ISH, GERmAN, ¹TA±IAN), AT ±EAST NOT CONSISTENT±Y, FOR DECADES.
ÊY THE 1940S, LATIN µmERICAN POP CU±TURE REVO±VED AROUND ranchera mOV-
IES mADE IN MExICO, WITH STARS ±IkE JORgE ½EgRETE, Ó±ORES DE± ¼íO, ¸EDRO
¹NFANTE, AND MARíA ºé±Ix. °EIR AUDIENCE REACHED THE ENTIRE ²PANISH-SPEAkINg
WOR±D, FROm ÊUENOS µIRES TO LOS µNgE±ES, AS WE±± AS THE ¹BERIAN ¸ENINSU±A.
²ImU±TANEOUS±Y, RADIO SERIA±S AND INCIPIENT telenovelas, PRODUCED IN MExICO,
¸ERU, AND µRgENTINA, BECAmE PROmOTERS OF A TRANSCONTINENTA± IDENTITY. °ESE
±OWBROW WORkS WERE FERVENT±Y CONSUmED BY A±± SOCIA± C±ASSES. °E BRIDgE WAS
THE ²PANISH ±ANgUAgE AND A SHARED SENSE OF HISTORY.
ºINA±±Y, SOmETHINg DRAmATIC TOOk P±ACE ON THE g±OBA± STAgE IN THE 1950S,
A±±OWINg WRITERS FROm VARIOUS PARTS OF LATIN µmERICA TO BE SEEN AS SPOkESPER-
SONS OF THEIR WOR±DS. ÊY BECOmINg COmmODITIES, THEY TRANSFORmED THEmSE±VES
INTO INTERNATIONA± CE±EBRITIES. µﬅER ÈOR±D ÈAR ¹¹, THE ³UROPEAN NOVE±, ARgUA-
B±Y THE mOST POPU±AR OF A±± ±ITERARY gENRES AT THE TImE, APPEARED TO HAVE REACHED
A DEAD END. °E ATROCITIES COmmITTED ON ³UROPEAN BATT±EfiE±DS mADE THE CON-
TINENT SEEm ExHAUSTED, SE±F-POSSESSED, AND UNImAgINATIVE. ºIgURES ±IkE MARCE±
¸ROUST, ºRANz ÌAÿA, AND JAmES JOYCE PUB±ISHED WORkS THAT FE±T SUffOCATINg. µ±±
OF A SUDDEN, fiCTION NO ±ONgER SEEmED TO INVITE THE PUB±IC TO ESCAPE, TO DREAm
A±TERNATIVE UNIVERSES, BUT TO FEE± ENTRAPPED. ¹T WAS THEN THAT THE SO-CA±±ED °IRD
ÈOR±D EmERgED AS A FERTI±E ±ANDSCAPE. ºROm µFRICA TO THE ·ARIBBEAN, FROm µSIA
TO LATIN µmERICA, NEW kINDS OF NOVE±S OffERED VISTAS TO A±TERNATIVE REA±ITIES.
°IS IS THE VORTEx FROm WHICH ³± ÊOOm EmERgED. ¹T CANNOT TRU±Y BE
DESCRIBED AS A gENERATION, FOR ITS mEmBERS WERE BORN IN THE SPAN OF mORE THAN
TWO DECADES, BETWEEN 1914 AND 1936. ¾O SOmE ExTENT, IT SHOU±D NOT BE
DESCRIBED AS AN ExC±USIVE±Y AUTOCHTHONOUS PHENOmENON BECAUSE IT WAS IN
ÊARCE±ONA, IN THE OffiCES OF THE ±ITERARY AgENT ·ARmEN ÊA±CE±±S, WHERE THE
Ãh e Ü at i n Á Ç er ic a n Åov el • 293
CONCERTED ENTERPRISE TOOk SHAPE. µﬅER A±±, IT WAS ÊA±CE±±S WHO, SHREWD±Y REC-
OgNIzINg THE ARTISTIC TA±ENT OF ABOUT HA±F A DOzEN WRITERS, ORCHESTRATED THE
RE±EASE OF THEIR BOOkS THROUgH ²PANISH PUB±ISHERS EAgER TO fiND NEW AUDIENCES
ACROSS THE µT±ANTIC.
¹N mORE WAYS THAN ONE, ³± ÊOOm WAS AS mUCH AN OUTBURST OF TA±ENT AS IT
WAS AN EDITORIA± PHENOmENON. ¹NDEED, THE NAmE ITSE±F IS AN ³Ng±ISH-±ANgUAgE
±OANWORD THAT ±OOSE±Y EmU±ATES THE TRANSNATIONA± BONANzA OF COmPANIES ±IkE
³xxON AND ¶NITED ºRUIT THAT HAD mADE A FORTUNE IN LATIN µmERICA IN THE
fiRST HA±F OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY. ½EVER HAVINg FOUND mARkETS THAT WOU±D
mAkE BOOk DISTRIBUTION VIAB±E IN LATIN µmERICA COUNTRIES, ²PAIN fiNA±±Y REA±-
IzED A WAY TO mAkE THE BOOkS OF los boomistas AVAI±AB±E TO A mIDD±E C±ASS EAgER
TO DEfiNE ITSE±F WITHIN, AND BEYOND, NATIONA± BORDERS.
ÊA±CE±±S IS A PROVOCATIVE FOCA± POINT FOR REflECTINg ON A qUESTION ³± ÊOOm
POSED, A±BEIT INDIRECT±Y: ÈHAT ARE THE CONfiNES OF LATIN µmERICA? MIgHT
THERE TRU±Y BE SUCH A THINg AS A TRANSCONTINENTA± IDENTITY, THE E±USIVE DREAm OF
²ImóN ÊO±íVAR IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY? °IS mA±±EAB±E, OﬅEN ABUSED TERm
“LATIN µmERICA” IS USED TO REFER TO ANY NATION THAT DOESN’T ±IVE IN ³Ng±ISH (THE
¶NITED ²TATES, ·ANADA, ETC.), AND, DEPENDINg ON THE CIRCUmSTANCE, IT mIgHT
INC±UDE ÊRAzI± AS WE±± AS THE ºRANCOPHONE ·ARIBBEAN. ÓET ³± ÊOOm A±mOST
ExC±USIVE±Y CAmE FROm THE ²PANISH-SPEAkINg WOR±D. ³VEN JORgE µmADO, THE
ÊRAzI±IAN AUTHOR OF Dona Flor and Her Two Husbands (1976), SAID HE DIDN’T
qUITE fiT IN IT. ¹N FACT, ON±Y WHEN ³± ÊOOm BECAmE A mARkETINg TOO± ABROAD
DID HE AND OTHER ÊRAzI±IAN figURES SUCH AS JOöO GUImARöES ¼OSA, JOöO ¶BA±DO
¼IBEIRO, AND ½E±IDA ¸IñON BECOmE INC±UDED IN THE ±IST. °EIR BOOkS WERE A±SO
SAID TO HAVE ExOTIC E±EmENTS THAT mADE THEm PART OF THE SAmE AESTHETIC. ÊUT
THIS APPROACH CAmE AS AN AﬅERTHOUgHT.
°E WRITERS OF ³± ÊOOm, mOST OF THEm COmINg FROm AN URBAN mIDD±E- AND
UPPER-mIDD±E C±ASS, WERE ±Eﬅ-±EANINg IN THEIR PO±ITICS. µ gENERATION BEFORE,
THE LATIN µmERICAN INTE±±IgENTSIA HAD BEEN PUSHED TO DEfiNE ITS VIEWS IN REAC-
TION TO THE ²PANISH-µmERICAN ÈAR OF 1898 AND THE EmERgENCE OF THE ¶NITED
²TATES AS A g±OBA± POWER. ºIgURES ±IkE ÁRíO AND MARTí OPEN±Y ExPRESSED THEm-
SE±VES AgAINST EmPIRE, fiRST TARgETINg ²PAIN, THEN THE ¶NITED ²TATES. ¾O A ±ARgE
ExTENT, THEIR SUCCESSORS TOOk THE SAmE mANT±E. °EY FOUgHT FOR SE±F-DETERmI-
NATION AND AgAINST FOREIgN INTERVENTION. °OSE VIEWS BECAmE A STAP±E OF THEIR
TImES THROUgH mANIFESTOS, INTERVIEWS, AND mEDIA APPEARANCES.
°E PO±ITICS OF ³± ÊOOm WERE THE OUTgROWTH OF FREE-mARkET PO±ICIES
BETWEEN ³UROPE AND LATIN µmERICA, PUT IN P±ACE IN THE 1960S IN ORDER TO
ExPAND mARkETS, INC±UDINg IN THE CU±TURA± REA±m. MANY COUNTRIES IN THE
REgION AT THE TImE WERE UNDER DICTATORIA± REgImES, A mODE± THAT WOU±D REmAIN
IN P±ACE, mORE OR ±ESS CONSISTENT±Y, UNTI± THE 1980S. °ESE REgImES OﬅEN
EmBRACED CENSORSHIP, FORBIDDINg THE PUB±ICATION OF A BOOk CONSIDERED TO BE
TESTY. ²TI±±, CENSORSHIP WAS A±SO A PUB±ICITY mECHANISm: THAT WHICH WAS FORBID-
DEN BECAmE INSTANT±Y A±±URINg. ¹T IS CRUCIA± TO kEEP IN mIND THAT IN THE 1960S,
mASS mEDIA BEgAN TO DEfiNE A±± ASPECTS OF CU±TURE. ²EPARATINg THE NATIONA±
FROm THE INTERNATIONA± BECAmE INCREASINg±Y DIffiCU±T. µ BOOk APP±AUDED IN
ONE COUNTRY BECAmE A qUICk COmmODITY IN THE REST OF LATIN µmERICA BECAUSE
OF THE INCREASINg±Y EASY flOW OF INFORmATION.
³VEN IF ³± ÊOOm WAS A COmmERCIA±, AESTHETIC, AND IDEO±OgICA± PHENOmE-
NON, IT TOOk TImE FOR ITS EffECTS TO BE FE±T g±OBA±±Y. ¹N RETROSPECT, IT WAS NOT
UNTI± THE 1980S, WHEN A SERIES OF NEO±IBERA± PO±ICIES A±±OWED FOR A FREE flOW OF
mERCHANDISE AND WHEN THE REgION WAS INVO±VED IN CREATINg A UNIfiED IDENTITY
FROm SPORTS TO mUSIC THAT WAS EASY TO ExPORT, THAT THE BRUNT OF ³± ÊOOm WAS
TRU±Y FE±T. ÊY THEN ITS mEmBERS, mIDD±E-AgED, WERE TURNED INTO CE±EBRITIES.
°EIR VIEWS, OﬅEN THE fiRST TO BE HEARD ABROAD, CARRIED ENORmOUS WEIgHT.
µ NUmBER OF boomistas FOUND THEmSE±VES IN ¸ARIS IN THE 1950S. µT THE
TImE, THE mETROPO±IS WAS SEEN AS A mEETINg P±ACE FOR INTE±±ECTUA±S. °ERE, IN
²PAIN, AND THROUgH TRAVE± TO DIffERENT POINTS OF LATIN µmERICA, THEY BECAmE
ACqUAINTED WITH EACH OTHER AND DE±IBERATE±Y EmBARkED, AESTHETICA±±Y AS WE±±
AS IDEO±OgICA±±Y, ON A COmmON mISSION TO RENEW THE REgION’S ±ITERATURE. °E
fiRST NOVE± TO BECOmE A g±OBA± PHENOmENON WAS ·ORTázAR’S Hopscotch (1963),
WHICH DEA±T WITH AN ExI±E, ÉORACIO »±IVEIRA, STRANDED IN ¸ARIS. µN ExPERI-
mENTA± WORk INSPIRED BY ³ASTERN RE±IgIONS THAT ASkS THE READER TO TAkE AN
ACTIVE RO±E IN SHAPINg THE NARRATIVE ARC OF THE STORY, IT CAmE ABOUT jUST AS THE
BEATNIkS WERE gAININg ATTENTION IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES. »RIgINA±±Y PUB±ISHED
IN ÊUENOS µIRES, IT WAS qUICk±Y EmBRACED BY A YOUNg gENERATION OF READERS.
µT THE TImE ·ORTázAR WAS A DI±ETTANTE WITH A±mOST NO INTEREST IN PO±ITICS. ÓET
HIS NOVE± WAS SEEN AS A REjECTION OF THE POPU±IST PO±ITICS OF ¸ERONISm IN
µRgENTINA, WHICH OﬅEN RIDICU±ED ³UROPEANIzED IDEAS. ¹N SPITE OF ITS HEﬅY
SIzE, Hopscotch SO±D THOUSANDS OF COPIES WITHIN WEEkS OF ITS RE±EASE.
¹N qUICk SUCCESSION, A SERIES OF gROUNDBREAkINg WORkS BY ·AR±OS ºUENTES,
MARIO ÍARgAS L±OSA, µUgUSTO ¼OA ÊASTOS, GUI±±ERmO ·ABRERA ¹NFANTE, JOSé
ÓNOSO, AND OTHERS APPEARED IN BOOkSTORES. °EY RECEIVED PRIzES AND ACCO-
±ADES. ÉOWEVER, IN TERmS OF ExP±OSIVE SUCCESS Hopscotch WAS FO±±OWED BY—
AND, IN TERmS OF SA±ES, SUPERSEDED BY—GABRIE± GARCíA MáRqUEz’S One
Hundred Ãears of Solitude (1967), A gENERATIONA± TA±E WITH BIB±ICA± UNDERTONES
ABOUT A ·O±OmBIAN COASTA± TOWN. °E NOVE± COVERS THE ±IFE OF THE ÊUENDíAS,
AN OUTSIzED, IDIOSYNCRATIC FAmI±Y WITH A PENCHANT FOR ExCESS AND FOR WHOm
mEmORY IS SImU±TANEOUS±Y A RESERVOIR OF WEA±TH AND A FACTORY OF NIgHTmARES.
GARCíA MáRqUEz WAS A RE±ATIVE±Y UNkNOWN jOURNA±IST IN ExI±E IN ³UROPE
BECAUSE OF HIS CONFRONTATION WITH ·O±OmBIA’S DICTATORIA± REgImE. ÉIS BOOk,
A±SO PUB±ISHED IN ÊUENOS µIRES, BECAmE AN INSTANT BEST SE±±ER, THE AUTHOR’S
PROfi±E FEATURED ON THE COVERS OF mAgAzINES ACROSS THE CONTINENT.
¹T IS ImPORTANT TO REmEmBER THAT WHI±E fiCTION—AND THE NOVE± AS A gENRE—
WAS ENORmOUS±Y POPU±AR, LATIN µmERICA A±SO ExPRESSED ITSE±F TO THE WOR±D
THROUgH POETRY. °E INTERNATIONA±IzATION OF THE REgION IS PERHAPS DUE TO A
SINg±E POET, ¸AB±O ½ERUDA, WHOSE APPEA± NEVER APPEARS TO BE DImINISHED.
³VEN BEFORE HE TURNED TWENTY, ½EﬅA±í ¼EYES, AS HE WAS CA±±ED BEFORE HE OPTED
FOR HIS PEN NAmE, WROTE A TYPE OF POETRY THAT THE mASSES qUICk±Y EmBRACED.
µmONg HIS fiRST BOOkS WAS Twenty Love Poems and a Song of Despair (1924).
¹T CONTAINS VERSES AS FAmOUS AS THOSE OF ·ATU±±US, ÁNTE, AND ÍER±AINE. µS HE
EVO±VED, ½ERUDA BECAmE IDEO±OgICA±±Y ENgAgED, USINg POETRY AS A CONDUIT FOR
CHANgE. ÉE SOUgHT TO gIVE VOICE TO THE VOICE±ESS: THE SAI±OR, THE HOUSEWIFE, THE
POSTmAN. µND HE FOUgHT TO gIVE LATIN µmERICA A g±OBA± IDENTITY AS A CONTI-
NENT IN TOUCH WITH ITS ROOTS.
»THER POETS HAVE P±AYED A SImI±AR RO±E, A±THOUgH NONE HAS ACHIEVED
½ERUDA’S DEgREE OF ACCEPTANCE. °ESE INC±UDE ·éSAR ÍA±±EjO FROm ¸ERU, A±SO A
·OmmUNIST SYmPATHIzER, AND »CTAVIO ¸Az FROm MExICO, AN hombre de letras
WHOSE PRESENCE ENAB±ED A DIA±OgUE BETWEEN THE REgION AND CU±TURES FROm
AROUND THE g±OBE. ÍA±±EjO DIED IN ¸ARIS WHI±E THE ²PANISH ·IVI± ÈAR WAS TAk-
INg P±ACE. ¸Az ±IVED INTO HIS EIgHTIES, RECEIVINg THE ½OBE± ¸RIzE IN 1990.
½EITHER OF THEm BE±ONgED TO ³± ÊOOm, YET THEIR WORk REDEfiNED LATIN
µmERICA, mAkINg IT ±ESS PAROCHIA±.
°E TERm “mAgICA± REA±ISm” IS A mISTRANS±ATION OF µ±EjO ·ARPENETIER’S lo
real maravilloso, WHICH IS HOW HE DESCRIBED, IN THE PRO±OgUE TO °e Kingdom
of °is World (1949), WHAT HE SAW DURINg A VISIT TO ÉAITI, WHERE THIS NOVE± IS
SET. µT THE TImE, SURREA±ISm WAS THE FASHION IN ºRENCH CIRC±ES. ¹N ·ARPENTIER’S
VIEW, ÉAITIAN ±IFE WAS mORE PRImA± THAN SURREA±ISm IN ITS COmBINATION OF THE
ROUgH, UNAffECTED BY CIVI±IzATION, AND ITS UNCONSCIOUS ±ANgUAgE. °E RESU±T
WAS AN UNADU±TERATED DIA±OgUE BETWEEN DREAmS AND AWARENESS, BETWEEN REA±-
ITY AND mAgIC. ¶PON THE SUCCESS OF One Hundred Ãears of Solitude THAT COm-
BINATION BECAmE, IN THE OPINION OF CRITICS IN ³UROPE AND THE ¶NITED ²TATES,
THE SINE qUA NON OF LATIN µmERICAN CU±TURE.
°ERE IS A FORERUNNER TO ³± ÊOOm WHOSE OEUVRE OPENED THE ROAD TO g±OBA±I-
zATION: JORgE LUIS ÊORgES. ÊORN AT THE END OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, ÊORgES
WAS INVO±VED IN SEVERA± ARTISTIC mOVEmENTS THAT PUSHED LATIN µmERICAN ±ITERA-
TURE BEYOND ITS BORDERS, AmONg THEm Ultraísmo. ¶P UNTI± THE ±ATE 1950S,
ÊORgES WAS THE PROPERTY OF A SmA±± gROUP OF DEVOTED READERS. ÉIS POEmS, STO-
RIES, AND ESSAYS HAD BEgUN TO BE TRANS±ATED, mOST±Y INTO ºRENCH. ÓET HE WAS STI±±
A ±OCA± AUTHOR. ²EVERA± boomistas DISCOVERED HIm IN THE PAgES OF THE mAgAzINE
Sur, BUT IN 1961, ÊORgES WAS THE RECIPIENT OF THE ¹NTERNATIONA± ¸UB±ISHER’S
¸RIzE, TOgETHER WITH ²AmUE± ÊECkETT, WHICH RESU±TED IN THE ImmEDIATE RENDER-
INg OF HIS WORk INTO VARIOUS ³UROPEAN ±ANgUAgES. ¹T IS PRECISE±Y AT THAT mOmENT,
jUST AS ³± ÊOOm WAS ABOUT TO BE ±AUNCHED, THAT ÊORgE’S Ficciones (1944) STARTED
TO BECOmE UBIqUITOUS IN ÈESTERN ·IVI±IzATION, A CANONICA± VOICE DEfiNINg NOT
ON±Y LATIN µmERICAN ±ITERATURE BUT POSTmODERN ±ETTERS IN gENERA±.
µ±mOST BY OSmOSIS, THE TERm “mAgICA± REA±ISm” BECAmE ATTACHED TO ÊORgES,
WHOSE ImPACT HAS BEEN mANIFO±D. ¹N SPITE OF HIS B±INDNESS, HE REPRESENTS TIRE-
±ESS READINg. ÉE A±SO PERSONIfiES THE DRIVE TOWARD REmEmBERINg EVERYTHINg,
TOWARD FOSTERINg A mEmORY WITHOUT BOUNDARIES. »NE OF HIS qUINTESSENTIA±
STORIES IS “ºUNES, THE MEmORIOUS,” ABOUT A ¶RUgUAYAN WHOSE CAPACITY OF TOTA±
RECA±± TURNS HIm INTO A mONSTER. µNOTHER CRUCIA± PIECE IS “°E µ±EPH,” ±UCID±Y
DESCRIBINg A mAgICA± OBjECT, FOUND IN A ÊUENOS µIRES BASEmENT, CAPAB±E OF
CONTAININg THE ENTIRE UNIVERSE A±± AT ONCE. °E ImP±ICATION IS THAT µRgENTINA,
AND NO ±ONgER ³UROPE, IS WHERE ART IS TO BE FOUND. µmONg ÊORgES’S mOST CE±-
EBRATED TA±ES IS “¸IERRE MENARD, µUTHOR OF THE Éuixote,” IN WHICH HE CONjURES
A ºRENCH SYmBO±IST AUTHOR COmmITTED TO A SINg±E mISSION: REWRITINg—THOUgH
NOT COPYINg—PORTIONS OF ·ERVANTES’S Don Éuixote. ¹T IS ExTRAORDINARI±Y
INflUENTIA± IN THAT IT SUggESTS, AmONg OTHER THINgS, THAT READINg AND NOT WRIT-
INg IS WHAT ±ITERATURE IS ABOUT, AND THAT ORIgINA±ITY IS NOT ABOUT NEWNESS.
²UCH IS ÊORgES’S ImPACT THAT IT IS ImPOSSIB±E TO CONCEIVE OF WRITERS ±IkE JOHN
ÊARTH, ¹TA±O ·A±VINO, AND ÁNI±O ÌIš WITHOUT HIm. ÓET HE WAS NOT THE ON±Y
PRECURSOR TO ³± ÊOOm. µNOTHER ImPORTANT VOICE WHOSE INflUENCE REACHES
BEYOND LATIN µmERICA IS JUAN ¼U±FO, AUTHOR OF °e Plain in Flames (1953).
¶N±IkE ÊORgES, WHO WAS A COSmOPO±ITAN, ¼U±FO CAmE FROm A POOR FAmI±Y IN
THE MExICAN STATE OF JA±ISCO, WHICH WAS DEVASTATED BY THE ¼EVO±UTION OF 1910.
ÉIS STORIES ARE ABOUT DEPRIVATION, ABOUT THE PRIDE OF PEOP±E WITHOUT THE BASIC
NECESSITIES IN ±IFE. °ROUgH HIS fiCTION (¼U±FO A±SO WROTE THE NOVE± Pedro
Páramo [1955]), HE REACHED ·HINESE, ÊRAzI±IAN, AND µFRICAN READERS, SHOWCAS-
INg AN ASPECT OF LATIN µmERICA—ITS RURA± ±IFE, BARED TO THE BONE IN TERmS OF
POSSESSIONS—THAT A±±OWED FOR ANOTHER FORm OF UNIVERSA±ISm: SUffERINg.
ºOR ³± ÊOOm AND ITS PRECURSORS TO HAVE A g±OBA± REACH, ONE CHIEF FACTOR
NEEDS TO BE UNDERSTOOD: TRANS±ATION. GARCíA MáRqUEz OﬅEN SAID THAT FOR A
·O±OmBIAN WRITER TO BE APP±AUDED IN ÊOgOTá, HE fiRST NEEDED TO BE READ IN
½EW ÓORk. ¹NDEED, IT WAS THANkS TO TRANS±ATION THAT, AS »CTAVIO ¸Az ONCE PUT
IT, “LATIN µmERICANS WERE INVITED TO THE BANqUET OF ÈESTERN CIVI±IzATION.”
°E TORCHBEARER AmONg TRANS±ATORS INTO ³Ng±ISH, ONE WHOSE WORk DEfi NED THE
fiE±D, WAS GREgORY ¼ABASSA, AN µmERICAN OF ¸ORTUgUESE DESCENT.* ²OON AﬅER
IT APPEARED IN ÊUENOS µIRES, ÉARPER & ¼OW OffERED HIm One Hundred Ãears
of Solitude. ÈORkINg C±OSE±Y WITH GARCíA MáRqUEz, HIS RENDITION OF THE NOVE±
WAS ENTHUSIASTICA±±Y RECEIVED BY µmERICAN READERS. °E AUTHOR HImSE±F EVEN
SAID THE TRANS±ATION WAS SUPERIOR TO THE ORIgINA±. ¼ABASSA A±SO TRANS±ATED
·ORTázAR’S Hopscotch, AmONg OTHER WORkS FROm ³± ÊOOm.
µmERICAN PUB±ISHERS, EAgER TO SEE THESE NOVE±S BECOmE COmmERCIA±±Y SUC-
CESSFU±, PUT ¼ABASSA AND OTHERS TO WORk ON OTHER LATIN µmERICAN WORkS.
¶N±IkE THE TRANS±ATORS OF ·ERVANTES’S Don Éuixote, WHO UNTI± THE 1950S WERE
ÊRITISH, A±± THOSE INVO±VED IN WORkINg WITH THE FASHIONAB±E LATIN µmERICAN
WRITERS WERE FROm THE ¶NITED ²TATES, INC±UDINg ³DITH GROSSmAN, ²UzANNE JI±±
LEVINE, AND µ±FRED MAC µDAm, AmONg OTHERS. ¹N SOmE CASES, IT WAS THEY WHO
BROUgHT THE NOVE±S TO THE ATTENTION OF PUB±ISHERS. ¹N ANY CASE, THANkS TO THESE
RENDITIONS, ³± ÊOOm BECAmE A g±OBA± gOOD. °E WRITERS WERE FREqUENT±Y
INVITED TO ±ECTURE AT UNIVERSITIES AND TO WRITE OP-ED PIECES FOR NEWSPAPERS ±IkE
THE New Ãork Times. °E fi±m RIgHTS OF THEIR NOVE±S WERE ACqUIRED BY
ÉO±±YWOOD AND OTHER mEDIA INSTITUTIONS, AND ·ORTázAR’S SHORT STORY “Ê±OW
¶P” WAS TURNED INTO AN EPOCH-mAkINg mOVIE (1966) BY THE ¹TA±IAN DIRECTOR
MICHE±ANgE±O µNTONIONI. LIkEWISE, ÍARgAS L±OSA’S NOVE± Aunt Julia and the
Scriptwriter WAS ADAPTED FOR fi±m (1990), SET IN ½EW »R±EANS WITH ¸ETER ºA±k.
µNTHONY ëUINN AND ºRANCIS ºORD ·OPPO±A TRIED WITHOUT SUCCESS TO ACqUIRE
THE RIgHTS FOR One Hundred Ãears of Solitude. ¹N THE END, GARCíA MáRqUEz DID
SE±± Love in the Time of Cholera (1985), WHICH WAS fi±mED WITH THE ²PANISH
ACTOR JAVIER ÊARDEm.
°E ImPACT OF TRANS±ATION mUST BE SEEN UNDER ANOTHER ±ENS. ÈHEN AN
AUTHOR kNOWS HIS WORk WI±± AUTOmATICA±±Y BE TRANS±ATED INTO OTHER
±ANgUAgES—AND, ON OCCASION, IT WI±± APPEAR IN ONE OF THOSE OTHER ±ANgUAgES
BEFORE IT DOES IN THE ²PANISH ORIgINA±—SUDDEN±Y HIS TARgET READER IS PART OF A
* ¼ABASSA IS A ·ATA±AN SURNAmE. ¼ABASSA’S PATERNA± gRANDPARENTS WERE ·ATA±AN AND ·UBAN
(A±SO OF ·ATA±AN DESCENT), AND HIS FATHER gREW UP IN ·UBA. ÉIS mATERNA± gRANDPARENTS WERE
FROm THE ¶NITED ²TATES (SURNAmE MACFAR±AND) AND ³Ng±AND, AND HIS mOTHER gREW UP IN ½EW
ÓORk ·ITY. ¼ABASSA ±EARNED ¸ORTUgUESE (AND mOST OF HIS ²PANISH) IN HIgH SCHOO±. ²EE ¼ABASSA’S
mEmOIRS, If °is Be Treason: Translation and Its Dyscontents (½EW ÓORk: ½EW ÍRECTIONS,
2005), 29, 33.
±ARgER COmmUNITY OF NATIONS. ¹N OTHER WORDS, TRANS±ATION PUSHED AUTHORS TO
THINk OF THEmSE±VES IN ±ESS PAROCHIA±, mORE AmBITIOUS TERmS, AS CITIzENS OF THE
ENTIRE WOR±D. °IS mEANS THAT ±ITERATURE NO ±ONgER SITS EASI±Y IN NATIONA± ±ITER-
ARY TRADITIONS BUT, INSTEAD, IS AN ITEm FOR ±ARgE-SCA±E SUPP±Y.
¹N ANA±YzINg THE CAREER OF boomistas ±IkE GARCíA MáRqUEz AND ÍARgAS
L±OSA, IT IS POSSIB±E TO STATE, WITH PRECISION, THE mOmENT THEY WENT g±OBA±. ¹N
THE CASE OF THE FORmER, THIS TRANSITION TOOk P±ACE IN 1982, FO±±OWINg THE PUB-
±ICATION OF Chronicle of a Death Foretold. ºROm THAT mOmENT ON, GARCíA
MáRqUEz’S WORk NO ±ONgER SEEmED DESTINED ExC±USIVE±Y FOR A ²PANISH-±ANgUAgE
PUB±IC. ¹N THE CASE OF THE ±ATTER, IT HAPPENED WITH °e War of the End of the
World (1981), WHEN ÍARgAS L±OSA WENT BEYOND ¸ERU TO fiND HIS SUBjECT mATTER
IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY ÊRAzI±, IN THE UPRISINg OF A gROUP OF FANATICS THAT TESTS
THE qUESTION OF ÊRAzI±IANNESS. °ESE STRATAgEmS mADE THE LATIN µmERICAN
NOVE± INTERNATIONA± mERCHANDISE.
ºOR A WHI±E THERE WAS A gROUP OF LATIN µmERICAN WOmEN AUTHORS WHOSE
STY±E DEPENDED ON REFASHIONINg THE AESTHETICS OF ³± ÊOOm. °EY INC±UDE
¹SABE± µ±±ENDE, AUTHOR OF °e House of the Spirits (1982), A FAmI±Y SAgA THAT
RESEmB±ES THAT OF THE ÊUENDíAS, AND LAURA ³SqUIVE±, WHOSE NOVE± Like Water
for Chocolate (1989) USED A kITCHEN ON THE ¶.².-MExICO BORDER TO mIx INgRE-
DIENTS AS STEAmY AS SEx AND mAgIC. ÈHY WOmEN jOINED THE FRAY RATHER ±ATE IS
THE RESU±T OF A VARIETY OF FACTORS, INC±UDINg THE RISE AND CONSO±IDATION OF FEmI-
NISm IN mETROPO±ITAN CENTERS ±IkE ÊUENOS µIRES, MExICO ·ITY, ²ANTIAgO, AND
ÊOgOTá IN THE 1970S, AS WE±± AS THE READINESS OF THE ±ITERARY mARkETS TO SATISFY
AN INTERNATIONA± HUNgER FOR A mORE NUANCED, mU±TIFACETED DEPICTION OF gEN-
DER RE±ATIONS IN THE REgION. °ERE WERE A±SO ±ATE ADDITIONS, SUCH AS MANUE±
¸UIg, THE µRgENTINE AUTHOR OF Kiss of the Spider Woman (1976), AND, FROm
¸UERTO ¼ICO, ¼OSARIO ºERRé, WHO ±ATER IN ±IFE WOU±D SWITCH FROm ²PANISH TO
³Ng±ISH IN NOVE±S ±IkE °e House on the Lagoon (1995), THUS INSERTINg HERSE±F
IN ANOTHER IDENTITY PARAmETER: LATINOS IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES. µ±± OF THESE
WORkS ENCOURAgE AN UNDERSTANDINg OF 1960S ±ITERARY WORkS THROUgH THE PRISm
OF gENDER. ÈHI±E A±mOST A±± OF THE mEmBERS OF ³± ÊOOm WERE mEN, WE mUST
REmEmBER THAT WOmEN DID NOT ENTER THE ±ABOR POO± IN FU±± FORCE IN LATIN
µmERICA, EVEN IN THE CU±TURA± REA±m, UNTI± THE 1970S.
µ YOUNgER CROP OF AUTHORS HAS EmERgED IN LATIN µmERICA, ONE WHOSE PRO-
fi±E IS HEAVI±Y DEfiNED BY ³± ÊOOm. MEmBERS OF THE NExT gENERATION—ÉORACIO
·ASTE±±ANOS MOYA, µNDRéS ½EUmAN, ¹gNACIO ¸ADI±±A, ³DmUNDO ¸Az ²O±áN,
JUAN ÍI±±ORO, AND JORgE ÍO±PI, AmONg OTHERS—HAVE STRUgg±ED TO DISTANCE
THEmSE±VES FROm A TYPE OF ±ITERATURE THAT, IN THEIR VIEW, SImP±IfiES THE REgION
RATHER THAN mAkINg IT COmP±Ex. ¹N A REFUTATION OF mAgICA± REA±ISm, THEY HAVE
BUI±T THEIR OEUVRE AS HYPERREA±IST, EmPHASIzINg DRUgS, mUSIC, VIDEO gAmES,
AND ExCESS IN THE URBAN mI±IEU WHERE THEIR NOVE±S ARE SET. MANY HAVE SET THEIR
P±OTS AS FAR FROm LATIN µmERICA AS POSSIB±E, SAY, ³UROPE DURINg ÈOR±D ÈAR
¹¹, AS IN ÍO±PI’S In Search of Klingsor (1999).
µRgUAB±Y THE mOST INTERESTINg—AS WE±± AS THE mOST PO±EmICA±—POST-
ÊOOm AUTHOR WHOSE WORk HAS REDEfiNED LATIN µmERICAN ±ITERATURE IS ¼OBERTO
ÊO±AñO, WHO DIED IN 2003, AT THE AgE OF fiﬅY. µ±THOUgH HE WAS BORN IN ·HI±E,
HE ±IVED IN MExICO AND ²PAIN AND DIgESTED µRgENTINE ±ITERATURE TO SUCH A
DEgREE THAT HIS OEUVRE IS TRU±Y INTERNATIONA±, NOT ON±Y FROm A mARkETINg PER-
SPECTIVE, BUT A±SO IN ITS CONTENT. ÉE IS BEST kNOWN FOR THE NOVE± °e Savage
Detectives (1996), WHICH IS SET IN MExICO AND USES A MExICAN ²PANISH THAT IS
UTTER±Y AUTHENTIC. ¹N FACT, THE BOOk mIgHT BE DESCRIBED AS THE BEST MExICAN
NOVE± OF THE END OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY, A BIzARRE CHANgE OF gEARS IN THAT IT
ANNOUNCED THAT THE ±OCA± NO ±ONgER BE±ONgS TO THE ±OCA±S.
ÊO±AñO WROTE STORIES ±IkE “°E ¹NSUffERAB±E GAUCHO” (2003) THAT DO THE
SAmE WITH µRgENTINE ±ITERATURE, OffERINg AN UTTER±Y ORIgINA± REREADINg OF
ÊORgES AND ·ORTázAR. µND IN HIS NOVE±±A By Night in Chile (2000), HE UPSETS
·HI±EAN ±ETTERS BY SUggESTINg THAT THE ¸INOCHET E±ITE CREATED AN AESTHETICS
THAT EVEN THE LEﬅ WHO±EHEARTED±Y EmBRACED. °ESE AND OTHER STRATEgIES mADE
ÊO±AñO AN ENFANT TERRIB±E. °EY A±SO TURNED HIm INTO AN INSTANT SUCCESS IN
³UROPE AND THE ¶NITED ²TATES, WHERE HIS BOOkS, IN TRANS±ATION, BECAmE THE
SUBjECT OF FESTIVA±S AND THE STAP±E OF CREATIVE WRITINg PROgRAmS. °ROUgHOUT
HIS OEUVRE, ÊO±AñO, IN ExP±ICIT AND SUBT±E WAYS, mAkES A CRITIqUE OF ³± ÊOOm:
HE ACCUSES THE mOVEmENT OF TURNINg LATIN µmERICA INTO A FACTORY OF kITSCH,
COmP±ETE WITH C±AIRVOYANT PROSTITUTES, FORgOTTEN CO±ONE±S, AND EPIDEmICS OF
INSOmNIA. ÉIS ARgUmENT IS THAT IN SEEkINg INTERNATIONA±IzATION THE mEmBERS
OF THAT gENERATION SO±D THEIR SOU± TO THE DEVI±. ÓET ÊO±AñO ±OVES THE DEVI±: HE
WOU±D HAVE DONE THE SAmE.
ÈHEN GARCíA MáRqUEz WAS AWARDED THE ½OBE± ¸RIzE IN 1982, IT SEEmED ³±
ÊOOm WAS AT THE CENTER OF INTERNATIONA± CU±TURA± AffAIRS. °EN, WHEN HIS
ONETImE-FRIEND ÍARgAS L±OSA A±SO WAS AWARDED IT IN 2010, THE ImPRESSION WAS
THAT THIS gENERATION HAD REDEfiNED THE WOR±D IN INCISIVE WAYS, mAkINg LATIN
µmERICA FASHIONAB±E. ÊUT SUCCESS HAS ITS DISADVANTAgES. ¹N THE TWENTY-fiRST
CENTURY, THE REgION IS NO ±ONgER SEEN AS AWkWARD AND UNDERDEVE±OPED.
¹NSTEAD, LATIN µmERICA IS PERCEIVED AS fiNDINg A DE±ICATE BA±ANCE BETWEEN ITS
mU±TIP±E, AT TImES DISPARATE qUA±ITIES. ¹N THE DRIVE TO BECOmE INTERNATIONA±,
THE FEE±INg PERSISTS THAT IT IS IN THE PROCESS OF ±OSINg ITS INTEgRITY AND THAT IT IS
BECOmINg ±IkE THE REST OF THE WOR±D AS IT STRESSES ITS UNIqUENESS AS A TOURIST
ATTRACTION. °AT IS THE DRAWBACk OF INTERNATIONA±IzATION.
ÌºY ¿µ¶º¾
1963: ¸UB±ICATION OF Rayuela, BY JU±IO ·ORTázAR.

1967: Cien años de soledad, BY GABRIE± GARCíA MáRqUEz. ¾RANS±ATED INTO
³Ng±ISH BY GREgORY ¼ABASSA IN 1970.
1982: GABRIE± GARCíA MáRqUEz WINS THE ½OBE± ¸RIzE FOR LITERATURE.
1986: JORgE LUIS ÊORgES DIES IN GENEVA, ²WITzER±AND.
1990: »CTAVIO ¸Az WINS THE ½OBE± ¸RIzE IN LITERATURE.
2010: MARIO ÍARgAS L±OSA WINS THE ½OBE± ¸RIzE IN LITERATURE.
²TAVANS, ¹±AN
2010 A Critic’s Journey. µNN µRBOR: ¶NIVERSITY OF MICHIgAN ¸RESS.
2010 Gabriel García MárQuez: °e Early Ãears. ½EW ÓORk: ¸A±gRAVE.
²TAVANS, ¹±AN, ED.
1997 °e Oxford Book of Latin American Essays. ½EW ÓORk: »xFORD ¶NIVERSITY
¸RESS.
2012 °e FSG Book of Twentieth-Century Latin American Poetry. ½EW ÓORk:
ºARRAR, ²TRAUS AND GIROUx.
seventeen
¾RAVE±INg ME±ODRAmA
¶º²º¸³Êº²µ¾ and eôportin¿ southern
Çoralities; or, how can soÇethin¿ so bad
still be so ¿oodÕ
O. Hugo Benavides
Ãhe èoKe that traversed THE µRAB WOR±D FOR A WHI±E IN THE ±ATE 1990S
WENT SOmETHINg ±IkE THIS: °E mAN RETURNS HOmE AﬅER A ±ONg DAY AT WORk. °E
WIFE RESPONDS TO HIm IN C±ASSICA± µRABIC, TO WHICH HE SAYS, WHAT, YOU ARE
SPEAkINg MExICAN NOW? °IS jOkE REFERRED TO THE FACT THAT MExICAN telen-
ovelas HAD BECOmE THE RAgE IN ³gYPT AND THROUgHOUT THE µRAB WOR±D. ºOR THE
PRODUCERS, THE DISTRIBUTION TO EACH µRAB COUNTRY PRESENTED A ±INgUISTIC NIgHT-
mARE THAT THEY SO±VED qUITE EffiCIENT±Y. µ±± THE telenovelas (INC±UDINg NON-
MExICAN ONES) WERE DUBBED IN C±ASSICA± µRABIC. ° IS ImmEDIATE±Y BROUgHT A
WHO±E RANgE OF ISSUES TO THE FOREFRONT, WHICH HIgH±IgHTS LATIN µmERICA’S CON-
TRIBUTION TO g±OBA±IzATION. °EY A±SO A±±OW US TO RETHINk THE RO±E OF mEDIA IN
DIffERENT PARTS OF THE WOR±D, ±IkE THAT OF THE µRAB-SPEAkINg WOR±D, AND THE
mANNER IN WHICH CU±TURE AND COmmODIfiCATION ARE INTRICATE±Y INTERTWINED IN
THE CONTEmPORARY PRODUCTION OF g±OBA± mARkETS, AND VICE VERSA. ¹N THEIR g±O-
BA± TRAjECTORY telenovelas HAVE A±SO, A±BEIT UNCONSCIOUS±Y AND UNWITTINg±Y,
SUCCESSFU±±Y CONNECTED mYRIAD g±OBA± (²OUTH) COmmUNITIES THAT, A±THOUgH
gEOgRAPHICA±±Y DISPERSED AND ±INgUISTICA±±Y DIVERSE, IDENTIFY WITH THE SImP±IS-
TIC REA±ITIES ExPRESSED THROUgH THE LATIN µmERICAN mE±ODRAmA.
LATIN µmERICAN telenovelas ARE VERY DIffERENT FROm ½ORTH µmERICAN ONES,
PARTICU±AR±Y BECAUSE THEY HAVE SHORTER PRODUCTION RUNS (NORmA±±Y BETWEEN SIx
AND EIgHT mONTHS) AND THE BEST ONES AIR DURINg PRImE TImE. ¸ERHAPS IT IS THESE
CHARACTERISTICS THAT CONTRIBUTED TO THEm BECOmINg A g±OBA± COmmODITY OVER
THE PAST FOUR DECADES. °E TE±ENOVE±AS DISCUSSED HERE, Los ricos tambien lloran
(°E ¼ICH µ±SO ·RY), Ão soy Betty, la fea (±ITERA±±Y, “¹ µm ÊETTY, THE ¶g±Y”)
AND Íica (XICA), AmONg mANY OTHERS, HAVE BEEN SUCCESSFU±±Y ExPORTED
THROUgHOUT THE WOR±D, BECOmINg INDISCRImINATE AmBASSADORS OF LATIN
302
µmERICAN CU±TURE. °ESE RAgS-TO-RICHES SOAP OPERAS HAVE, NOT SURPRISINg±Y,
FURTHER CONTRIBUTED TO ENHANCE LATIN mE±ODRAmATIC E±EmENTS OF ROmANCE
AND SEx, DRUg CU±TURE, AND COmP±Ex FAmI±Y DYNAmICS THE WOR±D OVER. °EY
HAVE g±OBA±IzED, AND g±AmORIzED, LATIN µmERICAN NOTIONS OF WHAT IT mEANS
TO ±OVE, SUCCEED, AND BE POWERFU±.
Telenovelas HAVE A VERY RECENT HISTORY IN THE µmERICAS, YET FROm THEIR
ImPACT IT WOU±D SEEm THAT THEY HAVE BEEN A±WAYS PART OF LATIN µmERICAN
CU±TURE. °EY DID NOT mAkE THEIR APPEARANCE IN ²OUTH µmERICA UNTI± THE EAR±Y
1960S, WHEN TE±EVISION ENTERED THE LATIN µmERICAN mARkET. °IS mARkET
ExP±OSION, HOWEVER, WAS PREfigURED IN radio-novelas (RADIO SOAP OPERAS) AND
folletines (PAmPH±ET±IkE NOVE±S) FROm SEVERA± DECADES BEFORE, THE ±ATTER COmINg
INTO ExISTENCE AS EAR±Y AS THE TURN OF THE CENTURY IN THE 1900S. °US telenovelas
INHERITED THE STRUCTURE OF THE mE±ODRAmA FROm BOTH OF THESE VISUA± AND AURA±
mEDIA AND FUSED THEm INTO ONE INCREDIB±Y POWERFU± mEDIUm OF LATIN
µmERICAN POPU±AR CU±TURA± REPRESENTATION. ²INCE THE 1960S telenovelas HAVE
HAD AN ImPORTANT ImPACT ON PEOP±E’S DAI±Y ±IFE, AS THEY DRAmATICA±±Y PORTRAY
SUCH CONTROVERSIA± ISSUES AS I±±EgITImATE CHI±DREN, mISP±ACED IDENTITY, THE BUR-
DEN OF SOCIA± CONVENTIONS, AmOROUS REjECTION, AND THE EVER PRODUCTIVE NOTION
OF FORBIDDEN DESIRES, SExUA± AND OTHERWISE.
¹T IS A TESTAmENT TO THE telenovela’S SUCCESS THAT mANY OF THE P±OT ±INES ARE
REUSED OR THAT A TE±ENOVE±A WI±± BE REBROADCAST IN DIffERENT COUNTRIES AﬅER BEINg
ADAPTED TO ±OCA± DIA±ECTS AND CU±TURES. °IS TRANSNATIONA± E±EmENT IS ON±Y
HEIgHTENED BY THE INCREDIB±E ExPORT SUCCESS OF TE±ENOVE±AS THROUgHOUT THE
µmERICAS (INC±UDINg THE ¶NITED ²TATES) AND THE WOR±D. µND SUCH g±OBA± INTERAC-
TION HAS ±ED SOmE TO ARgUE THAT mE±ODRAmA mIgHT BE THE mOST SUCCESSFU±, POPU-
±AR, AND CU±TURA±±Y AUTHENTIC REVO±UTION AffECTINg THE CONTINENT SINCE THE 1960S.
»F COURSE, IT IS THIS PRODUCTIVE TENSION BETWEEN THE ±OCA± CONTExT AND tel-
enovelas THAT mARkS THE DIffERENCE BETWEEN ±OCA±/NATIONA± CONTExTS AND THE
g±OBA±/TRANSNATIONA± PROCESSES. ¹N THE mEANWHI±E THESE ±OCA±-g±OBA± TENSIONS
A±SO HE±P EmPHASIzE A CONNECTION BETWEEN °IRD ÈOR±D NATIONS THAT CONTIN-
UES TO fiND FORmS OF ExPRESSION IN THESE LATIN µmERICAN mE±ODRAmATIC PRO-
DUCTIONS. °EREFORE THE TRANSNATIONA± SUCCESS OF THESE NATIONA± VENTURES
PUSHES US TO ASk: ÈHAT ARE THE ±OCA± AND g±OBA± CU±TURA± ExPRESSIONS THAT
A±±OW THESE OVER-THE-TOP mE±ODRAmAS TO BE READI±Y UNDERSTOOD IN SUCH CON-
TRASTINg NATIONA± CONTExTS? ÉOW DO THESE TRAVE±INg mE±ODRAmAS REASSERT THEIR
IDENTITY AS LATIN µmERICAN PRODUCTIONS WHI±E STI±± HAVINg A DRAmATIC ImPACT
ON THEIR NEWFOUND AUDIENCES? »R PERHAPS EVEN mORE SUCCINCT±Y, HOW CAN
SOmETHINg SO BAD BE SO gOOD?
Ã r av eli n¿ Ö elodr a Ç a • 303

°IS CHAPTER, mOST SIgNIfiCANT±Y, REFERS TO THE BASIC E±EmENTS THAT telen-
ovelas REPRESENT, AND HOW THEY CREATE A COmmUNITY OF VIEWERS WOR±DWIDE,
PARTICU±AR±Y IN THE °IRD ÈOR±D. °E CHAPTER A±SO ASSESSES THE CU±TURA± E±E-
mENTS IN THESE TE±ENOVE±AS, WHICH RESPOND TO BOTH mODERN FORmS OF CAPITA±
AND g±OBA±IzATION AND THUS CONTRIBUTE TO CREATE DIffERENT IDEAS ABOUT WHAT IT
mEANS TO BE LATIN µmERICAN.
¶º²º¸³Êº²µ¾ and ¿lobal consuÇption
µ TE±±INg E±EmENT IN THE telenovela’S SUCCESS IS THE RO±E THAT gUI±TY P±EASURE
P±AYS IN THE mE±ODRAmA’S POWERFU± REPRESENTATION. ºOR STARTERS, telenovelas ARE
STEREOTYPICA±±Y REPRESENTED AS REflECTINg ON±Y PART OF THE ±OCA± AUDIENCE’S
SOCIA± mAkEUP: WOmEN AND POOR AND WORkINg-C±ASS PEOP±E. ÉOWEVER, FROm
THE VERY BEgINNINg THE ACTUA± ECONOmIC SUCCESSES OF THE telenovelas AS WE±± AS
THE ±ASTINg CU±TURA± ImPACT OF mANY OF THEm REflECT qUITE A CONTRARY SOCIA±
PICTURE.
°ERE ARE NO DOUBTS THAT EVERYBODY, mEN AND WOmEN, AS WE±± AS THE POOR
AND RICH, ARE WI±±INg CONSUmERS OF telenovelas AND POSITIVE±Y RESPOND TO THE
SEDUCTIVE ImAgES PRESENTED TO THEm ON THE SCREEN. °E FACT THAT telenovelas
ARE REPRESENTED AS ±OW-C±ASS ENTERTAINmENT WITH ±ITT±E CU±TURA± CONTENT ON±Y
HEIgHTENS THE VIEWER’S gUI±TY P±EASURE OF FEE±INg THEY ARE ENjOYINg SOmETHINg
THEY SHOU±D NOT BE, AND IN THAT mANNER CROSSINg I±±ICIT±Y INTO SOCIA± mORES
THAT HAVE BEEN HISTORICA±±Y DENIED TO THEm.
Telenovelas, IN THIS mANNER, A±±OW VIEWERS TO INHABIT THE C±OSED SOCIA±
±ANDSCAPE OF WEA±TH, POWER, AND STATUS THAT HAS BEEN SYSTEmATICA±±Y OUTSIDE OF
THE mAjORITY OF THE POPU±ATIONS’ REACH. ÓET THE SEDUCTIVE mANNER IN WHICH
THESE STRUgg±ES ARE REPRESENTED ON±Y REIFY THESE C±OSED CIRCUITS OF STATUS AND
HIERARCHY THAT ARE ExACT±Y WHAT BOTH INCITE AND REPE± THE mAjORITY OF VIEWERS
AND C±INCH THE telenovelas’ POPU±AR SUCCESS. °IS IS A±SO WHY ±ARgE HISTORICA±
EVENTS HAVE BEEN SUCCESSFU±±Y REPRESENTED THROUgH telenovelas (INC±UDINg THE
MExICAN ¼EVO±UTION, POST–WOR±D WAR ³UROPEAN mIgRATION TO THE µmERICAS,
ETC.). ¹N mANY REgARDS mANY OF THESE EPIC PRODUCTIONS HAVE A±±OWED EACH
NATION IN THE µmERICAS TO USE IT TO REflECT UPON THEIR OWN HISTORICA±, SOCIA±,
AND CU±TURA± FORmATION.
¾O THIS EffECT, DESIRE, SExUA± ATTRACTION, AND AN OBSESSIVE ATTACHmENT TO
THE »THER ARE PART OF telenovelas’ CENTRA± OBjECT OR THEmE. LOVE, PARTICU±AR±Y
A kIND OF FORBIDDEN, TRANSgRESSIVE ±OVE, WI±± A±WAYS BE AT THE HEART OF THE
304 • ch a p t er sev en t een

telenovela’S mAIN P±OT. °IS PARTICU±AR SENTImENT HAS TRADITIONA±±Y BEEN
ExPRESSED IN A HETEROSExUA± gUISE REPRESENTED BY THE CONflICT BETWEEN A
YOUNgER (DARkER) WOmAN IN ±OVE WITH A mORE SUCCESSFU± (WHITE) mAN. ÉOWEVER,
THIS HETEROSExUA±, RACIA±, AND C±ASS FACADE HAS PROVED INSTRUmENTA± IN A±±OWINg
A HOST OF OTHER EmOTIONA± AND SOCIA± CHARACTERISTICS TO BE SUCCESSFU±±Y TRANS-
±ATED ON THE TE±EVISION SCREEN. °E STOCk CHARACTERS OF SUBSERVIENT mAIDS,
EmP±OYEES, OR EVEN S±AVES, AND THEmES OF RACIA± AND NATIONA± DIVIDES, INC±UDINg
PERVERSE SExUA± DESIRES, HAVE BEEN INCORPORATED INTO WHAT WOU±D SEEm, AT ±EAST
ON THE OUTSET, AS A SImP±IfiED VERSION OF LATIN µmERICAN SOCIETY.
ÓET IT IS THIS EmPHASIS ON THE POPU±AR CU±TURA± ASPECTS, AS OPPOSED TO ARIS-
TOCRATIC STORIES ABOUT THE RICH AND FAmOUS, THAT mAY BE THE telenovelas’ DEm-
OCRATIC REVENgE, REflECTED IN THE SImP±E FACT OF HAVINg RICH PEOP±E COmPETINg
TO REPRESENT AND ACT OUT THE ±IFE OF POOR PEOP±E ON SCREEN. “ÈE THE POOR,”
telenovelas SEEm TO SAY, “mAY NOT HAVE YOUR SUPPOSED±Y UNIqUE DEPTH OF FEE±-
INg, AND YET WE ARE STI±± CAPAB±E OF ±IVINg FU±±ER ±IVES, AND EVEN OffER A NEW
mODE OF ENTERTAINmENT.” Telenovelas’ mAIN CONCERN IS ABOUT HOW THOSE HURT
AND ABUSED BY THE POWERFU± STI±± mANAgE TO SURVIVE AND fiND SOmE SO±ACE IN
THEIR DAI±Y ±IFE. »F COURSE, A±± CAN IDENTIFY WITH THAT SImP±ISTIC P±OT, A±± THE
WHI±E kNOWINg FROm ±IVED REA±ITY THAT THERE IS NOTHINg SImP±ISTIC ABOUT THE
HUmAN ExPERIENCE. ¹T IS THIS DOUB±E STANDARD OF WHAT YOU SEE IS NOT WHAT YOU
gET, HOWEVER, THAT A±SO mARkS ANOTHER E±EmENT OF g±OBA± CONSUmPTION.
²³¾ »·¼³¾ ¶µ¹´·Î¸ ²²³»µ¸, or as they say in

russia, ´³±µ¶Y ¶³¾Z¼Àº È²µ¼À½¶
µNOTHER ExAmP±E OF THIS g±OBA± ImPACT OF telenovelas IS THE SUCCESS THAT Los
ricos también lloran (°E ¼ICH µ±SO ·RY) gARNERED A±± OVER THE WOR±D. °IS
MExICAN telenovela ORIgINA±±Y AIRED IN POST-PERESTROIkA ¼USSIA IN 1992. Bogaty
Toszche Plachut (THE TIT±E IN ¼USSIAN) WAS AN INCREDIB±E SUCCESS AND A HIT FOR
THE NATION’S ·OmmONWEA±TH ·HANNE±. ¹T WAS A PARTICU±AR SUCCESS FOR THE
¼USSIAN PRODUCER »STANkINO, WHICH gAmB±ED ON BUYINg THE RIgHTS OF THIS
1979 PRODUCTION. ÉIS HOPES HAD BEEN THAT THE UPWARD±Y mOBI±E STORY OF A
POOR WOmAN mARRYINg INTO WEA±TH WOU±D TRANS±ATE TO THE CHANgINg ±AND-
SCAPE OF THE CO±±APSINg ²OVIET ¶NION AND RE±ATE TO THE EmERgENCE OF THE NEW
¼USSIAN NATIONA± IDENTITY AND mARkETP±ACE (ÉE±gUERA 2008). °E PRODUCER’S
HOPE WAS CONfiRmED BEYOND ExPECTATIONS. °E TRANS±ATED telenovela BROkE A±±
¼USSIAN TE±EVISION VIEWINg RECORDS, WITH OVER 200 mI±±ION HOUSEHO±DS g±UED

TO THE ±AST EPISODE. °E DAY AﬅER THE telenovela’S fiNA± EPISODE WAS DEC±ARED A
NATIONA± DAY OF mOURNINg BY THE gOVERNmENT SINCE IT SEEmED THAT A NATIONA±
PURPOSE, WAY OF BEINg, HAD ENDED, AND THE COmmUNITY HAD TO REgAIN ITS SENSE
OF SE±F.
°E FACT THAT telenovelas FOCUS ON ±OVE, FORBIDDEN AND ImPOSSIB±E, IS WHAT
A±±OWS THEIR ECONOmICA± EmOTIONA± STRUCTURE AND POWERFU± FACADES TO fiND
SUCH EASY g±OBA± TRANS±ATION. ÈHEN ¼USSIANS FE±± IN ±OVE WITH ÍERONICA
·ASTRO’S DOWNTRODDEN CHARACTER THERE IS NO DOUBT THEY WERE mIRRORINg THEIR
OWN SENSE OF DESO±ATION. JUST ±IkE THE FEmA±E PROTAgONIST P±AYED BY ·ASTRO,
¼USSIANS kNEW THAT THEIR CURRENT STATUS DIDN’T REflECT WHO THEY REA±±Y WERE.
°EY, THE ¼USSIANS, WERE THE REA± OWNERS OF THE HOUSE (jUST ±IkE ·ASTRO’S CHAR-
ACTER) AND THE RIgHTFU± INHERITORS OF ONE OF THE WOR±D’S gREATEST CIVI±IzATIONS.
ÊOTH OF THEm, CHARACTER AND NATION, mIgHT BE DOWNTRODDEN, BUT THEY STI±±
HAVE ENORmOUS HOPE, FUE±ED BY DESIRE, THAT IS NOT THE END OF THE STORY. µND IT
IS PRECISE±Y THE NATIONA± DAY OF mOURNINg AﬅER THE ±AST EPISODE THAT PROVIDES
AN INSIgHT INTO THE POWER OF LATIN µmERICAN mE±ODRAmAS g±OBA±±Y.
ÓET BEFORE THE fiNA± EPISODE THERE IS A ±OT THAT mIgHT HAPPEN. ÊECAUSE IT IS
THROUgH ±OVE THAT THAT ANCIENT CHARm (BOTH PERSONA±±Y AND NATIONA±±Y) CAN BE
REIgNITED. ¹N THIS PARTICU±AR telenovela IT IS THE ±OVE THAT gROWS BETWEEN THE
POOR WOmAN AND THE RICH mAN THAT A±±OWS HER TO REC±AIm HER RIgHTFU± P±ACE
IN SOCIETY AND, IN THE EYES OF A±±, A RIgHTFU± P±ACE THAT BE±ONgS TO HER BY BIRTH
BUT THAT HAS BEEN VICIOUS±Y DENIED HER. MEANWHI±E, NOT ON±Y DOES SHE ACHIEVE
HER SENSE OF SE±F THROUgH THE CORRECT P±ACEmENT OF HER SOCIA± BODY, BUT THE
mAN A±SO ACHIEVES WHO±ENESS AND A SHARED ORgANIC HAPPINESS THAT OTHERWISE
WOU±DN’T BE HIS.
°IS SImP±E FORBIDDEN ±OVE AffAIR OF CONTRASTINg BODIES SERVES TO ENSHRINE
THE DESIRE OF/FOR THE »THER. °IS TRANSgRESSIVE DESIRE AS A mOTOR FOR SE±F-FU±-
fi±±mENT A±SO mANAgES TO CRITIqUE A PERVASIVE mARkET ECONOmY THAT ENTIT±ES
THE PRIVI±EgED, ExPOSINg THE HO±±OWNESS OF E±ITE BEHAVIOR BUT A±SO REINFORCINg
THE REVENgE OF THE COmmONER. °E POOR mAY BE DESIROUS OF THE RICH »THER,
BUT SImI±AR±Y THE RICH CANNOT BE COmP±ETE WITHOUT THE CONSENT OF THE
OPPRESSED. ¹N THIS FASHION, IT IS NOT ABOUT mAkINg AS mUCH mONEY AS YOU
POSSIB±Y CAN, AS THE TRADITIONA± ±OgIC OF CAPITA± WOU±D HAVE IT, BUT RATHER ACCRU-
INg AS mUCH EmOTIONA± WORTH AND ±OVE AS YOU HUmAN±Y ARE AB±E.
¾RUE ±OVE, THE telenovela SEEmS TO SAY, IS NOT THE ONE ExPRESSED FOR THE
»THER BUT FOR THE »THER IN ONESE±F. °E TIT±E OF THE telenovela A±READY ExPRESSES
THIS HAUNTINg SPECTER OF THE mARkET: “°E RICH A±SO CRY.” ¹T A±READY PREDICTS
NOT SO mUCH THAT THE STRUgg±E AgAINST THE ODDS STACkED AgAINST YOU IS FUTI±E

BUT RATHER THAT jOININg THOSE ODDS WI±± NOT TRU±Y ±IBERATE YOU FROm ±IFE’S
CONUNDRUm. »N±Y BY COmINg TO TERmS WITH YOUR ORIgINS WI±± YOU HAVE A SENSE
OF SE±F, WHICH ON±Y THEN CAN BE ExPRESSED IN A FORm OF ExTERNA± ±OVE.
µT THE SAmE TImE THESE SENTImENTS ARE FUE±INg CONSTANT DESIRES THAT HAVE
AS THEIR U±TImATE PURPOSE TO CONTINUE DESIRINg, END±ESS±Y. °ERE IS NO DOUBT
THAT DESIRE IS ExACT±Y WHAT telenovelas DO BEST. °EY PROVIDE AN END±ESS mIRROR
ImAgE TO REflECT OUR END±ESS SE±VES AS THEY ARE REDEfiNED BY A NEW FORm OF CAPI-
TA± THAT NO ±ONgER DESTROYS DIffERENCE BUT RATHER ±OOkS TO ENgAgE AND BE FU±-
fi±±ED BY IT. ¹N THIS mANNER, ÍERONICA ·ASTRO’S DARk, SmA±±, VO±UPTUOUS BODY IS
NO ±ONgER TO BE SImP±Y CONqUERED BUT RATHER INHABITED FROm THE INSIDE OUT,
AND USED TO PONDER THE NATIONA± SHORTCOmINgS THAT THE ¼USSIAN NATION mUST
CONFRONT. ¸ERHAPS THIS IS WHAT THE DAY OF NATIONA± mOURNINg WAS REA±±Y ABOUT,
NOT THE SImP±E ENDINg OF A DATED MExICAN TE±ENOVE±A, BUT OF UNDERSTANDINg
THAT NEW FORmS OF ACqUIRINg WEA±TH AND CAPITA± ARE NOW IN P±ACE. ¹N THAT
mANNER IT IS THE END OF A HISTORIC PERIOD THAT A±±OWS A±±, INC±UDINg ¼USSIAN
BUR±Y mEN, TO OUT THEmSE±VES AS BEINg ExTREmE±Y C±ASS CONSCIOUS AND AVID
CONSUmERS, EVEN OF telenovelas.
u¿ly betty: the coloÇbian u¿ly ducKlin¿
°E 1976 ÊRAzI±IAN SOAP OPERA Escrava Isaura (¹SAURA, THE ²±AVE) IS ARgUAB±Y
ONE OF THE EAR±IEST telenovelas TO HAVE mET WITH WOR±DWIDE SUCCESS. ¹T WAS AIRED
IN OVER EIgHTY COUNTRIES, THE fiRST telenovela TO BE BROADCAST IN THE THEN–
²OVIET ¶NION AND THE ON±Y ONE TO EVER BE SHOWN ON ÊRITISH TE±EVISION. °E
mE±ODRAmATIC STORY ABOUT A ±IgHT-SkINNED RUNAWAY S±AVE WHO IS AB±E TO PASS
AS A WHITE WOmAN WAS mET WITH THUNDEROUS SUPPORT FROm DIffERENT INTERNA-
TIONA± AUDIENCES. °E mAIN ACTRESS, LUCé±IA ²ANTOS, WAS INVITED BY ±EADINg
mA±E PO±ITICA± ±EADERS FROm A±± OVER THE WOR±D, INC±UDINg ºIDE± ·ASTRO HImSE±F,
TO VISIT THEIR COUNTRIES. °E RACIA± UNDERTONES OF THE telenovela A±SO OPENED
THE CONTENT OF mE±ODRAmAS TO A gREATER NUmBER OF SOCIA± AND PO±ITICA± THEmES.
°IS IS WHAT A ÊRAzI±IAN jOURNA±IST REA±IzED WHI±E VISITINg ¾IBET WHEN HIS
DRIVER WAS CONSTANT±Y REFERRED TO AS µNDRéS BECAUSE HIS RE±ATIVE±Y DARkER SkIN
REmINDED HIS FE±±OW COUNTRYmEN OF THE µNDRéS CHARACTER IN Escrava Isaura,
WHICH WAS A HUgE SUCCESS THERE.
°IS WOR±DWIDE ImPACT PERHAPS HAS ON±Y BEEN SURPASSED BY THE 1999
·O±OmBIAN TE±ENOVE±A, Ão soy Betty, la fea (¹ µm ¶g±Y ÊETTY), WHICH WAS
SUCCESSFU± BEYOND THE ·O±OmBIAN PRODUCERS’ INITIA± P±AN TO SUCH A DEgREE THAT

SEVERA± mONTHS OF PROgRAmmINg WERE ADDED TO THE SCHEDU±E. °E telenovela
AIRED THROUgHOUT THE µmERICAS AND IN OVER TWENTY COUNTRIES AROUND THE
WOR±D. MEANWHI±E, ANOTHER TWENTY NATIONA± PRODUCTION COmPANIES BOUgHT
THE RIgHTS TO THE PROgRAm AND PRODUCED THEIR OWN VERSIONS OF THE telenovela.
°E ¶.². VERSION OF THE PROgRAm, Ugly Betty, WAS A±SO A RATINgS SUCCESS, WITH
A gREAT FEmA±E CAST OF STARS THAT INC±UDED ²A±mA ÉAYEk, ÍANESSA ÈI±±IAmS, AND
µmERICA ºERRARA (WHO P±AYED ÊETTY). »BVIOUS CU±TURA± AND NATIONA± TRANS±A-
TIONS WERE mADE, BUT THE CENTRA± P±OT ±INE WAS mAINTAINED: AN Ug±Y DUCk±INg
(gEEkY YOUNg WOmAN) WHO IS BEAUTIFU± ON THE INSIDE AND SmART ON THE OUT-
SIDE STRUgg±ES TO fiND HER TRUE SE±F/P±ACE AgAINST FOES FUE±ED BY SUPERfiCIA±
VA±UES. ¹N mANY WAYS THIS CAPTURED THE TRANS±ATAB±E BEAUTY OF telenovelas:
THEIR SImP±E AND STRAIgHTFORWARD mESSAgES CAN EASI±Y BE ADAPTED TO DIffERENT
CU±TURA± SETTINgS WITHOUT A±TERINg THEIR CENTRA± IDEAS AND FOCUS.
°IS telenovela, SIgNIfiCANT±Y, DOES AN INTERESTINg jOB OF CRITIqUINg TRADI-
TIONA± mODE±S OF SUCCESS WHI±E REARTICU±ATINg A±TERNATIVE mODE±S THAT ARE STI±±
SO±ID±Y P±ACED WITHIN THE CONfiNES OF mODERN DESIRES OF fiNANCIA± SUCCESS. ¾O
THIS DEgREE, THE O±D “mAfiOSO” FAmI±Y WAY OF DOINg BUSINESS IS NO ±ONgER PROfiT-
AB±E. ¹T IS AT THIS POINT THAT THE mE±ODRAmATIC SO±UTION, OffERED BY A DARkER,
AWkWARD, “Ug±Y” FEmA±E ·O±OmBIAN BODY, PROVES INCREDIB±Y AND IRRESISTIB±Y
SEDUCTIVE. ÊETTY, AS INITIA±±Y P±AYED BY µNA MARíA »ROzCO, OffERS WHAT THE
CU±TURA± CRITIC ²TUART ÉA±± (1997) CA±±ED A “SImI±AR±Y DIffERENT” PATH TO SUCCESS.
²HE IS THE PERFECT ANTIHEROINE (AND ANTIHERO) FOI± TO THE POWERFU± PATRIARCHS
OF THE mARkET, THE TA±±ER, WHITER, AND STRONgER E±ITE BODY TYPES OF THE TRADI-
TIONA± OWNERS AND mANAgERS OF THE COmPANY.
ÊETTY’S CHARACTER SEDUCES US A±±. ²HE IS THE “TRUE” SPIRIT OF AN EgA±ITARIAN
ETHOS, AND FAIR P±AY, AS IT IS REFERRED TO OBSESSIVE±Y IN THE SOCCER WOR±D. ÊETTY
ENCOURAgES US TO ROOT FOR THE UNDERDOg IN A WOR±D mARkET THAT NEVER A±±OWS
THE WEAkER P±AYER TO WIN. °EREFORE, AS g±OBA± SPECTATORS, WE ARE ROOTINg FOR
ÊETTY BECAUSE IN OUR HEARTS WE kNOW THAT, ±IkE US, SHE IS NOT WHO EVERYBODY
E±SE THINkS SHE IS. »N THE CONTRARY, SHE IS THE TRUE HEROINE OF THE STORY, AND AS
SUCH THE PURVEYOR OF THE AUTHENTIC IDEA±S OF ±OVE, FAmI±Y, FRIENDSHIP, AND COm-
mUNITY. °IS IS WHERE HER FRIENDS, NICkNAmED las feas (THE Ug±Y ONES) IN THE
telenovela, BECOmE ImPORTANT AS WE±±. ÈE, ±IkE THEm, ARE COmP±ETE±Y ±OYA± TO
ÊETTY, WANTINg THE TRUE ESSENCE OF BEAUTY AND kINDNESS TO WIN OVER THE TRADI-
TIONA± CORRUPT VA±UES OF THE mARkETP±ACE. °E telenovela INVERTS OUR DAI±Y
kNOW±EDgE OF REA±ITY AND COHESIVE±Y PRESENTS A VISUA± REPRESENTATION PRImED
FOR g±OBA± CONSUmPTION. ¹N THIS mE±ODRAmATIC REPRESENTATION THE TRU±Y gOOD

AND BEAUTIFU± ARE NOT ON±Y RECOgNIzED, BUT ACTUA±±Y BEAT THE SUPERfiCIA± mON-
STERS OF THE mARkET AT THEIR OWN CORRUPT gAmE.
»F COURSE, A±± OF US, FROm ÊOgOTá TO ÁkAR, kNOW THAT IS ON±Y A telenovela
AND NOT REA±ITY; IT IS NOT EVEN REA±ITY TE±EVISION. ÓET THE HOPE IS STI±± SO PERVA-
SIVE AND POWERFU± THAT ONE’S FANTASY IS THAT WHAT IS TRUE FOR AN HOUR ON TE±EVI-
SION COU±D ACTUA±±Y BE TRUE FOR A BIT ±ONgER IN OUR OWN COUNTRIES. ÈHAT IS
BEINg SO±D, IN A WAY, IS ANOTHER mARkET DREAm, ONE ENCASED IN A PARTICU±AR
LATIN µmERICAN gUISE. »UR HOPE FOR AUTHENTICITY AND EmOTIONA± TRUTH IS SO
POWERFU± THAT IT IS COmmODIfiED, SO±D, AND ExPORTED TO THE WOR±D IN THIS
mE±ODRAmATIC FORm.
¹T IS A±SO REVEA±INg IN THIS REgARD THAT IT IS ·O±OmBIA, THE LATIN µmERICAN
NATION, THAT IS mOST AB±E TO TRANS±ATE AND COmmODIFY THIS HOPE IN SUCH A
mANNER AS SUCCESSFU± AS ÊETTY. ÈHAT COUNTRY mORE THAN ·O±OmBIA AND
MExICO HAS STRIVED TO COUNTERBA±ANCE THE INEqUA±ITY OF THE g±OBA± mARkET
THROUgH THE DRUg TRADE, PRESENTINg A mUCH DIffERENT WAY OF ACHIEVINg fiNAN-
CIA± SUCCESS THROUgH TRANSNATIONA± CARTE±S? ¹N THIS PARTICU±AR WAY IT IS THE
VICTImS, “THE Ug±Y ONES,” CA±±INg THE SHOTS AND mAkINg THE PROfiT, WHI±E THE
REST OF THE “±EgA±” WOR±D IS UNAB±E TO CURTAI± THE DRUg TRADE FOR ITS OWN PROfiT
AND ITS OWN NECESSITIES. ¹N THIS WAY, FOR SOmE THE DRUg TRADE REPRESENTS A
fiNANCIA± DEmOCRATIzATION OF THE WOR±D ORDER.
Telenovelas ARE A RETE±±INg OF THE STORY OF THE WOR±D FROm THE VANTAgE POINT
OF LATIN µmERICA, AND NOT NECESSARI±Y ONE SHARED BY THE DEVE±OPED WOR±D. µT
THE HEART OF THIS CONCERN IS A PROFOUND ETHICA± AND AESTHETIC qUESTION ABOUT
THE PRESENT, g±OBA±±Y SPEAkINg. ÉOW DO WE mAkE SENSE OF A g±OBA± DIVIDE
BETWEEN ½ORTH AND ²OUTH THAT CONTINUES TO BUI±D ON CENTURIES-±ONg CO±ONIA±
PRACTICES OF ExP±OITATION AND ExC±USION? °IS PRESENT mOmENT OF g±OBA± INE-
qUA±ITY CAN BE CHARACTERIzED BY THE ExP±OITATIVE PROCESS OF RESOURCE ExTRACTION
AND A±SO BY THE INTE±±ECTUA± DEPRAVITY THAT PUSHES ÈESTERN INTE±±ECTUA±S TO
DEfiNE AS NORmA± INHUmANE ExCHANgES AND RE±ATIONSHIPS OF A±± kIND. µND THIS
IS PRECISE±Y WHAT THE STORY±INE OF Ão soy Betty, la fea, DOES SO WE±±, A±± THE WHI±E
ENTERTAININg US. ¹T A±±OWS PEOP±E THE WOR±D OVER TO PONDER, PERHAPS UNCON-
SCIOUS±Y, THEIR COmP±ICITY IN A g±OBA± mARkET THAT ExP±OITS THE mAjORITY OF THE
WOR±D, PERHAPS INC±UDINg THEmSE±VES.
ÊUT OF COURSE THE mARkET (I.E., A±± OF US) IS NOT SO EASI±Y DUPED. µﬅER A±±, THE
telenovela IS RESPONDINg TO THESE VA±UES THAT A±±OW HOPE TO BE COmmODIfiED,
BECAUSE ÊETTY IS ±OOkINg mORE COSmOPO±ITAN, WHITER, AND STRONgER BY THE END
THAN WHEN SHE STARTED OUT.

ôica: the power of bein¿ huÇan
JUST AS A±± telenovelas HAVE FORBIDDEN ±OVE AS THEIR mE±ODRAmATIC THEmE, THEIR
P±OTS ARE ABOUT THE BA±ANCE OF POWER, ENAB±INg STAR-STRUCk ±OVERS TO ACHIEVE
POSITIONS OF POWER THAT HAD BEEN ORIgINA±±Y DENIED TO THEm. ¹T DOESN’T mATTER,
IN THIS REgARD, THAT ONE OF THE PROTAgONISTS (NORmA±±Y A mA±E) mIgHT BE E±ITE;
IT ON±Y CONfiRmS THAT HE IS STI±± PART OF AN O±D CORRUPT SYSTEm. ÉIS POWER
COmES FROm A FA±SE SENSE OF SECURITY, FROm THE O±D mARkET SYSTEm THAT P±ACES
VA±UE ON APPEARANCE AND SUPERfiCIA± REA±ITIES. °EN, THROUgH THE TRUE ±OVE OF
ANOTHER (AND ONESE±F), FOR SOmEONE SOCIA±±Y INFERIOR, SOmEONE WHO COmES
FROm A P±ACE “DIffERENT” FROm HIS OWN, HE IS AB±E TO REC±AIm A TRUE SENSE OF
POWER, OF SE±F AND »THER, AND RECONNECT TO THE NATIONA± COmmUNITY. ÊOTH Los
ricos tambien lloran AND Ão soy Betty, la fea, gRAPP±E WITH THIS CENTRA± ISSUE. ¹N
BOTH INSTANCES THE mAIN FEmA±E CHARACTER mANAgES TO TURN THE TAB±ES ON THE
UPPER C±ASS AND WHAT IS COmmON±Y DEEmED CIVI±IzED SOCIETY. ÈHAT HAPPENS
BY THE END OF BOTH telenovelas IS THAT THESE SUPPOSED±Y WORTH±ESS CHARACTERS
ARE TRANSFORmED INTO THE mOST VA±UAB±E PEOP±E ON THE SHOWS. °IS IS DONE NOT
BY mEANS OF CHARACTERS gOINg THROUgH DRAmATIC CONVERSIONS; IT IS THOSE
AROUND THEm WHO CHANgE. ¹T IS THE HEART±ESS AND SUPERfiCIA± E±ITE WHO ARE
S±OW±Y AWAkENED TO THE TRUE VA±UE OF ±IFE AND U±TImATE±Y REDEfiNE THE NOTION
OF SOCIA± AND EmOTIONA± POWER FROm THE INSIDE OUT.
°IS POWER PARADIgm IS mOST ExP±ICIT IN Íica, THE 1996 ÊRAzI±IAN telenovela
SET ON ¸ORTUgUESE S±AVE P±ANTATIONS OF ²OUTH µmERICA IN THE 1700S, ONE THAT
READI±Y DE±VED INTO THE CORE qUESTION OF THE VA±UE OF A HUmAN BEINg. °E ISSUE
WAS POSED NOT ON±Y IN TERmS OF THE ACTUA± COmmODIfiED fiNANCIA± AND SExUA±-
IzED VA±UE OF ENS±AVED µFRICAN BODIES, BUT OF WHITE BODIES THAT WERE WI±±INg
TO TRAffiC HUmAN BEINgS IN ORDER TO REINSTATE THEIR (SUPPOSED) RACIA±IzED SUPE-
RIORITY. ¹T IS PART±Y THE APT ADAPTATION OF THESE qUESTIONS IN A “SExY” ÊRAzI±IAN
mE±ODRAmATIC FORm THAT CONTRIBUTED TO THE HUgE SUCCESS OF THIS telenovela THE
WOR±D OVER. °E mAIN ACTORS, ¾AíS µRAújO AND ÍICTOR ÈAgNER, WERE HAI±ED AS
NATIONA± HEROES WHEN THEY VISITED ½EW ÓORk ·ITY. ¹T WAS A±SO THE DEEP IDEO-
±OgICA± qUESTIONINg AND SExY THEmE THAT mADE THE mAINSTREAm ½ORTH
µmERICAN mAgAzINE Æanity Fair IN 2000 REFER TO Íica AS “HA±F ‘¼OOTS,’ HA±F
SOﬅ PORN.”
°IS CENTRA± qUESTION OF POWER IS OBVIOUS±Y mORE ExP±ICIT IN A S±AVE SETTINg,
WHERE, IT WOU±D SEEm, THE P±ANTATION OWNER IS THE ON±Y ONE IN CONTRO±. ÊUT IN
Íica WE S±OW±Y ±EARN IT IS THE WHITE P±ANTATION OWNERS WHO ARE HORRIB±Y COR-
RUPTED BY THEIR mONSTROUS DESIRES TO CONTRO± AND DOmINATE THE µFRICAN

fi¿ure 17.1 °E ACTRESS ¾AíS µRAújO, WHO RECEIVED THE »RDEm DO ¼IO
ÊRANCO, POSES FOR PHOTOgRAPHERS WITH THEN ÊRAzI±IAN ¸RESIDENT LUIz
¹NáCIO LU±A DA ²I±VA AND ºIRST LADY MARISA LETíCIA. ²OURCE: ÈIkImEDIA
·OmmONS. °IS fi±E IS ±ICENSED UNDER THE ·REATIVE ·OmmONS
µTTRIBUTION 2.0 GENERIC ±ICENSE. HTTPS://COmmONS.WIkImEDIA.ORg/WIkI
/ºI±E:¾A%·3%µ´S_µRA%·3%ÊµjO_»RDEm_DE_¼IO_ÊRANCO.jPg.
»THER. ¹N THIS ExP±OITATIVE ACT WHITE PEOP±E ±OSE A±± ABI±ITY AND POWER TO CON-
TRO± THEmSE±VES. °IS WHITE ANxIETY AND ±ACk OF CONTRO± IS mADE EVEN mORE
POIgNANT BY THE FACT THAT IT IS XICA, THE µFRICAN S±AVE, WHO IS AB±E TO SEDUCE
THE ·OmENDADOR, THE RICHEST WHITE PO±ITICA± OffiCER OF THE REgION. ²HE NOT
ON±Y gAINS HER FREEDOm BUT A±SO ENDS UP BEINg THE OWNER OF THE RICHEST DIA-
mOND mINES IN THE REgION. ¾O THIS DAY, SOmE ÊRAzI±IAN TOWNS IN THE REgION
ARE NAmED ÍAmANTINA (²mA±± ÍAmOND) AND »URO ¸RêTO (Ê±ACk GO±D).
¶±TImATE±Y, XICA NAVIgATES FROm ±IVINg AS A S±AVE/NONHUmAN UNAB±E TO EVEN
WA±k INSIDE A CHURCH TO BECOmINg THE mOTHER OF A PRIEST IN THAT SAmE CHURCH
THAT ONCE DENIED HER SE±F-WORTH AND HUmANITY.
°AT XICA DA ²I±VA IS AN ACTUA± HISTORICA± SUBjECT AND THAT THE TE±ENOVE±A
mORE OR ±ESS FO±±OWS THIS FORmER S±AVE’S ROAD TO FREEDOm ON±Y HEIgHTENS THE
mE±ODRAmATIC TENSIONS OF POWER. ¹T IS NOT SURPRISINg THAT SUCH A SEDUCTIVE
SUBjECT AS XICA WOU±D BE ENTICINg TO DEVE±OPED PARTS OF THE WOR±D THAT ARE
gRUDgINg±Y COmINg TO TERmS WITH THEIR PART IN THE CO±ONIA± HISTORIES OF THE
µmERICAS, µFRICA, AND µSIA—AND A±SO AS PART OF A g±OBA±IzATION PROCESS THAT
CONTINUES TO BE INVESTED IN NEW FORmS OF CAPITA±ISm THAT NOW mUST INCORPO-
RATE, REPRODUCE, AND ENgAgE DIffERENCE RATHER THAN DENY IT.

conclusion
ÈHAT IS IT ABOUT THIS mE±ODRAmATIC FORm THAT HAS BEEN AB±E TO ExCITE PEOP±E’S
ImAgINATION THE WOR±D OVER? ÈHAT ARE telenovelas AB±E TO OffER IN THE mOST
PRAgmATIC FASHION THAT DID NOT ExIST BEFORE OR THAT COmmUNITIES DIDN’T HAVE
ON THEIR OWN? ¸ERHAPS IT IS EqUA±±Y ImPORTANT TO CONSIDER HOW THESE mE±ODRA-
mATIC VENTURES HAVE BEEN AB±E TO flY UNDER THE CENSORSHIP AND RADAR OF INTE±-
±ECTUA±S AND CU±TURA± E±ITES AND IN THIS mANNER RECONNECT SUPPOSED±Y UNEDU-
CATED COmmUNITIES THROUgHOUT THE WOR±D.
Telenovelas HAVE mANAgED TO ADDRESS FAU±T ±INES CREATED BY CENTURIES OF
CO±ONIA±ISm. ¹T IS qUITE A CONTRAST, mAYBE EVEN A SURPRISE, THAT WHAT ONCE
WERE THE DESTINATIONS FOR S±AVES AND THE SOURCES OF RAW mATERIA±S ARE NOW
AB±E TO REPRESENT THEmSE±VES IN SUCH A mANNER FOR g±OBA± CONSUmPTION. µﬅER
fiVE CENTURIES OF ExP±OITATIVE CONDITIONS telenovelas PRESENT THEmSE±VES AS A
WONDERFU± VEHIC±E FOR BOTH THE REPRESENTATION AND THE RE±EASE OF THE NATIVE
»THER.
»N ONE SIDE THEY gIVE VOICE (A±BEIT IN A DISgUISED FASHION) TO THE “NATIVES”
THAT SUPPOSED±Y HAVE NONE. »N THE OTHER THEY TEmPER THE ANxIETIES OF ImPE-
RIA± »THERS WHO WONDER IF THE E±ITES WENT TOO FAR—WITHOUT EVER ADmITTINg TO
THEmSE±VES THAT THEY kNOW THEY DID. ¾O THIS DEgREE telenovelas ExEmP±IFY ONE
OF JAmES ÊA±DWIN’S PROPHETIC ±INES, WRITTEN ±ONg AgO, IN THE mID-1900S: “°E
WOR±D IS NO ±ONgER WHITE, AND IT WI±± NEVER BE WHITE AgAIN.” Telenovelas ARE
±IVINg EVIDENCE OF THIS INSIgHT AND OF THE WHITE WOR±D’S ANxIETY TO WANT TO
±AUgH ABOUT OR AT ±EAST PRETEND TO ENjOY THE CHANgINg ±ANDSCAPE OF DIffERENCE.
MEANWHI±E, THE WOR±D IS BEINg TRANSfigURED, ONE telenovela AT A TImE, IN THE
PROCESS CREATINg NEW gROUPS OF G±OBA± ²OUTH COmmUNITIES WHO YEARN TO
ExPRESS NEW FORmS OF SE±F-REPRESENTATION, HISTORICA± RE±EASE, AND DOmINATION.
ÊA±DWIN, JAmES
1950 Notes of a Native Son. ÊOSTON: ÊEACON ¸RESS.
ÉA±±, ²TUART
1997 “°E LOCA± AND THE G±OBA±: G±OBA±IzATION AND ³THNICITY.” ¹N Culture, Glo-
balization and the System: Contemporary Conditions for the Representation
of Identity, ED. µ. ÌINg, 19–39. MINNEAPO±IS: ¶NIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA
¸RESS.

ÉE±gUERA, ¸AB±O
2008 “°E G±OBA± ¸ANDEmIC OF THE ¾E±ENOVE±A: MExICO’S ÊIggEST ³xPORT TO THE
ÈOR±D ¹S AN ³ND±ESS, GUSHINg ºOUNT OF ¹NSANE ¾E±EVISION.”JUNE 2. WWW.VICE.
COm/READ/g±OBA±-PANDEmIC-TE±ENOVE±A-151-V15N6.
ÍANITY ºAIR
2000 “·HANNE± °IS.” µUgUST.

Invisibility
Renato Rosaldo
ÈE CE±EBRATE THEIR DAYS,

EAT HOT DOgS, ±OVE BASEBA±±,
BUT THEY SAY WE WERE BORN TO WEED,
C±EAN HOUSES, CARRY CRATES IN THE gREY OF DAWN
WHI±E THEY S±EEP. µWAkE, THEY ±OOk AT US WITHOUT SEEINg.
ÈE SEE OURSE±VES C±EAR±Y, kNOW OURSE±VES

PRECISE±Y, WITHOUT PARADES AND PICNICS.
¾O SURVIVE, WE mUST.
ÁY AﬅER DAY ¹ SEE DOORS SHUT,

STUmB±E OVER S±URS, AND BUmP INTO mEN
WHO NOD YES, YES, BUT AREN’T ±ISTENINg.
314
LOS ¹NVISIB±ES
Renato Rosaldo
·E±EBRAmOS SUS DíAS,

COmEmOS HOTDOgS, NOS ENTUSIASmA E± BéISBO±,
PERO E±±OS DICEN qUE NACImOS PARA DESYERBAR,
±ImPIAR CASAS, CARgAR BU±TOS EN E± gRIS DE ±A mADRUgADA
mIENTRAS E±±OS DUERmEN. ÉSPIERTOS, mIRAN SIN VERNOS.
½OS VEmOS A NOSOTROS C±ARAmENTE, NOS CONOCEmOS

PRECISAmENTE, SIN fiESTAS Y DESfi±ES.
¸ARA SOBREVIVIR, NOS URgE.
´íA TRAS DíA OIgO ±AS PUERTAS CERRáNDOSE,

mE TROPIEzO CON E± mENOSPRECIO, DOY CON ±OS HOmBRES
qUE DICEN CON ±A CABEzA, qUE SI, qUE SI, PERO NO ESCUCHAN.
315
ei¿hteen
°e Girl Äom Shinjuku

how a èapanese braZilian diva Keeps bossa
nova alive in china
Fabiano Maisonnave
Ï heard bossa nova as soon AS ¹ mOVED TO ·HINA AS A CORRESPONDENT

FOR A ÊRAzI±IAN NEWSPAPER IN µPRI± 2010. ¹ WAS gETTINg mY HAIR CUT IN ÊEIjINg
WHEN THE SA±ON WAS flOODED WITH THE SOUND OF “·ORCOVADO” (ëUIET ½IgHTS OF
ëUIET ²TARS), A BOSSA NOVA C±ASSIC COmPOSED BY µNTûNIO ·AR±OS “¾Om” JOBIm
AND RECORDED BY ARTISTS ±IkE ºRANk ²INATRA. »THER BOSSA NOVA TUNES FO±±OWED,
SOmE OF WHICH ¹ HAD NEVER HEARD, AND A±± SUNg IN ¸ORTUgUESE BY THE SAmE
UNIDENTIfiAB±E FEmA±E VOICE. ¹NTRIgUED BY THE SONgS P±AYINg FROm A ±APTOP, ¹
ASkED THE SHOP OWNER ABOUT THE ARTIST. “¹T’S JAPANESE mUSIC,” HE RESPONDED.
“ÉER NAmE IS LISA »NO.”
LISA WHO? Ó YOU REA±±Y mEAN TO TE±± mE THAT THE SONg WRITTEN IN HOmAgE
TO ÊRAzI±’S gREATEST SYmBO±, ·HRIST THE ¼EDEEmER, IS NOW JAPANESE?
¹ ASkED THE YOUNg mAN TO WRITE THE SINgER’S NAmE ON A PIECE OF PAPER. °EN,
AﬅER READINg ARTIC±ES AND SPEAkINg WITH mY ±OCA± SOURCES, ¹ BEgAN TO UNDER-
STAND THE mYTH, AND REA±ITY, OF LISA »NO. ¹T WAS A DE±IgHTFU± DISCOVERY. ²INCE
THE 1990S, LISA »NO—A±± BUT UNkNOWN IN ÊRAzI± OUTSIDE mUSICA± CIRC±ES—HAS
±ED THE ±ARgEST g±OBA± RESURgENCE OF BOSSA NOVA SINCE ITS INCEPTION mORE THAN
fiﬅY YEARS AgO. °IS REVITA±IzATION STANDS IN SHARP CONTRAST TO THE 1960S WHEN
ÊRAzI±IAN mUSICIANS BROUgHT BOSSA BOVA TO THE WOR±D. ¹N ·HINA, FOR INSTANCE,
THE SYNCOPATED RHYTHm NEVER CAmE FROm ¼IO. ¼ATHER, THE INSPIRATION FOR
·HINESE BOSSA NOVA COmES FROm NEIgHBORINg ¾OkYO, THE CITY WHERE BOSSA
NOVA mOST THRIVES TODAY.
¹N mY THREE YEARS IN µSIA, ¹ WROTE A FEW NEWSPAPER ARTIC±ES ON BOSSA NOVA.
²OON ENOUgH ¹ gOT TO kNOW LISA »NO. ¹N ONE OF OUR EAR±Y CONVERSATIONS IN A
¾OkYO CAFé fi±±ED WITH THE mUSIC OF JOBIm, SHE TO±D mE—ON±Y HA±F-jOkINg—
THAT “BOSSA NOVA IS mORE JAPANESE THAN ÊRAzI±IAN.”
µ±±OW mE TO ExP±AIN . . .
316
èapan-braZil
ÊOSSA NOVA’S HISTORY IS INTERTWINED WITH THE BIOgRAPHY OF LISA »NO. °E

DAUgHTER OF JAPANESE ImmIgRANTS TO ÊRAzI±, »NO WAS BORN IN ²öO ¸AU±O IN
1962 jUST AS THE mUSICA± gENRE WAS BECOmINg POPU±AR IN ¼IO DE JANEIRO, WHERE
IT HAD BEEN CREATED BY THE SINgER-gUITARIST JOöO GI±BERTO IN 1958. ¹N THAT YEAR
HE RE±EASED HIS 78 RPm C±ASSIC THAT INC±UDED THE STI±± FAmOUS “·HEgA DE SAU-
DADE” (½O MORE Ê±UES), COmPOSED AND PRODUCED BY JOBIm, WITH ±YRICS BY THE
POET ÍINICIUS DE MORAES. °E SYNCOPATED AND VERSATI±E RHYTHm OF THE gUITAR,
TOgETHER WITH GI±BERTO’S SmOOTH VOICE, qUICk±Y OVERTOOk ÊRAzI±IAN RADIO AND
INflUENCED A gENERATION OF CARIOCA mUSICIANS WHO, HIP TO THE jAzz BEINg PRO-
DUCED IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES, SOUgHT TO mODERNIzE ÊRAzI±IAN mUSIC.
°E HYPE AROUND THE NEW mUSICA± STY±E SEDUCED ¾OSHIRO »NO, AN UNkNOWN
JAPANESE ImmIgRANT WHO HAD RECENT±Y ARRIVED IN ÊRAzI±. ¶NDERSTANDINg VERY
FEW OF THE ±YRICS, ¾OSHIRO ±ISTENED TO THE RADIO AND FO±±OWED THE RE±EASE OF
SONgS NOW CONSIDERED C±ASSICS, INC±UDINg “²AmBA DE AVIöO” (²ONg OF THE JET),
“¹NSENSATEz” (ÉOW ¹NSENSITIVE), “ÍOU TE CONTAR” (ÈAVE), AND “GAROTA DE
¹PANEmA” (°E GIR± FROm ¹PANEmA), ONE OF THE mOST-RECORDED SONgS IN THE
WOR±D—SECOND ON±Y, PERHAPS, TO THE ÊEAT±ES’ C±ASSIC “ÓESTERDAY.” ¾OSHIRO »NO
DID NOT HEAR THIS mUSIC WHI±E ±YINg ON ¹PANEmA BEACH. ¼ATHER, ±IkE THE mAjOR-
ITY OF JAPANESE ImmIgRANTS TO ÊRAzI±, ¾OSHIRO ±IVED IN ²öO ¸AU±O, A CITY 220
mI±ES AND A WOR±D AWAY FROm ¼IO DE JANEIRO. ²öO ¸AU±O, ÊRAzI±’S ±ARgEST ECO-
NOmIC AND INDUSTRIA± CENTER, IS ASHEN AND HAS NO COAST±INE. ¹T IS SAID TO CON-
SUmE CU±TURE BUT NOT PRODUCE mUCH ITSE±F WHEN COmPARED TO ¼IO. ÍINICIUS DE
MORAES, THE gREATEST BOSSA NOVA ±YRICIST, EVEN NICkNAmED ²öO ¸AU±O “THE TOmB
OF SAmBA.”
ÊEFORE mOVINg TO ²öO ¸AU±O, THERE WAS ±ITT±E IN ¾OSHIRO »NO’S ±IFE CON-
NECTED TO mUSIC. °E SON OF AN ARmY gENERA±, ¾OSHIRO WAS BORN IN JAPANESE-
OCCUPIED ¾AIWAN IN 1924. ¹N 1940, ¾OSHIRO’S FATHER SENT HIm TO A mONASTERY
IN ¸YONgYANg, CAPITA± OF PRESENT-DAY ½ORTH ÌOREA. µT fi ﬅEEN, ¾OSHIRO’S
gRUE±INg DAI±Y ROUTINE INC±UDED A 3 a.Ç. WAkE-UP CA±± AND A SPONgE BATH IN
SUBzERO TEmPERATURES. ¼ETURNINg TO JAPAN AﬅER ÈOR±D ÈAR ¹¹, ¾OSHIRO »NO
WORkED FOR E±EVEN YEARS AS AN INTERPRETER FOR THE ¶.². SO±DIERS WHO OCCUPIED
THE COUNTRY. °E ExPERIENCE INTRODUCED HIm TO FOREIgN mUSIC AND gAVE HIm
THE OPPORTUNITY TO ±IVE AmONg STRANgERS.
¹N THE ±ATE 1950S, »NO DECIDED TO TRY HIS ±UCk IN ÊRAzI±, DECADES AﬅER JAPANESE
ImmIgRANTS HAD fiRST ARRIVED. ÈHI±E mOST OF THE NEWCOmERS HEADED FOR RURA±
AREAS, BY THE fiﬅIES mANY ImmIgRANTS AND THEIR ÊRAzI±IAN-BORN CHI±DREN HAD
Ãh e Ði r l froÇ Ñh i n è u K u • 317
RE±OCATED TO ²öO ¸AU±O AND OTHER CITIES. JAPANESE ÊRAzI±IANS BECAmE SmA±±-
BUSINESS OWNERS, OPENINg ±AUNDROmATS AND BODEgAS, A±± THE WHI±E gAININg FAmE
FOR THEIR RATES OF SAVINg AND INVESTmENT IN EDUCATION.
»NO WAS NOT ONE OF THESE mYTHICA± JAPANESE ImmIgRANTS. ÊREAkINg FROm
HIS COmPATRIOTS, HE OPENED A C±UB IN THE CENTER OF ²öO ¸AU±O, BRINgINg
ÊRAzI±IAN mUSICIANS—FAmOUS AND ±ESS SO—TO HIS STAgE. »NE OF HIS mOST
ImPORTANT CONTACTS WAS WITH THE gUITARIST ÊADEN ¸OWE±±, A WE±±-kNOWN PRO-
PONENT OF BOSSA NOVA AND COAUTHOR OF mANY SONgS WITH ÍINICIUS DE MORAES,
WHO WROTE THE ±YRICS TO “°E GIR± FROm ¹PANEmA” AND COUNT±ESS OTHER C±ASSICS.
¾OSHIRO »NO WORkED WITH ¸OWE±± IN 1970, WHI±E THE ARTIST WAS IN JAPAN
RECORDINg A ±IVE A±BUm. °E ENVIRONmENT IN WHICH LISA »NO WOU±D flOURISH
WAS IN THE mAkINg.
braZil-u.s.a.-èapan
ÊOSSA NOVA REACHED JAPAN THANkS TO ITS HUgE SP±ASH ON THE µmERICAN mUSIC
SCENE. ¹TS SONgS TE±±INg OF A “±OVE-SEA-flOWER” TRI±OgY SPREAD THROUgHOUT THE
1960S, ATTRACTINg AN AUDIENCE AND ARTISTS FROm ºRANk ²INATRA TO ³±VIS ¸RES±EY.
°E SO-CA±±ED BOSSA NOVA INVASION CAmE TO ½EW ÓORk ·ITY’S ·ARNEgIE ÉA±± ON
21 ½OVEmBER 1962, WHEN YOUNg ARTISTS INC±UDINg ²éRgIO MENDES, JOöO
GI±BERTO, AND ¾Om JOBIN A±± PERFORmED. ²UDDEN±Y PARTNERSHIPS BETWEEN
ÊRAzI±IANS AND µmERICANS BECAmE THE ARTISTIC AND COmmERCIA± RAgE. ¹N 1963
A VERSION OF “°E GIR± FROm ¹PANEmA” RECORDED BY JOöO GI±BERTO, SAxOPHONIST
²TAN GETz, AND BUDDINg SINgER µSTRUD GI±BERTO SO±D TWO mI±±ION COPIES. °E
±IST OF µmERICAN ARTISTS WHO ExPERImENTED WITH BOSSA NOVA INC±UDED jUST
ABOUT EVERY BIg NAmE OF THE “C±ASSIC ERA” OF µmERICAN jAzz: ½AT “ÌINg” ·O±E,
JOHNNY MATHIS, ³±±A ºITzgERA±D, ²ARAH ÍAUgHAN, »SCAR ¸ETERSON, µ± JARREAU,
AND ME± ¾ORmé. ³±VIS ¸RES±EY RECORDED “ÊOSSA ½OVA ÊABY” IN 1963, DESPITE
THE SONg’S FAST PACE AND mARIACHI-C±AD mUSICIANS HAVINg ±ITT±E TO DO WITH JOöO
GI±BERTO’S RHYTHm. ³VEN SO, THE gENRE SPREAD ±IkE WI±DfiRE. “JUST ABOUT EVERY-
ONE ON THE FACE OF THE EARTH, BARRINg MOTHER °ERESA OF ·A±CUTTA, SEEmS TO
HAVE RECORDED ÊOSSA ½OVA AT ±EAST ONCE,” WRITES THE ÊRAzI±IAN jOURNA±IST ¼UY
·ASTRO. °E µmERICAN-ÊRAzI±IAN mUSICA± A±±IANCE REACHED ITS HEIgHT IN 1966,
WHEN ºRANk ²INATRA INVITED ¾Om JOBIm TO RECORD WITH HIm. °E RESU±T,
Francis Albert Sinatra & Antonio Carlos Jobim, WAS NOmINATED FOR µ±BUm OF
THE ÓEAR, ±OSINg THE GRAmmY TO THE ÊEAT±ES’ Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club
Band.
318 • ch a p ter ei¿hteen

ÓET mORE THAN AWARDS WERE ±OST IN THE mID-SIxTIES. ÊRAzI±’S 1964 mI±ITARY
COUP CREATED FRACTURES IN THE ARTS SCENE, AS THE “zEN” ±YRICS ABOUT ±OVE AND THE
SEA WERE INCREASINg±Y SEEN AS TOO SOﬅ AND APO±ITICA± FOR THE zEITgEIST. ÊY THE
END OF THE TROUB±ED 1960S, BOSSA NOVA WAS ON THE BACk BURNER.
ÉEmPHASIzINg THE BOSSA NOVA BEAT IN ÊRAzI± HAD AN OPPOSITE g±OBA± REAC-
TION. °OSE OVERT±Y OR SUBT±Y ±OOkINg FOR ARTISTIC FREEDOm CAmE TO THE ¶NITED
²TATES, AND ²éRgIO MENDES, A±ONg WITH HIS TRUmPETER, ÉERB µ±PERT, BECAmE
SUPERSTARS IN WAYS THEY NEVER WOU±D IN ÊRAzI±. ÈITH ITS ROOTS TRANSP±ANTED IN
THE ¶NITED ²TATES, BOSSA NOVA BEgAN TO SPREAD THROUgHOUT THE WOR±D. °E SOﬅ
SOUND CAmE TO JAPAN WITH THE SAxOPHONIST ²ADAO ÈATANABE, A FORmER STUDENT
AT ÊERk±EE ·O±±EgE OF MUSIC IN ÊOSTON, WHERE HE P±AYED WITH ÊRAzI±IAN mUSI-
CIANS. »NCE BACk IN HIS NATIVE COUNTRY, ÈATANABE RECORDED Jazz & Bossa IN
1967, THRIVINg IN A mUSICA± ENVIRONmENT THAT HAD BEEN ESTAB±ISHED BY ÊRAzI±IAN
mUSICIANS SUCH AS MAYSA, THE fiRST ÊRAzI±IAN WOmAN SINgER TO TOUR JAPAN IN
1960. ¹N AN INTERVIEW WITH A ±OCA± ¾Í STATION, SHE ExP±AINED, “THE kIND OF
SAmBA THAT . . . HAS ABSO±UTE±Y NOTHINg TO DO WITH ·ARNAVA±.” ¹N 1964, THE BOSSA
NOVA mUSE ½ARA LEöO VISITED JAPAN, SPONSORED BY THE C±OTHINg mANUFACTURER
¼HODIA. µROUND THAT TImE, THE LOS µNgE±ES–BASED ORgANIST ÈA±TER ÈANDER±EY
CAmE TO THE IS±AND NATION. ÓET THE mOST SUCCESSFU± WAS ²éRgIO MENDES, WHO
mADE mANY APPEARANCES IN JAPAN FROm 1966 TO 1968 FROm HIS ¶.². BASE.
°IS WAS THE g±OBA± BOSSA NOVA ENVIRONmENT THAT ±ED THE REST±ESS ¾OSHIRO
»NO TO RETURN TO JAPAN IN 1972 WITH HIS TEN-YEAR-O±D ÊRAzI±IAN DAUgHTER, LISA.
ÈITH THE mUSIC BUSINESS ExPERIENCE HE HAD ACqUIRED IN ²öO ¸AU±O, »NO REC-
OgNIzED A NICHE FOR ÊRAzI±IAN mUSIC IN JAPAN AND OPENED A RESTAURANT-C±UB.
½AmED ²ACI-¸ERERê IN HOmAgE TO THE BOY WITH A mAgICA± CAPE POPU±AR IN
ÊRAzI±IAN FO±k±ORE, THE C±UB SOON BECAmE A SUCCESS. ÊRAzI±IAN mUSICIANS flOWED
THROUgH THE C±UB’S DOORS, AND ²ACI-¸ERERê IS STI±± OPEN AS THIS BOOk WENT TO
PRESS. °IS ±ONgEVITY IS A TRIBUTE TO THE ±OCA± IN THE g±OBA±, SINCE IT WAS THE C±UB,
mORE THAN ²ERgIO MENDES OR ²ADAO ÈATANABE, THAT CREATED AN EVER-gROWINg
BOSSA NOVA AUDIENCE BY CONNECTINg JAPANESE mUSICIANS WITH ÊRAzI±IAN CO±-
±EAgUES WHO SPENT TImE IN ¾OkYO. ²ACI-¸ERERê WAS A±SO AN IDEA± ENVIRONmENT
FOR AN ADO±ESCENT INTERESTED IN mUSIC. ÈITH HER FATHER’S ENCOURAgEmENT, LISA
»NO TOOk UP THE gUITAR, BOSSA NOVA’S INSTRUmENT PAR ExCE±±ENCE. ²HE HUNg OUT
WITH mUSICIANS P±AYINg IN THE C±UB, INC±UDINg ÊRAzI±IAN STARS ±IkE JOöO ÓNATO
AND THE BOSSA NOVA mASTER ÊADEN ¸OWE±±.
LISA »NO REA±IzED EAR±Y ON THAT SHE HAD TO mAkE A HARD CHOICE ABOUT ±AN-
gUAgE. ²HE TO±D mE THAT HER CAREER COU±D HAVE kICkED Off EAR±IER IF SHE HAD
AgREED TO SINg IN JAPANESE INSTEAD OF ¸ORTUgUESE. °AT, HOWEVER, WAS NOT HER
STY±E. ¼ATHER, IN 1989 »NO RECORDED HER DEBUT Catupiry IN A STUDIO IN ¼IO DE
JANEIRO. °E A±BUm, WHOSE NAmE IS A REFERENCE TO A BE±OVED TYPE OF ÊRAzI±IAN
CHEESE, FEATURED NINE SONgS IN ¸ORTUgUESE AND THREE mORE IN ³Ng±ISH. ÉER
SOﬅ VOICE WAS WE±± SUITED TO BOSSA NOVA AND HER ÊRAzI±IANNESS AND C±OSE RE±A-
TIONSHIPS WITH ÊRAzI±IAN mUSICIANS WORkED IN »NO’S FAVOR. ²TARTINg IN 1990
SHE RE±EASED ONE RECORDINg EVERY YEAR, VARYINg HER CO±±ABORATIONS WITH
ÊRAzI±IANS IN RECORDINg AND PRODUCTION, AS WE±± AS IN THE STUDIO.
¹N 1994, »NO CAUgHT HER BIg BREAk WHEN SHE RECORDED “³STRADA ÊRANCA” WITH
¾Om JOBIm IN ¼IO DE JANEIRO. “¹T WAS WONDERFU±. ÈE REHEARSED AT HIS HOUSE, ON
HIS ÓAmAHA ACOUSTIC PIANO. ¹T WAS ±IkE THE SOUND OF BIRDS,” »NO RECA±±ED IN A
2010 INTERVIEW. ºIVE YEARS ±ATER, »NO RECORDED HER BIggEST COmmERCIA± SUCCESS,
Dream, RE±EASED IN JAPAN BUT A±SO IN THE ·HINESE mARkETS OF ÉONg ÌONg AND
¾AIWAN. ¸RODUCED BY THE ÊRAzI±IAN »SCAR ·ASTRO-½EVES, Dream WAS THE BEgIN-
NINg OF WHAT »NO CA±±S HER “mUSICA± jOURNEY.” ºOR THE fiRST TImE, THE SONgS WERE
BOSSA NOVA VERSIONS OF ³Ng±ISH-±ANgUAgE C±ASSICS ±IkE “¾EA FOR ¾WO” (WITH SOmE
VERSES IN ¸ORTUgUESE) AND “MOON±IgHT ²ERENADE.” ¹N THE YEARS THAT FO±±OWED,
»NO’S CAREER gREW mORE AND mORE INTERNATIONA±±Y FOCUSED. ²HE RE±EASED A±BUmS
WITH g±OBA± INflUENCE FROm ÉAWAII (Bossa Hula Nova, 2001) AND ¹TA±Y (Éuesta
Bossa Mia, 2002) TO ²PAIN (Romance Latino, VO±S. 1–3).
LISA »NO NEVER FORgOT ÊRAzI±, EVEN AS SHE BROUgHT BOSSA NOVA TO THE WOR±D.
¹N 2007 SHE HEAD±INED A mAjOR OPEN-AIR SHOW IN ¾OkYO IN HONOR OF ¾Om
JOBIm AND ACCOmPANIED BY JOBIm’S SON AND gRANDSON, ¸AU±O AND ÁNIE±
JOBIm. ²HE SPEARHEADED A PHENOmENON THAT mAY NOT HAVE TOPPED THE
JAPANESE CHARTS RIgHT AWAY BUT SO±IDIfiED BOSSA NOVA AS ONE OF THE COUNTRY’S
PROmINENT mUSICA± NICHES WITH ITS OWN AUDIENCE, ARTISTS, AND INDUSTRY.
èapan-china
µﬅER ITS BIRTH IN ÊRAzI± AND EmIgRATION TO THE ¶NITED ²TATES, BOSSA NOVA
FOUND ITS HEART IN JAPAN. ÊY 1990 JAPAN WAS THE mAIN mARkET FOR ESTAB±ISHED
ÊRAzI±IAN ARTISTS ±IkE ¼OBERTO MENESCA±, ½ARA LEöO, LEI±A ¸INHEIRO, AND
JOYCE. ³VERY ÊRAzI±IAN BOSSA NOVA ARTIST TRAVE±ED TO JAPAN; mOST OF THEm mADE
THE TRIP mORE THAN ONCE. ³VEN THE REC±USIVE JOöO GI±BERTO mADE THE ±ONg TRIP
TO µSIA TO PERFORm IN 2003.
ÊOSSA NOVA’S mOmENTUm IN JAPAN PRO±IFERATED. ½O OTHER COUNTRY HAS A
mORE ExTENSIVE CATA±Og OF RE±EASES AND RERE±EASES. »±D AND RARE A±BUmS IN
ÊRAzI±, SUCH AS THE mUSIC OF ·HICO ºEITOSA AND THE ¾AmBA ¾RIO, CAN BE FOUND

IN JAPAN IN REEDITED VERSIONS. ²OmE ÊRAzI±IAN ARTISTS RE±EASED NEW A±BUmS IN
JAPAN THAT NEVER EVEN REACHED THE ÊRAzI±IAN mARkET. °IS DYNAmIC FUE±ED THE
NOTION THAT BOSSA NOVA IS BETTER SUITED TO THE SUPPOSED±Y RESERVED DEmEANOR
OF THE JAPANESE THAN TO THE OSTENSIB±Y mORE RAUCOUS ·ARNAVA± CU±TURE OF
ÊRAzI±. “ÊOSSA NOVA IS jUST ±IkE JAPAN: VERY SOﬅ AND gENT±E,” SAID JOBIm AT A
1987 CONCERT THERE. ¸AU±O ·A±DAS’S DOCUmENTARY, Bossa Nova—Rising Sun,
REINFORCES THE IDEA THAT JAPAN AND BOSSA NOVA ARE PERFECT COmPANIONS: “ÊOSSA
NOVA COmP±EmENTS THE JAPANESE SUmmER, BRINgINg WITH IT A COO± BREEzE. ÊUT
IN THE WINTER AS WE±±, BOSSA NOVA BRINgS A COmPASSIONATE WARmTH TO THE AIR
AND HEARTS OF THE JAPANESE PEOP±E,” REmARkS THE BOSSA NOVA gUITARIST MICHINARI
¶SADA, IN ¸ORTUgUESE.
ºOR THE mUSIC PRODUCER ¹TOH ¼YOSUkE, CREATOR OF A JAPANESE VERSION OF THE
C±ASSIC “ÊARqUINHO” (MY LITT±E ÊOAT), JAPAN’S ADORATION OF BOSSA NOVA ±IES IN
THE SEA: “JAPAN IS AN ARCHIPE±AgO, A COUNTRY SURROUNDED BY WATER, AND THE
JAPANESE ±OVE THE SEA. °E SEA IS A±WAYS IN THE ±YRICS OF A BOSSA NOVA TUNE!” °E
SINgER AND COmPOSER ¼OBERTO MENESCA± SUggESTED THAT THE PHONEmIC PROx-
ImITY BETWEEN JAPANESE AND ¸ORTUgUESE A±±OWS FOR JAPAN’S HARmONIOUS UNION
WITH BOSSA NOVA. µND, ACCORDINg TO ÌEPE± ÌImURA, WHO HAS SPECIA±IzED IN THE
RE±EASE AND RERE±EASE OF ÊRAzI±IAN ·´S FOR THE PAST TWENTY YEARS, EVEN THE
JAPANESE ±IFESTY±E ±ENDS ITSE±F TO BOSSA NOVA: “°E JAPANESE ±IVE IN TINY APART-
mENTS, AND WE CAN’T P±AY ±OUD mUSIC. ÈE P±AY THE gUITAR SOﬅ±Y.”
¹T IS INTRIgUINg THAT BOSSA NOVA gAINED POPU±ARITY IN JAPAN AT THE SAmE
TImE THAT JAPANESE ÊRAzI±IANS BEgAN mIgRATINg EN mASSE FROm ÊRAzI± TO JAPAN.
·A±±ED THE “dekassegui mOVEmENT” (±ITERA±±Y, “WORkINg AWAY FROm HOmE” IN
JAPANESE, IT HAS COmE TO mEAN LATIN µmERICANS WHO HAVE mIgRATED TO JAPAN
TO DO mANUA± ±ABOR), THIS gOVERNmENT PROjECT AImED TO AmE±IORATE A SHORTAgE
IN THE FACTORY ±ABOR FORCE WITH FOREIgNERS “OF JAPANESE B±OOD.” µT THE
dekassegui mOVEmENT’S PEAk, JAPAN HAD ABOUT 350,000 JAPANESE ÊRAzI±IANS,
A±THOUgH BY 2013 JAPAN’S ECONOmIC STAgNATION HAD ±ED THE NUmBER TO DROP TO
A ±ITT±E OVER TWO HUNDRED THOUSAND.
·ONTACT BETWEEN BOSSA NOVA ARTISTS AND JAPANESE ÊRAzI±IAN FACTORY WORk-
ERS WENT ±ITT±E BEYOND SHARINg flIgHTS BETWEEN ÊRAzI± AND JAPAN. ¶N±IkE THE
»NO FAmI±Y, dekassegui WORkED ON THE FACTORY PRODUCTION ±INE, NOT THE mUSI-
CA± STAgE. ¹N HER TWENTY-P±US-YEAR CAREER, LISA »NO NEVER P±AYED A SHOW SPE-
CIfiCA±±Y FOR THE TENS OF THOUSANDS OF JAPANESE ÊRAzI±IANS CONCENTRATED IN CITIES
SUCH AS ÉAmAmATSU AND »IzUmI. ¹NDEED, WHI±E SHE HAD PRACTICA±±Y NO CON-
TACT WITH THE COmmUNITY, dekassegui DEmANDED ÊRAzI±IAN mUSIC OF OTHER
TYPES. ¹N 2013, THE COUNTRY mUSIC STARS LUAN ²ANTANA AND MICHE± ¾E±ó—THE
±ATTER kNOWN FOR THE CATCHY AND INTERNATIONA±±Y SUCCESSFU± “µI, ²E EU TE PEgO”
(»H, ¹F ¹ ·ATCH ÓOU)—P±AYED HUgE SHOWS TO ÊRAzI±IAN AUDIENCES IN JAPAN.
MEANWHI±E BOSSA NOVA mUSICIANS ±IkE ³DU LOBO AND »SCAR ·ASTRO-½EVES
ATTRACT JAPANESE CROWDS, YET HARD±Y mAkE A RIPP±E AmONg ÊRAzI±IAN FANS.
ÈHY DON’T JAPANESE ÊRAzI±IANS, WHO OﬅEN REAffiRm THEIR IDENTITIES BY
ImPORTINg ÊRAzI±IAN PRODUCTS AND mUSIC TO JAPAN, EmBRACE THE EVER-PRESENT
BOSSA NOVA? °E JAPANESE ÊRAzI±IAN CU±TURA± ACTIVIST ÍA±éRIA »HTSUkI THINkS
THAT “THE mAjORITY OF dekasseguis HAVE ±ITT±E INTEREST IN BOSSA NOVA BECAUSE, AT
THE TImE WHEN THESE ÊRAzI±IANS WERE EmIgRATINg TO JAPAN, THE gENRE WAS A±±
BUT FORgOTTEN IN ÊRAzI±.” ÊUT THERE mAY BE OTHER ExP±ANATIONS. °E ¾OkYO-
BASED JAPANESE ÊRAzI±IAN jOURNA±IST ³WERTHON ¾OBACE, FOR ExAmP±E, SEES THREE
REASONS THAT dekassegui DISTANCE THEmSE±VES FROm ÊOSSA ½OVA. ºIRST, THE
ImmIgRANTS COmE FROm THE ±OWER-mIDD±E C±ASS AND AS AN “ ‘OTHER’ ENDS UP
BEINg DISCRImINATED AgAINST. ¹T’S ±IkE BEINg A FAN OF BOSSA NOVA AND ±IVINg IN
THE gHETTO. ÓOU CAN ±ISTEN TO IT IN YOUR HOUSE, BUT IN THE STREETS IT’S gOTTA BE
[ÊRAzI±IAN] FUNk.” ²ECOND, ¾OBACE ASSERTS, ExPATS FROm ÊRAzI± BECOmE mORE
“PATRIOTIC” IN JAPAN, OﬅEN EmBRACINg mUSIC SEEN AS mORE TRADITIONA±±Y
ÊRAzI±IAN, ±IkE COUNTRY mUSIC, Axé, AND SAmBA. ºINA±±Y, “FOR THE NEW gENERA-
TIONS IN ÊRAzI±, BOSSA NOVA IS AN ANTIqUATED STY±E OF mUSIC THAT FAI±ED TO EVO±VE
WITH TImE. °E ±YRICS ARE THE SAmE, THE THEmES AND THE RHYTHm DON’T CHANgE.”
ÊRAzI±IANS EVEN gRIPE, ACCORDINg TO ¾OBACE, THAT THERE IS TOO mUCH BOSSA NOVA
IN JAPAN’S PUB±IC ARENA. “¹’VE HEARD ±OTS OF PEOP±E COmP±AIN THAT ÊOSSA ½OVA
IS OVERP±AYED IN JAPAN. ºROm E±EVATORS TO CAFES, SUPERmARkETS, RESTAURANTS,
EVEN mEDICA± C±INICS AND HEA±TH SPAS.”
µNOTHER ÊRAzI±IAN jOURNA±IST FROm ¾OkYO, ¼OBERTO MAxWE±±, BE±IEVES THAT
THIS DISTANCINg IS S±OW±Y CHANgINg. µCCORDINg TO MAxWE±±:
»VER TImE, ESPECIA±±Y AﬅER THE 1990S, JAPANESE ÊRAzI±IANS BEgAN SE±F-IDENTIFY-
INg AS ÊRAzI±IANS, SETTINg THEmSE±VES APART FROm “NATIVE” JAPANESE. µND IN THE
EAR±Y 2000S, THEY BEgAN gETTINg INTO ÊRAzI±IAN mUSIC, OﬅEN AS STUDENTS EITHER
OF NON-JAPANESE ÊRAzI±IANS, WHO HAD COmE TO JAPAN AS mUSICIANS, OR OF SkI±±ED
JAPANESE ARTISTS. µ±± OF THIS WAS A mEANS OF fiNDINg THEIR P±ACE WITHIN JAPANESE
SOCIETY, NOT, AS mANY HAD HOPED AT THE BEgINNINg OF THE mIgRATORY PROCESS, AS
THE CHI±DREN OF JAPANESE PARENTS (AND THEREFORE THEmSE±VES JAPANESE), BUT AS
ÊRAzI±IANS INSTEAD. ¹ WOU±D EVEN VENTURE TO SAY THAT JAPANESE ÊRAzI±IANS ARE
ON±Y INTO SAmBA mUSIC AND BOSSA NOVA HERE IN JAPAN. (³-mAI± CORRESPONDENCE,
10 MAY 2014)
ÈHI±E BOSSA NOVA WAS DEVE±OPINg ITS OWN DYNAmIC IN JAPAN, LISA »NO WAS
gAININg OTHER AUDIENCES, PRImARI±Y IN ·HINA. ÉSPITE ·HINA’S STRINgENT RU±ES

FOR FOREIgN ARTISTS—FOR ExAmP±E, THE gOVERNmENT DEmANDS A mUSICIAN’S SET
±IST AND A MANDARIN TRANS±ATION OF A±± ±YRICS—»NO’S CONCERTS BECAmE mORE
FREqUENT AﬅER 2010. ¹ HAD THE OPPORTUNITY TO SEE »NO IN FRONT OF A CROWD OF
SOmE THOUSANDS OF ·HINESE IN JUNE 2011, DURINg THE ÌAmA OUTDOOR mUSIC
FESTIVA± IN ÊEIjINg. ¶NDER A gRAY SkY HEAVY WITH PO±±UTION, LISA AND A gROUP OF
A±±-JAPANESE mUSICIANS SANg A MANDARIN NUmBER Off THE 2010 A±BUm Asia
(WHICH INC±UDES TRADITIONA± TUNES SUNg IN ÌOREAN, MONgO±IAN, °AI,
²INHA±ESE, MA±AY, AND ÊENgA±I), BUT HA±F OF THEIR SET WAS IN ¸ORTUgUESE.
µmONg THE SONgS WAS “MARACANgA±HA,” A C±ASSIC SAmBA TUNE BY ÓRIVA±
·AYmmI. µS ¹ SAT ImAgININg HOW THE WORDS WOU±D BE TRANS±ATED INTO
MANDARIN, ¹ ASkED A NEARBY gROUP OF gIR±S WHERE LISA »NO CAmE FROm. “²HE’S
JAPANESE,” ONE OF THEm REP±IED. ÊUT WHAT ±ANgUAgE DID THEY THINk SHE SANg IN?
“¹TA±IAN!” ¹ HAD SImI±AR CONVERSATIONS WITH OTHERS IN THE AUDIENCE—NO ONE
mENTIONED ÊRAzI± OR THE ¸ORTUgUESE ±ANgUAgE.
¹N 2011, LISA »NO (WHOSE JAPANESE NAmE IS WRITTEN XIAO ÓE LI ²HA IN
MANDARIN) EmBARkED ON HER fiRST BIg TOUR IN CONTINENTA± ·HINA, P±AYINg
IN NO FEWER THAN SEVENTEEN CITIES. ÉER ±AST CONCERT WAS ON 31 ÉCEmBER IN
ÊEIjINg; »NO PACkED THE ImmENSE ANNEx gYmNASIUm OF ÈORkERS’ ²TADIUm,
±OCATED IN AN UPPER-C±ASS AREA OF THE ·HINESE CAPITA±. JUST A YEAR ±ATER, HOW-
EVER, CAmE A SHOCk: »NO’S CAREER BECAmE ENTANg±ED IN THE ÊEIjINg-¾OkYO
DISPUTE OVER THE ²ENkAkU AND ÍAOYA IS±ANDS. µmID PERVASIVE xENOPHOBIC
SENTImENT IN ·HINA, »NO’S SPOT ON Asian Wave (A ·HINESE VERSION OF
American Idol) WAS CANCE±ED, A±ONg WITH SEVERA± CONCERTS. µﬅER A±±, TO THE
·HINESE, LISA »NO IS JAPANESE. ÓET WHEN THE IS±AND CRISIS COO±ED, »NO
RETURNED TO ·HINA FOR A FEW SHOWS, WHICH gARNERED HER EVEN mORE SUCCESS. ¹N
ºEBRUARY 2014, »NO’S CONCERT IN ²HANgHAI ATTRACTED mORE THAN EIgHT THOU-
SAND PEOP±E. ¹N 2015, SHE RETURNED TO ·HINA, PERFORmINg TWENTY-TWO CONCERTS
IN SEVERA± CITIES.
°E ±ACk OF A POPU±AR SENSE IN ·HINA THAT THERE IS A CONNECTION BETWEEN
BOSSA NOVA AND ÊRAzI± HAS BECOmE A CHA±±ENgE FOR THE ÊRAzI±IAN CONSU±ATE IN
·HINA’S ECONOmIC HUB, ²HANgHAI. °E ÊRAzI±IANS WANT AND NEED A WE±±-
kNOWN PRODUCT SINCE ·HINA HAS SURPASSED THE ¶NITED ²TATES AS ÊRAzI±’S PRI-
mARY COmmERCIA± PARTNER. ÓET ÊRAzI±IAN ExPORTS WERE BASICA±±Y ±ImITED TO IRON
ORE, SOY, AND PETRO±EUm. LIkE BOSSA NOVA, THESE WERE “ANONYmOUS PRODUCTS.”
ºOR THE ÊRAzI±IAN FORmER CONSU± IN ²HANgHAI, MARCOS ·ARAmURU DE ¸AIVA,
BOSSA NOVA HAD TO BE REC±AImED AS ÊRAzI±IAN mUSIC. ¹N HIS ARTIC±E “°E ·HINESE
ÓN’T ÌNOW ¹T, BUT °EY LOVE ÊRAzI±IAN MUSIC,” IN Folha de S. Paulo, HE
DESCRIBED HOW BOSSA NOVA CAN BE HEARD THROUgHOUT µSIA. ¹N ²HANgHAI, “THE
fi¿ure 18.1. JAPANESE ÊRAzI±IAN SINgER LISA »NO DURINg A 2011 mUSIC FESTIVA± IN ÊEIjINg.
¸HOTO BY ºABIANO MAISONNAVE.
SOUND OF THE STREET BE±ONgS TO LISA »NO,” HE WROTE. ·´ HAWkERS ON THE CITY’S
TEEmINg STREET CORNERS HAVE TURNED »NO’S VOICE INTO gREAT PROfiTS. ÊUT CON-
NECTINg »NO TO ÊRAzI± IS A DIffERENT STORY. µS THE FORmER CONSU± ExP±AINED:
ÊRAzI±IAN mUSIC IS DIRECT±Y ±INkED TO CONTEmPORARY ·HINESE mUSICA± TASTES.

°E SOUND IS SWEET, SUNg WITH A CERTAIN SOﬅNESS. ¾AkE AN ARTIST ±IkE ÁVID
¾AO, WHO HAS BEEN SUCCESSFU± AmONg YOUNg AND mIDD±E-AgED AUDIENCES HERE
IN THE ±AST FEW YEARS. ÉIS STY±E OF SINgINg IS DIRECT±Y RE±ATED TO OURS. ÊUT THE
·HINESE DON’T ASSOCIATE THE mUSIC WITH ÊRAzI±. ³DUCATED AND WE±±-INFORmED
PEOP±E WITHIN THE 25- TO 50-YEAR-O±D AgE gROUP kNOW THAT BOSSA NOVA IS
ÊRAzI±IAN. ÊUT THE VAST mAjORITY DO NOT. (HTTP://VISTACHINESA.B±OgFO±HA.UO±.
COm.BR/2012/07/02/OS-CHINESES-NAO-SABEm-mAS-ADORAm-mUSICA-BRASI±EIRA/)
ÚRINg THE ÈOR±D ³xPO IN 2010, THE CONSU±ATE WORkED TO PROmOTE BOSSA
NOVA’S IDENTIfiCATION AS A ÊRAzI±IAN mUSIC gENRE BY SPONSORINg CONCERTS BY THE
gROUP ÊOSSA ½EgRA. °E qUINTET/qUARTET UNITES ÊRAzI±IAN AND µSIAN mUSI-
CIANS, RECORDINg BOSSA NOVA TUNES IN BOTH ³Ng±ISH AND MANDARIN. °E FO±±OW-
INg YEAR, IT WAS THE ·HINESE SINgER JASmINE ·HEN’S TURN. ·HEN, WHO HAS
RECORDED ÊRAzI±IAN C±ASSICS IN MANDARIN SINCE 2008, CAmE TO SHARE THE STAgE

WITH THE ÊRAzI±IAN gUITARIST ºI±ó MACHADO IN ²HANgHAI AND, ±IkE »NO, P±AYED
UNDER THE SPONSORSHIP OF THE CONSU±ATE.
“ÈHEN IT COmES TO ÊOSSA ½OVA, THE ·HINESE ARE AN EASY SE±±. ºIRST Off, THE
mE±ODIES ARE SO PRETTY AND, IN ·HINESE mUSIC, THIS qUA±ITY IS THE mOST ImPOR-
TANT,” SAID JASmINE IN AN E-mAI± INTERVIEW. “²ECOND, BOSSA NOVA IS RHYTHmIC,
IT RINgS OF HAPPINESS AND FREEDOm. ¹T EASI±Y ATTRACTS ·HINESE ±ISTENERS.”
ÚRINg mY THREE YEARS IN ·HINA, ¹ CONSTANT±Y HEARD LISA »NO’S VOICE. »N
EACH OCCASION, ¹ WOU±D ASk THOSE AROUND mE WHO WAS SINgINg. °E WORD
Brazil NEVER CAmE UP. °E FUNNIEST RESPONSE ¹ RECEIVED TO mY qUESTION WAS
FROm A BARTENDER IN ÉANgzHOU WHO SAID THAT THE SINgER WAS ·HINESE AND THAT
SHE WAS SINgINg IN ³Ng±ISH. ÈHEN ¹ TO±D LISA ABOUT THE BARTENDER, SHE
RESPONDED, “¹ ±OVE THE STORY OF mE BECOmINg ·HINESE! ÊRAzI±IAN mUSIC IS THE
ROOT OF A±± mUSIC. µND THAT mUST BE WHY ¹’m ±ABE±ED A ·HINESE WOmAN SINgINg
IN ³Ng±ISH.”
ÊOSSA NOVA, FOR A±± THAT, IS NO SImP±E CASE OF mISRECOgNITION. ¹T IS mUCH
mORE THAN jUST ÊRAzI±IAN mUSIC CONFUSED AS ·HINESE, JAPANESE, OR µmERICAN.
¹N ITS g±OBA± TRAVE±S, THIS LATIN µmERICAN gENRE HAS TAkEN ROOT IN EACH NEW
DESTINATION. ÊOSSA NOVA REmAINS TRUE TO THE SOUND OF ¼IO IN THE EAR±Y 1960S—
BUT A±SO TO THE SOUND OF ½EW ÓORk, ¾OkYO, AND ÊEIjINg IN THE DECADES THAT
FO±±OWED. ÊRAzI±’S g±OBA± mUSICA± ROOTS BECOmE mORE ±OCA± AS THE jOURNEY
CONTINUES.
¾RANS±ATED FROm ¸ORTUgUESE BY LAUREN ¸APA±IA
·ASTRO, ¼UY
2003 Bossa Nova: the Story of the Brazilian Music °at Seduced the World. ·HI-
CAgO: ·HICAgO ¼EVIEW ¸RESS.
nineteen
“More than a Nationality”

an interview with ¿ael ¿arcĀa bernal about
latin aÇerican cineÇa and the world
Alma Guillermoprieto
Ðael ÐarcĀa Òernal, thirty-siô, BORN 30 ½OVEmBER 1978, IS ONE OF

THE HANDFU± OF MExICAN SCREEN ACTORS WHO HAVE TRANSCENDED THEIR COUNTRY’S
BORDERS TO BECOmE INTERNATIONA± STARS. ºIRST THERE WAS LUPE Íé±Ez, THE ±ONg-
FORgOTTEN “MExICAN ²PITfiRE” WHO gOT HER START IN SI±ENT mOVIES. LATER IN THE
TWENTIETH CENTURY CAmE ·ANTINflAS, Ó±ORES DE± ¼IO, AND MARíA ºé±Ix. ¾ODAY
THE ±IST INC±UDES THE ±IkES OF ÉmIAN ÊICHIR, ²A±mA ÉAYEk, AND ÍEgO LUNA.
ÊUT BEYOND ITS INDIVIDUA± STARS, MExICAN fi±m HAS OﬅEN HAD A SIgNIfiCANT
INTERNATIONA± PRESENCE; DURINg WHAT IS kNOWN AS THE GO±DEN ³POCH (āPOCA
DE »RO) OF MExICAN CINEmA, THE 1930S, 1940S, AND EAR±Y 1950S, MExICAN mOV-
IES, WITH THEIR STARk VISUA± AESTHETIC AND gORgEOUS PROTAgONISTS, mAY HAVE BEEN
A±mOST UNkNOWN IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES, BUT EACH NEW ARRIVA± AT THE ±OCA± CIN-
EmA WAS RECEIVED WITH mESmERIzED ATTENTION FROm GUATEmA±A ON SOUTH. ²TARS
±IkE MARíA ºé±Ix AND DIRECTORS ±IkE ³mI±IO “³± ¹NDIO” ºERNáNDEz CREATED A
muy mexicano TRADITION IN WHICH ±ONg-SUffERINg ¹NDIANS AND STUPENDOUS SIN-
NERS A±WAYS SEEmED TO BE SHOT IN HEROIC PROfi±E. °E COmEDIES OF ¾IN ¾AN AND
·ANTINflAS ENTHRONED THE SCATTY, SARCASTIC ±ANgUAgE OF el populacho, OR
³VERYmAN, WHI±E THE mODEST DANCE gYRATIONS OF flESHY, SENSUOUS rumberas
RE±AxED THE HO±D OF A ·ATHO±IC UPBRINgINg ON mEN AND WOmEN A±IkE.
°E GO±DEN ³POCH INSTRUCTED WHO±E gENERATIONS IN EmERgINg COUNTRIES ON
WHAT IT IS TO HAVE A NATIONA± IDENTITY, AND WHAT SUCH IDENTITIES mIgHT CONTAIN.
ÊUT THOSE DECADES OF g±ORY CAmE TO AN END WHEN ÉO±±YWOOD BEgAN TO ExPORT
ITS BIg-BUDgET ¾ECHNICO±OR mOVIES, WHOSE g±ITTER AND g±AmOR, PUB±ICITY
mACHINES AND TECHNO±OgICA± SUPERIORITY, BOTH HYPNOTIzED VIEWERS THROUgH-
OUT LATIN µmERICA AND HE±PED TO REINFORCE AN INgROWN INFERIORITY COmP±Ex
326
REgARDINg E± GIgANTE DE± ½ORTE. °E AUDIENCE FOR HOmEgROWN mOVIES mE±TED
AWAY, MExICAN NATIONA± STUDIOS SHUT DOWN, AND BETWEEN 1950 AND 1990 ON±Y
A SCATTERINg OF mOVIES WERE mADE IN MExICO IN ANY gIVEN YEAR. »THER THAN A
FEW ±ABORIOUS ART-HOUSE EffORTS, THOSE THAT WERE PRODUCED WERE HARD±Y OF NOTE.
MExICAN CINEmA CAmE TO INTERNATIONA± ATTENTION AgAIN IN THE 1990S, REIN-
CARNATED AS ART fi±m WITH BOx-OffiCE POWER. ¼EmARkAB±E DIRECTORS, CINEmATOg-
RAPHERS, SET DESIgNERS, AND ACTORS CAmE UP THROUgH THE RANkS. °ANkS TO THE
ARRIVA± OF BIg-BUDgET ADVERTISINg CAmPAIgNS AND THE AgE OF THE CREATIVE DIREC-
TOR, mANY ASPIRINg cineastas SURVIVED AS fi±mmAkERS BY DIRECTINg TE±EVISION
ADVERTISEmENTS. »F THE gENERATION OF PERFORmERS WHO CAmE OF AgE IN THE
1990S, NONE HAS BECOmE SO IDENTIfiED WITH THE ½EW LATIN µmERICAN ·INEmA
AS GAE± GARCíA ÊERNA±, WHO, OUT OF THE SENSE OF FAmI±IARITY HIS SCREEN PERSONA
gENERATES WOR±DWIDE, IS OﬅEN REFERRED TO BY HIS fiRST NAmE ON±Y.
GAE± HAS, CERTAIN±Y, THE mOST DISTINgUISHED fi±mOgRAPHY OF THE CURRENT
CROP OF LATIN µmERICAN ACTORS. µT AgE EIgHTEEN, HE STARRED IN AN ENCHANTINg
TEN-mINUTE SHORT CA±±ED De tripas corazón, DIRECTED BY µNTONIO ¶RRUTIA: THE
SHY, HUNgRY, SExUA± CURIOSITY GAE± PROjECTED CONTRIBUTED gREAT±Y TO THE fi±m’S
»SCAR NOmINATION. µ YEAR ±ATER HE WAS THE UNFORgETTAB±E FACE IN THE mU±TICAST
Amores perros, WHICH BROUgHT HIm STARDOm AND gAVE THE BRASH YOUNg DIREC-
TOR, µ±EjANDRO GONzá±Ez ¹ñáRRITU, HIS OWN PARTINg-OF-THE-SEAS mOmENT. °EN
CAmE µ±FONSO ·UARóN’S Ã tu mamá también, A±SO AN INTERNATIONA± HIT, AND AN
»SCAR NOmINEE. °e Crime of Father Amaro, °e Motorcycle Diaries, AND Bad
Education, THE ±AST DIRECTED BY ¸EDRO µ±mODóVAR, SOON FO±±OWED. ÈITH THESE
fi±mS CAmE A S±EW OF AWARDS AND »SCAR NOmINATIONS.
ÉE HAS APPEARED OR STARRED IN THIRTY-FOUR ADDITIONA± fi±mS AND SUNg IN A
FEW OF THEm. ÉE EVEN HAS A mOCk-mUSIC VIDEO ON ÓOU¾UBE, INITIA±±Y mADE FOR
THE MExICAN BOx-OffiCE HIT Rudo y Cursi. ¾OgETHER WITH ÍEgO LUNA, HIS
CHI±DHOOD FRIEND AND COSTAR IN Ã tu mamá también AND Rudo y Cursi, HE
STARTED THE PRODUCTION COmPANY ·ANANA, WHICH HAS PRODUCED, AmONg OTH-
ERS, THE RIgOROUS±Y UNSENTImENTA± BEAUTY-qUEEN THRI±±ER Miss Bala (MISS
ÊU±±ET) AND ·ARY ºUkUNAgA’S DEBUT FEATURE fi±m, Sin nombre, ABOUT A PAIR OF
ÉONDURAN mIgRANTS TRAVE±INg NORTH THROUgH MExICO, WHICH gARNERED mANY
INTERNATIONA± AWARDS AND NOmINATIONS.
GARCíA ÊERNA± ±IkES TO PRETEND THAT NONE OF THIS IS ExCEPTIONA±. ¹T’S HIS WAY
OF PROTECTINg HImSE±F FROm THE BURDENS OF STARDOm, A±THOUgH IT’S NOT C±EAR IF
THE TRICk ACTUA±±Y WORkS. ÈHEN ¹ mET WITH HIm ONE ±ATE mORNINg IN THE
·ANANA HEADqUARTERS IN MExICO ·ITY’S HIPSTER-ISH ·O±ONIA ¼OmA, HE WAS
HIDINg BEHIND EYEg±ASSES AND WEARINg TORN jEANS AND A ¾-SHIRT. ¶NSHAVEN AND
Á n Ï n t erv i ew w i th Ð a el Ð a rcĀ a Òer na l • 327

UNCOmBED BUT WITH THE TRADEmARk ±IgHT-UP-THE-ROOm SmI±E AT FU±± WATTAgE,
HE ±OOkED mORE ±IkE HIS SCREEN ImAgE THAN EVER—A BUzzINg±Y A±IVE, VU±NERAB±E
HEARTBREAkER. GARCíA ÊERNA± kEEPS A CROWDED SCHEDU±E WHENEVER HE IS IN
MExICO ·ITY, BUT HE ±OVES TO TA±k, AND OUR CONVERSATION RAN OVERTImE IN
·ANANA’S OVERCROWDED, HYPERENERgIzED HEADqUARTERS, WHI±E mI±D CHAOS RU±ED
A±± AROUND US.
GAE± A±WAYS TE±± THE SAmE STORY: HE REA±±Y HAD NO INTENTION OF BEINg IN fi±m,
HEADED AS HE WAS FOR A CO±±EgE DEgREE IN PHI±OSOPHY, OR SOCIO±OgY—“OR mAYBE
EVEN jOURNA±ISm”—WHEN AN EIgHT-mONTH-±ONg STRIkE AT THE ½ATIONA±
µUTONOmOUS ¶NIVERSITY OF MExICO BROUgHT HIS STUDIES TO A HA±T. ²TRANDED, HE
DECIDED HE mIgHT AS WE±± gO TO LONDON TO STUDY THEATER WHI±E HE WAITED FOR A
BETTER OPTION. ¹T ARRIVED IN THE FORm OF A ±EADINg RO±E IN Amores perros,
GONzá±Ez ¹ñáRRITU’S fiRST FEATURE fi±m.
¹ñáRRITU, WHO WAS IN ADVERTISINg BEFORE HE mADE A mOVIE, AND WAS THE
BEST-kNOWN DEEjAY IN MExICO BEFORE THAT, HAD USED GAE± IN AN AD ONCE. ÉE
HAD A±SO SEEN HIm PERFORm IN ÊERNARD-MARIE ÌO±TýS Roberto Ëucco, A P±AY
FROm THE 1980S ABOUT AN ¹TA±IAN SERIA± kI±±ER. “°E ½ATIONA± °EATER ·OmPANY
STAgED IT HERE IN MExICO, AND IT PU±±ED OUT A±± THE STOPS,” GAE± SAID, PUNCTUAT-
INg HIS SENTENCES WITH A FU±± COmP±EmENT OF ExC±AmATION mARkS. “¹ mEAN,
µ±EjANDRO LUNA [FATHER OF THE ACTOR ÍEgO LUNA] CREATED A gIgANTIC STAgE SET!
²O GONzá±Ez ¹ñáRRITU CA±±ED mE FOR THE mOVIE AND ¹ THOUgHT, SURE, ¹ CAN DO
THAT ON mY VACATION!”
ÉAVINg ACCEPTED THE RO±E ON A ±ARk, THE fi±m’S mU±TIP±E DARk NUANCES
ESCAPED THE NINETEEN-YEAR-O±D ACTOR AS THE SHOOT WENT ON. °E P±OT, WITH ITS
SHIﬅINg PERSPECTIVE AND OVER±APPINg STORIES ABOUT ±OVE AND DESTRUCTION, COU±D
HAVE BEEN DREAmED UP BY A mOODY TANgO COmPOSER AﬅER SEVERA± NIgHTS OF TOO
mUCH WINE. “ÊUT WHEN ¹ SAW [THE fiNISHED PRODUCT], ¹ SAID, ‘µHHH! °IS IS
CINEmA! µND we mADE IT!’ ¹T gAVE mE AN IDENTITY, A NATIONA±ITY AS AN ACTOR. ¹’D
SAY TO mYSE±F, ‘¹ WAS THERE!’ ÉOW CRAzY IS THAT? °AT mOVIE gA±±OPED A±± OVER
THE WOR±D AND CHANgED THE ±IFE OF EVERYONE WHO TOOk PART IN IT.”
¹T CERTAIN±Y TURNED HIS ±IFE AROUND. “¹ THOUgHT ¹’D BE gOINg BACk TO ³Ng±AND
AﬅER Amores perros,” HE SAYS NOW, ±AUgHINg. “MY DREAm WAS TO gO TO MExICO
AﬅER gRADUATION AND FOUND A THEATER COmPANY AND, OH, ¹ DON’T kNOW, mARRY
A ²±OVAkIAN ACTRESS, SOmETHINg ±IkE THAT, AND TOUR THE WOR±D.” ¹NSTEAD, HE gOT
A CA±± FROm µ±FONSO ·UARóN, A FRIEND OF GONzá±Ez ¹ñáRRITU WHO HAD A±READY
mADE A FEW WE±±-REgARDED fi±mS IN BOTH MExICO AND ÉO±±YWOOD—Sólo con tu
pareja (LOVE IN THE ¾ImE OF ÉYSTERIA) AND A Little Princess WERE THE BETTER
kNOWN—AND WHO NOW HAD fiNANCINg FOR A mOVIE ABOUT TWO HORmONA±±Y
328 • ch a p ter n i n eteen

ADD±ED TEENAgERS AND THE DESPERATE YOUNg WOmAN WHO DECIDES TO jOIN THEm
ON THE ROAD.
·UARóN OffERED THE ±EAD PARTS IN WHAT WAS TO BECOmE Ã tu mamá también
TO GAE± AND HIS CHI±DHOOD FRIEND ÍEgO LUNA. °E YOUNg WOmAN WAS P±AYED
BY THE ²PANISH ACTRESS MARIBE± ÍERDú. “°EY TO±D ÍEgO AND mE THAT THERE
WERE FOUR CANDIDATES FOR THE WOmAN’S RO±E,” GAE± RECA±±ED. “µND THAT A±± OF
THEm WERE REA±±Y gOOD-±OOkINg, BUT WHEN THEY TO±D US THAT ONE WAS MARIBE±
ÍERDú WE STARTED SHOUTINg, ‘MARIBE±! MARIBE±!’ ” ÉE ±AUgHED, ±EAVINg THE
ImPRESSION THAT HE’D BE HAPPY TO SHOUT “MARIBE±!” A±± OVER AgAIN, gIVEN THE
CHANCE. “ÈE’D SEEN HER IN Huevos de oro AND IN Belle ÏpoQue, IN THE DAYS
WHEN YOU FE±T THAT EACH mOVIE YOU ±IkED WAS YOUR OWN PERSONA± DISCOVERY, NO?
²HE COU±D mE±T ICE!”
¹N 2000, Amores perros WON THE ²EmAINE DE ±A ·RITIqUE PRIzE AT ·ANNES,
AND THE NExT YEAR Ã tu mamá también WON AN ACTINg AWARD FOR ÍEgO LUNA
AND A BEST SCRIPT AWARD FOR ·UARóN AND HIS COWRITER YOUNgER BROTHER, ·AR±OS,
IN ÍENICE. “µND THAT’S WHERE THE WHO±E CRAzINESS BEgAN,” GAE± CONC±UDES.
“°AT’S WHEN ¹ BEgAN TO SkETCH OUT A ±IFE FOR mYSE±F IN fi±mS.”
GAE±’S SUDDEN STARDOm OWED A gREAT DEA± TO HIS FACE, WHICH IS A jUmB±E OF
SEPARATE FEATURES: ±UmPY NOSE, TOO-BROAD FOREHEAD, BIg, WAVY mOUTH. ÈHEN
HE IS TIRED THE COmBINATION CAN mAkE HIm ±OOk ±IkE AN ICE-CREAm C±OWN ABOUT
TO mE±T. ÊUT IT IS AN ExTRAORDINARI±Y OPEN FACE; THERE IS THAT VU±NERAB±E, HUNgRY
mOUTH AND, ABOVE A±±, THE FANTASTICA±±Y ExPRESSIVE HAzE± EYES, WHICH SEEm TO
SHATTER WHEN HE PROjECTS PAIN AND ±IgHT UP FROm BEHIND THE IRISES WHEN HE
±AUgHS, WHICH IS OﬅEN. µS WAS APPARENT FROm HIS fiRST APPEARANCE BEFORE A
CAmERA, AS A CHI±D STAR IN A telenovela, THERE IS NO SUCH THINg AS TOO mUCH OF A
GAE± C±OSE-UP.
¹T mUST NOT BE EASY FOR A WE±±-BROUgHT-UP YOUNg mAN TO RECOgNIzE THAT HIS
TRIUmPH OWES SO mUCH TO HOW HIS FACE ±OOkS WHEN PROjECTED ON A SCREEN, AND
SO GARCíA ÊERNA± IS HAPPY TO ±ET HIS ENTIRE CAREER SOUND ±IkE AN ACCIDENT, AS IF
HE WERE ASHAmED OF ITS SUCCESS. ÊUT THERE WAS NO ACCIDENT: HE IS THE SON OF TWO
WE±±-ESTAB±ISHED MExICAN ACTORS. LIkE HIS BUDDY LUNA, HE gREW UP BACkSTAgE.
ÉE STARRED IN A telenovela WHEN HE WAS BARE±Y E±EVEN, WAS kNOW±EDgEAB±E
ABOUT fi±m FROm EAR±IEST ADO±ESCENCE, AND AT AgE fiﬅEEN HAD A±READY mANAgED
TO fiND HImSE±F A S±OT AT GABRIE± GARCíA MáRqUEz’S fi±m SCHOO± IN ·UBA. ÉE IS
A DE±IgHTFU± CONVERSATIONA±IST PART±Y BECAUSE HE SEEmS SO UTTER±Y UNINTERESTED
IN P±AYINg THE STAR, BUT IT WOU±D BE FOO±ISH TO THINk THAT AN INTERNATIONA±
CAREER ±IkE HIS IS ACHIEVED WITHOUT gREAT AmBITION. »NE ON±Y HAS TO SEE HIm
APPROACH THE SET BEFORE AN HOUR±ONg INTERVIEW WITH ÁVID ºROST, NERVOUS±Y

flExINg HIS HANDS, EYES SHININg, WA±kINg A±mOST ON TIPTOE WITH ExCITEmENT—
°IS IS mE! ¹’m gOINg TO BE INTERVIEWED BY ÁVID ºROST!—TO SEE HOW DEEP
THAT AmBITION RUNS.
ÉIS SUCCESS IS A±SO INSEPARAB±E FROm THE RISE OF A NEW g±OBA±IzED LATIN
µmERICAN CINEmA THAT IS INNOVATIVE, AmBITIOUS, AND SOCIA±±Y AWARE BUT A±mOST
mI±ITANT±Y UN-IDEO±OgICA± AND SEDUCTIVE±Y EAgER TO mAkE AUDIENCES HAPPY. ¹N
THE LATIN µmERICAN ½EW ÈAVE OF THE 1960S, THE ÊRAzI±IAN DIRECTOR G±AUBER
¼OCHA mADE mOVIES THAT SANg THE EPIC ²ONg OF THE ¸EOP±E, WHI±E IN ·UBA THE
WORk OF DIRECTORS ±IkE ¾OmáS GUITéRREz µ±EA AND ÉUmBERTO ²O±áS CA±±ED
ATTENTION TO ·ASTRO’S DOgmATISmS AND ERRORS BUT fiRST AND FOREmOST PROFESSED
REVO±UTIONARY FAITH. ¹N CONTRAST, IN GAE± GARCíA’S mOST RECENT »SCAR-
NOmINATED fi±m, No, THE DIRECTOR, ¸AB±O LARRAíN, ARgUED THAT IN THE 1988
REFERENDUm IN ·HI±E THAT ENDED THE RU±E OF µUgUSTO ¸INOCHET, THE VICTORY OF
THE “½O” VOTE AgAINST THE DICTATORSHIP WAS THE RESU±T NOT OF A ±ONg STRUgg±E BY
THE OPPOSITION BUT OF A BRI±±IANT PUB±IC RE±ATIONS CAmPAIgN. GARCíA ÊERNA±
P±AYED THE CREATOR OF THE “½O” CAmPAIgN.
°INgS HAPPENED BETWEEN, SAY, ¸INOCHET’S B±OODY COUP AgAINST ¸RESIDENT
²A±VADOR µ±±ENDE IN 1973 AND THE DECISION TO mAkE A mOVIE ABOUT A BUNCH OF
¸¼ PEOP±E WITH THE SEmB±ANCE OF A CONSCIENCE. °ERE WAS THE fiNA± ACCEPTANCE
BY A±± BUT THE mOST DIEHARD ±EﬅISTS THAT THE ²OVIET ¶NION AND THE ¸EOP±E’S
¼EPUB±IC OF ·HINA HAD BEEN mONSTROUS SHAmS AND THE ·UBAN ¼EVO±UTION A
DISmA± FAI±URE. °E ¹NTERNET SET THE WOR±D TA±kINg TO AND A±± AROUND ITSE±F,
WITH UNqUANTIfiAB±E EffECTS ON BOTH NATIONA±ISm AND COSmOPO±ITANISm, NOT
TO mENTION THE mOVIE INDUSTRY.
°E ËAPATISTA REBE±±ION IN ·HIAPAS AND ITS SUPERSTAR ±EADER, “²UBCOmANDANTE
MARCOS,” BROUgHT INTERNATIONA± ATTENTION TO THE INDIgENOUS COmmUNITIES OF
SOUTHERN MExICO, A±THOUgH IT HAD AN AgENDA THAT OWED FAR mORE TO ¶NIVERSITY
OF ·A±IFORNIA, ÊERkE±EY, ACTIVISTS THAN TO MARx: gENDER EqUA±ITY, gAY ±IBERATION,
FREEDOm OF SPEECH, AND ENVIRONmENTA± DECAY WERE TOPICS OF CONCERN NExT TO
THE RIgHT OF INDIgENOUS PEASANT COmmUNITIES TO RU±E THEmSE±VES ACCORDINg TO
THEIR OWN ±AWS AND CUSTOmS.
°ERE WERE, SImU±TANEOUS±Y, A FEW fiNANCIA± CRISES THAT mADE C±EAR THE
SHAkY CONSTRUCT OF CONSUmER CAPITA±ISm. ¹N A REgION WHERE FAITH AND IDEO±OgY
HAVE A±WAYS P±AYED A ±EADINg RO±E, A±± THE SO±ID BE±IEFS HAD SHATTERED BY CEN-
TURY’S END. °E NEW REA±ITY WAS A WOR±D IN WHICH NO ONE WAS SAVED.
¹T WAS DURINg THIS TImE THAT THE YOUNg AND AmBITIOUS GONzá±Ez ¹ñáRRITU
fiRST BEgAN WORk ON THE STRUCTURE OF Amores perros, WHOSE THREE SEPARATE STO-
RIES FORm AN INTER±OCkINg NARRATIVE PUzz±E. °E REST±ESS CAmERA fi±mS SHARDS

AND SP±IT SECONDS OF REA±ITY, AND THE ON±Y PO±ITICIzED CHARACTER IS A FORmER
gUERRI±±A. ÊY THE TImE WE mEET HIm, HOWEVER, HE HAS DEVO±VED INTO AN EmBIT-
TERED WANDERER, A DRUNkEN VAgRANT WHO TAkES ON OCCASIONA± jOBS AS A HITmAN.
GARCíA ÊERNA± WAS CAST AS »CTAVIO, A ±OW±IFE TEENAgER WHO RUNS A DOg-figHTINg
RINg. °E fi±m’S PESSImISm WAS g±OBA±, ITS CONCERNS WITH STRUCTURE WERE mOD-
ERN, AND ITS ENERgY AND TEmPERAmENT WERE UNmISTAkAB±Y MExICAN. µUDIENCES
AROUND THE WOR±D ABSORBED IT ±IkE A DARk DRUg.
°E DIRECTORS ·UARóN AND GONzá±Ez ¹ñáRRITU WERE IN THE HABIT OF ExCHANg-
INg IDEAS AND OPINIONS ABOUT THEIR RESPECTIVE fi±mS-IN-PROgRESS WITH A THIRD
UPSTART, A ROUND-FACED COmPU±SIVE jOkESTER FROm GUADA±AjARA CA±±ED
GUI±±ERmO DE± ¾ORO, WHO HAD A±READY mADE SEVEN HORROR mOVIES IN MExICO,
²PAIN, AND THE ¶NITED ²TATES AND WOU±D SOON START WORk ON THE fiRST Hellboy.
ÉIS ±ONgTImE CINEmATOgRAPHER, GUI±±ERmO ½AVARRO, WOU±D SUBSEqUENT±Y WIN
AN »SCAR FOR HIS WORk ON DE± ¾ORO’S Pan’s Labyrinth. ¸ART OF THE gROUP AS WE±±
WAS ·UARóNĂS DIRECTOR OF PHOTOgRAPHY, ³mmANUE± LUBEzkI, WHO HAS PICkED
UP CARTFU±S OF AWARDS AND PRAISE FOR HIS WORk, mOST RECENT±Y, FOR ·UARóN’S
Gravity. Japón, AN UNP±EASANT mOVIE THAT mANAgED TO BE EmBARRASSINg±Y NAR-
CISSISTIC, ExP±OITATIVE, AND HIgH±Y ORIgINA±, BROUgHT ITS DIRECTOR, ·AR±OS
¼EYgADAS, gREAT PRESTIgE. ²OON, GAE± STARRED IN YET ANOTHER »SCAR-NOmINATED
fi±m, El crímen del padre Amaro, DIRECTED BY ·AR±OS ·ARRERA. ²UDDEN±Y, THERE
WAS A MExICAN fi±m mOVEmENT, BUT IT IS SYmPTOmATIC OF HIS gENERATION’S DIS-
TRUST OF IDEO±OgY THAT THE EVER-FORTHCOmINg GAE± GARCíA ÊERNA± WAS VISIB±Y
IRRITATED BY mY qUESTION ON THIS TOPIC.
“ºORTUNATE±Y, WE HAVEN’T FA±±EN INTO THE TEmPTATION OF TRYINg TO PUT A NAmE
ON THIS mOmENT,” HE SAID, FROWNINg. “»NCE THERE WAS THE ½EW MExICAN
·INEmA, AND NOW WE COU±D CA±± THIS THE ½EW ½EW MExICAN ·INEmA, BUT IT
DOESN’T HAVE A NAmE. ¹T’S jUST MExICAN mOVIES.” ³CUmENICA±±Y, HE INC±UDED IN
HIS ±IST OF ½EW ½EW mOVIES ³UgENIO ÉRBEz’ SACCHARINE BI±INgUA± COmEDY
Instructions Not Included, WHICH WAS AN ENORmOUS BOx-OffiCE HIT ON BOTH
SIDES OF THE BORDER, A±THOUgH HE ImmEDIATE±Y CONFESSED HE HAD NOT SEEN IT.
“ÊUT ¹ SHOU±D, ¹ SHOU±D,” DUTIFU± GAE± SAID, BEFORE RETURNINg TO HIS CENTRA±
POINT. “¹’m g±AD WE HAVEN’T FA±±EN INTO THE TEmPTATION OF SAYINg THIS IS THE
THUS-AND-SUCH mOVEmENT, AND THIS IS THE X gROUP AND THIS IS THE Ó ‘gROUPUS-
CU±E,’ AND THESE ARE THE PARENTS AND THESE ARE THE gRANDPARENTS OF THE mOVE-
mENT. ¹T’S A gOOD THINg THAT WE DON’T HAVE THAT LATIN µmERICAN FAVORITE; A
mANIFESTO. ¹T’S A REflECTION OF EVERYONE’S DESIRE TO AVOID THE BEATEN PATH.”
°ROUgHOUT LATIN µmERICA, YOUNg fi±mmAkERS—mANY OF THEm FORmER
STUDENTS AT gOVERNmENT-SPONSORED fi±m SCHOO±S IN MExICO AND/OR THE fi±m

SCHOO± CREATED BY GARCíA MáRqUEz IN ·UBA—A±SO DISCOVERED AROUND THE
SAmE TImE THAT THEY HAD AN END±ESS STREAm OF STORIES TO TE±±, PRIVATE STORIES.
°ERE WOU±D BE NO mORE gRAND DEC±ARATIVE EPICS, NO PROPHETIC DOOm-SAYINg—
AT ±EAST UNTI± GONzá±Ez ¹ñáRRITU AND ·UARóN gOT THEIR HANDS ON EPIC
ÉO±±YWOOD BUDgETS. ºOR THE mOmENT, THERE WOU±D BE ON±Y STORIES. ²TORIES
ABOUT THE DIRECTORS’ OWN ±IVES, OR THEIR PARENTS’ ±IVES, OR THEIR SERVANTS’ ±IVES,
OR PERHAPS EVEN THAT OF THE DeSPERATE±Y ±ONE±Y TEENAgER IN La teta asustada
(°E MI±k OF ²ORROW) SURVIVINg THE RESTRICTIONS AND TERRORS OF ±IFE IN THE CON-
SO±IDATINg SHANTYTOWNS AROUND LImA, ¸ERU. ºOR THE LATIN µmERICAN fi±m
ARTISTS WHO gOT THEIR START IN THE 1990S, THE UNIVERSE CONSISTED OF INDIVIDUA±S,
OﬅEN ECCENTRIC, CAUgHT IN THE CRAzY, FANTASTICA±±Y UNEqUA±, CONTRADICTORY, AND
NARRATIVE±Y INCOmPARAB±E WOR±D OF LATIN µmERICA. µ±THOUgH NOT EVERYONE
WAS AS CONCERNED AS GONzá±Ez ¹ñáRRITU WITH NARRATIVE STRUCTURE, IT WAS SECOND
NATURE FOR YOUNg ARTISTS WHO gREW UP DURINg THE CO±±APSE OF REVO±UTIONARY
FAITH TO TE±± STORIES WITH mU±TIP±E ANg±ES, ABOUT CHARACTERS WHO COU±D NOT BE
ExAmINED THROUgH ONE ±ENS ON±Y.
µND SO ¾ENOCH, THE TEENAgE CHARACTER P±AYED BY ÍEgO LUNA IN Ã tu mamá
también, ±ETS A TE±EPHONE ACROSS THE ROOm RINg AND RINg WITHOUT ±IﬅINg A
fiNgER WHI±E HIS NANNY C±ImBS UP THE STAIRS TO ANSWER THE CA±±. ÊUT ON THE ROAD
DAYS ±ATER, gAzINg OUT THE BACkSEAT WINDOW WHI±E THE CHARACTER P±AYED BY GAE±
GARCíA ÊERNA± DRIVES, ¾ENOCH IS PIERCED BY THE mEmORY OF HIS NANNY, WHOm
HE DEEP±Y ±OVES. ¹N Amores perros, »CTAVIO, THE CHARACTER P±AYED BY GARCíA
ÊERNA±, TRIES TO SEDUCE HIS SISTER-IN-±AW AND RUNS A mONSTROUS DOg-figHTINg
BUSINESS. ÊUT THE THINg IS, HE IS SINCERE±Y IN ±OVE WITH HIS SISTER-IN-±AW AND
NEAR±Y DIES TRYINg TO PROTECT HIS DOg.
¹N THE ¸ERUVIAN DIRECTOR ·±AUDIA L±OSA’S Madeinusa, THE PITIFU±, gENT±E
HEROINE WINS VIEWERS’ WHO±EHEARTED SYmPATHY BEFORE SHE COmmITS A DREADFU±
CRImE. ¹N La estrategia del caracol (°E ²NAI±’S ²TRATEgY), THE ·O±OmBIAN
DIRECTOR ²ERgIO ·ABRERA CHOOSES TO TE±± THE STORY OF A COmmUNITY’S EVICTION
FROm AN URBAN S±Um—A RIPE SUBjECT FOR SOCIA± REA±ISm—AS A ±IgHTHEARTED
COmEDY, A±mOST OF mANNERS. ÈITH THE ExCEPTION OF GONzá±Ez ¹ñáRRITU, WHOSE
VIEW OF THE WOR±D IS gRAND±Y TRAgIC, THE POSTREVO±UTIONARY-ERA DIRECTORS IN
LATIN µmERICA HAVE THIS IN COmmON: AN AffECTIONATE ATTACHmENT TO THEIR
CHARACTERS AND AN ExTREmE RE±UCTANCE TO fi ±± THEIR WORk WITH mESSAgES. °IS IS
TRUE OF µ±FONSO ·UARóN AND GUI±±ERmO DE± ¾ORO, BOTH OF WHOm WORk ON A
VERY ±ARgE CANVAS INDEED, AS WE±± AS OF THOSE DIRECTORS WHOSE SmA±±ER-SCA±E
mOVIES REgU±AR±Y WIN PRIzES AT fi±m FESTIVA±S BUT WHICH fiND ON±Y A mODEST
AUDIENCE IN THEIR AﬅER±IVES AS ´Í´S AND ½ETflIx DOWN±OADS.

²OPHISTICATED, COSmOPO±ITAN, TECHNICA±±Y BRI±±IANT, THE NEW fi±mmAkERS OF
LATIN µmERICA HAVE WON EVERY CONCEIVAB±E INTERNATIONA± PRIzE IN THE PAST fi F-
TEEN YEARS AND mADE CONSISTENT±Y ENTERTAININg AND/OR CHA±±ENgINg mOVIES. °EY
ARE CROSSOVER ACROBATS; ·UARóN, DE± ¾ORO, AND GONzá±Ez ¹ñáRRITU—THE °REE
µmIgOS—WORk mORE IN ÉO±±YWOOD THAN THEY DO AT HOmE. ²A±mA ÉAYEk IS
IDO±IzED IN ³UROPE AND A STAR THROUgHOUT THE µmERICAS. »SCAR-NOmINATED
ÉmIAN ÊICHIR IS PERHAPS THE fiRST ACTOR EVER TO HAVE STARRED IN UPSCA±E MExICAN
telenovelas, AN AmBITIOUS ¶.². TE±EVISION SERIES (Weeds), AND A ÉO±±YWOOD
mOVIE. ·O±OmBIA’S ²ERgIO ·ABRERA DIRECTED mANY EPISODES OF ²PAIN’S WI±D±Y
SUCCESSFU± HISTORICA± telenovela, Cuéntame cómo pasó (¾E±± ME ÉOW ¹T
ÉAPPENED). GAE± HAS WORkED FOR DIRECTORS FROm TEN DIffERENT COUNTRIES. µND
FOR A±± THAT, IT IS THE RARE LATIN µmERICAN mOVIE THAT CAN ESCAPE FROm THE ´Í´/
½ETflIx CAgE. °E BIggEST CHA±±ENgE FACED BY GARCíA ÊERNA± AND ÍEgO LUNA IS
NOT ACTINg BUT kEEPINg THEIR PRODUCTION COmPANY, ·ANANA, A±IVE.
MOVIES gET PRODUCED VERY DIffERENT±Y IN MExICO AND ÉO±±YWOOD, GAE±
POINTED OUT. “¹N THE ¶NITED ²TATES THERE ARE ±AWYERS, PUB±IC RE±ATIONS fiRmS, A
WHO±E SERIES OF STEPS AND OF PEOP±E WHO gET PAID.” °ERE ARE A±SO, HE mIgHT HAVE
ADDED, A gREAT mANY DIffERENT WAYS IN WHICH A ÉO±±YWOOD mOVIE gENERATES
INCOmE: PRODUCT P±ACEmENT, STAR TOURS, FRANCHISINg, SUBSIDIARY RIgHTS. “ÉERE,”
GAE± SAID, “THE gREAT mAjORITY OF fi±mS HAVE BEEN DIRECTORS’ PROjECTS, FROm
SCRIPTS THEY’VE WRITTEN THEmSE±VES, AND WHICH THEY’±± gO OUT AND fiND A PRO-
DUCER FOR.” ¹N CONTRAST, ·ANANA ±OOkS FOR fi±m PROjECTS IT CAN DEVE±OP AND THEN
PASSES THE HAT FOR fiNANCINg AROUND THE SmA±± POO± OF PEOP±E WITH mONEY WHO
ARE A±SO INTERESTED IN LATIN µmERICAN CINEmA.
LUNA AND GARCíA ÊERNA± SET UP ·ANANA WITH THEIR BUSINESS PARTNER, ¸AB±O
¼UIz, IN 2004, WHICH, IN TERmS OF THE EVO±UTION OF THE ¹NTERNET AND ITS ImPACT
ON O±D mEDIA, IS A±mOST AN ETERNITY AgO. “³CONOmICA±±Y, IT’S BEEN VERY COmP±I-
CATED, VERY DIffiCU±T,” GARCíA ÊERNA± SAID. “ÈE STARTED AT A TImE WHEN LATIN
µmERICAN mOVIES WERE SO±D ImmEDIATE±Y IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES. °ERE WAS
ACCESS, INTEREST. ÊUT IN ·ANANA’S FOURTH YEAR, APPROxImATE±Y, NO mORE MExICAN
mOVIES WERE SHOWN IN THE ¶.².—NO mORE mOVIES IN ANY ±ANgUAgE OTHER THAN
³Ng±ISH, IN FACT.” GARCíA ÊERNA± ±AUgHS AND APO±OgIzES FOR WHAT HE CA±±S THE
“½ESCAFé THEORIES” HE IS ABOUT TO PUT FORWARD AS ExP±ANATION FOR THE gENERA±
DEC±INE. ÉE CITED THE RISE OF TE±EVISION SERIES, “WHICH ARE INCREASINg±Y CINEmATO-
gRAPHIC, WITH THE ADDED VIRTUE OF BEINg VIEWAB±E AT ANY TImE,” AND OF COURSE
THE ¹NTERNET, WITH ITS NONSTOP ACCESS TO EVERY FORm OF mOVINg mEDIA. “µ±SO, THE
BEST WRITERS mIgRATED TO CAB±E TE±EVISION IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES, BECAUSE AUDI-
ENCES WERE NO ±ONgER gOINg TO A mOVIE HOUSE TO SEE A SmA±± mOVIE, A mE±ODRAmA.

°E ECONOmICS DIDN’T WORk OUT. MIDD±E-C±ASS mOVIES—NOT TOO ExPENSIVE, NOT
TOO CHEAP—WENT OVER TO TE±EVISION,” GAE± SAID. “»NE BRANCH OF THIS SmA±±,
mE±ODRAmATIC gENRE WAS WHAT PEOP±E UP ½ORTH CA±± FOREIgN fi±mS. ¸EOP±E
STOPPED gOINg TO SEE THEm.”
ii
ºI±mINg ON ±OCATION AT A THEATER AT THE ARTS CENTER OF ¸URCHASE ²TATE ·O±±EgE

IN UPSTATE ½EW ÓORk ON AN EAR±Y ½OVEmBER AﬅERNOON, GAE± HAD jUST TRANS-
±ATED HImSE±F INTO AN ³Ng±ISH-±ANgUAgE ACTOR. °E PI±OT FOR A TE±EVISION SERIES,
Mozart in the Jungle, ABOUT A PROmISINg YOUNg CE±±IST, AN O±DER, TRADITIONA±IST
ORCHESTRA DIRECTOR, AND HIS IRREVERENT, SExY, FAR YOUNgER RIVA± (THAT WOU±D BE
GARCíA ÊERNA±) WAS BEINg fi±mED THAT WEEk, AND SOmEONE HAD COmE UP WITH
THE IDEA OF BRAIDINg WEIRD CORkSCREW HAIR ExTENSIONS INTO GARCíA ÊERNA±’S HAIR
TO UNDER±INE HIS CHARACTER’S fiERY TEmPERAmENT. °E SIgHT TOOk SOmE gETTINg
USED TO, BUT ONCE GARCíA ÊERNA± WAS ON CAmERA, HIS ENORmOUS VITA±ITY
BOUNCED Off A NEARBY mONITOR ±IkE AN ATOmIC PARTIC±E gONE mAD. »NE WANTED
TO ±OOk C±OSE±Y, BUT THE DAzz±E INTERFERED.
ÊACkSTAgE, IN THE WHISPERY, HA±F-DARk ATmOSPHERE OF THE THEATER, ASSORTED
PRODUCERS AND CREW CHATTED SOﬅ±Y BETWEEN TAkES. »N STAgE, THE mAIN CHARACTER,
THE YOUNg CE±±IST, WAS SUPPOSED TO BE REHEARSINg. °E fiERY YOUNg ORCHESTRA CON-
DUCTOR WAS SUPPOSED TO BE CAPTIVATED BY THE SOUND jUST AS HE WAS ENjOYINg AN
INTImATE mOmENT WITH ANOTHER mUSICIAN. ÚRINg BREAkS IN WHAT THE TRADES ±IkE
TO CA±± “A TORRID SEx SCENE,” GAE± mADE CASUA± CONVERSATION WITH HIS YOUNg PARTNER
IN THE SCENE, UNTI± THEY WERE BOTH RE±AxED ENOUgH TO P±AY IT WITH SOmE FERVOR.
JASON ²CHWARTzmANN (mOST RECENT±Y SEEN IN THE ¾Om ÉANkS VEHIC±E Mr.
Banks), WHO WAS ON THE SET NOT IN HIS CAPACITY AS A mUSICIAN, mOVIE STAR, OR
PRODUCER BUT AS THE WRITER FOR THE SERIES PI±OT, HAD BEEN OBSERVINg GAE± TURN
HIS OWN PRIVATE ±IgHTWORkS Off AND ON FOR THE CAmERA. “³xUBERANT, YOU
kNOW?,” ²CHWARTzmANN SAID ADmIRINg±Y. “²O kEYED IN TO ±IFE . . . ¹T’S NOT ±IkE
HE’S jUST WATCHINg IT.”
iii
ºOR A±± THE g±AmOR AND jUmPINg AROUND THE WOR±D IT INVO±VES, GAE±’S PRIVATE
±IFE IS DOmESTIC AND qUIET. ÉE ±IVES IN ÊUENOS µIRES WITH THE µRgENTINE-BORN

ACTRESS Ó±ORES ºONSI AND THEIR TWO CHI±DREN. µWAY FROm THE SET HE TRIES TO
COmPENSATE FOR THE CAREER HE mISSED WHEN THE NATIONA± UNIVERSITY WENT ON
STRIkE.
“¹ ±OVE TO STUDY,” HE SAID, ON ONE OF HIS BREAkS. “¹’m DOINg A mASTER’S IN
PHI±OSOPHY, mEDIA PHI±OSOPHY.” “¹T’S PART OF THE IDEA±ISm THAT BURgEONED IN
mE WHEN ¹ BECAmE A FATHER,” HE ExP±AINED. “¹ HAD BEEN PUTTINg IT Off, BUT
WHEN WE gOT PREgNANT [Ó±ORES ºONSI AND HE], ¹ SAID, NOW’S THE TImE. ¹ A±WAYS
WANTED TO HAVE A mASTER’S DEgREE.”
¹ ASkED HIm THE DIffERENCE BETWEEN ACTINg IN ²PANISH AND IN ³Ng±ISH.
“¹ CAN flY A ±OT HIgHER IN ²PANISH,” HE SAID. “¸HYSIO±OgICA±±Y, ¹’VE BEEN
mO±DED TO SPEAk IN ²PANISH. µS A CHI±D YOU WORk OUT A CERTAIN VOCA± gYmNAS-
TICS THAT gRADUA±±Y TURN INTO AN ACCENT. ¹ FEE± mUCH FREER IN ²PANISH, BUT IN
³Ng±ISH [BECAUSE OF HIS ACCENT] ¹ FEE± ¹’m A±±OWED TO mAkE mORE mISTAkES, AND
THAT’S ±IBERATINg TOO.” “¹N ²PANISH,” HE ADDED, SmI±INg, “¹’m HE±D mORE
ACCOUNTAB±E FOR WHAT ¹ SAY.”
ÉE THOUgHT FOR A mOmENT. “°ERE’S ANOTHER THINg: ³Ng±ISH IS AN INflECTED
±ANgUAgE. °AT’S WHY A ²HAkESPEARE SONNET CAN CHANgE ITS mEANINg ACCORDINg
TO THE INflECTION YOU gIVE IT, WHEREAS IN ²PANISH YOU HAVE TO A±TER THE ORDER OF
THE WORDS TO ACHIEVE THE SAmE RESU±T, OR ADD mORE WORDS. °AT’S WHY ²PANISH
IS mORE BAROqUE; IT HAS mORE STRUCTURA± CONVO±UTIONS. ºOR mE ³Ng±ISH IS SOmE-
HOW mORE ImPENETRAB±E.”
¹N THE END, WHATEVER mAgIC, COmP±ExITY, OR RIVETINg CONTRADICTIONS AN
ACTOR BRINgS TO THE SCREEN REflECTS THE ±IFE BEHIND THE FACE. GAE± GARCíA ÊERNA±
BE±ONgS TO THE gENERATION OF THE ºREE ¾RADE µgREEmENT, WHICH FOREVER
CHANgED—OR BENIgHTED, DEPENDINg ON YOUR VIEW—MExICAN CU±TURE. ÉE
CAmE OF AgE IN THE DECADE WHEN MExICO, ±IkE mUCH OF LATIN µmERICA, OPENED
UP TO THE WOR±D WHI±E AT THE SAmE TImE ITS CITIzENS STREAmED OVER THE NORTHERN
BORDER IN UNPRECEDENTED NUmBERS. ÉIS IS A±SO THE gENERATION THAT ROSE UP TO
WE±COmE THE INDIgENOUS ËAPATISTA mOVEmENT IN THE SOUTHERN STATE OF
·HIAPAS. GAE± WAS AmONg THE THOUSANDS OF TEENAgERS WHO TRAVE±ED THERE TO
ExPRESS THEIR SO±IDARITY, AND HIS IRREVERENT, INTENSE PERSONA±ITY BEARS THE
STAmP OF ²UBCOmANDANTE MARCOS, A mAN WHO kNOWS A THINg OR TWO ABOUT
HO±DINg THE SPOT±IgHT. ¹T IS AN OPTImISTIC gENERATION; GARCíA ÊERNA± ExPERI-
ENCED THE fiNA± DAYS OF THE SOﬅ DICTATORSHIP OF THE ¸ARTIDO ¼EVO±UCIONARIO
¹NSTITUCIONA± (¸¼¹), AND HE HAS ±IVED THROUgH THE BITTER DISAPPOINTmENT
MExICANS FEE± ABOUT THE PO±ITICA± ±EADERS WHO REP±ACED THE O±D PARTY, BUT HE
HAS ±IVED HIS ±IFE AS AN ARTIST AND fi±m PRODUCER FREE FROm THE INSIDIOUS, HIDDEN
CENSORSHIP THAT HOBB±ED THE WORk OF HIS PREDECESSORS.

GAE± HAS STAYED TRUE TO THE TRADITION OF SOCIA± ACTIVISm AmONg LATIN
µmERICAN ARTISTS AND INTE±±ECTUA±S, BUT HIS ACTIVISm IS POST-IDEO±OgICA±, SImU±-
TANEOUS±Y ±OCA± AND TRANSNATIONA±. ºIVE YEARS AgO, EVEN BEFORE THE mASSACRE OF
SEVENTY-TWO ·ENTRA± µmERICAN mIgRANTS IN NORTHERN MExICO BROUgHT THE
mIgRANT CRISIS TO WOR±D ATTENTION, µmNESTY ¹NTERNATIONA± ASkED GAE± IF HE
WOU±D mAkE A DOCUmENTARY SHORT ABOUT THE HORRORS INflICTED ON ·ENTRA±
µmERICAN mIgRANTS AS THEY TRAVE± THROUgH MExICO ON THEIR WAY TO THE ¶NITED
²TATES. GARCíA RODE THE mIgRANT TRAIN kNOWN AS ¨LA ÊESTIA” (THE ÊEAST)—AT
SOmE RISk TO HImSE±F AND THE OTHER THREE mEmBERS OF HIS CREW—AND mADE
FOUR ±ITT±E fi±mS. ÉE WAS STUNNED BY THE APPA±±INg STORIES HE HEARD FROm THE
mIgRANTS, AND BY THE FACT THAT A CERTAIN NUmBER OF HIS FE±±OW CITIzENS SHOU±D
SEE fiT TO mAkE A ±IVINg kIDNAPPINg, RAPINg, ExTORTINg, SE±±INg, OR mURDERINg
THEIR ·ENTRA± µmERICAN NEIgHBORS.
µ±ONg THE mIgRANT TRAI± HE mET THE PRIESTS AND RE±IgIOUS WORkERS WHO HAVE
SET UP SHE±TERS FOR THE DEFENSE±ESS TRAVE±ERS. “µS MExICANS, WE’RE ±IkE, CHOkINg,
ON THIS PAIN ABOUT THE THINgS THAT ARE HAPPENINg [TO mIgRANTS],” GAE± SAID.
“µND THESE PEOP±E [WHO WORk WITH THEm] CAN gIVE US A DIffERENT WAY TO READ
THE STORY, TO FEE± A CERTAIN HOPE. »BVIOUS±Y, BECAUSE SO mANY OF THEm ARE CHURCH
WORkERS, THEY ExPRESS THEmSE±VES IN RE±IgIOUS, SPIRITUA± TERmS. ¹’m NOT RE±IgIOUS,
BUT THROUgH THEm ¹ UNDERSTOOD A ±OT mORE ABOUT WHAT ·HRISTIANITY CAN mEAN,
AS SOmETHINg THAT CAN’T BE TAkEN AWAY FROm YOU BUT A±SO AS SOmETHINg THAT HAS
TO DO SImP±Y WITH gIVINg.” µN ExAmP±E OF THE g±OBA± ImPACT OF THOSE INVO±VED
IN LATIN µmERICAN CINEmA, GAE±’S DOCUmENTARY SHORTS FOR µmNESTY
¹NTERNATIONA± CAN BE SEEN ON ÓOU¾UBE BY SEARCHINg “°E ¹NVISIB±ES, µmNESTY.”
¹ ASkED GAE± HOW HE SAW HImSE±F AS A MExICAN ACTOR, AND THE ANSWER TOOk
SOmE TImE, AS HE WAS ONCE AgAIN REACTINg TO THE THREAT OF A ±ABE±.
“MY FAmI±Y ON mY mOTHER’S SIDE IS FROm ²INA±OA [A NORTHERN STATE kNOWN
BOTH AS THE PRINCIPA± SOURCE FOR THE ¶NITED ²TATES OF ImPORTED TOmATOES AND
AS ITS PRINCIPA± SOURCE OF DRUgS]. ¹’VE BEEN gOINg TO ²INA±OA SINCE ¹ WAS A CHI±D,”
GAE± SAID. “¹ kNOW WHAT A RANCH IS; COWS, TOmATOES, THE SEA, AND THOSE UNEND-
INg STRETCHES OF BEACH, BEACHES THAT ARE A±± YOURS! ÊUT ¹ WAS BORN IN
GUADA±AjARA, AND ¹ gREW UP IN MExICO ·ITY, AND ¹ kNOW THAT WOR±D TOO, AND
THE WOR±D BEYOND AS WE±±. ÉERE IN MExICO ¹ kNEW A ±OT OF THE CHI±DREN OF ExI±E
[mOST±Y THE SONS AND DAUgHTERS OF ²OUTH µmERICANS WHO flED FROm THE
REgION’S ÍRTY ÈARS], AND IN THE THEATER THERE WERE A ±OT OF FOREIgNERS TOO.
ÈHEN WE WENT ON VACATION OUR DESTINATION WAS OﬅEN ·UBA.
“²O ¹ NEVER HAD THE IDEA THAT ¹, AS A MExICAN ACTOR, HAD TO REPRESENT THIS OR
THAT IDENTITY. ¹NSTEAD ¹ FE±T, ¹’m AN ACTOR! ¹’±± gO WHERE ¹’m CA±±ED AND mAkE THE

mOVIE! µS A UNIVERSA± ACTOR! ²O ¹ DO DEFEND THAT FREEDOm: ¹’m AN ACTOR, mAN,
¹’m mORE THAN A NATIONA±ITY. µS A PERSON, ¹’m mORE THAN A NATIONA±ITY.”
¹T WOU±D HAVE mADE SENSE FOR SOmEONE SO EAgER TO FORgE A CAREER IN fi±m TO
mOVE TO ÉO±±YWOOD FO±±OWINg HIS fiRST gREAT SUCCESS. “°AT WAS THE ESTAB-
±ISHED ROUTE,” GAE± AgREED. “³VERYONE WENT TO ÉO±±YWOOD TO mAkE IT BIg. ÊUT
¹ SAID TO mYSE±F, ±ET’S SEE, Amores perros IS SHOWINg A±± OVER THE WOR±D, AND ¹’VE
jUST fiNISHED SHOOTINg Ã tu mamá también, WHICH ¹ THINk IS PROBAB±Y gOINg
TO DO WE±± A±SO. ²O WHERE’S THE NEED? ¹ DIDN’T gET IT. ºROm A PRACTICA± POINT OF
VIEW, WHAT mOVIE IS THERE IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES THAT’S AS gOOD AS Amores . . . OR
Ã tu mamá también? ²O WHY SHOU±D ¹ gO TO ÉO±±YWOOD?”
“ÊESIDES,” GAE± WENT ON, “¹’D DONE mY PROFESSIONA± STUDIES IN ³Ng±AND,
AND ¹ kNEW ¹ COU±D gET WORk IN ²PAIN—AND, WHY NOT, IN THE REST OF LATIN
µmERICA TOO!” ¹N FACT, HE SAW HImSE±F AS SOmEONE WHO COU±D AND WOU±D mAkE
INTERESTINg fi±mS ANYWHERE IN THE WOR±D, AS INDEED HE HAS. “µND THAT’S PART OF
THE ±UCk OF BEINg A MExICAN ACTOR. ¹ DON’T HAVE TO FO±±OW THE PREESTAB±ISHED
CAREER PATH OF ¶.². ACTORS. ²O, ON THE ONE HAND, THERE IS THIS THINg OF WANTINg
TO BE A UNIVERSA± ACTOR AND NOT TO BE TYPECAST”—GAE± BROkE HERE INTO AN
ExCE±±ENT ²PEEDY GONzá±Ez ACCENT—“AS A MExICAN, OR AS A RACE ACTOR. ÊUT IT’S
PRECISE±Y BECAUSE ¹’m MExICAN THAT ¹ DIDN’T HAVE TO gO TO ÉO±±YWOOD. ¹T FREES
mE TO DO WHAT ¹ WANT.”
ÉE WAS ABOUT TO ADD ANOTHER THOUgHT TO THIS ONE, BUT A STY±IST CAmE UP AND
SAID gENT±Y THAT THEY NEEDED HIm OVER IN mAkEUP TO fiNE-TUNE HIS HAIR ExTEN-
SIONS, AND GAE± GARCíA ÊERNA± gRACIOUS±Y SAID gOODBY AND HEADED BACk TO THE
SET, THE MExICAN ACTOR FREE TO BE WHOEVER HE WANTS ON THE INTERNATIONA± STAgE.
Mexico City, 2014.

a bout the editors a nd contr ibutors
Ôlorence Æ. Òabb IS THE µNTHONY ÉARRINgTON ÍSTINgUISHED ¸ROFESSOR IN

µNTHROPO±OgY AT THE ¶NIVERSITY OF ½ORTH ·ARO±INA AT ·HAPE± ÉI±±. ÊABB’S BOOkS
INC±UDE Between Field and Cooking Pot: °e Political Economy of Marketwomen in
Peru ( [1989] 1998) AND Aﬅer Revolution: Mapping Gender and Cultural Politics in
Neoliberal Nicaragua (2001), WITH ¶NIVERSITY OF ¾ExAS ¸RESS. ÉER mOST RECENT BOOk,
°e Tourism Encounter: Fashioning Latin American Nations and Histories, PUB-
±ISHED BY ²TANFORD ¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS IN 2011, FOCUSES ON THE CU±TURA± PO±ITICS OF TOUR-
ISm IN POSTCONflICT AND POSTREVO±UTIONARY LATIN µmERICA.
Ä. ău¿o Òenavides IS ¸ROFESSOR OF µNTHROPO±OgY, LATIN µmERICAN AND LATINO
²TUDIES, AND ¹NTERNATIONA± ¸O±ITICA± ³CONOmY AND ÉVE±OPmENT AT ºORDHAm
¶NIVERSITY, AS WE±± AS ·HAIR OF THE ²OCIO±OgY/µNTHROPO±OgY ÉPARTmENT. ÉE HAS
PUB±ISHED THREE BOOkS: Making Ecuadorian Histories: Four Centuries of Defining the
Past (2004); °e Politics of Sentiment: Remembering and Imagining GuayaQuil
(2006); AND Drugs, °ugs and Divas: Latin American Telenovelas and Narco-
Dramas (2008). ÉE HAS WRITTEN OVER FORTY ARTIC±ES, WHICH HAVE APPEARED IN EDITED
VO±UmES AND SCHO±AR±Y jOURNA±S.
Öichelle Òi¿enho IS ¸ROFESSOR OF µNTHROPO±OgY AND µFRICANA & LATIN
µmERICAN ²TUDIES AT ·O±gATE ¶NIVERSITY. ÊASED ON fiE±DWORk IN ÊO±IVIA, ¸ERU, AND
JAPAN, HER RESEARCH HAS ADDRESSED INDIgENEITY, CU±TURA± PROPERTY, TRANSNATIONA± CU±-
TURA± WORk, FO±k±ORIzATION PROCESSES, AND THE PO±ITICS OF CU±TURE. ÉER WORk IS PUB-
±ISHED IN SCHO±AR±Y ARTIC±ES AND CHAPTERS AS WE±± AS IN TWO BOOkS, Intimate Distance:
Andean Music in Japan AND Sounding Indigenous: Authenticity in Bolivian Music
Performance. ²HE HAS COEDITED AND CO-CURATED (WITH ÉENRY ²TOBART) A ²PANISH-
³Ng±ISH BI±INgUA± WEBSITE, Rethinking Creativity, Recognition, and Indigenous
Heritage. µS A VIO±INIST, SHE HAS PERFORmED AND RECORDED IN THE ÊO±IVIAN ENSEmB±E
MúSICA DE MAESTROS.
õenise Òrennan IS ¸ROFESSOR AND ·HAIR OF THE ÉPARTmENT OF µNTHROPO±OgY AT
GEORgETOWN ¶NIVERSITY. ÉER BOOkS INC±UDE Life Interrupted: Trafficking into Forced
Labor in the United States AND What’s Love Got to Do with It? Transnational Desires
339
and Sex Tourism in the Dominican Republic. ²HE IS CURRENT±Y WRITINg Love and
Heartache across Borders ABOUT FAmI±IES SEPARATED BY ±EgA± STATUS. ²HE IS AN ADVISER TO
THE ÊEST ¸RACTICES ¸O±ICY ¸ROjECT AND HAS BEEN A BOARD mEmBER OF ÍffERENT µVENUES
AND É¹¸²—ORgANIzATIONS THAT ADVOCATE FOR SEx WORkER RIgHTS. ²HE A±SO FOUNDED THE
²URVIVOR LEADERSHIP ¾RAININg ºUND FOR TRAffiCkINg SURVIVOR-ADVOCATES.
Ándrew Òritt IS A ¸H.´. CANDIDATE IN LATIN µmERICAN HISTORY AT ³mORY
¶NIVERSITY FOCUSINg ON SPATIA± HISTORY, RACE/ETHNICITY, ÊRAzI± IN g±OBA± CONTExT, AND
CU±TURA± HISTORIES OF PRODUCTION. ÉIS DISSERTATION ExP±ORES THE mAkINg OF SPACES AND
RACIA± AND ETHNIC IDENTIfiCATION IN THREE NEIgHBORHOODS IN THE CITY OF ²öO ¸AU±O. °E
PROjECT IS SUPPORTED BY A ²OCIA± ²CIENCE ¼ESEARCH ·OUNCI± ME±±ON ¹NTERNATIONA±
ÍSSERTATION ¼ESEARCH ºE±±OWSHIP AND THE ºU±BRIgHT-ÉAYS ÓCTORA± ÍSSERTATION
¼ESEARCH µBROAD PROgRAm.
Òrenda Ælsey IS µSSOCIATE ¸ROFESSOR OF ÉISTORY AT ÉOFSTRA ¶NIVERSITY. ²HE IS THE
AUTHOR OF Citizens and Sportsmen: Fútbol and Politics in Twentieth-Century Chile.
ÉER WORk HAS APPEARED IN THE Journal of Social History, THE International Journal of
the History of Sport, AND Radical History Review. ²HE HAS WRITTEN ON SPORTS AND PO±I-
TICS FOR mAINSTREAm PUB±ICATIONS, INC±UDINg THE New Republic AND Sports Illustrated.
ÉER CURRENT BOOk, COAUTHORED WITH JOSHUA ½ADE±, ExAmINES THE HISTORY OF WOmEN’S
SPORT, gENDER, AND SExUA±ITY IN LATIN µmERICA.
Àeter Ævans IS ¸ROFESSOR ³mERITUS IN THE ÉPARTmENT OF ²OCIO±OgY, ¶NIVERSITY OF
·A±IFORNIA, ÊERkE±EY, AND ²ENIOR ºE±±OW IN ¹NTERNATIONA± ²TUDIES AT THE ÈATSON
¹NSTITUTE FOR ¹NTERNATIONA± ²TUDIES, ÊROWN ¶NIVERSITY. ÉE IS BEST kNOWN FOR HIS WORk
ON THE PO±ITICA± ECONOmY OF NATIONA± DEVE±OPmENT, ExEmP±IfiED BY HIS 1995 BOOk,
Embedded Autonomy: States and Industrial Transformation, WHICH SETS THE RO±E OF
THE ÊRAzI±IAN STATE IN COmPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE. ¹N RECENT ARTIC±ES HE HAS ExAmINED
CHANgINg STATE-SOCIETY RE±ATIONS AND THE RO±E OF ±ABOR.
Àaèa Ôaudree IS µSSOCIATE ¸ROFESSOR OF µNTHROPO±OgY AT ÊROWN ¶NIVERSITY. ²HE
IS THE AUTHOR OF Singing for the Dead: °e Politics of Indigenous Revival in Mexico,
WHICH WON THE 2014 ÊOOk ¸RIzE FROm THE ²OCIETY FOR LATIN µmERICAN AND ·ARIBBEAN
µNTHROPO±OgY (µmERICAN µNTHROPO±OgICA± µSSOCIATION). ²HE IS A±SO A PUB±ISHED
POET AND P±AYWRIgHT.
Àaul Ðootenber¿, ²¶½Ó ÍSTINgUISHED ¸ROFESSOR OF ÉISTORY AND ²OCIO±OgY
AT ²TONY ÊROOk ¶NIVERSITY, IS A ±EADINg SCHO±AR OF THE HISTORY OF DRUgS IN THE
µmERICAS. ÉE STUDIED LATIN µmERICAN HISTORY AT ²T. µNTONY’S ·O±±EgE, »xFORD, AND
THE ¶NIVERSITY OF ·HICAgO, BEFORE TURNINg TO g±OBA± DRUg HISTORY WITH WORkS SUCH AS
Cocaine: Global Histories (¼OUT±EDgE, 1999) AND Andean Cocaine: °e Making of a
Global Drug (¶NIVERSITY OF ½ORTH ·ARO±INA ¸RESS, 2008). ÉE IS ACTIVE IN INTERDISCI-
P±INARY INITIATIVES FOR NEW PERSPECTIVES ON DRUg STUDIES AND DRUg REFORm SUCH AS THE
´RUgS, ²ECURITY, AND ÉmOCRACY (´²´) PROgRAm OF THE ²OCIA± ²CIENCE ¼ESEARCH
·OUNCI± AND THE »PEN ²OCIETY ºOUNDATIONS.
Ðre¿ Ðrandin IS ¸ROFESSOR OF ÉISTORY AT ½EW ÓORk ¶NIVERSITY AND A mEmBER OF
THE µmERICAN µCADEmY OF µRTS AND ²CIENCES. ÉE IS THE AUTHOR OF A NUmBER OF BOOkS,
340 • a bou t th e edi tor s a n d con t r i bu tor s

INC±UDINg Fordlandia: °e Rise and Fall of Henry Ford’s Forgotten Jungle City, A
fiNA±IST FOR THE ¸U±ITzER ¸RIzE FOR ÉISTORY, THE ½ATIONA± ÊOOk µWARD, AND A ½ATIONA±
ÊOOk ·RITICS ·IRC±E µWARD. ÉE IS THE A±SO THE AUTHOR OF Empire’s Workshop; °e Last
Colonial Massacre; °e Blood of Guatemala; °e Empire of Necessity, WHICH WON THE
ÊANCROﬅ ¸RIzE IN µmERICAN ÉISTORY AND THE µ±BERT J. ÊEVERIDgE µWARD IN µmERICAN
ÉISTORY; AND, mOST RECENT±Y, Kissinger’s Shadow.
ÁlÇa ÐuillerÇoprieto IS A CRITICA±±Y ACC±AImED jOURNA±IST WHO HAS COVERED
LATIN µmERICAN EVENTS FOR THE Washington Post, THE New Ãork Review of Books, AND THE
New Ãorker AND IS THE FORmER ²OUTH µmERICAN BUREAU CHIEF FOR Newsweek. ²HE IS A PAST
RECIPIENT OF A MACµRTHUR ºE±±OWSHIP. ÉER WORk CAN A±SO BE FOUND IN THREE ANTHO±OgIES,
Samba, °e Heart that Bleeds: Latin America Now, AND Looking for History.
Öatthew ÐutÇann IS ¸ROFESSOR OF µNTHROPO±OgY AND ÍRECTOR OF THE ÊROWN
¹NTERNATIONA± µDVANCED ¼ESEARCH ¹NSTITUTES (Ê¹µ¼¹) AT ÊROWN ¶NIVERSITY. ÉIS
BOOkS INC±UDE °e Meanings of Macho: Being a Man in Mexico City; °e Romance of
Democracy: Compliant Defiance in Mexico City; Changing Men and Masculinities in
Latin America; Fixing Men: Sex, Birth Control and AIDS in Mexico; AND Breaking
Ranks: IraQ Æeterans Speak Out against the War (WITH ·ATHERINE LUTz). ºROm 2009
TO 2013, HE WAS VICE PRESIDENT FOR INTERNATIONA± AffAIRS AT ÊROWN. ÉE HAS A±SO BEEN A
VISITINg PROFESSOR IN ·HINA AND MExICO.
Ðabriel ăetland IS µSSISTANT ¸ROFESSOR OF LATIN µmERICAN ²TUDIES AND
²OCIO±OgY (BY COURTESY) AT ¶NIVERSITY AT µ±BANY, ²¶½Ó. ÉIS RESEARCH ExAmINES HOW
ORDINARY PEOP±E CAN INflUENCE THE DECISIONS THAT AffECT THEIR ±IVES THROUgH SOCIA±
mOVEmENTS, E±ECTORA± PO±ITICS, ±ABOR ORgANIzINg, AND THE CREATION OF PARTICIPATORY
INSTITUTIONS. ÉIS WORk HAS BEEN PUB±ISHED IN ACADEmIC AND POPU±AR VENUES SUCH AS
Éualitative Sociology, Work, Employment and Society, Latin American Perspectives,
°e Nation, NACLA, AND SEVERA± EDITED VO±UmES.
ðennifer Ñcheper ău¿hes IS µSSOCIATE ¸ROFESSOR OF ÉISTORY AT THE ¶NIVERSITY
OF ·A±IFORNIA, ¼IVERSIDE. ²HE IS A±SO CO-CHAIR OF THE ¼E±IgION IN LATIN µmERICA AND
·ARIBBEAN GROUP OF THE µmERICAN µCADEmY OF ¼E±IgION. ²HE IS THE AUTHOR OF
Biography of a Mexican Crucifix: Lived Religion and Local Faith Äom the ConQuest
to the Present (»xFORD ¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS, 2010).
Ąiyoshi Ąonno IS THE AUTHOR OF Che Guevara: A Manga Biography.
Âicardo Üa¿os IS A ±AWYER, ECONOmIST, AND SOCIA± DEmOCRAT PO±ITICIAN WHO
P±AYED A kEY RO±E IN BRINgINg DOWN THE DICTATORSHIP THAT RU±ED ·HI±E FROm 1973 TO
1990 AND ±ATER SERVED AS PRESIDENT OF ·HI±E (2000–2006). ²INCE MAY 2007 HE HAS
SERVED AS A SPECIA± ENVOY ON C±ImATE CHANgE FOR THE ¶NITED ½ATIONS. ÉE A±SO TEACHES
PO±ITICA± AND ECONOmIC DEVE±OPmENT AT ÊROWN ¶NIVERSITY. µmONg HIS RECENT PUB±I-
CATIONS ARE °e Southern Tiger: Chile’s Fight for a Democratic and Prosperous Future
AND Mi vida: De la infancia hasta la lucha contra la dictadura.
ðeffrey Üesser IS ²AmUE± ·AND±ER ÓBBS ¸ROFESSOR AND ·HAIR, ÉPARTmENT OF
ÉISTORY, AT ³mORY ¶NIVERSITY. ÉE IS THE AUTHOR OF THREE PRIzE-WINNINg BOOkS PUB-
±ISHED IN ³Ng±ISH AND ¸ORTUgUESE: A Discontented Diaspora (ÚkE ¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS,
Á bou t th e Ædi tor s a n d åon t r i bu tor s • 341

2007), Negotiating National Identity: Immigrants, Minorities, and the Struggle for
Ethnicity in Brazil (ÚkE ¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS, 1999), AND Welcoming the Undesirables:
Brazil and the Jewish Éuestion (¶NIVERSITY OF ·A±IFORNIA ¸RESS, 1994). ÉIS NEWEST
BOOk IS Immigration, Ethnicity and National Identity in Brazil (·AmBRIDgE
¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS, 2013; ³DITORA ¶½³²¸, 2015).
Öarcia Å. Öacedo IS A SCIENTIST AT THE ÈOODS ÉO±E ¼ESEARCH ·ENTER AND ¼ESEARCH
µSSOCIATE AT THE ¹NSTITUTO DE ¸ESqUISA µmBIENTA± DA µmAzûNIA. ²HE STUDIES THE TRADE-
OffS BETWEEN FOREST CONSERVATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION IN THE TROPICS. ÉER RESEARCH
COmBINES SATE±±ITE DATA, fiE±D mEASUREmENTS, AND mODE±INg TO UNDERSTAND HOW DEFOR-
ESTATION AND AgRICU±TURA± ExPANSION ARE CHANgINg TROPICA± STREAmS AND g±OBA± C±ImATE.
Ôabiano Öaisonnave IS A SENIOR REPORTER AND EDITORIA± WRITER FOR THE ÊRAzI±IAN
NEWSPAPER Folha de S. Paulo. ÉE HAS WORkED AS A CORRESPONDENT IN ·AmPO GRANDE
(ÊRAzI±), ÈASHINgTON, ·ARACAS, AND ÊEIjINg AND HAS REPORTED FROm THIRTY COUNTRIES
ON EVENTS INC±UDINg THE ÉAITIAN EARTHqUAkE AND ·HINA’S ±EADERSHIP CHANgE. µ
FORmER ºU±BRIgHT SCHO±AR, HE HO±DS A mASTER’S DEgREE IN HISTORY FROm THE ¶NIVERSITY
OF ·ONNECTICUT AND HAS BEEN A FE±±OW AT THE ½IEmAN ºOUNDATION FOR JOURNA±ISm AT
ÉARVARD ¶NIVERSITY.
Âi¿oberta Öench÷ ÃuÇ IS A GUATEmA±AN HUmAN RIgHTS ACTIVIST, WINNER OF THE
1992 ½OBE± ¸EACE ¸RIzE, AND ¶½³²·» GOODWI±± µmBASSADOR. ²HE IS A ±IFE±ONg
ADVOCATE FOR LATIN µmERICA’S INDIgENOUS PEOP±ES AND WOmEN. ÉER ExPERIENCES DUR-
INg THE GUATEmA±AN INTERNA± ARmED CONflICT ARE RECORDED IN THE ACC±AImED TESTImO-
NIA± I, Rigoberta Menchú, an Indian Woman in Guatemala.
Âyan Åehrin¿ IS A ¸H.´. STUDENT IN ÉVE±OPmENT ²OCIO±OgY AT ·ORNE±±
¶NIVERSITY. ÉIS RESEARCH INTERESTS INC±UDE THE HISTORY AND PO±ITICA± ECONOmY OF AgRI-
CU±TURA± RESEARCH IN ÊRAzI± AND A±TERNATIVE FOOD SYSTEmS IN LATIN µmERICA. ÉE HAS
RECENT±Y PUB±ISHED ARTIC±ES IN THE Journal of Peasant Studies AND THE Canadian
Journal of Development Studies.
åhristopher Åeill IS ÍRECTOR OF THE ³COSYSTEmS ·ENTER OF THE MARINE
ÊIO±OgICA± LABORATORY AND µSSOCIATE ¸ROFESSOR OF ³CO±OgY AND ³VO±UTIONARY ÊIO±OgY
AT ÊROWN ¶NIVERSITY. ÉE RESEARCHES THE ENVIRONmENTA± CONSEqUENCES OF DEFORESTA-
TION AND THE ExPANSION AND INTENSIfiCATION OF AgRICU±TURE IN THE ÊRAzI±IAN µmAzON.
Âuben Ðeor¿e Äliven IS ¸ROFESSOR OF µNTHROPO±OgY AT THE ºEDERA± ¶NIVERSITY
OF ¼IO GRANDE DO ²U± IN ¸ORTO µ±EgRE, ÊRAzI±, AND mEmBER OF THE ÊRAzI±IAN µCADEmY
OF ²CIENCES. ÉE RECEIVED HIS ¸H´ FROm THE ¶NIVERSITY OF LONDON AND HAS BEEN A VISIT-
INg PROFESSOR AT SEVERA± UNIVERSITIES, AmONg THEm THE ¶NIVERSITY OF ·A±IFORNIA,
ÊERkE±EY, ÁRTmOUTH ·O±±EgE, ÊROWN ¶NIVERSITY, AND THE ¶NIVERSITY OF ¸ARIS. ÉE WAS
PRESIDENT OF THE ÊRAzI±IAN µNTHROPO±OgICA± µSSOCIATION AND THE ÊRAzI±IAN µSSOCIATION
FOR GRADUATE ²TUDIES AND ¼ESEARCH IN ²OCIA± ²CIENCES. ÉE WON THE ³RICO ÍANNUCCI
MENDES ¸RIzE FOR ÍSTINgUISHED ·ONTRIBUTION TO THE ²TUDY OF ÊRAzI±IAN ·U±TURE.
ðeffrey Ö. Àilcher IS ¸ROFESSOR OF ÉISTORY AT THE ¶NIVERSITY OF ¾ORONTO. ÉE IS
THE AUTHOR OF Planet Taco: A Global History of Mexican Food AND ¡Éue vivan los
tamales! Food and the Making of Mexican Identity. ÉE IS THE ARTIC±ES EDITOR OF THE
342 • a bou t th e edi tor s a n d con t r i bu tor s

PEER-REVIEWED jOURNA± Global Food History AND IS CURRENT±Y WRITINg A BOOk ON HOW
BEER TRAVE±ED THE WOR±D.
Ñarah Àortnoy TEACHES COURSES ON LATINO FOOD CU±TURE AND FOOD jUSTICE AT THE
¶NIVERSITY OF ²OUTHERN ·A±IFORNIA. ²HE IS WORkINg ON A BOOk TIT±ED Food, Health,
and Culture in Latino Los Angeles FOR ¼OWmAN & LITT±EfiE±D ¸UB±ISHERS.
Âenato Âosaldo IS ¸ROFESSOR ³mERITUS OF µNTHROPO±OgY AT ½EW ÓORk ¶NIVERSITY
AND A mEmBER OF THE µmERICAN µCADEmY OF µRTS AND ²CIENCES. ÉE IS THE AUTHOR OF
Ilongot Headhunting, 1883–1974: A Study in Society and History AND Culture and Truth:
°e Remaking of Social Analysis. ¼OSA±DO HAS WON NUmEROUS AWARDS FOR HIS POETRY. ÉE
HAS A±SO WRITTEN THE ±IBRETTO FOR A COmIC OPERA, Notes on the Balinese Cockfight, FEATURINg
THE FAmOUS ANTHROPO±OgISTS ·±IffORD GEERTz AND MARgARET MEAD AS mAIN CHARACTERS.
Åancy Ñcheper-ău¿hes IS ·HANCE±±OR’S ¸ROFESSOR AND ·HAIR OF MEDICA±
µNTHROPO±OgY AT THE ¶NIVERSITY OF ·A±IFORNIA, ÊERkE±EY. ²HE IS THE AUTHOR OF Death
without Weeping: °e Æiolence of Everyday Life in Brazil (¶NIVERSITY OF ·A±IFORNIA
¸RESS, 1993) AND “½O MORE µNgE±-ÊABIES ON THE µ±TO DO ·RUzEIRO: °E ¼EPRODUCTIVE
¼EVO±UTION IN ½ORTHEAST ÊRAzI±,” Natural History Magazine (2013). ÊEgINNINg WITH
Saints, Scholars, and Schizophenics (¶NIVERSITY OF ·A±IFORNIA ¸RESS, [1979] 1999), SHE
HAS WRITTEN ABOUT THE ImPACT OF THE ·ATHO±IC ·HURCH ON THE ±IVES OF SmA±± COmmUNI-
TIES IN ¹RE±AND, ²OUTH ÊOSTON, ÊRAzI±, AND µRgENTINA. ¹N µPRI± 2015 SHE WAS INVITED
BY THE ÍATICAN AS A mEmBER OF THE fiNA± P±ENARY mEETINg ON ÉUmAN ¾RAffiCkINg AT
THE ¸ONTIfiCA± ¹NSTITUTE OF ²OCIA± ²CIENCE.
åhie ÑhiÇano IS A JAPANESE MANgA ARTIST AND THE I±±USTRATOR OF Che Guevara: A
Manga Biography.
Ïlan Ñtavans IS THE LEWIS-²EBRINg ¸ROFESSOR IN LATIN µmERICAN AND LATINO
·U±TURE AT µmHERST ·O±±EgE. µmONg HIS RECENT TIT±ES ARE THE gRAPHIC NOVE± El
Iluminado (2012), THE CHI±DREN’S BOOk Golemito (2013), THE CARTOON VO±UmE A Most
Imperfect Union: A Contrarian History of the United States (2014), AND THE CU±TURA±
BIOgRAPHY Éuixote: °e Novel and the World (2015). ÉE HAS TRANS±ATED ¸AB±O ½ERUDA,
JUAN ¼U±FO, AND MARIANO µzUE±A INTO ³Ng±ISH, ¹SAAC ÊASHEVIS ²INgER FROm THE
ÓIDDISH, ÓEHUDA µmICHAI FROm THE ÉEBREW, AND Don Éuixote INTO ²PANg±ISH. °E
RECIPIENT OF mANY INTERNATIONA± AWARDS, HIS WORk, TRANS±ATED INTO fiﬅEEN ±ANgUAgES,
HAS BEEN ADAPTED FOR THEATER AND fi±m.
õaniel ÑuslaK IS µSSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF µNTHROPO±OgY AT ¹NDIANA ¶NIVERSITY AND
Affi±IATED WITH THE ¹¶ ·ENTER FOR LATIN µmERICAN AND ·ARIBBEAN ²TUDIES. ÉE HAS
DONE TWO DECADES OF RESEARCH ON MIxE-ËOqUEAN ±ANgUAgES AND THE TRADITIONS AND
HISTORIES OF THEIR SPEAkERS. ÉIS RESEARCH INTERESTS A±SO INC±UDE VERBA± ART AND THE
CHANgINg ±IVES OF INDIgENOUS YOUTH.
ïendy ïolford IS THE ¼OBERT µ. AND ¼UTH ³. ¸O±SON ¸ROFESSOR OF ÉVE±OPmENT
²OCIO±OgY AT ·ORNE±± ¶NIVERSITY. ²HE HAS WRITTEN ExTENSIVE±Y ON SOCIA± mOBI±IzATION,
±AND REFORm, AND STATE FORmATION IN ÊRAzI± AND, INCREASINg±Y, IN MOzAmBIqUE. ²HE IS
THE AUTHOR OF To Inherit the Earth (WITH µNgUS ÈRIgHT; ºOOD ºIRST ¸RESS, 2003) AND
°is Land Is Ours Now (ÚkE ¶NIVERSITY ¸RESS, 2010).
Á bou t th e Ædi tor s a n d åon t r i bu tor s • 343

Ïndeô
2008 fiNANCIA± CRISIS, 20–21, 22–23, 73, µRABIC, 102, 302

146–47, 152, 153 µRAUCANIANS, 118
µRCADE ºIRE, 289
µBIDjAN, 94, 123 µRgENTINA, 25, 82, 86, 105, 293; µFRO-
µFRO-DESCENDANT µmERICANS, 231, 232; AND ÊRAzI±IAN RE±IgIONS, 280–81; ·HE
ÊRAzI±, 31, 104, 114–15, 132–33, 138–39, GUEVARA, 1, 102–3; DICTATORSHIP, 9,
274, 276–77, 280–81, 283–84; IN ·UBA, 36N8, 40, 42–45, 48–52, 140;
123–24; ³DSON µRANTES DO ½ASCImENTO ±ITERATURE, 97, 291–92, 295, 297, 299,
(¸E±é), 138–39, 141; IN GUATEmA±A, 237; 300; MARCE±±A µ±THAUS-¼EID, 40; mATE,
INCARCERATION IN ¶.²., 217; LABA ²OSSEH, 213; mUSIC, 114, 115, 117, 118, 120, 124,
123–24; ±ANgUAgE, 104; mUSIC AND 137; ON THE g±OBA± PO±ITICA± STAgE, 4,
DANCE, 114–15, 123–24; ¼ODNEY ÌINg 23; ¸OPE ºRANCIS, 9, 37, 42–45, 47–52,
ASSAU±T, 153; S±AVERY, 32, 103–4, 275–76; 106, 108; REDEmOCRATIzATION, 20, 24;
SOCCER, 135–36, 138–39, 143; ¶.². B±ACk SEx WORk, 240, 243, 244; SOCCER,
TOURISm TO ÊRAzI±, 274; ¶.². PRESIDENTIA± 136–38, 140, 142, 143; TANgO, 120,
PO±ITICS AND, 25; È.³.Ê. ÚÊOIS AND 137; TRUTH COmmISSIONS, 77–80;
¶.². B±ACk ImmIgRATION TO ÊRAzI±, 276; TRADE, 176; VARIETY OF ²PANISH, 32,
IN ¶RUgUAY, 136 102–3, 106
µ±FONSíN, ¼Aú±, 20, 35N3, 78 AUTHENTICITY, 93–95; ·INEmA ½OVO AND
µ±±ENDE, ¹SABE±, 299 NATIONA±, 279–80; FOOD, 148, 150–51,
µ±±ENDE, ²A±VADOR, 8, 26, 118, 330 156, 159; gAUCHO, 292; ±ANgUAgE, 300;
µ±mODóVAR, ¸EDRO, 327 “PEASANT ESSENTIA±ISm,” 150; telenovelas,
µmADO, JORgE, 291, 294 303, 308, 309; TOURISm, 260–262
µmAzON REgION, 5, 167–186; ENVIRONmENTA± µY±WIN, ¸ATRICIO, 24, 25, 26
DESTRUCTION, 11, 33, 165, 171–172, 177–
86; FOOD AND CUISINE, 156, 157; OF ¸ERU, ÊA±CE±±S, ·ARmEN, 293–294
105–6; P±ANT-DRUgS, 207–8, 209, 210, ÊA±DWIN, JAmES, 312
213; °EODORE ¼OOSEVE±T’S jOURNEY Black Orpheus, 289
THROUgH, 273 ÊO±AñO, ¼OBERTO, 300
µNDERSON, ÊENEDICT, 223 ÊO±IVIA: ·HE GUEVARA’S DEATH, 1, 31; C±ImATE
ANTIPOVERTY PROgRAmS, 22, 27–28, 85, 188; CHANgE PO±ITICS, 73, 82–84; DANCE,
ÊO±SA ³SCO±A, 22; ÊO±SA ºAmí±IA, 188, 119–20; DRUg PO±ITICS, 215, 217, 218;
282–3; ·HI±E ²O±IDARIO, 22 ImmIgRATION FROm TO ÊRAzI±, 278–79;
345
ÊO±IVIA (continued) ÊRAzI±IAN ·OOPERATION µgENCY (µÊ·),
mUSIC, 114, 116–18, 121, 124–25; 189–90, 191, 193fig.
TOURISm, 268; ¶.². PO±ITICS, 64 Ê¼¹·² COUNTRIES (ÊRAzI±, ¼USSIA, ¹NDIA,
ÊO±SA ºAmí±IA, 188, 282–3 ·HINA, ²OUTH µFRICA), 22, 187, 265
BORDERS, 15, 17, 155, 163–64, 223, 288; DRUg ÊUSH, GEORgE È., 23, 63, 80, 243, 244
CU±TURE, 207, 209, 214, 216; FOOD AND
CUISINE, 152, 155; ±INgUISTIC, 98, 113; ·ANDOmB±é, 104
±ITERATURE, 294, 297; mUSIC, 119; SOCCER, CANNABIS, 11, 210, 213–15, 217, 219
131, 135, 140; “SOUTH OF THE BORDER,” 10, ·APE ÍERDE, 110, 188
93, 214; TRAVERSINg NATIONA±, 107, 113, CAPITA±ISm, 15, 17, 85, 160, 311, 330; CRITIqUE
194, 294, 326, 335; ¶.².-MExICO, 9, OF BY JAmAICA ÌINkAID, 265; AND DRUg-
66–71, 110, 119, 207, 209, 299 FOODS, 210; ÉUgO ·HAVEz ON, 83;
ÊORgES, JORgE LUIS: ³± ÊOOm, 287, 291, NEO±IBERA±, 72
296–97, 300; “°E LIBRARY OF ÊABE±,” ·ARDOSO, ºERNANDO ÉENRIqUE, 22, 141
97; VARIETY OF ²PANISH, 106, 108, 112 ·ARIBBEAN: THE µFRICAN DIASPORA, 104,
BOSSA NOVA, 13, 107, 279, 288, 316–325 120–21; µFRO-DESCENDANT POPU±ATIONS,
ÊRAzI±, 20, 22, 25, 222–23; µFRO-ÊRAzI±IANS, 47, 103–4; ·ATHO±ICISm, 47; C±ImATE
31, 104, 114–15, 132–33, 138–39, 274, CHANgE, 33; FOOD AND CUISINE, 150; ±ABOR,
276–77, 280–81, 283–84; AgRICU±TURE, 47, 149, 222, 240–41, 243, 244, 245;
11, 164, 167–86, 187–203; ÊRAzI±-µFRICA ±ANgUAgE, 102, 103–4, 110, 112; mUSIC,
CONNECTIONS AND COmPARISONS, 104, 139, 123, 289; P±ANT-DRUgS, 210–11, 213–14;
189, 194–95, 197–98, 201–2; P±ACE WITHIN LATIN µmERICA, 294; SEx
DEVE±OPmENT INITIATIVES, 164, 167–86, TOURISm, 247–49; SOCCER, 131; SOCIA±
187–203; DICTATORSHIP, 40–41, 43, 48, mOVEmENTS, 82, 240–41, 243, 244, 245;
52, 141, 190, 198, 319; ENVIRONmENTA± TOURISm, 258, 264, 265, 266, 268
PO±ICIES, 33; FAVE±AS IN, 42, 47, 48, 53, 54, ·ASTRO, ºIDE±, 31, 124, 330; BASEBA±±, 138;
216, 280; fi±m, 276, 279–80; FOOD AND AND ¶.². PO±ITICS, 9,16–17, 58–65; Ão soy
CUISINE, 147–48; ON g±OBA± PO±ITICA± Betty, la fea (¹ µm ¶g±Y ÊETTY), 307
STAgE, 4–5, 33, 187–88, 265; INDIgENOUS ·ATHO±IC ·HURCH AND ·ATHO±ICISm, 9, 16,
POPU±ATIONS, 104, 132–33, 271, 273, 279; 37–57, 98–99, 280–81; AND µFRO-
±ANgUAgE, 10, 32, 112; ±IBERATION ÊRAzI±IAN RE±IgIONS, 274, 280–81;
THEO±OgY, 38, 40–42, 48, 52, 53, 54; ·ATHO±ICISms, 47–8; DICTATORSHIP, 40,
±ITERATURE, 291, 294, 297, 299; mIgRATION 44–45, 49–51; gENDER, 40–42, 52–55;
TO AND FROm, 108, 110, 212, 271–72, 276, ±ANgUAgE, 100, 106–7; P±ANT-DRUgS, 209,
277–79, 288, 317–18, 321, 322; mUSIC, 211, 215, 216, 218; ²ECOND ÍATICAN
121, 316–25; PARTICIPATORY BUDgETINg, 9, ·OUNCI±, 38, 39fig., 41. See also
29, 74–75; ¸ARTIDO DOS ¾RABA±HADORES, ±IBERATION THEO±OgY
29, 74, 282; P±ANT-DRUgS, 210, 211, 212, ·ENTRA± µmERICA, 101, 228; THE ·ATHO±IC
213, 216, 217; POSITIVISm AND SPIRITISm, ·HURCH AND ·ATHO±ICISm IN, 38, 43, 47;
272–73; PUB±IC HEA±TH, 5; RACE AND LAND±ESS ÈORkERS MOVEmENT
ETHNICITY IN, 31, 223, 271, 274–77, PARTNERSHIPS IN, 81; mIgRANTS FROm,
283–84; RE±IgION, 46, 47, 48, 54; RURA± 11–12, 336; mI±ITARY DICTATORSHIP AND
mOBI±IzATION, 80–82; SEx WORkERS IN, CIVI± WAR IN, 38; P±ANT-DRUgS AND DRUg
240–44, 246, 249; THE S±AVE TRADE AND CU±TURE, 209, 212, 218; SOCCER, 209;
S±AVERY, 115, 212, 275–77, 279, 307, TOURISm, 266
310–12; SOCCER, 131–33, 135, 136, 137–45; ·ENTRA± ¹NTE±±IgENCE µgENCY (·¹µ), 1, 40,
telenovelas, 307, 310–12; TOURISm, 266, 52, 59, 60–61, 118
274, 281 ·HáVEz, ÉUgO, 4–5, 29, 64, 75, 83
346 • i n de ô
·HICAgO ÊOYS, 21, 36N6 GUATEmA±A, 234, 237; INDIgENOUS
·HI±E, 32, 36N11, 108, 291; 1973 mI±ITARY gROUPS, 3, 230, 237; JAmAICA ÌINCAID’S
COUP, 8, 118, 140–41, 330; A±±-FEmA±E CRITIqUE OF, 264–65; ±ANgUAgE, 97,
SOCCER TEAm ¾A±CA IN, 134fig.; ·HICAgO 98–101; LATIN µmERICAN mUSIC IN
ÊOYS, 21, 36N6; DICTATORSHIP, 79–80, ºRENCH CO±ONIA± µFRICA, 123; LUSOPHONE
118, 330; ECONOmIC PO±ICIES, 21–22; µFRICA, 194, 196, 198; mIgRATION, 103,
MAPUCHE PEOP±E, 103; mUSIC, 118–19, 108; IN ½ORTH µmERICA, 32; AND ½ORTH-
122; ¸AB±O ½ERUDA, 9, 296; ¼ICARDO ²OUTH DEVE±OPmENT, 187; P±ANT-DRUgS,
LAgOS, 8, 16, 20–36; ¼OBERTO ÊO±AñO, 209–14, 218–19; ROOTS OF SA±SA mUSIC IN,
300; SOCCER, 133–34, 138, 140–41; 120–1; S±AVERY, 103, 104–5; telenovelas,
STUDENT mOVEmENT, 28; TRANSITION TO 309, 312; TRADE, 103, 148–49, 210–11
DEmOCRACY, 23–26, 36N9, 36N12, 119, 330 ·O±UmBIAN ³xCHANgE, 147
·HINA, 23, 277–78, 280, 297, 330; BOSSA ·O±UmBUS, ·HRISTOPHER, 3–4, 68, 99, 225,
NOVA IN, 13, 288, 316, 320–25; Ê¼¹·², 232
22, 187, 265; ·HINESE ImmIgRANTS IN COmmUNISm, 38, 58–65, 138, 296
¶.²., 213; FOOD, 11, 105, 149, 152, 156; CONSUmPTION, 94; Cannibalist Manifesto,
SOCCER, 142; TRADE WITH AND INVESTmENT 274; OF ±ITERATURE ON INTERNATIONA±
IN LATIN µmERICA, 5, 11, 124, 171, 174, mARkET, 292; OF mEAT IN ·HINA, 176;
175–76, 184, 278; ¶.². PO±ITICS, 60 ¸ACIfiC FUSION CUISINE, 146–162; OF
·HRISTIAN ÊASE ·OmmUNITY, 38–40, 43, PERFORmANCES OF TRADITION, 262; OF
44, 50 telenovelas, 304–5, 308, 312; AND
City of God, 280, 288 UPWARD SOCIA± mOBI±ITY, 282–83
CIVI± WAR, 38, 212, 274; IN GUATEmA±A, 221, conversos, 210
225, 234–35; IN LEBANON, 213; IN CORPORATIONS: ACqUISITION OF ±AND IN
MOzAmBIqUE, 196, 198–99; IN ¸ERU, 151; MOzAmBIqUE BY, 188, 196–97; ÊRAzI±IAN
IN ²PAIN, 26, 36N7, 296 SYmBO±IC gOODS, 279–80; CORPORATE
C±ImATE CHANgE, 16, 163, 165, 199, 226; CAPITA±ISm, 72, 85; ENVIRONmENTA±
DEFORESTATION, 33, 171, 177–181, 183–185; ACTIVISm AND, 84; FOOD PRODUCTION, 82;
³VO MORA±ES, 82–84; LATIN µmERICA’S ¸E±é’S TIES TO, 138; PHARmACEUTICA±, 5,
RO±E IN ADDRESSINg, 5, 32–34, 73, 82–84, 209, 219
86 ·ORTázAR, JU±IO, 291, 295, 298, 300, 301
COCOA, 211 CREO±IzATION, 93; FOOD AND CUISINE, 159, 211;
COffEE, 1, 102, 105, 210–12, 216, 278 ±ANgUAgE, 104, 110
·O±D ÈAR, 238; THE ·ATHO±IC ·HURCH, 38, ·UARóN, µ±FONSO, 327–29, 331–33
46; AND CONflICT IN GUATEmA±A, 221, ·UBA: BASEBA±±, 138; ÊUENA ÍISTA ²OCIA±
234, 238; AND ·UBA, 58–64, 65N1, 138; ·±UB, 94, 115; ·HE GUEVARA, 1, 30–31,
DRUg PO±ICIES AND, 215, 218; ±ANgUAgE, 62, 63–64; ·HINESE-·UBAN FOOD, 105;
109; SOCCER, 138 fi±m, 330; GABRIE± GARCíA MáRqUEz’S
·O±OmBIA, 82; COffEE, 212; ·O±OmBIAN fi±m SCHOO± IN, 329, 332; ExI±ES FROm IN
¼AI±WAY ·OmPANY, 132; DANCE, 124; ¶.²., 59, 61, 62, 63, 64; ±ITERATURE, 292;
mUSIC, 105, 120, 122; ¸±AN ·O±OmBIA, mEDICA± PROFESSIONA±S FROm IN ÈEST
216; P±ANT-DRUgS, 207, 208, 213, 214, µFRICA, 104; mIgRATION TO AND FROm,
215–17; ²ERgIO ·ABRERA, 332, 333; SEx 109; mUSIC, 115, 120, 123–24; ¸OPE
WORkER ACTIVISm, 240; TOURISm, 268; ºRANCIS, 46, 52; RUmBA, 115; S±AVERY AND
TRUTH COmmISSIONS, 79; Ão soy Betty, la ABO±ITION IN, 276; SOCCER, 131; TOURISm,
fea (¹ Am ¶g±Y ÊETTY), 307–9 256, 260, 262–63, 264–66, 268, 336;
CO±ONIA±ISm, 3, 8, 10, 12, 72; THE ·ATHO±IC TRANSCU±TURATION, 148; AND ¶.².
·HURCH, 39, 40, 52, 100; FOOD, 102; PO±ITICS, 9, 16–17, 46, 52, 58–65, 120
i n de ô • 347
·UBAN ¼EVO±UTION, 1, 31, 58–59, 115, 330 DISAPPEARED, THE, 77; IN µRgENTINA, 43,
·U±INARY ¹NSTITUTE OF µmERICA, 151, 152, 153, 44–45, 50–52, 77–80; THE ·ATHO±IC
160 ·HURCH, 43, 44–45, 50–52; IN
GUATEmA±A, 230, 234; MARCE±±A
ÁkAR, 94, 123, 309 µ±THAUS-¼EID ON, 40; ½ATIONA±
DANCE, 10, 93, 107, 114–26, 326; µFRO- ·OmmISSION ON THE ÍSAPPEARANCE OF
·O±OmBIAN, 124; µFRO-·UBAN, 124; ¸ERSONS (·HI±E), 35N3; ¼ICARDO LAgOS
CAPOEIRA, 279; ·ARmEN MIRANDA, 13, ON, 24
114–15; cueca IN JAPAN, 119–20; DISEASE, 5; CO±ONIzATION AND CONqUEST, 3–4;
±AmBADA, 121; LU±A’S COmmENTS ON, 194; DANCE USED TO TREAT ¸ARkINSON’S, 120;
RE-µFRICANIzATION, 123; SOCCER, 137; DRUg-CU±TURE, 215; ³BO±A, 104; FOOT AND
TOURISm, 260fig. See also SA±SA; SAmBA; mOUTH, 176; “mAD COW,” 176; SEx WORk,
TANgO 244–46, 250; STUDENT DISSENT DESCRIBED
ÁRíO, ¼UBéN, 292 AS, 60. See also É¹Í/µ¹´²
DE± ¾ORO, GUI±±ERmO, 331, 332, 333 ÓmINICAN ¼EPUB±IC, 74, 243, 245
DEmOCRACY, 23–30, 80, 84–87, 228, 285; ÓNOSO, JOSé, 291, 295
DRUg PO±ICY, 217–18, 309; FOOD AND ´RUg ³NFORCEmENT µgENCY (´³µ), 207, 218
CUISINE, 148, 155; IN GUATEmA±A, 234–
37; IN MOzAmBIqUE, 196; PARTICIPATORY, ECONOmIC PO±ICY, 20–21, 73, 82, 85; IN
5, 9, 16, 74–77; “RACIA± DEmOCRACY,” ÊRAzI±, 281; IN ·HI±E, 20–21;
276–77, 283; ²A±VADOR µ±±ENDE’S PARTICIPATORY BUDgETINg, 74–77; SOCCER
E±ECTION, 8, 118, 140; SOCCER, 141; AND NEO±IBERA±ISm, 140; ¶.².
TRANSITIONS TO, 16, 20, 21, 23–30, MI±±ENNIUm ·HA±±ENgE ·ORPORATION,
49, 77–80, 119, 141; IN THE ¶.²., 197; ÈASHINgTON ·ONSENSUS, 20–21,
59; ¶.². ·UBAN ÉmOCRACY µCT, 35N4, 36. See also ¹NTERNATIONA±
62–63 MONETARY ºUND; ÈOR±D ÊANk
DEVE±OPmENT, 72, 74, 163–5; ÊRAzI±IAN ³CUADOR, 108, 208, 217, 218, 243
SOYBEAN AgRICU±TURE, 173–177, 178; ³± ÊOOm, 291, 294–301
º¹ºµ AND, 139; IN GUATEmA±A, 228, 231, ³± ²A±VADOR, 238; FOOD AND CUISINE, 152; THE
236, 237; NEO±IBERA±ISm, 35N4; MAYA, 229; mIgRANTS FROm, 110, 147;
PARTICIPATORY BUDgETINg, 74; PROjECTS IN çSCAR ¼OmERO, 40, 47, 52, 106
MOzAmBIqUE, 11, 187–202; AND SEx ³mPRESA ÊRASI±EIRA DE ¸ESqUISA
WORkERS IN ÊRAzI±, 244; SUSTAINAB±E, 81; µgROPECUáRIA (³mBRAPA), 173–74,
TOURISm AND, 260, 262, 264–65 188–194, 198, 200
DICTATORSHIP, 16; IN µRgENTINA, 20, 24, 35N3, ENCOUNTER: CO±ONIA± ExPANSION AND
36N8, 77–80; IN ÊRAzI±, 40–41, 43, 48, CONqUEST, 4–5, 97–103, 225; CU±INARY,
52, 141, 190, 198, 319; IN ·HI±E, 8, 21, 147, 154; ±ANgUAgE, 97–103; P±ANT-DRUgS
24–25, 26–27, 36N9, 36N12, 79–80, 118, AND DRUg CU±TURE, 209; TOURISm, 222,
140, 330; DEVE±OPmENT PROjECTS DURINg 247, 249, 256–269
PERIODS OF, 190, 198; IN GUATEmA±A, 234; ³Ng±AND, 278; ABO±ITION OF S±AVERY, 276;
±ITERATURE, 294–95, 296; IN MExICO, 335; FOOT AND mOUTH DISEASE IN, 176; GABRIE±
¸OPE ºRANCIS AND, 42–45, 48–51; GARCíA MáRqUEz’S ±ETTER TO THE ¼OYA±
¸ORTUgA±, 195; PROTEST mUSIC, 116, 118; »BSERVATORY OF, 34; GAE± GARCíA
SOCCER AND, 135, 138, 140–41, 143; IN ÊERNA±, 328, 337; INVASION OF THE
²PAIN, 24, 26; TRANSITIONS FROm, 16, 20, MA±VINAS, OR ºA±k±AND, ¹S±ANDS BY,
21, 23–30, 77–80, 141; TRUTH 36N8; LATIN µmERICAN DANCE IN, 120,
COmmISSIONS, 5, 24–25, 77–80, 86. See 122; P±ANT-DRUgS, 211; SOCCER, 10, 131, 132,
also DISAPPEARED, THE 142; telenovelas, 288
348 • i n de ô
³SqUIVE±, LAURA, 299 FOREIgN INVESTmENT, 132, 140, 143, 188–90,
ETHNIC ENC±AVES, 146–47, 154, 160 191–202
ExOTICISm, 93, 164, 287; mUSIC, 10, 116, 118, ºRANCE: Black Orpheus, 289; DE GAU±±E’S
125–26; FOOD, 150–51, 155, 161; CRITICISm OF ¶.². FOREIgN PO±ICY, 59–60;
±ITERATURE, 291, 294; ¸ACIfiC FUSION ExI±E OF ¹VONE GEBARA TO, 42; FOOD AND
CUISINE, 148; PERCEPTIONS OF MExICA CUISINE, 148, 149, 150, 153, 159, 211,
(µzTEC) AND MAYA PEOP±ES, 150–51, 208; 212–13; THE ºRENCH ·ARIBBEAN, 104–
TOURISm, 222, 247–48, 256, 258–59 105, 211; ºRENCH ¼EVO±UTION, 211; GROUP
ExPORTS, 34; AgRICU±TURE, 158, 170–71, OF 7, 22; ±ANgUAgE, 98; ±ITERATURE, 293,
174–78, 184, 188, 191–92, 201, 211, 278; 296, 297; mIgRATION TO, 108, 136, 138,
FOOD, 149, 159–61, 213; kNOW±EDgE, 164, 139; mUSIC, 120, 121, 123; ¸OPE ºRANCIS
188; ±ANgUAgE, 103; OF LATIN µmERICAN AND DISAPPEARANCE OF NUNS FROm, 44,
DEmOCRACY AND SOCIA± CHANgE, 8, 29, 50; POSITIVISm AND SPIRITISm IN ÊRAzI±,
84–87; ±ITERATURE, 287, 292, 295; P±ANT- 272–73; SOCCER, 136, 139, 141
DRUgS, 211, 216, 220N3; SOCCER, 131, ºRE±ImO (ºRENTE DE LIBERTAüöO DE
142–45; telenovelas, 302–312 MOüAmBIqUE), 196
ºREYRE, GI±BERTO, 277
FAVE±AS: AND THE ·ATHO±IC ·HURCH, 39, 41, ºRIEDmAN, °OmAS, 6
47, 48, 53, 54; DRUg CU±TURE, 216; AND ºUENTES, ·AR±OS, 13, 19, 31–32, 35N2, 291, 295
REPRESENTATIONS OF ÊRAzI±, 280; REPRO-
DUCTIVE RIgHTS FOR mOTHERS IN, 42, 47, 54 GA±EANO, ³DUARDO, 4
ºERRé, ¼OSARIO, 299 GARCíA ÊERNA±, GAE±, 2, 13–14, 36N10,
fi±m AND TE±EVISION: A Huey P. Newton Story 287–88, 326–337
IN ÊRAzI±, 276; ÊRAzI±IAN CINEmA, 279– GARCíA MáRqUEz, GABRIE±, 13, 34–35, 209;
80, 288–89, 330; ·ARmEN MIRANDA, 13, AND ³± ÊOOm, 287, 291, 295–96, 297–
114–15, 118, 279, 287; DEPICTION OF LATIN 301; fi±m SCHOO± IN ·UBA, 329, 332;
µmERICANS AND LATINOS IN ¶.²., 13, 111, ½OBE± ¸RIzE, 300, 301; One Hundred
114–15; DRUg CU±TURE, 119, 216, 288; FOOD Ãears of Solitude, 17, 298, 301
AND CUISINE, 94, 150, 152, 153, 155; GABRIE± gAUCHO, 213, 292, 300
GARCíA MáRqUEz’S fi±m SCHOO± IN ·UBA, gENDER: AND THE ·ATHO±IC ·HURCH, 40–42,
329, 332; GAE± GARCíA ÊERNA±, 1–2, 326– 52–55; ±ITERATURE, 299, 304–5; SEx
37; G±OBO mEDIA CONg±OmERATE, 280; WORkER ACTIVISm AND ±ABOR, 222, 240–
±ANgUAgE, 109; mASS mEDIA AND PO±ITICS, 50; SOCCER, 10, 133–35, 145; telenovelas,
26–27; MExICAN CINEmA, 327–29, 330– 288, 308–9, 310–11; TOURISm, 267
32; No, 36N10, 330; RIgHTS TO ³± ÊOOm gENTRIfiCATION, 146, 148, 157, 160
NOVE±S, 298; SOCCER, 140, 141. See also gEOgRAPHY, 31–32, 167–175, 177–185, 195–
telenovelas 197, 221; DEfiNITION OF LATIN µmERICA,
FOOD, 93–94, 163, 165; AgRICU±TURE, 167– 98, 101, 294
174, 181–85, 188–192, 200–1; “DRUg- GI±BERTO, JOöO, 317, 318, 320
FOODS,” 210; ±ANgUAgE, 102, 103, 105, G±OBA± ½ORTH, 72–73, 84–85, 86; C±ImATE
107; mEAT CONSUmPTION, 176; ¸ACIfiC CHANgE, 82–83; DEVE±OPmENT PROjECTS,
FUSION CUISINE, 146–62; SECURITY AND 187, 195; FOOD AND CUISINE, 150;
INSECURITY, 80–81, 163, 165, 177, 188, 191, HIERARCHY WITH G±OBA± ²OUTH, 124, 165,
192, 199, 201; SOCIA± mOBI±ITY, 176, 282; 309; PARTICIPATORY BUDgETINg, 75, 77;
SOVEREIgNTY, 80–81, 82, 265; TRUCkS, 10, RURA± mOBI±IzATION, 81; SA±SA, 123–124;
146, 147fig., 152–161 SEx WORkER ACTIVISm, 222, 241; SOCCER,
FOOTBA±± ( fútbol, futebol). see SOCCER 94, 131; TOURISm, 256, 257, 262; TRUTH
FOREIgN AID, 58, 62, 192, 197, 199 AND RECONCI±IATION, 79–80
i n de ô • 349
G±OBA± ²OUTH: APPROPRIATION OF CU±TURA± ICON, 17, 31, 89–92, 133, 262
FORmS FROm, 116, 124; CIRCU±ATION OF LATIN ImmIgRANTS AND ImmIgRATION: IN
µmERICAN DEmOCRACY AND SOCIA± CHANgE µRgENTINA, 108; ASSImI±ATION, 155; TO
WITHIN, 8, 24, 73, 79, 81; C±ImATE CHANgE, AND FROm ÊRAzI±, 108,110, 212, 271–72,
82–84; DEVE±OPmENT PROjECTS, 11, 187–88, 277, 278, 288, 317–18, 321, 322; FOOD AND
189, 192, 195, 200–1; DRUg CU±TURE, 207; CUISINE, 94, 146–48, 152–53, 155, 160;
fiRST POPE FROm, 9, 45, 46; SEx WORkER ±ANgUAgE, 108–12; mUSIC, 116, 122, 123;
ACTIVISm AND ±ABOR, 222, 241; SOCCER, 139; SOCCER, 132, 133; TO THE ¶.²., 63, 108–12,
telenovelas, 288, 302, 312; TOURISm, 262 129, 152–53, 155, 160, 336; ¶.².
g±OBA±IzATION: ANTI-g±OBA±IzATION, 81; ¹mmIgRATION AND ·USTOmS
ÊRAzI±, 278; DIffUSION OF PARTICIPATORY ³NFORCEmENT (¹·³), 129
BUDgETINg, 74; º±AT ÈOR±D THEORY, 6; ImPORTS: AgRICU±TURE, 164, 170, 173–74,
FOOD AND CUISINE, 151; ±ANgUAgE, 113; 176, 177, 184, 198; FOOD AND CUISINE,
±ITERATURE, 296; ORIgIN OF TERm, 15; 149, 336; OF IDEO±OgIES FROm THE G±OBA±
SOCCER, 142, 144fig.; SOYBEANS, 175–77; ½ORTH, 72, 272–73; ±ANgUAgE, 102;
telenovelas, 302–3, 304, 311 mANUFACTURED gOODS, 278, 322; P±ANT-
GUATEmA±A: 1954 COUP, 59, 234; CIVI± WAR DRUgS, 213, 336; SOCCER, 142; THE
IN, 221, 234; DRUg PO±ICY, 217; HUmAN TRANSAT±ANTIC S±AVE TRADE, 276
RIgHTS IN, 234–36; ±IBERATION THEO±OgY ¹ñáRRITU, µ±EjANDRO GONzá±Ez, 327–333
IN, 40; MAYA IN, 101, 105, 229–30; INDIgENOUS ±ANgUAgES, 10, 97–98, 99–103,
MENNONITES IN, 105; mIgRANTS FROm, 105–7, 111, 113
110, 236; ¼IgOBERTA MENCHú’S ½OBE± INDIgENOUS PEOP±ES: µRAUCANIANS, 118; IN
ACCEPTANCE SPEECH, 225–39 ÊO±IVIA, 82, 84, 125; IN ÊRAzI±, 271, 273,
gUERRI±±A WAR: THE ·ATHO±IC ·HURCH, 51; 279; ·ATHO±ICISm, 47, 53; EAR±Y CO±ONIA±
·HE GUEVARA, 2, 10; Í±mA ¼OUSSEff, ExPANSION AND CONqUEST, 3–4;
25; DRUg PO±ICY IN ·O±OmBIA, 217; IN ENVIRONmENT AND C±ImATE CHANgE, 183,
GUATEmA±A, 235; Amores perros, 331 227, 231, 236; FOOD, 150–51, 156;
GUEVARA, ³RNESTO “·HE,” 1–3, 4, 30–31, 34, “ImAgINED µNDEAN INDIgENISm,” 94,
102; AS ICON, 1–3, 4, 17, 30, 89–93; IN 121; ¹NCA, 98, 100, 114, 118–19, 156, 211,
mANgA, 10, 17, 89–93; ¶.². PO±ITICS, 62, 212; indigenismo, 117, 291–92; ±ANgUAgE,
63–64 10, 11, 97–98, 99–107, 111, 113; MAYA,
99, 100, 101, 105, 107, 151, 208, 211,
ÉAITI (²AINT-ÓmINgUE), 238, 281, 289; 229–230, 268; mestizaje, 31–32, 147,
µ±EjO ·ARPENETIER’S NOVE± °e Kingdom 292; MExICA (µzTECS), 17, 68, 69, 98,
of the °is World, 296; LAND±ESS 100, 151, 208, 211, 229; mUSIC, 118–19,
ÈORkERS MOVEmENT IN, 81; mIgRANTS 279; »±mEC, 208; P±ANT-DRUgS, 5, 165,
FROm, 109, 278; ¼EVO±UTION, 4, 211; 208–211; ¼OBERTA MENCHú, 12, 221,
S±AVERY, 211 225–239; SOCCER, 135–36; ËAPATISTA
ÉAITIAN ÌREYò±, 98, 104 UPRISINg, 262, 330, 335
ÉAVANA: MIAmI’S “LITT±E ÉAVANA,” 64; ¹NTERNATIONA± MONETARY ºUND, 21, 23, 36N5
mUSIC, 94, 115, 123; TOBACCO, 210; INTERNATIONA±IzATION: OF ÊRAzI±IAN SYmBO±IC
TOURISm, 257fig., 259–60, 266; ¶.². gOODS, 280; fi±m, 326, 333; ±ANgUAgE, 113;
PO±ITICS, 59, 60, 62, 64, 65N1 ±ITERATURE, 13, 287, 293, 296, 300–1;
ÉERNáNDEz, JOSé, 292 SOCCER, 142–45
É¹Í/µ¹´², 5, 244, 246, 250 INTERNET AND SOCIA± mEDIA, 330, 333; AND
ÉONDURAS, 217, 229, 327 º±AT ÈOR±D THEORY, 6; FOOD TRUCkS, 152,
HUmAN TRAffiCkINg, 45, 222, 241, 243–45, 154, 154, 155; mIgRATION AND
250, 310 TRANSNATIONA±ISm, 11; PROTEST, 285;
350 • i n de ô
ëUINTO ¸ODER, 29; SEx WORk ACTIVISm, COmPARED TO ³Ng±ISH, 335; USE BY ¸OPE
241, 246; TOURISm AS ESCAPE FROm, 262; ºRANCIS, 46, 106–7
ÓOU¾UBE, 26, 125, 327, 336 LATIN µmERICA, DEfiNITION OF, 98, 101, 294
LATINO ¸OPU±ATION IN THE ¶.².: ·UBANS, 59,
JAmAICA, 104, 123, 213, 214, 217 61, 62, 63, 64; DANCE, 120; FOOD AND
JAPAN: BOSSA NOVA IN, 13, 288, 316–325; CUISINE, 146, 153, 160; fi±m, 115, 280, 333,
DEVE±OPmENT INITIATIVES, 190, 191–93, 336–37; INCARCERATION AND ¶.². DRUg
195, 199, 200; FOOD AND CUISINE, 146, PO±ICY, 217; ±ANgUAgE, 11–12, 108–13;
149, 150, 152, 156, 157–58, 159–60; ±ITERATURE, 299; mIgRANT TRAI± TO ¶.².,
GROUP OF 20, 4; mIgRATION TO AND FROm 336; mUSIC, 119, 120, 122; ½EW ÓORk
ÊRAzI±, 212, 271, 278, 279, 288, 317–18, ¸UERTO ¼ICANS, 120
321–22; ±ANgUAgE, 99, 108; mANgA, 10; LGÊ¾ë: AND THE ·ATHO±IC ·HURCH, 37–38,
mIgRATION FROm LATIN µmERICAN TO, 46, 49, 51; mARRIAgE, 46, 49; qUEER kIN
108, 278, 321–22; mUSIC, 93, 94, NETWORkS, 249; RIgHTS mOVEmENT, 330;
114, 116–18, 119–20, 121, 124; SOCCER, SOCCER, 134; TOURISm, 247, 266;
144 TRANSgENDER SEx WORkERS, 240, 245, 248
JAPANESE ¹NTERNATIONA± ·OOPERATION ±IBERATION THEO±OgY, 16, 38–44, 52–55,
µgENCY (J¹·µ), 191–93 57N4, 106; Óm Éé±DER ·æmARA, 40,
JOBIm, µNTûNIO ·AR±OS, 316, 317, 318, 320, 41, 52; ¹VONE GEBARA, 40–41, 42, 52, 54;
321 MARCE±±A µ±THAUS-¼EID, 40; çSCAR
¼OmERO, 40, 52, 106
ÌINCAID, JAmAICA, 264–265 L±OSA, MARIO ÍARgAS, 13, 19, 35N2, 291, 295,
ÌOREA: ExPANSION OF mIDD±E C±ASS IN, 6; 298–301
FOOD TRUCk mOVEmENT, 10, 93, 146–47, ±OCA±, THE: AgRICU±TURE, 182, 184, 189;
152–55, 160; mIgRANTS FROm, 152, 153; DEmOCRATIC PARTICIPATION AND
mUSIC, 323 ENgAgEmENT, 16, 29, 74, 75; FOOD AND
CUISINE, 147–48, 149, 154; ±ANgUAgE, 11,
LA ÍíA ·AmPESINA, 80–81 101, 109, 110, 300, 303; LATIN µmERICAN
±ABOR, 205; COmPARISONS BETWEEN ÊRAzI± ROOTS OF TRANSNATIONA± jUSTICE AND
AND MOzAmBIqUE, 189, 197–98, 201–2; HUmAN RIgHTS, 78, 79; ±ITERATURE, 287,
FOOD AND CUISINE, 148–50, 153, 155, 156, 292, 297, 300; mIgRANTS PARTICIPATINg IN
159, 160; INDIgENOUS PEOP±ES, 211, 215; FROm AFAR, 12; P±ANT-DRUgS, 216, 218;
mIgRATION, 104–5, 137, 155–56, 196, 213, RECEPTIONS OF ¸OPE ºRANCIS, 48; IN
244, 321; SEx WORkER ACTIVISm, 12, RE±ATION TO THE g±OBA±, 3, 6, 8, 78, 86, 93,
240–50; SOCCER, 132, 133, 137, 138, 142– 319, 325, 336; RESISTANCE TO DEVE±OPmENT
43; WOmEN IN WRITINg WORkFORCE, 299. PROjECTS, 200; SEx WORkER ACTIVISm,
See also S±AVERY 245–49; SYmBO±S OF IDENTITY, 101, 149;
LAND±ESS ÈORkERS MOVEmENT (M²¾), telenovelas, 303, 304; TOURISm, 222,
80–82, 86 256–57, 262–68
±ANgUAgE: CONqUEST AND CO±ONIzATION, 3, 10, LOS µNgE±ES, 293; FOOD AND CUISINE, 10, 93,
99–100; LATIN µmERICANS IN THE ¶.²., 146–48, 150, 152–59; ±ANgUAgE, 99, 111
108–113; ±ITERATURE AND TRANS±ATION, 293, ±USOTROPOCIA±ISm, 194, 277
298–99; ±OANWORDS, 100, 102–3, 104,
294; mIgRATION, 11, 103–5, 108–113; MACHU ¸ICCHU, 259, 261fig.
mUSIC, 13, 319–20, 323, 326; NATIONA± MADURO, ½ICO±áS, 29
VARIETIES OF ²PANISH AND ¸ORTUgUESE, 32, mAgICA± REA±ISm, 34, 291, 296–97, 300
102; RE±IgION, 105–7; SEx WORkERS USE OF, MA±AWI, 191, 193fig.
248; Spanglish, 94, 112–13; ²PANISH MAPUTO, 191
i n de ô • 351
MARTI, JOSé, 292–94 CU±TURE, 209, 210; fi±m, 334; FOOD AND
MATO GROSSO STATE (ÊRAzI±), 167–185, 191, CUISINE, 152–56, 164, 176; ±ITERATURE,
279 294; SOCCER, 132; STUDENT mOVEmENT IN
MAYA, 229–230; DRUg CU±TURE, 208–9, 211; ·HI±E, 28; TOURISm, 258
±ANgUAgE, 99, 100, 101, 103, 105, 107; mIgRATION, 2, 4, 32, 304; ACROSS ÊERINg
TOURISm, 151, 268 ²TRAIT, 32; µSIAN mIgRATION TO LATIN
mEmORY: OF DICTATORSHIP, 26, 45, 51; µmERICA, 133, 149, 212, 317–18; TO AND
¼IgOBERTA MENCHú COmmENTS ON, 231; FROm ÊRAzI±, 271–74, 276, 278–79,
One Hundred Ãears of Solitude, 297; 280–81, 288, 317–18, 321–22; DANCE,
SOCCER, 138; TOURISm, 259–65 122; FOOD AND CUISINE, 149, 152–53,
MENCHú, ¼IgOBERTA, 12, 221, 223, 225–239 155–56; ¹NTERNATIONA± »RgANIzATION FOR
MENDES, ²éRgIO, 318–19 MIgRATION, 245; ±ABOR, 104–5, 137,
MENEm, ·AR±OS, 4, 20 155–56, 160, 196, 213, 244, 321;
mestizaje (mestiçagem), 6, 31–32, 147, 277, ±ANgUAgE, 103–5, 108–113; LATIN
292 µmERICANS IN THE ¶.²., 108–12; LOS
MExICA (µzTEC), 17; CA±ENDAR, 68, 69; DRUg µNgE±ES AS HUB OF g±OBA±, 147; mUSIC,
CU±TURE, 208–9, 211; FOOD AND CUISINE, 116, 119, 122, 123; SOCCER, 132–33, 137,
151, 211; MUSEO DE± ¾EmP±O MAYOR, 229; 142; TO THE ¶.²., 11–12, 108–112, 327,
½AHAT± ±ANgUAgE, 100 336; TO URBAN AREAS, 201, 317–18
MExICAN ¼EVO±UTION, 119, 214, 262, 304 MI±±ENNIUm ÉVE±OPmENT GOA±S, 199
MExICO, 1; THE ·ATHO±IC ·HURCH, 47, 53; MINISTRY OF µgRICU±TURE, LIVESTOCk AND
“COSmIC RACE,” 8, 292; DRUg CU±TURE, ºOOD ²UPP±Y (Mµ¸µ), 171fig., 173
207–9, 211, 213, 214, 215, 217, 218; MINTz, ²IDNEY, 159, 210
ECONOmIC gROWTH, 265; ECONOmIC MIRANDA, ·ARmEN, 13, 114–15, 118, 279, 287
PO±ICY, 35N5; ³NRIqUE ¸EñA ½IETO, MISTRA±, GABRIE±A, 9
28–29; ExI±E OF ¼IgOBERTA MENCHú TO, mODERNISm, 232, 274
225, 229; fi±m AND TE±EVISION, 293, 302, modernistas, 292–93
305–7, 309, 326–27, 328–333, 335–337; mODERNITY, 73, 135, 140, 159, 273
FOOD AND CUISINE, 10, 19, 146, 147, 149, mODERNIzATION, 176, 190, 237
150–51, 152–53, 159; GROUP OF 20, 4, 23; MORAES, ÍINICIUS DE, 317–18
gROWTH OF mIDD±E C±ASS IN, 6; ±ANgUAgE, MORA±ES, ³VO, 64, 82–83, 84, 218
101–3, 105, 107, 109, 108–13, 300, 302; MOzAmBICAN ¹NSTITUTE FOR µgRICU±TURA±
±ITERATURE, 291, 292, 296, 297, 299, 300; ¼ESEARCH (¹¹µM), 192
mestizaje, 292; mIgRATION TO AND FROm, MOzAmBIqUE, 11, 139, 164, 187–203
66–69, 105, 110–13, 129, 336; mUSIC, 119; mU±TINATIONA± PO±ITICA± ORgANIzATIONS:
¸ARTIDO ¼EVO±UCIONARIO ¹NSTITUCIONA± Ê¼¹·² COUNTRIES (ÊRAzI±, ¼USSIA, ¹NDIA,
(¸¼¹), 335; SOCCER, 131; TOURISm, 256, 258, ·HINA, ²OUTH µFRICA), 22, 187, 265;
259, 262, 263, 268 GROUP OF 7, 22; GROUP OF 8, xV, 23;
MExICO ·ITY, 17; AS CENTER OF FEmINISm IN GROUP OF 14, 22; GROUP OF 20, xV, 4,
1970S, 299; FOOD AND CUISINE, 151; GAE± 22–23; GROUP OF 77, 83, 84;
GARCíA ÊERNA± AND, 328, 336; »RgANIzATION OF µmERICAN ²TATES, 216,
ImmIgRATION FROm, 66; ¹NTERNATIONA± 217. See also ¶½
µ¹´² ·ONFERENCE IN, 246; ±ANgUAgE, MUSEO DE± ¾EmP±O MAYOR, 229
113; ¼IOBERTA MENCHú IN, 225, 229 mUSIC: “ImAgINED µNDEAN INDIgENISm,” 94,
mIDD±E C±ASS: gROWTH OF IN THE DEVE±OPINg 121; LA±O GUERRERO, 214; ±ANgUAgE, 107;
WOR±D, 6, 8, 27–28, 223, 281–83; LISA »NO, 13, 288, 316–325; Mozart in
ADOPTION OF SPIRITUA± FORmS BY, 273, the Jungle, 334; PROTEST mUSIC, 118–19.
274; ÊRAzI±IANS IN JAPAN, 322; DRUg See also REggAETóN; SA±SA; SAmBA; TANgO
352 • i n de ô
½ACA±A ·ORRIDOR, 191–94, 199 ¸ERONISm, 295
Narcos, 216, 288 ¸ERU: ECONOmIC gROWTH, 265; FOOD AND
NEO±IBERA±ISm, 35N4, 36N6, 72, 140, 160, CUISINE, 10, 19, 105, 151; GUSTAVO
295 GUTIéRREz, 38, 52; ±ANgUAgE, 105–6, 107;
½ERUDA, ¸AB±O, 9, 296 mestizaje, 31; mIgRATION TO AND FROm,
½EW ÈAVE CINEmA (·INEmA ½OVO), 330 108, 133; mUSIC, 114, 117, 118, 121, 125;
½ICARAgUA, 238; ¼UBéN ÁRíO, 292; P±ANT-DRUgS AND DRUg PO±ICY, 207, 211,
±IBERATION THEO±OgY IN, 40; ²ANDINISTAS, 215, 218; PO±ITICA± PARTICIPATION, 28, 74;
57N4, 62, 262; TOURISm, 256, 259, 266 ¼ICARDO ËáRATE, 146–149, 155–61; La
½OBE± ¸RIzE: FOR ±ITERATURE, 9, 17, 35N1, 296, teta asustada (°E MI±k OF ²ORROW),
300, 301; FOR PEACE, 12, 225–26, 227–39 332; TOURISm, 259, 260, 263, 267fig., 268
NONgOVERNmENTA± ORgANIzATIONS, 12, 45, 77, PEYOTE, 208–9
78, 232, 240–241 ¸INOCHET, µUgUSTO: 1973 mI±ITARY COUP, 8,
½ORTH-²OUTH RE±ATIONS, 86, 165, 288, 309; 118; ARREST OF, 79; DICTATORSHIP, 24,
DEVE±OPmENT PARTNERSHIPS, 187, 192, 36N6, 118, 122, 140, 300; P±EBISCITE, 24,
195; LAND±ESS ÈORkERS MOVEmENT, 81; 36N9, 330; ¼ICARDO LAgOS AND, 26,
TOURISm, 257; SEx WORkER ACTIVISm, 222, 27fig., 36N12
241. See also G±OBA± ½ORTH; G±OBA± PO±ITICA± PARTIES, 234, 285; ÊRAzI±IAN
²OUTH ·OmmUNIST ¸ARTY, 138; ºRE±ImO
(MOzAmBIqUE), 196; LIBERA±S AND
»ffiCIA± ÉVE±OPmENT µSSISTANCE (»´µ), ·ONSERVATIVES, 262; ¸ARTIDO
192 ¼EVO±UCIONARIO ¹NSTITUCIONA± (¸¼¹),
»PERATION ·ONDOR, 215 335; ¸ARTIDO DOS ¾RABA±HADORES (ÊRAzI±),
»RgANIzATION OF µmERICAN ²TATES (»µ²), 29, 74, 282; SOCCER, 140
216, 217 ¸OPE ºRANCIS (JORgE MARIO ÊERgOg±IO), 9,
»RTIz, ºERNANDO, 148–49 16, 37–57, 106–7, 108, 112; RE±ATIONSHIP
TO mI±ITARY DICTATORSHIP IN µRgENTINA,
¸ANAmA, 99, 122–23, 238 42–45, 48–51
¸ARAgUAY: CO±ONIA± TRADE IN, 213; GUARANí ¸ORTUgA±: ÊRAzI±IAN INDEPENDENCE FROm,
AS OffiCIA± ±ANgUAgE OF, 100; MENNONITES 195, 272; CO±ONIA± ExPANSION AND
IN, 105; SEx WORkERS, 243; SOCCER, 132, CONqUEST, 3, 10 99–100, 271–72;
140; SOCIA± mOVEmENTS, 82 DICTATORSHIP IN, 79, 195; ±ANgUAgE, 32,
¸ARIS: COffEE SHOPS, 211; ´µ²¸¶ FASHION, 98–99, 102–4, 106, 110, 112, 113;
240; ³± ÊOOm AUTHORS IN, 295, 296; LUSOPHONE µFRICA, 187, 189, 194–95;
LATIN µmERICAN mUSIC IN, 117, 120; ±USOTROPOCIA±ISm, 194, 277; mERCHANTS
MESOAmERICAN CODICES IN, 101; TRAININg FROm, 148–49; mIgRATION TO AND FROm,
OF GASTóN µCURIO, 151 108, 110, 277; THE S±AVE TRADE AND
PARTICIPATORY BUDgETINg, 29, 73, 74–77, 85, S±AVERY, 115, 310
86 POSITIVISm, 272–3
¸ARTIDO DOS ¾RABA±HADORES (ÊRAzI±), 29, 74, POVERTY: ±IBERATION THEO±OgY CRITIqUE OF,
282 40, 41, 42, 52; IN MOzAmBIqUE, 197;
¸ARTIDO ¼EVO±UCIONARIO ¹NSTITUCIONA± PERSPECTIVE ON BY º±AT ÈOR±DERS, 6;
(¸¼¹), 335 ¸OPE ºRANCIS AND, 54; ¼IgOBERTA
¸Az, »CTAVIO, 9, 296, 298, 301 MENCHú COmmENTS ON, 229, 230, 231,
¸EñA ½IETO, ³NRIqUE, 29 233, 236, 238; SOCCER, 133, 139. See also
¸ERóN, ³VITA, 25 ANTIPOVERTY PROgRAmS
¸ERóN, ¹SABE±ITA, 25 ¸RO·ERRADO, 189–90
¸ERóN, JUAN, 25, 49 ¸RO²µÍµ½µ, 189–201
i n de ô • 353
¸UERTO ¼ICO, 61, 276, 299 OF JUAN ¼U±FO, 297; IN MOzAmBIqUE,
¸UIg, MANUE±, 299 187, 192, 195–96, 197–98; TOURISm, 259.
See also RURA± mOBI±IzATION
RACE AND ETHNICITY, 8–9, 10, 12, 231; IN RURA± mOBI±IzATION, 16, 73, 75, 80–82
ÊRAzI±, 31, 223, 271, 274–77, 283–84; ¼USSIA, 277; AgRICU±TURE, 175–75; Ê¼¹·²,
“COSmIC RACE,” 8–9, 292; B±ACkNESS, 187, 265; SA±SA IN, 124; telenovelas, 288,
123–24; FOOD AND CUISINE, 146–47, 148, 305–7
153, 155, 160; IN GUATEmA±A, 236, 237,
239; “RACE ACTOR,” 337; AND SEx TOURISm, ²ACHS, JEffREY, 199
247–48, 267; SOCCER, 132–33, 135–38, ²A±AzAR, µNTONIO DE »±IVEIRA, 195
139, 145; telenovelas, 305, 307, 310–11; SA±SA, 94, 116, 118, 120–124, 157
TOURISm, 258; ¶½³²·» STUDY IN ²ANTERíA, 104
ÊRAzI±, 276 SAmBA, 274, 279; ·ARmEN MIRANDA, 114–15,
“RACIA± DEmOCRACY,” 276–77, 283 279; AND THE CITY OF ²öO ¸AU±O, 317; AND
RACISm: IN ÊRAzI±, 277, 283, 284; DRUg DIffUSION OF ¸ORTUgUESE ±ANgUAgE, 107;
CU±TURE AND PO±ICY, 213, 214, 215, 218; IN JAPAN, 319, 322, 323; SOCCER, 137
FOOD AND CUISINE, 158; ±INgUISTIC, 106; ²öO ¸AU±O (CITY), 132, 167, 212, 288, 317–18,
AND ImmIgRANT ENTREPRENEURSHIP, 160; 319
¼IgOBERTA MENCHú’S COmmENTS ON, 12, SCA±E, 15, 86; AgRICU±TURE, 167, 177, 183,
225, 228, 233, 236, 238; SOCCER, 141 188–91, 196–98, 200, 211; fi±m, 332;
RE-AFRICANIzATION, 123, 126 ±ITERATURE, 299; P±ANT-DRUgS, 211, 213;
¼ECIFE, 40–41, 52 SOCCER AND DECO±ONIzATION, 139; TImE,
¼ED¾RA²Ex (¼ED DE MUjERES ¾RABAjADORAS 173. See also INTERNATIONA±IzATION; ±OCA±,
²ExUA±ES DE LATINOAméRICA Y ³± THE; TRANSNATIONA±, THE
·ARIBE), 245 ²I±VA, LUIz ¹NáCIO LU±A DA (“LU±A”), 25, 29,
REggAETóN, 94, 115, 122–23 311fig.; COmmENTS ON ÊRAzI± AND µFRICA,
¼ENAmO (¼ESISTêNCIA ½ACIONA± 194; DEVE±OPmENT AND FOREIgN
MOüAmBICANA), 196 ASSISTANCE PROgRAmS,187–88, 199;
REVO±UTION: ·HE GUEVARA, 1, 31; DIgITA±, ±IBERATION THEO±OgY AND E±ECTION, 57N4;
221–22; DRUg CU±TURE, 210; FOOD AND RO±E IN ADDRESSINg g±OBA± PROB±EmS, 4
CUISINE, 150; ºRENCH ¼EVO±UTION, 211; S±AVE TRADE (TRANSAT±ANTIC), 4, 103–5, 115,
ÉAITIAN ¼EVO±UTION, 4, 211; ±IBERATION 149, 271
THEO±OgY AS FORm OF, 38–39; ½ICARAgUA, S±AVERY, 4, 10, 15, 32, 103, 126; AgRICU±TURE,
57N4, 262; mE±ODRAmA IN telenovelas AS 211, 212, 213, 271; IN ÊRAzI±, 115, 212, 213,
FORm OF, 303; TOURISm, 262–63. See also 275–77, 279, 310–12; ÊRAzI±-µFRICA,
·UBAN ¼EVO±UTION; MExICAN ¼EVO±UTION 194–95, 271; candome, 136; IN THE
¼IO DE JANEIRO (CITY), 280; 1992 ³ARTH ·ARIBBEAN, 47, 103–4, 211; FESTIVA±
²UmmIT IN, 82; 2016 »±YmPIC gAmES IN, ½OSSA ²ENHORA DA ÊOA MORTE, 274;
281; CONSTRUCTION OF º±UmINENSE’S FOOD AND CUISINE, 147, 149, 211; ÉAITIAN
STADIUm, 142; fi±mIC REPRESENTATIONS OF, ¼EVO±UTION, 4, 211; ±ANgUAgE, 104;
280, 288, 289; ±ANgUAgE, 113; mUSIC, 317, SOCCER, 136; telenovelas, 305, 307, 310–
320; POSITIVIST ARCHITECTURE IN, 272; SEx 12. See also µFRO-DESCENDANT
WORkERS IN ½ITERóI, 240–43; µmERICANS
¶mBANDA’S CREATION IN, 274; ÈOR±D SOCCER (fútbol, futebol), 131–145, 242, 274,
ÓOUTH ÁY 2013, 46 280, 281, 308
¼OUSSEff, Í±mA, 25, 48 SOCIA± mOVEmENTS, 10, 12, 73, 86, 221–23,
RURA± AREAS: IN ÊRAzI±, 54, 167–86, 278; DRUg 226; AffiRmATIVE ACTION PO±ICIES IN
CU±TURE, 214, 216; gAUCHO, 292; ±ITERATURE ÊRAzI±, 283–84; ±IBERATION THEO±OgY AS
354 • i n de ô
FORm OF, 38, 41; PARTICIPATORY BUDgETINg DICTATORSHIP, 8; SOCCER fiE±DS USED
AND, 75; RURA± mOBI±IzATION, 81–84 FOR, 140
²OUTH µFRICA: Ê¼¹·², 187; FARmERS FROm TOURISm, 12, 232, 256–70, 281, 300–1; TO
IN MOzAmBIqUE, 198; TRUTH ÊRAzI±, 281; DRUg CU±TURE, 209; “ExP-
COmmISSIONS, 5, 24, 79; ¼IgOBERTA ERIENTIA± TOURISm,” 222; FOOD AND CUISINE,
MENCHú ON, 238; SOCCER, 139; SOCIA± 148, 151, 156, 159, 160; TO MAYAN COmmU-
mOVEmENTS, 81 NITIES, 101; SEx WORk, 243, 246, 247–50
²OUTH-²OUTH. See G±OBA± ²OUTH TRADE, 163, 165; BETWEEN LATIN µmERICA AND
²PAIN: ARREST OF ¸INOCHET, 79; CIVI± WAR IN, ·HINA, 5, 11, 176, 323; BETWEEN LATIN
24, 26, 36N7, 295; CO±ONIA± ExPANSION µmERICA AND THE ¶.²., 5, 323; ÊRAzI±-
AND CONqUEST, 3, 10, 32, 98–104, 106, JAPAN-MOzAmBIqUE, 200; CO±ONIA±, 149,
118, 148–49, 209, 271; fi±m, 331, 333, 337; 210, 213; ·UBAN EmBARgO, 58, 59, 63,
FOOD AND CUISINE, 149, 150; ±ANgUAgE, 120; DRUg, 11, 210, 212, 213, 215, 216, 309;
10, 32, 98–104, 112; ±ITERATURE, 292–94, FOOD SOVEREIgNTY, 81; FREE, 81, 335;
295, 296, 300; mestizaje, 31–32; NEO±IBERA±ISm, 35N4; ÈOR±D ¾RADE
mIgRATION FROm AND TO, 108, 133; mUSIC, »RgANIzATION, 281
115; P±ANT-DRUgS, 209, 210, 211, 212, 214; TRADITION, 93, 268; IN THE µNDES, 260–62;
¼OYA± ²PANISH µCADEmY, 95, 102, 106; ·ATHO±ICISm, 47; DRUg CU±TURE, 218;
SOCCER, 136–38, 144fig. fi±m, 326; FOOD AND CUISINE, 142, 146,
²PANg±ISH, 94, 112–113 150, 154, 155, 157; AND gENDER RO±ES, 135,
SPIRITISm, 273–74 248; AND kINSHIP, 249; ±AND, 196, 271;
STEREOTYPES, 16; IN fi±m AND TE±EVISION, 13, ±EgA±IST, 217; ±ITERATURE, 291, 299; mUSIC,
115, 118; FOOD AND CUISINE, 158; OF 119, 124, 323; TE±ENOVE±A’S CRITIqUE OF,
INDIgENOUS PEOP±E, 125; ±ANgUAgE, 108; 308; SOCCER, 143; WRITINg, 101
TOURISm, 247–8, 257–69 TRANS±ATION, 68–69, 288, 334; CU±INARY, 150;
STUDENTS: AffiRmATIVE ACTION PO±ICIES IN FOREIgN mUSICIANS IN ·HINA, 323;
ÊRAzI±, 283–84; ANTI-ÍIETNAm ÈAR PRO- ±ITERATURE, 291, 293, 296–99, 300; FROm
TESTORS IN ¶.²., 60; fi±m, 331–32; mUSIC, ¸ORTUgUESE INTO “ÊRAzI±IAN,” 32;
120, 123, 322; PERSECUTION IN µRgENTINA, RE±IgIOUS INSTITUTIONS, 105–7; telenovelas,
42–43, 45; PERSECUTION IN GUATEmA±A, 305–6, 308, 309; UNTRANS±ATED ²PANISH
234; IN COURSES ON LATIN µmERICAN USED IN ³Ng±ISH, 111
PO±ITICA± THEORY, 82; mOVEmENT IN ·HI±E, TRANSNATIONA±, THE: ³± ÊOOm, 294; FOOD
28–29; SOCCER, 132; TOURISm, 258–59 AND CUISINE, 146–48; mANgA, 10; mUSIC,
SYNCRETISm, 95, 104, 105, 274 94, 123; SEEmINg NOVE±TY OF
CONTEmPORARY TRANSNATIONA±ISm, 15;
telenovelas, 13, 107, 288, 302–13, 333; DRUg AND SEx WORk RE±ATIONSHIPS, 222, 248,
CU±TURE, 216; GAE± GARCíA ÊERNA±, 329; IN 249; SOCCER, 133, 145; telenovelas, 303,
POST-DICTATORSHIP ·HI±E, 26; PROmOTINg 309; TRANSNATIONA±IzATION, 280
TRANSCONTINENTA± IDENTITY, 293 TRUTH AND RECONCI±IATION COmmISSIONS, 5,
TE±EVISION. See fi±m AND TE±EVISION 24–25, 77–80
TEqUI±A, 103, 151, 158, 213
¾OkYO: µNDEAN mUSIC AND DANCE IN, 116–17, ¶mBANDA, 274
119–20; BOSSA NOVA IN, 316, 319, 320, 325; ¶½: 1992 ³ARTH ²UmmIT IN ¼IO DE JANEIRO,
dekasseguis IN, 322; LISA »NO, 316, 323 82; ÊRAzI±’S RO±E WITHIN, 188, 281;
TORTURE: IN µRgENTINA, 42–43, 44, 77–79; IN HUmAN RIgHTS, 235, 238; INDIgENOUS
ÊRAzI±, 48; IN ·HI±E, 24–25, 79–80; IN ³± PEOP±ES, 225, 232; ¼IgOBERTA MENCHú,
²A±VADOR, 52; ¼ICARDO LAgOS’ 218; ¶½³²·» STUDY IN ÊRAzI±, 276;
DENUNCIATION OF UNDER ¸INOCHET ¶½¼IO+20 ·ONFERENCE, 241
i n de ô • 355
¶NIöO ½ACIONA± DE ·AmPONESES (¶½µ·), ÍASCONCE±OS, JOSé, 8, 292
200 ÍENEzUE±A: mIgRANTS FROm, 108; ORIgINS OF
¶NITED ²TATES, 4, 6, 8; C±ImATE CHANgE, 33–34, SA±SA, 120; PARTICIPATORY BUDgETINg IN,
82–83; CO±ONIA± SETT±EmENT PATTERNS IN 74, 75–77; PO±ITICA± SYSTEm, 28, 29;
½ORTH µmERICA, 32; ·UBA, 46, 52, 58–65, RO±E IN ADDRESSINg g±OBA± PROB±EmS, 4;
120; FOOD AND CUISINE, 11, 146, 150, 151, SOCIA± mOVEmENTS, 82; AND ¶.².
159, 160; g±OBA± ±EADERSHIP, 23, 72, 243; PO±ITICS, 64
ÉO±±YWOOD, 115, 118, 279, 280, 326,
332–33, 337; INTERNATIONA± DEVE±OPmENT ÈATANABE, ²ADAO, 319
PROjECTS, 190–91, 195; ±ITERATURE, 298, 299; WORkINg C±ASS: IN ·HI±E, 28; FOOD AND
±ANgUAgE, 108–13; mIgRATION TO AND FROm, CUISINE, 146, 148, 150–51, 160;
278, 336; mUSIC, 119, 120, 122, 123, 137, 317, ImmIgRANTS IN LONDON, 122; SOCCER, 133,
319, 320; PARTICIPATORY BUDgETINg, 75–77; 138–39; telenovelas, 304
P±ANT-DRUgS AND DRUg PO±ICY, 213, 215, 218; ÈOR±D ÊANk; ·HI±E ²O±IDARIO, 21, 22;
PRESIDENTIA± PO±ITICS, 25; RACE RE±ATIONS IN, PARTICIPATORY BUDgETINg, 73, 74, 75;
276, 284; SEx WORkER ACTIVISTS IN, 241; THE SUPPORT FOR ²OUTH-²OUTH DEVE±OPmENT,
S±AVE TRADE AND S±AVERY, 276–77; SOCCER, 187, 190, 192, 194, 199
139; SOYBEANS, 171, 173, 175; ²PANISH ÈOR±D ·UP, 136–41, 143, 241–43, 246,
µmERICAN ÈAR OF 1898, 294; TORTURE 281
PROSECUTIONS, 79–80; TOURISm FROm ¶.². ÈOR±D ¾RADE »RgANIzATION, 281
TO LATIN µmERICA, 256–70; TRADE WITH ÈOR±D ÈAR ¹, 292
LATIN µmERICA, 5, 323. See also LATINO ÈOR±D ÈAR ¹¹, 38, 115, 120, 276, 293,
¸OPU±ATION IN THE ¶.². 300
¶RUgUAY: µFRO-ÊRAzI±IAN RE±IgIONS IN, 280;
ÊORgE’S STORY “ºUNES, THE MEmORIOUS,” ÓOU¾UBE, 26, 125, 327, 336
297; DRUg PO±ICY, 217; ³DUARDO
GA±EANO, 4; ±ANgUAgE, 109; SOCCER, ËAmBIA, 191
135–37, 140 ËAPATISTA REBE±±ION, 262, 330, 335
¶²µ¹´, 188, 190, 191, 194, 199, 244 ËImBABWE, 198
356 • i n de ô

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Global Latin America

into the twenty-first century

°E G±OBA± ²qUARE SERIES FEATURES EDITED VO±UmES FOCUSED ON HOW

into the twenty-first century

¶NIVERSITY OF ·A±IFORNIA ¸RESS

© 2016 BY °E ¼EgENTS OF THE ¶NIVERSITY OF ·A±IFORNIA

LIBRARY OF ·ONgRESS ·ATA±OgINg-IN-¸UB±ICATION ´ATA

½AmES: GUTmANN, MATTHEW ·., 1953- EDITOR. | LESSER, JEﬀ, EDITOR.

MANUFACTURED IN THE ¶NITED ²TATES OF µmERICA

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LIST OF ºIgURES xIII

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·HASINg ·HE: ¹NTRODUCTION TO Global Latin America 1

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The Latin American Past in the Global

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1. °IS INTERVIEW WITH ¸RESIDENT LAgOS WAS CONDUCTED ON 21 µPRI± 2014, IN

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