M.

02 The Cell and Cell Division Cycle CYTOGENETICS

Dr. Professor || August 2021
Transcribers: Delicano, Alleen Nove
Editors: Delicano, Alleen Nove

2.1 THE CELL Cell Components

& A. Organelles - carry out the activities of life in the cell;
Basic functional unit of life 3 domains of life divide the labor by partitioning off certain areas or serving
specific functions
• Archaea Prokaryotes
1. Nucleus
• Bacteria
• The most prominent organelle of most cells
• Eukarya- Eukaryotes Prokaryotic cell – has no nucleus • Contains the DNA within the cell
Eukaryotic cell – has nucleus + organelles • Nuclear envelope - surrounds the nucleus
• Nuclear pores – biochemicals can exit or enter the
• Somatic cell o aka body cells o has two copies of the nucleus through them
genome (except mature RBC’s) and are said to be diploid • Nuclear lamina – mechanical support; holds the nuclear
(2n) pores in place
• Nucleolus – “little nucleus”; darkened area inside the
• Germ cells o Aka sex cells (sperm and egg cells) o have one nucleus (when viewed under the microscope); site of
copy of the genome and are haploid (1n or n) ribosome synthesis
• Nucleoplasm – the fluid in the nucleus
• Stem cells o Give rise to differentiated cells and to other stem
cells (self-renewal) o Diploid

Stem
Self-renewal cell

Stem
cell

Progenitor cell Specialized Cells

Cells aggregate to form the four basic tissue types:
Cells aggregate to form the four basic tissue types:

• Connective
Connective tissues- Atissues-
variety of A variety
cell of cell
types and types
surrounding
materials
andprotect, support, materials
surrounding bind to cells, and fillsupport,
protect, spaces
throughout 2. Cytoplasm
bindtheto body;
cells,include
and fillcartilage, bone, blood,the
spaces throughout and fat
body; include cartilage, bone, blood, and fat • Remainder of the cell between the nucleus and the cell
• Epithelium- Tight cell layers form linings that protect, secrete,
Epithelium- Tight cell layers form linings that membrane
absorb, and excrete
protect, secrete, absorb, and excrete • Cytosol – the aqueous component of the cytoplasm of a
• Muscle Muscle Cells providing
Cells contract, contract,movement
providing movement cell, within which various organelles and particles are
Nervous Neurons transmit information as suspended
• Nervouselectrochemical
Neurons transmitimpulses
informationthat
ascoordinate
electrochemical
impulsesmovement and also
that coordinate senseand
movement andalso
respond
sense to
and 3. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
respondenvironmental
to environmental stimuli;neuroglia
stimuli; neuroglia support
support and
and
nourish nourish
neurons neurons • Quality control center of the cell
• Winds from the nuclear envelope outward to the plasma
Chemical Constituents membrane, forming a vast tubular network that
Chemical Constituents transports molecules from one part of a cell to another
Carbohydrates- provide energy and contribute to cell structure
Lipids- basisCarbohydrates-
of some hormones, provide
provideenergy andenergy
insulation, • Rough ER
storage and contribute
formation oftomembranes
cell structure
Lipids- basis of some hormones, provide o Studded with ribosomes
Proteins- form the contractile
insulation, energy fibers, clot formation
storage and enzymatic
and formation of
reaction o Starting point of protein synthesis
membranes
Proteins-
Nucleic Acids- form
translate the contractile
information from pastfibers, clot to
generations • Smooth ER
formation and enzymatic reaction
new cells that give its characteristics. They are the most important
Nucleic
macromolecules to theAcids- translate
study of genetics.information from o Fewer ribosomes
past generations to new cells that give its
characteristics. They are the most important o Lipid synthesis
d
macromolecules to the study of genetics. Page 1 of 7

s)
M.02 The Cell and Cell Division Cycle – Dr. Professor
• Peroxisomal enzymes catalyze reaction that breakdown
certain lipids and rare biochemical, synthesize bile acids
used in fat digestion and detoxify compound that result
from exposure to oxygen free radicals

9. Mitochondrion

• “Powerhouse of the Cell”

• provide energy by breaking the chemical bonds that hold
together the nutrient molecules in food
• Cristae – hold the enzymes that catalyze the
biochemical reactions that release energy
• Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) – source of energy of the
cell

4. Vesicles

• lipid made, membrane bound, saclike organelles

• pinch off from the tubular endings of the ER to form sacs
for transport of substances within the cell

5. Golgi apparatus

• column of four to six interconnected flat, membrane-

enclosed sacs
• Proteins finish folding in the Golgi apparatus and
become active
& B. Cytoskeleton
• meshwork of protein rods and tubules that serves as the
• Sugar synthesis
cell’s architecture, positioning organelles and providing
o Sugar + Lipid = Glycolipid
the overall 3dimensional shapes
o Sugar + Protein = Glycoprotein
• 3 major types; Microtubles, Microfilaments,
Intermediate filaments

• Microtubules

o Made up of tubulin
o Cellular organization, communication between cells
o form hairlike structures called cilia, that propels
substances

• Microfilaments

o Made up of actin
o narrower than microtubules
o enable cells to withstand stretching and
6. Exosomes compression, and help anchor one cell to another.

• Vesicles that bud from one cell and then travel to, merge
with, and empty their contents into other cells (the
opposite is true for endosomes)
7. Lysosomes
• Intermediate Filaments
o composed of different types of proteins
o have diameters intermediate between those of
microtubules and microfilaments

• “suicide sac” & B. Plasma Membrane

• membrane- bound sacs that contain enzymes able to
degrade bacteria, worn- out organelles and others such
as cholesterol
• Autophagy- “eating self”- ability of the cell to dispose of
its own remnants
8. Peroxisomes
• Sacs with single outer membrane, filled with enzymes
• Completely surrounds the cell
• It is a double layer (bilayer) of molecules called
phospholipids The phosphate end of a phospholipid is
attracted to water, and thus is hydrophilic (“water
loving”);
• The other end, which consists of two chains of fatty
acids, moves away from water, and is therefore
hydrophobic (“water fearing”)

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 of fatty acids, moves away from water, and is
therefore hydrophobic (“water fearing”)
M.02 The Cell and Cell Division Proteins
Cycle – are embedded
Dr. Professor in the phospholipid
bilayer of biological membranes. Some
• Proteins are embeddedproteins
in the phospholipid bilayerstructure
traverse the entire of
biological membranes. (integral),
Some proteins traverse
while others the entire
extend from one or
structure (integral), while
bothothers
facesextend from one or both
(peripheral).
faces (peripheral).

n rods and tubules that

architecture, positioning
• 3-
viding the overall
s Monitors the movements of molecules in and out of the
Monitors the movements of molecules in and
rotubles, Microfilaments, cell
out of the cell
ents

f tubulin
ganization, communication
ells
e structures called cilia,
s substances

f actin
han microtubules

CAL LABORATORY SCIENCE - CENTRAL PHILIPPINE UNIVERSITY

Page 3 of 7
M.02 The Cell and Cell Division Cycle – Dr. Professor
2. 2. Cell Division-Cycle o synthesis of biochemicals for microtubule formation

Coordination of cell division (mitosis) and cell death (apoptosis) B. Mitosis

maintains cell numbers, enabling structures to enlarge during
growth and development but preventing abnormal growth.
A series of events called the cell cycle describes the sequence of
activities as a cell prepares for and undergoes division. The two
major stages are
A. interphase (non-dividing)
B. mitosis (dividing)
o As mitosis begins, the replicated chromosomes are
condensed enough to be visible, when stained,
under a microscope
o Long strands of chromosomal material in replicated
chromosomes are called chromatids, and if attached
at a centromere, they are called sister chromatids.

A. Interphase

• Four stages of Mitosis

o Prophase
o Metaphase
o Anaphase
• Cell continues the basic biochemical functions of life, o Telpophase
while also replicating its DNA and some organelles.
• Prophase
• G1 phase
o DNA coils tightly
o Gap 1 phase o Chromosomes condense
o cell resumes synthesis of proteins, lipids, and o Microtubules assemble
carbohydrates o Nuclear membrane breaks down
o it is the period of the cell cycle that varies the most o Nucleolus is no longer visible.
in duration among different cell types
o G0 – a cell can exit the cell cycle at G1 to enter a
quiet phase called G0. A cell in G0 is alive and
maintains its specialized characteristics but does not
replicate its DNA or divide. From G0, a cell may also
proceed to mitosis and divide, or die.

• S phase

o Synthesis phase
o DNA replication
o Each chromosome consists of two copies of the
genome joined at an area called the centromere
o Microtubules form structures called centrioles that
join with other proteins and are oriented at right
angles to each other, forming paired, oblong
structures called centrosomes

• G2 phase

o Gap 2 phase

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M.02 The Cell and Cell Division Cycle – Dr. Professor
• Metaphase

o Chromosomes attach to the spindle at their

centromeres and align along the center of the cell,
which is called the equator

Control of the Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is tightly controlled and regulated at several

“checkpoints.”
• Anaphase
1. DNA Damage Checkpoints temporarily pauses the cell cycle
o Centromeres part while special proteins repair damaged DNA.
o Chromatid from each pair move to opposite ends of
the cell. 2. “Apoptosis checkpoint” turns on as mitosis begins. During
this checkpoint, proteins called survivins override signals telling
the cell to die, so that mitosis (division) rather than apoptosis
(death) occurs.

3. “Spindle assembly checkpoint” oversees construction of the

spindle and the binding of chromosomes to it

• Telophase

o Mitotic spindle falls apart

o Nucleoli and the membranes around the nuclei re-
form at each end of the elongated cell
o Cytokinesis - microfilament band contracts like a
drawstring, separating the newly formed cells. • Telomere (chromosome tip) is a cellular clock that limits
Apportions contents to daughter cells. the number of divisions. Its length determines how many
more times mitosis will occur.

• Some cells (eggs, sperm, bone marrow cells, cancer

cells ) have telomerase that keeps chromosome tips
long

• Within cells, kinases and cyclins activate genes whose

products carry out mitosis.

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M.02 The Cell and Cell Division Cycle – Dr. Professor
Meiosis o This random alignment of chromosomes causes
independent assortment of the genes that they
• Gametes form from special cells, called germline cells, in carry.
a type of cell division called meiosis.
• Gametes are haploid o Independent assortment means that the fate of a
o they have only one of each type of chromosome (23 gene on one chromosome is not influenced by a
chromosomes), gene on a different chromosome

• Somatic cells are diploid (2n) • Anaphase I

o they have two copies of each chromosome type (23
pairs of chromosomes for a total of 46 o Homologs separate
chromosomes).
• Telophase I
2 stages:
o Homologs move to opposite poles b. Unlike in
A. Meiosis I (Reduction Division) - halves the mitosis, the centromeres of each homolog in
meiosis I remain together
chromosome number (46 divided by 2 = 23)
• B. Meiosis II (see next page for the illustration)
B. Meiosis II (Equational Division) - mitotically divides each of the
two cells from meiosis I, yielding four haploid cells. o During a second interphase, chromosomes unfold
into thin threads. Proteins are manufactured, but
A. Meiosis I (see next page for the illustration) DNA is not replicated a second time

As in mitosis, meiosis occurs after an interphase period when • Prophase II

DNA is replicated
Prophase I
o Chromosomes condense and the homologous pairs of
chromosomes line up next to one another in an event
called synapsis
o In a homologous pair of chromosomes or homolog, one
comes from the person’s mother, and one comes from
the father Homologs exchange parts, in a process
known as crossing over. After crossing over, each
homolog bears some genes from each parent. This
mixes up trait combinations.
o Chromosomes are again condensed and visible.
• Metaphase II
o Replicated chromosomes align down the center of
the cell.
• Anaphase II
o The centromeres’ part, and the newly formed
chromosomes, each now in the unreplicated form,
move to opposite poles.

• Telophase II

o Nuclear envelopes form around the four nuclei,

which then separate into individual cells.

The net result of meiosis is four haploid cells, each carrying a new
assortment of genes and chromosomes that hold a single copy of
the genome.

The crossing over (during prophase I) and independent

assortment (during metaphase I) generate genetic diversity.
Genetic diversity may enable a population to survive an
environmental challenge.

• Metaphase I

o Homologs align down the randomly at the center of

the cell.

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M.02 The Cell and Cell Division Cycle CYTOGENETICS
Dr. Professor || August 2021
Transcribers: Delicano, Alleen Nove
Editors: Delicano, Alleen Nove

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