Materials and Design 31 (2010) 3008–3014

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials and Design

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matdes

Technical Report

Re-design of a failed clutch fork using topology and shape optimisation

by the response surface method
_
Necmettin Kaya *, Idris Karen, Ferruh Öztürk
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Uludag University, Görükle, Bursa 16059, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents a framework for re-designing a failed automotive component subjected to cyclic
Received 19 October 2009 loading. In the automotive industry, some parts fail before completing their design life. These failed
Accepted 6 January 2010 components have to be re-designed using modern optimisation tools. In this paper, a failed clutch fork
Available online 14 January 2010
was completely re-designed using topology and the shape optimisation approach. Stress-life fatigue anal-
ysis was conducted to correlate the crack location between the failed component and the simulation
model. A new design proposal was determined with the topology optimisation approach, and then design
optimisation by response surface methodology was effectively used to improve the new clutch fork
design. The mass reduction obtained was 24%. A maximum stress reduction of 9% was achieved, and
the rigidity was improved up to 37% in comparison to the original clutch fork.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction failed vehicle components using topology optimisation and shape

The clutch fork is one of the main parts of the automotive
clutch, which converts the movement of the clutch pedal to the
back and forth movements of the clutch throw-out bearing. It is
a kind of lever in which the fulcrum is located between the input
and the output ends. In operation, while pushing the pedal down,
a force is applied to one end point of the fork. This force causes the
lever to swing about the fulcrum, thereby overcoming the resis-
tance force on the other end point. Fig. 1 shows a typical clutch lay-
out. In this paper, a failed clutch fork is investigated from the
fatigue life point of view, and then a new design is constructed
using computer aided engineering (CAE) and optimisation tools.
To meet today’s vehicle design requirements and to improve
cost and fuel efficiency, there is an increasing interest in designing
light-weight and cost-effective vehicle components. New tools are
necessary to help the designer at the initial design phase. CAE pro-
vides a means of verifying the design in terms of the durability of
structures without making hardware prototypes, thus reducing the
design cycle time, minimising costs and improving the product
quality. On the other hand, due to economical reasons and global
warming, mass reduction of automotive products is necessary.
Weight can be reduced through several types of technological
improvements, such as materials, design technique, fabrication
processes and optimisation, etc. This research aims to contribute
to the development of structural design and mass reduction of
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 224 2941979; fax: +90 224 2941903.
_
E-mail addresses: necmi@uludag.edu.tr (N. Kaya), ikaren@uludag.edu.tr (I.
Karen), ferruh@uludag.edu.tr (F. Öztürk).
optimisation by the response surface method.
The topology optimisation approach that is used in this study
finds an original load balanced optimum material distribution. In
the topology optimisation process, it is only necessary to know
the design space, the boundary conditions and the loads. With
the results of the topology optimisation, the design engineer is able
to define a detailed design. Topology optimisation has proven very
effective in determining the topology of initial design structures for
component development in the conceptual design phase. After
determining the initial topology, shape optimisation can be used
for the final design. Fig. 2 summarises the whole design process
used in this paper.
The failure mechanisms of automotive parts have been investi-
gated by many researchers and reported in the literature. Bay-
rakceken et al. [1] carried out a fracture analysis of a universal
joint yoke and a drive shaft of an automobile power transmission.
Stress analyses were also carried out by the finite element method.
A failure analysis of a longitudinal stringer of prototype vehicle is
presented by Veloso et al. [2]. For the determination of the stress
conditions at the failed section, stress analysis was carried out by
the finite element method. Koh [3] performed fatigue analysis of
an automotive steering link to prevent fatigue failures. Tests have
been carried out to determine the effects that gauge and material
strength have on the fatigue performance of a fusion welded auto-
motive suspension arm [4]. The cause of failure of the upper strut
mount of a McPherson suspension was investigated by Colombo
et al. [5]. Palma et al. [6] investigated the fatigue failure of a rear
tow hook pin of a passenger vehicle. Static and fatigue analysis
of a rear trailer hook assembly were performed using finite
element software. These papers present a case study in failure

0261-3069/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2010.01.002
 N. Kaya et al. / Materials and Design 31 (2010) 3008–3014
Fig. 1. Clutch layout.
Fig. 2. Design flow chart for new component design.
analysis. These authors also used finite element software to indi-
cate the critical fatigue cracking regions, and some of them com-
pared the results of numerical and experimental life predictions.
Structural optimisation techniques play a very important role in
the virtual product development process. Among the different
structural optimisation problems, shape optimisation has received
great attention from researchers. The aim of shape optimisation is
to find the best profile of a structural system that improves its per-
formance. To both reduce the weight and prevent the fatigue fail-
ure of automotive components, shape optimisation techniques are
generally used by researchers. Shenoy and Fatemi [7] performed a
shape optimisation study on a connecting rod by considering the
improvement in weight under a fatigue life constraint. A paramet-
ric shape optimisation study of a suspension arm subjected to mul-
tiaxial high-cycle fatigue was conducted by Mrzyglod and Zielinski
[8]. Reducing the maximum stress on a centrifuge rotor by struc-
ture optimisation with geometry considerations was proposed by
Hai-jun and Jian [9]. Kang et al. [10] performed vibration fatigue
analysis to evaluate the durability life of a lower control arm and
optimised the shape of the arm. To reduce the weight of the
knuckle, Park et al. [11] used the design of experiment method.
3009
During structural optimisation using DOE, an orthogonal array
strategy was developed to determine the optimum design. Shape
optimisation of steel wheels by design of experiment and the finite
element method is presented by Schäfer and Finke [12]. Some
researchers used the fatigue life criterion as a constraint for the
shape optimisation of a connecting rod [13], a suspension compo-
nent [14] and a V-belt pulley [15,16].
Although there are many research works in the area of failed
automotive components and shape optimisation, re-designing
these components is rarely considered. In this research, a new de-
sign proposal for a failed clutch fork is determined with the topol-
ogy optimisation approach, and then shape optimisation by the
response surface method is effectively used to improve the new
clutch fork. The mass reduction obtained was 24%. A maximum
stress reduction of 9% was achieved, and the rigidity was improved
up to 37% in comparison with the original clutch fork.
2. Stress-life based fatigue analysis of current clutch fork
The stress-based approach to fatigue analysis is typically used
for the life prediction of components subject to high-cycle fatigue,
where stresses are mainly elastic, as in the case of the clutch fork.
The stress-life is commonly referred to as the total life method
since it makes no distinction between initiating or growing a crack
and considers nominal elastic stress and how they are related to fa-
tigue life, particularly in situations where a large number of cycles
are involved. Detailed information about stress-life fatigue analysis
can be found in Ref. [17].
The starting point for any fatigue analysis is the response of a
structure to the input loading, which is generally expressed as a
stress or strain time history using finite element simulation. If
the time history is made up of constant amplitude stress or strain
cycles, then the fatigue design can be accomplished by referring to
a typical S–N diagram. Once the stress histories are obtained, the
fatigue damage and life can be calculated for each loading condi-
tion, and the total fatigue damage can be approximated as the
sum of damages from all the loading conditions.
In this study, the first step for the fatigue calculation is stress
analysis. The failed clutch fork geometry was modelled and ex-
ported to Altair Hypermesh software for pre-processing. A solid
model of the failed clutch fork is shown in Fig. 3.
Due to the complexity of the geometry, a quadratic tetrahedron
element type is used in the finite element model, which consists of
119844 tetrahedron solid elements. In addition, multi-point con-
straints and rigid elements are used to constrain the bearing sur-
faces. Two bearings are constrained for five degrees of freedom;
rotation around y-axis is not fixed. The cylindrical face, which is
in contact with release bearing, is constrained in terms of z trans-
lation only.
The applied force is measured as 600 N in a laboratory environ-
ment. This force is applied via multi-point constraints on the sur-
face, which is shown in Fig. 4.
The linear finite element analyses were carried out using Altair
Optistruct software. Finite element analysis revealed areas of high
Fig. 3. Solid model of failed clutch fork.
3010 N. Kaya et al. / Materials and Design 31 (2010) 3008–3014
Fig. 4. Finite element model of the clutch fork and boundary conditions.
stresses, as shown in Fig. 5. The highest stress concentration occurs
at the cracked location (275 MPa). The maximum displacement
was found to be 1.78 mm.
The fatigue life calculation was performed using MSC.Fatigue
software. The unit cyclic load history and stress results were used
to calculate the fatigue life. In a cycle, the force changes from 0 N to
600 N and back to 0 N. This cyclic load refers to pressing and
releasing the pedal. The material used in this work is FeE37D steel.
The ultimate tensile strength for this material is 388 MPa.
The correlation of results between the failed component and the
fatigue analysis results in terms of crack initiation location is
shown in Fig. 6. The cycles to failure were 535,000 from the fatigue
analysis results, and these results and the contour plot of the
Fig. 5. Von-Mises stress distribution of original clutch fork.
Fig. 6. (a) Crack initiation analysis results (53,5000 cycles); (b) Failed clutch fork.
model are shown in Fig. 6a, which shows the predicted life. As
shown in Fig. 6, the stress-life approach predictions are very rea-
sonable and show good correlation with the area of failure. The
failed clutch fork was taken from a vehicle service department,
and any information about its service history was not available;
therefore, the correlation of cycles to failure could not be found.
3. Topology optimisation of clutch fork
Optimisation can be used in a variety of situations to help iden-
tify potential improvements to a design. Structural optimisation
techniques can be classified as size, shape or topology optimisa-
tion. Size optimisation involves a modification of the cross section
or thickness of finite elements. The shape parameters of the struc-
ture are regarded as design variables that will be modified during
the shape optimisation. Before using size or shape optimisation an
initial design proposal must be available. Topology optimisation is
a tool that assists the designer in the selection of suitable initial
structural topologies by removing or redistributing material of
the structural domain [18].
Generally, homogenisation and material distribution methods
are used for topology optimisation. Under topology optimisation,
the material density of each element should take a value of either
0 or 1, defining the element as either void or solid, respectively.
The objective of topology design is to minimise the compliance,
which is equivalent to maximising the stiffness. In the density
method, the relationship between the normalised material density
and the Young’s modulus is defined using Eq. (1):
 n
qi Ei
qn ¼ ¼ ð1Þ
q0 E0
 N. Kaya et al. / Materials and Design 31 (2010) 3008–3014
Here, q, qi and q0 are the normalised, intermediate and real mate-
rial density parameters, respectively. Ei and E0 are the intermediate
and real Young’s moduli, respectively, and n is an exponent. De-
tailed information about topology optimisation can be found in
[19].
A concern in topology optimisation is that the design concepts
developed are very often not manufacturable. The clutch fork con-
sidered in this study is to be designed as a casting. In the casting
process, cavities that are not open and lined up with the sliding
direction of the die are not feasible. Designs obtained by topology
optimisation often contain cavities that are not viable for casting.
Transformation of such a design proposal to a manufacturable de-
sign can be extremely difficult, if not impossible.
In this paper, the draw direction option is used as a manufactur-
ing constraint. In this way, the material layout produced can be ori-
ented to a particular direction. Split casting, where the moulds are
removed from either side of the casting, allows only cavities that
are open and aligned with the sliding direction of the die. Split-
die draw direction constraints are applied in the direction of the
z-axis. The other option used in this study is one plane symmetry.
Fig. 7. Design and non-design spaces on the finite element model.
Fig. 8. Result of topology optimisation.
3011
Longitudinal symmetry is defined on the part for topology
optimisation.
The design and non-design spaces are defined as shown in
Fig. 7. Non-design space remains as it is during topology optimisa-
tion. The optimisation target is the maximisation of the stiffness
with a volume reduction of the fork to 50%. The optimised material
distribution is shown in Fig. 8. Topology optimisation has the ten-
dency to create design proposals where material is accumulated in
the outer border areas of the design space. It can be seen that these
two arms have the same I-type cross section, and a substantial
amount of material has been removed from the design space.
The next step in the development of a new clutch fork is the
determination of the approximate shape from the result of the
topology optimisation, which serves as a design draft for the crea-
tion of a new FE model for the subsequent simulation calculation
and shape optimisation. Fig. 9 shows the new geometry based
upon the results of the topology optimisation.
For this phase of the design process, stress analysis verification
was performed to accurately predict the performance of the new
design.
The same boundary conditions and element size were applied
to the new designed clutch fork model. The von-Mises stress distri-
bution is shown in Fig. 10. Stress analysis results show that the
maximum von-Mises stress value is about 186 Mpa, which is lower
than the stress of the failed model. The maximum stress is found
near bearings, as shown in Fig. 10. Comparison of the original
Fig. 9. New design of the clutch fork.
3012 N. Kaya et al. / Materials and Design 31 (2010) 3008–3014

Fig. 10. Von-Mises stress distribution in the new model.

Table 1 y ¼ b0 þ b1 x1 þ b2 x2 þ b3 x21 þ b4 x22 þ b5 x1 x2 ð2Þ

Comparison of original and new clutch fork.
New variables x3, x4 and x5 can be described as x3 ¼ x21 ; x4 ¼ x22 and
Failed clutch New clutch Change
fork fork (%) x5 ¼ x1 x2 . Eq. (2) can be written as a linear regression.
Mass (kg) 0.404 0.325 19.5 y ¼ b0 þ b1 x1 þ b2 x2 þ b3 x3 þ b4 x4 þ b5 x5 ð3Þ
Max von-Mises stress 275 186 32.3
(MPa)
The coefficients bi are determined through the least square error
Max deformation (mm) 1.78 1.17 34.2
method. Using two design variables and n experiments the coeffi-
cients are calculated using Eq. (3).
and new clutch fork is given in Table 1. Although the mass is de-
creased by 19.5%, the maximum von-Mises stress is decreased by b ¼ ðX T XÞ1 X T Y ð4Þ
32.5%, and the maximum deformation is decreased by 34.2%.
The new design shape dimensions are determined approxi- where
mately using the topology optimisation results. Therefore, local 8 9
> b0 >
shape improvements are still necessary after topology optimisa- 8 9 2 3 > >
>
> >
>
> y1 > 1 x11 x21 ::: x51 >
> b 1>
>
tion. As a final step, response surface shape optimisation was per- > >
> > > >
> >
formed to fine-tune the shape parameters.
< y2 = 61 x
6 12 x22 ::: x52 7
7
< b2 =
Y¼ ; X¼6 7; b¼ ð5Þ
>
> ::: >
> 4 ::: ::: ::: ::: ::: 5 > b3 >
> >
>
: >
> ; >
>
> >
>
yn 1 x1n x2n ::: x5n > b4 >
> >
4. Response surface shape optimisation of new clutch fork : >
> ;
b5
The computation time required for structural analysis is a major Once a second order polynomial that approximates the objec-
obstacle in structural optimisation studies. Approximation meth- tive function behaviour is obtained, the optimal configuration
ods, therefore, are key technologies for industry acceptance of can be determined using a variety of mathematical procedures.
structural optimisation. Representative metamodels empirically Once the procedure for obtaining a polynomial that approxi-
capture the input–output relationship of structural analysis for mates the objective function has been demonstrated, a method
evaluating the objective functions and constraints. They are uti- for defining which experiments must be done to provide initial
lised for two reasons, the first of which is to obtain the global data for the method is presented. The design of experiments is
behaviour of the original functions, which have complex local used in this work to determine which combinations of design vari-
noises. The second is to shorten the optimisation calculation time ables must be tested to best evaluate the objective function. Since
by using surrogate functions that can quickly return approximate second order polynomials are used as response surfaces, at least
values instead of relying on time-consuming functions [20]. three levels of both design variables are needed in the DOE, as well
In this study, it is difficult to describe analytically the objective as six different design points.
function and its gradients in terms of the design variables due to DOE studies are defined as a series of tests in which input vari-
the complex mechanical behaviour of the clutch fork. Therefore, ables of a process or a system are intentionally changed so that the
the response surface method (RSM) is used for this type of optimi- causes for changes in the output response can be identified and ob-
sation problem. Generally, the RSM consists of three steps. First, a served. In a CAE model, the factors such as thickness, shape design
series of experiments, i.e., designs of experiments (DOE), which variables and material properties can be changed to study the out-
will yield adequate and reliable measurements of the response of put responses of the model. DOE studies can also provide informa-
interest, are obtained. Then a mathematical model that best fits tion about any interactions between these input factors and their
the data collected from the execution of the experimental design effects on the output [22].
is determined. Using a sufficient number of values, which depends The full factorial DOE method is applied in this study. This
on the number of design variables and the type of function used in method investigates all possible combinations of the factor levels
curve fitting, the RSM defines a surface that approximates the (L) and consequently enables the study of all possible interactions
behaviour of the objective function inside a certain design space. between factors (N). A full factorial study requires LN runs. Such a
Finally, the optimum setting of the experimental factors that pro- design is beneficial for calculating all main and interaction effects.
duces the maximum (or minimum) value of the response is found. The use of a full factorial design is only practical when the number
In this work, second order polynomials are used as fitting of factors and the number of factor levels are small. The use of full
curves. Thus, the response surface can be described in terms of factorial design for a situation involving a large number of factors/
two design variables as [21]: factor levels becomes computationally expensive [22].
 N. Kaya et al. / Materials and Design 31 (2010) 3008–3014 3013

Fig. 11. I-type cross sections and design variables.

Altair HyperStudy is used in this study for response surface Based on the DOE results in Table 2, the response surface model
analysis and shape optimisation. It is general-purpose software for volume and maximum von-Mises stress were constructed using
used to study the behaviour of CAE models using design of exper- a quadratic polynomial as follows (x: shape1, y: shape2).
iment (DOE), optimisation and stochastic techniques. HyperMorph
is a part of Altair HyperMesh and is used as a pre-processor for volume ¼ 40227:5 þ 1654:6x þ 4368:9y þ 8:22x2  0:01y2
generating shape variables. Morphing is used for changing geome-  144:1xy
try by moving the group of nodes of a FE-mesh. Nodes are grouped
into clusters to reduce the number of design variables. No re-
meshing is required, and possible changes in the geometry are lim- maximum von-Mises stress ¼ 198:4  24:2x  29:9y þ 4:5x2
ited by element criteria for the FEM (warping angle, aspect ratio, þ 2:7y2 þ 9:6xy
etc.).
Morphing techniques attempt to transform one shape to an-
other by changing the finite element node coordinates. All nodes The response surface for the maximum von-Mises stress can be
affected by a change in shape are transformed. A shape parameter seen in Fig. 12.
will typically require the modification of several node coordinates The design optimisation is thus based on the response surface of
at the same time. The change in nodal coordinates associated with objectives and constraints. The optimisation problem therefore
a shape parameter is called a shape vector. Morphing techniques becomes:
are well suited for infinitesimal changes in shape parameters.
Table 3
Morphing was performed, and each morphed shape was saved
Results of shape optimization.
as a shape. Each saved shape was then assigned to a design vari-
able. In this study, the design variables were selected as two main Volume (mm3) 43,576
Maximum von-Mises stress (MPa) 175
dimensions of the I-type cross section, as shown in Fig. 11.
Shape1 0.39
In a DOE, each variable or factor is assigned a range, defined Shape2 0.62
with minimum and maximum values, and is usually normalised
as 1 or +1 (shape variables). The DOE table then defines the
points that should be used to create the response surface.
According to full factorial design with four factor levels and two
factors, 42 = 16 runs are executed, and the results are shown in Ta-
ble 2.

Table 2
Full factorial design table.

Run Shape1 Shape2 Volume Max von-Mises

# levels levels (mm3) (MPa)
1 1.00 1.00 34068.3 271.1
2 1.00 0.33 37076.8 240.5
3 1.00 0.33 40085.4 213.2
4 1.00 1.00 43093.9 189.9
5 0.33 1.00 35259.8 241.6
6 0.33 0.33 38204.5 217.6
7 0.33 0.33 41149.2 196.2
8 0.33 1.00 44093.9 177.6
9 0.33 1.00 36458.9 219.4
10 0.33 0.33 39339.6 200.2
11 0.33 0.33 42220.3 182.9
12 0.33 1.00 45100.9 167.7
13 1.00 1.00 37665.6 202.14
14 1.00 0.33 40482.1 186.41
15 1.00 0.33 43298.5 172.09
16 1.00 1.00 46115.0 159.47
Fig. 12. Response surface for maximum von-Mises stress.
3014 N. Kaya et al. / Materials and Design 31 (2010) 3008–3014
Minimise volume
Subject to maximum von-Mises stress 6 175 MPa
1 < shape1 < 1
–1 < shape2 < 1
The solution of this optimisation problem can be seen in Table
3.
Since shape1 and shape2 are normalised variables, design vari-
ables of I-type section were converted and found to be 1.9 mm
and 3.6 mm for dv1 and dv2, respectively. Through topology and
shape optimisation, the structural mass is reduced from 0.33 kg
to about 0.26 kg. Considerable cost savings of over 60% are there-
fore achieved.
5. Conclusions
Today, the use of optimisation methods in the automotive
industry is not yet fully integrated into the design process. CAE
analysis and optimisation tools save development time and reduce
costs in the conceptual design phase for new and failed parts.
Therefore, robust and innovative design proposals must be devel-
oped early. The product development process becomes faster and
more efficient by using topology and shape optimisation by the re-
sponse surface method. Topology optimisation has the highest
importance in the development process of all optimisation meth-
ods as it works in the very early phase of the design process.
This paper investigates the failure of an automotive product and
also applies modern optimisation algorithms to re-design the
product. The design proposals used in this paper can be applied
to any re-design of a failed component.
Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge financial support of this research by
the Uludag University Scientific Research Project under Contract
No: M2006-33.
References
[1] Bayrakceken H, Tasgetiren S, Yavuz I. _ Two cases of failure in the power
transmission system on vehicles: a universal joint yoke and a drive shaft. Eng
Fail Anal 2007;14:716–24.
[2] Veloso V, Magalhaes HS, Bicalho GI, Palma ES. Failure investigation and stress
analysis of a longitudinal stringer of an automobile chasis. Eng Fail Anal
2009;16:1696–702.
[3] Koh SK. Fatigue analysis of an automobile steering link. Eng Fail Anal
2009;16:914–22.
[4] Fourlaris G, Ellwood R, Jones TB. The reliability of test results from simple test
samples in predicting the fatigue performance of automotive components.
Mater Design 2007;28:1198–210.
[5] Colombo D, Gobbi M, Mastinu G, Pennati M. Analysis of an unusual McPherson
suspension failure. Eng Fail Anal 2009;16:1000–10.
[6] Palma ES, Petraconni CL, Ferreira SE. Fatigue behavior analysis of a rear tow
hook pin of a passenger vehicle. Eng Fail Anal 2009;6:2408–16.
[7] Shenoy PS, Fatemi A. Connecting rod optimization for weight and cost
reduction. SAE Trans 2005;114(5):523–30.
[8] Mrzyglod M, Zielinski AP. Multiaxial high-cycle fatigue constraints in
structural optimization. Int J Fatigue 2007;29:1920–6.
[9] Hai-jun X, Jian S. Failure analysis and optimization design of a centrifuge rotor.
Eng Fail Anal 2007;14:101–9.
[10] Kang BJ, Sin H-C, Kim JH. Optimal shape design of the front wheel lower
control arm considering dynamic effects. Int J Automot Technol
2007;8(3):309–17.
[11] Park Y-C, Kang J-H, Lee D-H, Oh S-H, Ko W-D, Le K-H. Shape optimization of a
knuckle using the design of experiments. Key Eng Mater 2007;345–
346:905–8.
[12] Schäfer C, Finke E. Shape optimisation by design of experiments and finite
element methods – an application of steel wheels. Struct Multidisc Optim
2008;36:477–91.
[13] Lee TH, Jung JJ. Metamodel-based shape optimization of connecting rod
considering fatigue life. Key Eng Mater 2006;306–308:211–6.
[14] Buciumeanu M, Miranda AS, Pinho ACM, Silva FS. Design improvement of an
automotive-formed suspension component subjected to fretting fatigue. Eng
Fail Anal 2007;14:810–21.
[15] Shim H-J, Kim J-K. Cause of failure and optimization of a V-belt pulley
considering fatigue life uncertainty in automotive applications. Eng Fail Anal
2009;16:1955–63.
[16] Kim B, Kim Y, Chun DM, Ahn SH, Jang JD. Durability improvement of
automotive v-belt pulley. Int J Automot Technol 2009;10(1):73–7.
[17] Bannantine JA, Comer JJ, Handrock JL. Fundamentals of metal fatigue
analysis. Prentice Hall; 1990.
[18] Yıldız AR, Kaya N, Özturk F. Optimal design of vehicle components using
topology design and optimisation. Int J Veh Des 2004;34(4):387–98.
[19] Altair Optistruct User’s Guide; 2009.
[20] Saitou K, Iziu K, Nishiwaki S, Papalambros P. A survey of structural
optimization in mechanical product development. J Comput Inf Sci Eng
2005;5:214–26.
[21] Myers RH, Montgomery DC. Response surface methodology. New York: John
Wiley & Sons Inc.; 1995.
[22] Altair Hyperstudy User’s Guide; 2009.