Unit-3 Job Analysis and Job Design

Jobs are very important to individuals. They help to determine standards of living, places of residence,
status and even one’s sense of self worth. Jobs are important to organizations also because they are the
means of accomplishing organizational objectives. Traditionally, organizations used to define jobs in a
rigid way. The popular view about a job was that what it requires does not change; it is designed to be
unchanging irrespective of the various incumbents who perform them. In reality however jobs are not
static. They are subject to change. Technological advances and competitive pressures may often force an
organization to put more emphasis on characteristics of successful performance rather than on standard
job duties, tasks, etc,.

Job analysis is a formal and detailed examination of jobs. It is a systematic investigation of the
tasks, duties and responsibilities necessary to do a job. A task is an identifiable work activity carried out
for a specific purpose, for example typing a letter. A duty is a larger work segment consisting of several
tasks that are performed by an individual, for example pick up, sort out and deliver incoming mail. Job
responsibilities are obligations to perform certain tasks and duties. In simple terms job analysis may be
understood as a process of collecting information about a job. The process of job analysis results in two
sets of data they are job description and job specification.

A few definitions on job analysis are given below:

1. Job analysis is the process of studying and collecting information relating to the operations and
responsibilities of a specific job. The immediate products of this analysis are job descriptions and job
specifications.

2. Job analysis is a systematic exploration of the activities within a job. It is a basic technical procedure,
one that is used to define the duties, responsibilities and accountabilities of a job.

3. Job Analysis is the process of describing the work to be accomplished, the skills needed and the
training and experience is required. Job Analysis is consisted of two kinds. They are Job description and
Job specification. Job description is a written summary of the task requirements for a particular job. Job
specification is a written summary of people requirements such as knowledge, skills, attitudes and
aptitudes.

Job Analysis

A process of obtaining all pertinent job facts

Job Description Job specification

A statement containing items such as A statement of human qualifications that

are necessary to do the job. Usually
 Job title contains such items as
 Location
 Job summary 
Education
 Duties 
Experience
 Machines, tools. and equipment 
Training
 Materials and forms used 
Judgement
 Supervision given or received 
Initiative
 Working conditions 
Physical effort
 Hazards 
Physical skills

Responsibilities

Communication skills

Emotional characteristics

Unusual sensory demands such as
sight, smell, hearing
The process of job analysis: The major steps involved in job analysis are as follows:

a. Organizational analysis: First of all, an overall picture of various jobs in the organization has to
be obtained. This is required to find the linkages between jobs and organizational objectives,
interrelationships between jobs and contribution of various jobs to the efficiency and effectiveness of
the organization.
b. Selection of representative positions to be analyzed: It is not possible to analyze all the jobs. A
representative sample of jobs to be analyzed is decided keeping the cost and time constraints in mind.
c. Collection of job analysis data: This step involves the collection of data on the characteristics of
the job, the required behaviour and personal qualifications needed to carry out the job effectively.
Several techniques are available for collecting such data. Care should be taken to use only reliable and
acceptable techniques in a given situation.
d. Preparation of job description: This step involves describing the contents of the job in terms of
functions, duties, responsibilities, operations etc.
e. Preparation of job specification: This step involves conversion of the job description statement
into a job specification. It is a written statement of personal attributes.
f. Competency approach to job analysis: It focuses on linking business strategies to individual
performance efforts. Where organizations operate in a fast changing environment, employees may have
to work in different teams, take up tasks of different nature and perform multiple roles (such as leader,
supporter, motivator, technical expert, administrator etc.) from time to time. This approach to job
analysis is therefore encourages employees to develop role based competencies that may be used in
different work situations, instead of being boxed into a job. This competencies would in the final analysis
be in line with the organizations culture and strategy and might include such things as inter personal
communication skills, decision making ability, conflict resolution skills and self motivation.
Methods of collecting job analysis data:

A variety of methods are used to collect information about jobs. None of them, however, is perfect. In
actual practice a combination of several methods is used for obtaining job analysis data. These are
discussed below:

1. Job performance: In this method, the job analyst actually performs the job in question. The analyst
thus receives first hand experience of contextual factors on the job including physical hazards, social
demands, emotional pressures and mental requirements. This method is useful for jobs that can be
easily learned.

2. Personal observation: The analyst observes the worker(s) doing the job. The tasks performed, the
pace at which activities are done, the working conditions etc. are observed during a complete work
cycle. During observation, certain precautions should be taken. They are:

1).The analyst must observe average workers during average conditions.

2).The analyst should observe with out getting directly involved in it.

3).The analyst must take note of the specific job needs and not the behaviour specific to particular
workers.

This method allows for a deep understanding of job duties. It is appropriate for manual, short period job
activities.
3. Critical incidents: This technique is a qualitative approach to job analysis used to obtain specific
behaviorally focused descriptions of work or other activities. Here the job holders are asked to describe
several incidents based on their past experience. The incidents so collected are analyzed and classified
according to the job areas they describe. For example if a shoe salesman comments on the size of a
customer’s feet and the customer the store in a huff, the behavior of the sales man may be judged as
ineffective in terms of the result it produced.

4. Interview: This method consists of asking questions either an individual or a group of setting. The
reason behind the use of this method is that job holders are most familiar with the job and can
supplement the information obtained through observation. Workers know the specific duties of the job
and the supervisors are aware of the jobs relationship to the rest of the organization. In this method the
interviewer must be trained in proper interviewing techniques.

5. Panel of experts: This method utilizes senior job incumbents and superiors with extensive knowledge
of the job. To get the job analysis information, the analyst conducts an interview with the group. The
interaction of the members during the interview can add insight and detailed that the analyst may not
get from individual interviews.

6. Diary method: Several job incumbents are asked to keep diaries to note daily activities according to
this method and record the amount of time spent on each activity. By analyzing these activities over a
specified period of time, a job analyst is able to record the jobs essential characteristics. However it is a
time consuming and costly exercise.

7. Questionnaire: This is a widely used method of analyzing jobs and work. Here the job holders are
given a properly designed questionnaire aimed at eliciting relevant job related information. After
completion the questionnaires are handed over to supervisors. The supervisors can seek further
clarifications on various items by talking to the job holders directly. After everything is finalized, the data
is given to the job analyst. This method is highly economical as it covers a large number of job holders at
a time. The success of the method depends on various factors. The structured questionnaire must cover
all job related tasks and behaviours.

Some of the standard questionnaires that are widely used are discussed below:

1. The Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ):

 The PAQ is a standardized questionnaire for analyzing any job in terms of employee activities. It
contains 194 items divided into six major divisions those are information input, mental processes,
physical activities, relationships with other people, job context and other job characteristics. These six
elements help to analyze jobs effectively.

2. Management Position Description Questionnaire(MPDQ)

This is a standardized instrument designed specifically for use in analyzing managerial jobs. This is a
274 item questionnaire contains 15 sections. It would take 2 and half an hour to fill the questionnaire.

3. Functional Job Analysis(FJA):

It is a worker-oriented job analysis approach that attempts to describe the whole person on the job. It
tries to examine the fundamental concepts of the “data, people and things. There are five steps to be
followed:

a) The first involves the identification of the organizational goals for the FJA analysis.
b) The second step is identification and description of the tasks, where in tasks are defined as
actions.
c) The third step involved in dealing with analysis of the tasks.
d) In fourth step the analyst develops performance standards to asses the results of the tasks
e) The final step deals with the development of training content needed by the job holder.
FJA is frequently used for government jobs. It provides a quantitative score of each function it’s
complexity in relationship with people, data and things. The results are helpful in fixing the wage rates
and developing employee succession plans.

Potential Problems of Job Analysis

Certain problems crop up while conducting job analysis. The major ones are below

1. Support from top management: In most cases top management support is missing. The top
management should make it clear to all employees that their full and honest participation is extremely
important for the process. This message often not communicated.
2. Single means and source: This relates to the defects in the process of job analysis. There are
many proven methods and sources of collecting data. All too often analysts relay on only one of the
methods when a combination of two methods might provide a better data.
3. No training or motivation: This also relates to the defects in the job analysis process. Job
holders are a great source of information about the job. But they are not trained or motivated to
generate quality data for job analysis.
4. Activities may be distorted: Where training and preparedness do not exist, job holders tend to
submit distorted data either intentionally or inadvertently. For example employees are likely to speed
up if they know they are being watched.

Job Design

The logical sequence to job analysis is job design. Job analysis as was explained earlier, provides job
related data as well as the skills and knowledge expected of the incumbent to discharge the job. Job
design then involves conscious efforts to organize tasks, duties and responsibilities into a unit of work to
achieve certain objectives. A clear definition of job design is:

--- it integrates work content(tasks, functions and relationships), the rewards(extrinsic and intrinsic),
and the qualifications required(Skills, knowledge and abilities) for each job in a way that meets the
needs of employees and the organizations.

Techniques of Job Design

There are different techniques of job design. They are

a. Work Simplification: In this technique the job is simplified or specialized. A given job is broken down
into small sub parts (making a car for example) and each part is assigned to one individual. Work
simplification involves

1. Mechanical pacing of work

2. Repetitive work processes

3. Working only one part of the product

4. Predetermining tools and techniques

5. Restricted interaction among employees

b. Job Rotation: One answer to the problem of boredom is job rotation which implies movement of
employees from job to job. Jobs remain unchanged, but incumbents shift. With job rotation, a given
employee performs different jobs but more or less jobs are same nature. On the positive side job
rotation is likely to increase intrinsic reward potential of a job because of different skills and abilities
needed to perform it. The organization stands to benefit because workers become competent in several
jobs rather than only one.

On the negative side job rotation may not have much impact on employee enthusiasm
and efficiency. According to Herzberg job rotation is nearly substituting one zero far another zero.

c. Job Enlargement: It involves expanding the number of tasks or duties assigned to a given job. It is
naturally opposite to work simplification. Adding more tasks or duties to a job does not mean that new
skills and abilities are needed to perform it. For example if a professor who is teaching 12 hours per
week has agreed to teach 2 hours more it does not make any significant change in his career.

d. Job Enrichment: It seeks to improve both task efficiency and human satisfaction by building into
peoples jobs, greater scope for personal achievement and recognition, more challenging and
responsible work, more opportunity per individual advancement and growth. An enriched job will have
more responsibility and autonomy (vertical enrichment).The employee does more planning and
controlling with less supervision but more self evaluation.

e. Autonomous or Self-directed Teams: As was stated above, job enrichment necessitates

empowerment. Empowerment results in self-directed work teams. A self-directed work team is an intact
group of employees who are responsible for a whole work process or segment that delivers a product or
service to an internal or external customer. To varying degrees, team members’ work together to
improve their operations, handle day-to-day problems, and plan and control their work. Highly effective
teams are composed of groups of committed individuals who trust each other; have a clear sense of
purpose about their work; are effective communicators within and outside the team; make sure that
everyone in the team is involved in decisions affecting the groups; and follow a process that helps them
plan, make decisions and ensure the quality of their work.

f. High-Performance Work Design : It is a means of improving performance in an environment where

positive and demanding goals are set. It starts from the principle of autonomous group working and
develops an approach which enables groups to work effectively together in situations where the rate of
innovation is high. Operational flexibility is important and there is, therefore, the need for employees to
gain and apply new skills quickly with minimum supervision.

FACTORS AFFECTING JOB DESIGN

Job design is affected by organizational, environmental and behavioral factors.

Organizational Factors: These factors include characteristics of task, work flow, and ergonomics

a). Characteristics of Task: Job design requires the assembly of a number of tasks into a job. An
individual may carry out one main task which consists of a number of interrelated functions. The internal
function of each task consists of three elements namely Planning which is deciding the course of action,
time and the resources required, Executing which is carrying out the plan and Controlling which is
monitoring performance and taking corrective action.

b). Work Flow: The flow of work in an organization is strongly influenced by the nature of the product
or service. The product or service usually suggests the sequence and balance between jobs if the work is
to be done efficiently. For example the frame of a car must be built before the fenders, and the doors
can be added later. After the sequence of jobs is determined the balance between jobs is established.

c) Ergonomics: It is concerned with designing and shaping the jobs to fit the physical abilities and
characteristics of individuals so that they can perform their jobs effectively. It does not alter the nature
of job tasks but the location of tools, switches and other facilities keeping in view that the handling the
job is primary consideration.

Environmental Factors: These elements affect all activities of HRM and the job design is no exception.
These factors are Employee abilities and availability and social and cultural expectations.

a) Employee abilities and availability: Efficiency consideration must be balanced against the abilities
and availability of the people who are to do the work. When Henry Ford made use of the assembly line,
for example, he was aware that most potential workers lacked any automobile –making experience. So
jobs were designed simple and required little training.

b) Social and Cultural Expectations : In earlier days the worker was prepared to work on any job and
under any working conditions. Not any more. Literacy knowledge and awareness among workers have
improved considerably so also their expectations from the jobs. Hence the jobs must be designed to
meet the expectations of the workers. When designing jobs for International operations uniform design
is almost certain to neglect national and cultural differences. Hours of work, holidays, vacations, rest
breaks, religious beliefs management styles and worker sophistication and attitudes are just some of the
predictable differences that can affect the job design across international borders.
Behavioral Elements: These factors have to do with human needs and the necessity to satisfy them.
Higher level needs are more significant in this context. Individuals inspired by higher level needs find
jobs challenging and satisfying which are high on the following dimensions.

a) Feedback: Individuals must receive meaningful feedback about their performance preferably by
evaluating their own performance and defining the feedback.

b) Autonomy: Autonomy is being responsible for what one does. It is the freedom to control one’s
responses to the environment. The absence of autonomy can cause employee apathy or poor
performance.

c) Variety: Lack of variety may cause boredom. Boredom in turn leads to fatigue and fatigue causes
mistakes. By injecting variety into jobs personnel specialists can reduce errors caused by fatigue.

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