Must be continuous and full- penetration in order to avoid crevices.

NACE RP0178-91
provides good examples of weld defects and their correction.

Another, usually less severe and less commonly occurring, form of concentration cell
corrosion occurs with different concentrations of metal ion. A buildup of metal ions in the
crevice will make the crevice cathodic to the metal outside the crevice (M-M’’+2c). Thus, metal
ion buildup in crevice causes corrosion to occur on the metal outside the crevice. As with
galvanic corrosion, the rates of both of these types of concentration cell corrosion are greatly
affected by the relative sizes of anode and cathode areas.

Stray Current Corrosion

Corrosion occurs on metal surfaces whenever direct current passed from them into an
electrolyte. Accelerated corrosion by stray currents most frequently occurs on buried metal
structures near electric railway and crane systems. Improperly grounded welding generators, and
adjacent cathodic protection systems. Stray current corrosion should always be suspected when
accelerated corrosion is notes on buried structures in an area near such DC current systems.
Suspected stray current corrosion can be verified by electrical tests that measure voltage
differences between different locations on the structure. Once detected, stray currents can be
reduced by:

 Reducing the current flow in the ground by modifying its source.

 Modifying the current flow by electrical bonding.
 Applying counterbalancing cathodic protection.

Dealloying
Dealloying is the selective corrosion (loss) of the metallic constituent from an alloy, such as
in a plumbing fixture. The leached metal may be aluminum, nickel, molybdenum, or zinc. One
example of dealloying is the dezincification of brass. Another example in graphitization, which
consist of corrosion of cast iron in which the metallic constituents are converted to corrosion
products, living in graphite intact.

Erosion - Corrosion
Erosion – corrosion occurs when a abrasive material (e.g. slurry through a pipeline) impinges
on an existing corrosion cell to keep the metal bright and the corrosion active. The scouring of
the surface to remove the accumulation of corrosion products result from wind or water-borne
sand.

Some metals (e.g. gold, silver, and titanium) are essentially unaffected by corrosion in certain
environments. This may be due to the stability of some metal in their metallic states or to
passivity imparted by the formation of protective oxide films. However, these metals and alloys
may not be stable in other environment, so the environment must be taken into account when
choosing corrosion-resistant metal product.
 Exfoliation
Exfoliation is an advanced form of inter granular corrosion where the metal delaminates
along grain boundaries. Rolled metal products such as certain types of aluminum alloy plate are
particularly susceptible to exfoliation.

1.4 Methods of Corrosion Control

There are several methods of corrosion control, each of which has its own advantages and
limitations. While we will discuss each method separately, they are best used together, whenever
appropriate, in a total corrosion control program.

Corrosion Control by Design

A good structural design may control corrosion by eliminating one or more of the
components necessary for the corrosion reaction or permitting easier application of other
methods of corrosion control. Poor design of a metal structure can introduce elements that
accelerate corrosion. Examples of poor design conditions are:

 Contact of dissimilar metals

 Incompatible environments
 Water traps
 Crevices
 Rough and sharp surfaces (e.g. welds)
 Limited access to work

Contact of dissimilar metals in an electrolyte (galvanic corrosion) can result in rapid

corrosion of the more active metal. This phenomenon, which can be easily avoided, has already
been described in this unit.

Incompatible environments can accelerate the corrosion process. Thus, aluminum should
not come into direct contact with concrete, because the alkalinity of the concrete will attack the
aluminum.

Water traps are design features that allow rainwater of dew to collect. Since water greatly
accelerates corrosion, structures should be designed so that they do not collect water. Angels and
other shapes that can collect water should be oriented downward. Weep holes be placed where
water collection cannot be otherwise avoided. Condensate water from air conditioners should not
be allowed to run of drip on surface, nor should steam of other vapors be allowed to impinge on
metal surface.

Crevices should be avoided in structures, because these oxygen-deficient areas accelerate

corrosion, as described earlier in this unit. Crevices can also remain wet and thus accumulated
electrolyte, much as in the water traps described above. Crevices are difficult to protect by
coating.
 Rough and sharp surfaces are difficult to coat to a uniform thickness free of holydays.
Thus, irregular surface such as welds and other projections ideally should be ground smooth to
eliminate projections through the paint film. Care should be taken not to weaken the weld by
excessive grinding, and permission should be obtained before grinding is undertaken. Weld
spatter that is loosely bonded to the steel must be removed, because as it becomes disbanded, it
will break the barrier film. Sheared edges are particularly troublesome, because they consist of
deformed material that contains many small and tight crevices. Sharp edges should be ground
smooth, because wet coatings draw thin on them. Sharp interior corners should be avoided, since
they may receive an excessive coating thickness.

Limited access to work can prevent proper application of coating. All areas to be coated
should be readily accessible for both cleaning and painting. Difficult-to-reach areas are not only
difficult to coat, but may also constitute a safety hazard because of reaching from a leader or
other platform further than can be done more safety.

Corrosion Control by Resistant Metals and Alloys

If the environment is very severe, it may be best to control corrosion by using a metal or
alloy that is more resistant to corrosion than structural steel. Depending upon the environment to
which they are exposed, some metals/alloys are essentially immune to corrosion, while others
which have higher electronegative potentials than structural steel form surface oxide films to
impart corrosion resistance. When these protective layers are broken in localized areas, they
must reform to provide continuous protection. Titanium, aluminum alloys, zinc, and stainless
steels form such protective films. The protective films on stainless steels and aluminum alloys
are not resistant to all natural environments. Event the more corrosion-resistant metals/alloys are
frequently coated to provide additional protection.

Titanium

Titanium provides a high strength-to-weight ratio and good resistance to many severe
environments, e.g. seawater, hypochlorite’s and nitric acid. Its surfaces are readily passivated
with an oxide film.

Aluminum and aluminum alloys

Aluminum and its alloys are light in weight and corrosion resistant in many environments.
They are attacked by strong acids and alkalis.

Stainless Steels

Stainless steels alloys are produced almost exclusively for their corrosion resistance. These
steels should contain at least 11% chromium for effective corrosion resistance.
 Weathering Steels

Under mild atmospheric conditions, weathering (low-alloy) steels form protective oxide
films that may defer or eliminate the need for coating. However, these oxide layers may not be
protective in some, particularly marine, environments. In addition, the natural rusted appearance
of weathering steels may not be acceptable aesthetically, and soluble iron compounds that wash
from the surface may produce an objectionable stain.

Galvanizing

Hot-dipped galvanized steel is formed by dipping cleaned (usually by acid immersion) steel
into a molten bath of zinc coating subsequently formed is resistant to corrosion under many
conditions and can be top coated with an organic coating to provide further protection or a
different appearance. Its mechanisms of protection are both galvanic and barrier. This is
discussed in more detail in unit 6. Hot dipping is usually preferred to other methods of
galvanizing, because it produces a thicker layer of zinc than does electro galvanizing (electro
deposition). Also, it is metallurgic ally bonded to the steel. One of the limitations of hot-dipping
is that the component being coated must be small enough to fit into the bath. Nut, bolts, and
other fasteners are sometimes galvanized by tumbling with powdered zinc. Metalizing and zinc-
rich coatings, to be described in Units 2 and 4, are other ways to coat a steel surface with zinc.

Corrosion Control with Non-Metallic

There are several plastic, elastomeric, composite, and ceramic materials that are quite
resistant to corrosion that may be used effectively to replace steel. These find many specialized
uses.

Plastics

A plastic is a solid material that is essentially an organic polymer of large molecular weight
which contains hardeners, fillers, reinforcements and other components. At some time during its
manufactures, it is shaped by flow, it is either thermoplastic, i.e. can be repeatedly softened by
head and hardened by cooling, or it is thermosetting, i.e. when cured chemically or by heading, it
becomes an infusible, insoluble material.

Examples of thermoplastics include fluorocarbons, polyethylene, polypropylenes, and

polyvinyl chlorides; examples of thermosetting plastics include epoxies, phenolics and
polyesters. Properties of these plastics can be found in table 3.1 (Appendix 1B). They are used
for such items as water and gas piping, gutters, and downspouts.

Elastomers

Natural and synthetic elastomeric materials (those that substantially return to their original
shape after removing the force causing distortion) lining materials have been successfully used
as liners for primary containment. These include natural and synthetic rubber and polyurethane
coating and sheets. Sheets must be glued or mechanically fastened to walls.
 Composites

Composites are combinations of two or more materials (e.g. binder with reinforcing materials
and fillers) differing grossly in form or composition. The different remain as separate entities and
do not merge together, but they do act in concert with each other. One of the most common types
of composites is fiber-reinforced plastics (FRP). Reinforcement may be from cloth, mat of
strands of glass, carbon, or other materials. Fiberglass-reinforced plastics (FGRP) are by far the
most commonly used FRP products. FGRP composites can be used to fabricate process vessel,
piping, floor topping, tank, etc.

Ceramics

Ceramics are products formed by the firing of natural earth materials at high temperatures.
They exhibit high chemical, temperatures, and electrical resistance and are used where these
properties are desired.

Corrosion Control with Inhibitors

Inhibitors are chemicals such as phosphates that are added in small amounts, either
continuously or intermittently, to acids, cooling waters, steams, or other environments to inhibit
the corrosion reaction. They may reduce corrosion by forming a very thin film on the metal
surface, by causing a passive layer to form on a metal surface, or by removing aggressive
constituents from the environment. The best known inhibitors are those used in engine cooling
systems.

Corrosion Control by Altering the Environment

Changing the environment can help control corrosion and increase the effectiveness of other
corrosion control systems. Dehumidification and purification of the atmosphere are two of the
most common examples. For example, air conditioning facilities that keep the humidity low can
reduce tarnish and corrosion of exposed metals, such as those found in a telephone switching
facility.

Also, if dehumidification result in a 15o F (8oC) dew point depression and humidity no higher
than 35%, blast cleaned surfaces can be left uncoated for significant periods before painting.

Corrosion Control by Cathodic Protection

Cathodic Protection is a system for controlling corrosion of a metal surface by passing
sufficient direct current onto it to convert all anode areas to cathode areas, thus eliminating the
possibility of anodic loss of metal. While it is effective only in surfaces immersed in water or
buried in soil, it has successfully controlled corrosion for many years on ships, water-front
structures, underground pipelines and tanks, and the interiors of water storage tanks.
 Coatings are generally used on cathodically protected structures to reduce current
requirements. Thus, a well-coated buried pipe may require only 0.01 milliamps per square foot,
as compared to three milliamps per square foot for a bare pipe. Coatings on cathodically
protected structures must be resistant to the alkaline environment produced by the system. There
are two basic systems for supplying the necessary direct current to a structure to protect it
cathodically.

The sacrificial anode (galvanic) system of cathodic protection requires no external power
supply, but incorporates anodes of special alloys that generate the necessary direct current by
preferentially corroding by virtue of their natural voltage difference from the protected structure
(Figure 1-54 in appendix).

Because sacrificial anodes are anodes are consumed in generating current, they have a
limited service life. The active anode metals used in cathodic protection are usually magnesium,
zinc, or aluminum of high purity or other special composition.

The impressed current system of cathodic protection utilizes direct current from an external
power source. The positive terminal of the power source is connected to the anodes, and the
negative terminal is connected to the structure to be protected.

The stable anodes used to discharge current have long service. High-silicon cast iron,
graphite, and aluminum are among the most commonly used anode materials. Crap iron, special
lead alloys, platinum, platinum-palladium alloy, Platonized titanium, and Platonized tantalum
alloys are also used. Normally, rectifiers convert available AC power to DC power for the
system. Batteries and solar power can also provide energy for cathodic protection systems where
is inaccessible.

Each of these two types of cathodic protection has its own advantages and limitations. The
differences in the systems are summarized in table 2:

Table 2. Comparing Sacrificial Anode and Impressed Current

Cathodic Protection Systems

Sacrificial Anode Impressed Current

No external power supply External power supply
Limited current output Variable voltage
Adjustable medium output Variable current
Limited to low resistivity OK for high resistivity media
Requires electrolytes Requires electrolytes
Lower installations cost Higher installations cost
Few interference problems can cause interferences
Low maintenance costs Monthly power bills
Localized protection Protects larges structures
 There are three possible adverse effects on coating of improperly designed cathodic
protection systems.

1. During cathodic protection (even with properly functioning systems), alkalinity

(hydroxide ions) is always produced at the cathode. Thus, coatings on the cathode must
be resistant to alkalinity.
2. Hydrogen has produced from improperly controlled (excess current) cathodic protection
systems may disband protective coatings.
3. More permeable coatings (e.g. oleo resinous phenolic) are more subject to electro
endosmosis than less permeable coatings (e.g. epoxies). This complex form of corrosion
is caused by greater ion flow on cathodically protected surfaces.

Corrosion Control by Coatings

Corrosion control by coatings and lining (coatings on interior surfaces) is most commonly
provided by formation of a barrier separating the metal from the electrolyte. This and other
mechanisms of corrosion control (inhibitors and cathodic protection) will be described in Unit 2.

Coatings have many advantages over the other previously discussed methods of corrosion
control. These include:

 Ease of application
 Ease of storage and handling
 Range of acceptable ambient conditions
 Economics
 Ease of repair
 Selection of color, gloss, and texture

As with other methods of corrosion control, they also have limitations that must be
addressed. These include:

 Surface preparation requirements

 Application requirements
 Drying/ curing requirements
 Health/ environmental concerns

These will be discussed more fully in subsequent units.

 1.5 Conclusion

A successful corrosion control program utilizes as many corrosion systems as appropriate

and practical.

1.6 Unit Summary

Corrosion of metals is a natural process by which the metals are transformed to a more stable
state. There are many forms of corrosion, as well as many methods of corrosion control. A
successful total corrosion program utilizes as many of the available methods as are appropriate
and practical.