LWT - Food Science and Technology 55 (2014) 329e334

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LWT - Food Science and Technology

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Bioactive components analysis of two various gingers (Zingiber

officinale Roscoe) and antioxidant effect of ginger extracts
Hsiang-yu Yeh b, *, Cheng-hung Chuang b, Hsin-chun Chen c, Chu-jen Wan d,
Tai-liang Chen a, Li-yun Lin a, **
a
Department of Food Science and Technology, Hungkuang University, 34 Chung-Chie Road, Shalu, Taichung 43302, Taiwan
b
Department of Nutrition, Hungkuang University, 34 Chung-Chie Road, Shalu, Taichung 43302, Taiwan
c
Department of Cosmeceutics, China Medical University, 91 Hsueh-Shih Road, Taichung 433, Taiwan
d
Department of Dietetics, Tachia General Lee hospital, Taichung, Taiwan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Ginger, a medicinal herb with bioactive components, is now widely used. This study reports the infor-
Received 9 May 2012 mation of bioactive components in two varieties ginger root (Zingiber officinale Roscoe), Guangdong-
Received in revised form ginger (GG) and Chu-ginger (CG) available in Taiwan and compares their bioactive components and
13 June 2013
antioxidant properties using aqueous and ethanolic extract. The proximate analysis of both ginger rhi-
Accepted 8 August 2013
zomes gave similar profiles. Total contents of organic acids were 37.33 and 91.06 mg/g dry weight for GG
and CG, respectively, with oxalic and tartaric acids being two major acids. HPLC analysis revealed gin-
Keywords:
gerols and shogaol in both ginger were similar but curcumin content was higher in GG. The essential oils
Ginger rhizome
Composition
exhibited similar volatile profiles and 60 and 65 compounds were identified for GG and CG, respectively.
Volatile component Among the essential oils major components were camphene, sabinene, a-curcumene, zingiberene, a-
Antioxidant property farnesene, b-sesquiphellandrene, neral, and geranial. The antioxidant effect of ginger ethanolic extracts
were more effective than aqueous extracts in Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity and Ferric reducing
ability of plasma. Contrarily, ginger aqueous extracts were more effective in free radical scavenging
activities and chelating abilities. Based on the results, two ginger rhizomes exerted protective effects and
could be used as a flavouring agent and a natural antioxidant.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Practical application extracts were effective in antioxidant properties assayed. Based on

Ginger, the rhizome of Zingiber officinale Roscoe, is commonly
used as a spice, dietary supplement and medicine. Ginger is found
to be effective in antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial
activities. Currently, two varieties of ginger rhizomes, Guangdong-
ginger and Chu-ginger, are available in Taiwan and found to be
comparable in carbohydrate, fat and fibre contents. Oxalic and
tartaric acids were two major acids. Gingerols, shogaol and curcu-
min were their active components. The essential oils of two gingers
exhibited similar volatile profiles and 60e65 compounds were
identified. Ethanolic extracts were more effective than aqueous
extracts in Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity and Ferric
reducing ability of plasma whereas aqueous extracts were more
effective in scavenging and chelating abilities. However, both
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ886 4 2631 8652x5037; fax: þ886 4 2633 4944.
** Corresponding author. Tel.: þ886 4 2631 8652x5043; fax: þ886 4 2633 4944.
E-mail addresses: hyyeh@sunrise.hk.edu.tw (H.-y. Yeh), lylin@sunrise.hk.edu.tw
(L.-y. Lin).
the results obtained, two ginger rhizomes could be used as a fla-
vouring agent and an antioxidant.
2. Introduction
Ginger, originated in the Indo-Malayan region, is now widely
distributed across the tropics of Asia, Africa, America and Australia.
Ginger is the rhizome of Zingiber officinale Roscoe belonging to
family Zingiberaceae, commonly used as a spice for over 2000 years
(Bartley & Jacobs, 2000) and contains characteristic odour and
flavour such as the pungent taste (Jolad, Lantz, Chen, Bates, &
Timmermann, 2005). The root extracts contain compounds (6-
gingerol and its derivatives), which have a high antioxidant activ-
ity (Chen, Kuo, Wu, & Ho, 1986; Herrmann, 1994). In the animal
models, gingerols are bioactive components and could increase the
motility of the gastrointestinal tract and have analgesic, sedative,
antipyretic and antibacterial properties (O’hara, Kiefer, Farrell, &
Kemper, 1998). Concomitant dietary feeding of ginger signifi-
cantly attenuated malathion induced lipid peroxidation and

0023-6438/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2013.08.003
330 H.-y. Yeh et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 55 (2014) 329e334
oxidative stress in rats (Ahmed, Vandana, Pasha, & Banerjee, 2000).
Curcumin, an another active component present in ginger, was
found to be an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent and
induced haem oxygenase-1 and protected endothelial cells against
oxidative stress (Motterlini, Foresti, Bassi, & Green, 2000). Overall,
ginger components might be effective in antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory and antimicrobial activities (Dugasani et al., 2009;
Jolad et al.,2005; Park, Bae, & Lee, 2008).
The antioxidants inhibit the reactive oxygen species (ROS),
which are capable of causing damage to DNA, associated with
carcinogenesis, coronary heart disease, and many other health
problems related to advancing age (Patel et al., 2000). Scavenging
agent also acts as inhibitors of free radical scavenging (Sherwin,
1972). In rat experiment indicate extracts of red and white
ginger protect the brain through their antioxidant activity, Fe2þ
chelating and OH scavenging ability and prevented oxidative
stress by dietary of ginger intake (Oboh, Akinyemi, & Ademiluyi,
2012). Nowadays, natural antioxidants are important in the food
industry because of their healthy effects (Ibañez et al., 2003). Thus,
their demand has increased for growing interest in foods obtained
from natural sources (Aruoma et al., 1995; Kim, Kim, Kim,& Heo,
1997). The extract quality is greatly influenced by the extraction
methodology used and solvent extraction techniques. Several
studies have shown that extraction method can alter the antioxi-
dant activity and total phenolic content in the extracts (Chan, Lim,
& Omar, 2007; Ding et al., 2012; Sikora, Cieslik, Leszcznska,
Filipiak-Florkiewicz, & Pisulewski, 2008). Either Ginger ethanolic
extracts inhibit tumour promotion in SENCAR mice (Katiyar,
Agarwal, & Mukhtar, 1996) or Ginger aqueous extracts inhibits
proliferation and angiogenesis of colonic adenocarcinoma cells
(Brown et al., 2009).
Currently, two varieties of ginger rhizomes (Fig. 1S,
Supplementary Material), Guangdong-ginger (GG) and Chu-
ginger (CG), are available in Taiwan. However, the information
about their proximate composition, bioactive components are not
known. Therefore, the objectives of this research are to establish
the basic information of these two gingers, furthermore to compare
their bioactive components in essential oil and antioxidant prop-
erties using different extraction solvents.
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Materials
Two varieties of ginger rhizomes, GG and CG, were obtained
from Mingjian Township, Nantou County, Taiwan. Fresh gingers
were washed and air-dried at 50  C for 18 h. Air-dried samples were
then ground in an RT-34 pulverising machine (Rong Tsong Preci-
sion Technology Co., Taichung, Taiwan), screened through a 0.6 mm
sieve and stored in a desiccator before use.
3.2. Proximate analysis
The proximate compositions of the two types of ginger sam-
ples, including moisture, ash, fat, fibre and protein, were deter-
mined according to the methods of Association of Official
Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 1990). Moisture was determined by
drying to a constant weight at 105  C. The crude lipid content was
determined by extracting the sample with petroleum ether with a
Soxhlet apparatus. The protein content was determined by the
micro-Kjeldahl method. The carbohydrate content (g/100 g) was
calculated by subtracting the contents of ash, fat, fibre and protein
from total dry weight. Moisture was presented based on fresh
weight (g/100 g). Other contents were presented based on dry
weight (g/100 g).
3.3. Determination of organic acids
Sample powder (500 mg) was extracted with 50 mL of 80 mL/
100 mL aqueous ethanol. This suspension was shaken for 45 min at
room temperature and filtered through Whatman No. 4 filter paper.
The residue was re-extracted five times with additional 25-mL
portions of 80 mL/100 mL ethanol. The combined filtrate was
then rotary evaporated at 40  C and redissolved in deionised water
to a final volume of 10 mL. The aqueous extract was filtered using a
0.45-mm polyvinylidene fluoride membrane filter (Millipore, Bill-
erica, MA, USA) and analysed using high-performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC).
The HPLC system consisted of a Hitachi L-2130 pump (Tokyo,
Japan), a Rheodyne 7725i injector (Rohnert Park, CA, USA), a 20-mL
sample loop, a Hitachi L-2400 UV detector, and an RP-18 GP250
column (4.6  250 mm, Mightysil, Kanto Chemical Co., Tokyo,
Japan). The mobile phase was acetonitrile/deionised water, 75:25
(v/v), at a flow rate of 0.8 mL/min; and UV detection was at 300 nm.
Each organic acid was identified using the authentic organic acid
(all from SigmaeAldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) and quantified by its
respective calibration curve.
3.4. Determination of gingerols, shogaols and curcumin
The extraction procedure prepared for gingerols, shogaols and
curcumin analysis was same. Sample powder (2 g) was extracted
with 15 mL of 80 mL/100 mL aqueous methanol at 4  C with stirring
for 24 h. After centrifugation at 3800 g for 30 min, the residue was
re-extracted twice as described above. The combined supernatant
was rotary evaporated at 40  C and redissolved in deionised water
to a final volume of 10 mL. The aqueous extract was filtered and
injected onto HPLC. Gingerols and shogaols were analysed ac-
cording to the method of Schwertner and Rios (2007); and curcu-
min was determined using the method of Heath, Pruitt, Brenner,
and Rock (2003).
The HPLC system was the same as for organic acid analysis but
included a TSK-GEL ODS-100S column (4.6  250 mm, 3 mm, Tosoh
Co., Tokyo, Japan). The mobile phase for gingerols and shogaols was
methanol/water, 65:35 (v/v), at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min; and UV
detection was at 282 nm. The mobile phase for curcumin was
acetonitrile/methanol/water/acetic acid, 41:23:35:1 (v/v/v/v), at a
flow rate of 0.8 mL/min; and UV detection was at 422 nm. Each
component was identified using the authentic compound (all from
SigmaeAldrich) and quantified by its respective calibration curve.
3.5. Analysis of volatile components
Volatile components in ginger samples were isolated by the
simultaneous steam-distillation and solvent-extraction (SDE)
method using a Likens and Nickerson apparatus (Likens &
Nickerson, 1964) with some modification by Filek, Bergamini, and
Lindner (1995). Sample powder (150 g) was placed into the appa-
ratus and deionised water (1500 mL) was added. The solvent
mixture (50 mL) of n-pentane and diethyl ether (column distilled,
1:1, v/v, Merck, Darmstadt, Germany) was used as an extracting
solvent. The SDE process was allowed to proceed for 2 h, and the
extract thus obtained was dried over anhydrous sodium sulphate
(Merck) and filtered through Whatman No. 1 filter paper. The
filtered extract was then concentrated at 40  C to dryness using a
Vigreux column (i.d. 1.5  100 cm, Tung Kawn Glass Co., Hsinchu,
Taiwan) and the resulting essential oil was weighed and stored
at 20  C before use.
The essential oil obtained was redissolved in the same solvent
mixture mentioned above and analysed using an HP 6890 gas
chromatograph (GC) coupled to an HP 5973 mass selected detector
 H.-y. Yeh et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 55 (2014) 329e334 331

(MSD, EI mode, 70 eV, HewlettePackard, Palo Alto, CA, USA). A
fused silica capillary column (DB-1, J&W Scientific, Folsom, CA, i.d.
0.25 mm  60 m, 0.25 mm film thickness) was used and interfaced
directly into the ion source of the MSD. Helium was used as a carrier
gas at the flow rate of 1 mL/min. The column temperature was
programmed from 40 to 220  C at 3  C/min. Temperatures for GC
injector and GC-MSD interface were 250  C and 265  C, respec-
tively. A split ratio of 50 to 1 was used.
Volatile components were identified on the basis of gas chro-
matographic retention indices, mass spectra from Wiley MS
Chemstation Libraries (6th edition, G1034, Rev. C.00.00, Hewlette
Packard) and the literature (Adams, 1995; Jennings & Shibamoto,
1980). Some components were further identified using authentic
compounds, which were commercially available (SigmaeAldrich).
The relative amount of each individual component of the essential
oil was expressed as the percentage of the peak area relative to total
peak area. Kovats retention indices (Kovats, 1965) were calculated
for each separate component against n-alkanes standard (C8eC25,
Alltech Associates, Deerfield, IL, USA) according to Schomberg and
Dielmann (1973), using the same DB-1 column.
3.6. Assays of antioxidant properties
Chelating ability was determined using the method of Dinis,
Maderia, and Almeida (1994). Aqueous or ethanolic extract in wa-
ter or ethanol (1 mL) was mixed with 3.7 mL of methanol and
0.1 mL of 2 mmol/L ferrous chloride. The reaction was initiated by
the addition of 0.2 mL of 5 mM ferrozine (SigmaeAldrich). After
10 min at room temperature, the absorbance of the mixture was
determined at 562 nm against a blank.
EC50 value (mg extract/mL) is the effective concentration at
which DPPH radicals were scavenged by 50%; and ferrous ions were
chelated by 50% and were obtained by interpolation from linear
regression analysis. Ascorbic acid and butylated hydroxyanisole
(BHA, SigmaeAldrich) were used for scavenging ability comparison
whereas ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA, SigmaeAldrich)
was used for chelating ability comparison.
3.7. Statistical analysis
All triplicate data were subjected to an analysis of variance for a
completely randomized design using SPSS statistical software sys-
tem (version 16.0, SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL, USA). For the mean sepa-
ration, Duncan’s multiple range tests were used to determine the
mean difference at the level of P ¼ 0.05.

For ethanolic extraction, sample powder (10 g) was extracted

4. Results and discussion
with 100 mL of ethanol at 25  C with stirring for 24 h and filtering
through Whatman No. 1 filter paper. The residue was re-extracted
4.1. Proximate composition
twice as described above. The combined ethanolic extracts were
then rotary evaporated at 40  C to dryness. For hot water extrac-
Fresh Chu-gingerwas moister than fresh Guangdong-ginger
tions, sample powder (10 g) was heated with 200 mL deionised
(Table 1). In other words, GG and CG contained 15.84 and 10.86
water at reflux for 1 h, centrifuging at 5000 g for 15 min and
(g/100 g) of dry matter, respectively. The profile of proximate
filtering through Whatman No. 1 filter paper. The residue was re-
compositions of two ginger rhizomes in carbohydrate, fat and fibre
extracted twice as described above. The combined hot water ex-
contents was similar. However, the content of ash in CG was higher
tracts were freeze dried, respectively. The dried extract was redis-
whereas that of protein in GG was higher. Comparing to other
solved in water or ethanol to a concentration of 50 mg/mL and
research it revealed ginger rhizome constitutes of essential oil (1e
stored at 4  C before use.
2.7 g/100 g), acetone extract (3.9e9.3 g/100 g), crude fibre (4.8e
Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) was determined
9.8 g/100 g), and starch (40.4e59 g/100 g) (Natarajan et al., 1972).
using the method of Arnao, Cano, Hernandez-ruiz, Garcia-Canovas,
& Acosta, (1996) with some modification. Aqueous or ethanolic
extract (0.1e20 mg/mL), 1.5 mL of deionised water, 0.25 mL of 4.2. Organic acids
1000 mmol/L 2,20 -azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)
(ABTS, SigmaeAldrich), 0.25 mL of 500 mmol/L hydrogen peroxide Two typical tastes, including sour and pungent taste, are sig-
and 0.25 mL of peroxidase (44 unit/mL) were mixed and left to nificant in ginger rhizomes. The contents of organic acids and their
stand for 1 h in the dark to produce blue-green colour, and the varieties are of great importance for their application in novel
absorbance was then measured at 734 nm against a blank. The functional foods or normal cuisine. Five organic acids found in two
absorbance was quantified by the calibration curve of 6-hydroxy- ginger rhizomes included citric, malic, oxalic, succinic, and tartaric
2,5,7,8-tetra-methylchromane-2-carboxylic acid (Trolox, Sigmae acids (Table 2). Contents of citric, malic and succinic acids were
Aldrich) as a standard and expressed as micromole Trolox per gram. relatively low in ginger rhizomes (0.02e0.12 mg/g dry weight).
Ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) was determined using Oxalic and tartaric acids were two major acids in ginger rhizomes.
the method of Pulido, Bravo, and Saura-Calixto (2000). Aqueous or However, oxalic acid was higher in CG whereas tartaric acid was
ethanolic extract in water or ethanol (30 mL) was mixed with FRAP higher in GG. Total contents of organic acids were 37.33 and
reagent (SigmaeAldrich, 900 mL) and deionised water (90 mL) and
left to stand for 30 min, and the absorbance was then measured at
Table 1
595 nm against a blank. The absorbance was quantified by the Proximate composition of Guangdong-ginger and Chu-ginger.
calibration curve of Trolox as a standard and expressed as micro-
Contentc (g/100 g)
mole Trolox per gram.
Scavenging ability on 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) Guangdong-ginger Chu-ginger
radicals was determined using the method of Shimada, Fujikawa, Moisture a
84.16  0.97b 89.14  0.72a
Yahara, and Nakamura (1992). Aqueous or ethanolic extract (0.1e Carbohydrateb 97.19  0.02a 97.26  0.04a
20 mg/mL) in methanol (4 mL) was mixed by vortex with 1 mL of Crude ashb 0.16  0.02b 0.28  0.02a
Crude fatb 0.55  0.03a 0.52  0.10a
methanolic solution containing DPPH radicals (SigmaeAldrich),
Crude fibreb 1.05  0.38a 1.01  0.43a
resulting in a final concentration of 0.2 mmol/L DPPH and left to Crude proteinb 1.05  0.33a 0.93  0.08b
stand for 30 min in the dark, and the absorbance was then a
Moisture was presented based on fresh weight.
measured at 517 nm against a blank. The scavenging ability was b
Content were presented based on dry weight.
calculated as follows: Scavenging ability (%) ¼ [(DA517 of c
Each value is expressed as mean  standard error (n ¼ 3). Means with different
control  DA517 of sample)/DA517 of control]  100. letters within a row are significantly different (P < 0.05).
332 H.-y. Yeh et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 55 (2014) 329e334

Table 2 respectively. Generally, the essential oils from two ginger rhizomes
Content of organic acids of Guangdong-ginger and Chu-ginger. exhibited similar volatile profiles, except for some quantitative
Content (mg/g dry weight) differences (Table 4S, Supplementary Material). Totally, 60
Guangdong-ginger Chu-ginger
different compounds identified from the essential oil of GG
quantized as percent area, included 14 monoterpenoids (11.92%),
Citric acid 0.04  0.01b 0.05  0.01a
18 sesquiterpenoids (51.54%), 6 oxygenated sesquiterpenoids
Malic acid 0.02  0.01b 0.07  0.01a
Oxalic acid 14.13  0.29b 52.31  0.52a (4.57%), 5 aldehydes (17.39%), 4 ketones (0.57%), 7 alcohols (3.45%),
Succinic acid 0.06  0.02b 0.12  0.01a 2 esters (0.21%), and 4 miscellaneous compounds (0.41%). In
Tartaric acid 23.08  0.44b 38.51  0.10a addition, 65 different compounds identified from the essential oil
Each value is expressed as mean  standard error (n ¼ 3). Means with different of CG included 14 monoterpenoids (28.22%), 21 sesquiterpenoids
letters within a row are significantly different (P < 0.05). (16.47%), six oxygenated sesquiterpenoids (4.92%), 5 aldehydes
(14.50%), 4 ketones (0.50%), 8 alcohols (2.91%), 2 esters (0.18%), and
91.06 mg/g dry weight for GG and CG, respectively. It seems that CG 5 miscellaneous compounds (0.57%). Obviously, monoterpenoids,
would be 2.4-fold sourer than GG. sesquiterpenoids and aldehydes were three major classes of
compounds found in the essential oils.
4.3. Gingerols, shogaol and curcumin Eight major components detected in the essential oils (>4.5%)
were camphene (6.27 and 9.14%), sabinene (8.16 and 10.67%), a-
6-gingerol and 6-shogaol are the major gingerol and shogaol curcumene (8.42 and 6.66%), zingiberene (20.85 and 17.55%), a-
present in the rhizome (Connell & McLachlan, 1972). Gingerols and farnesene (7.42 and 4.77%), b-sesquiphellandrene (8.13 and 7.32%),
shogaols in ginger rhizomes are responsible for the pungent taste neral (8.00 and 6.74%), and geranial (8.70 and 7.20%), for GG and CG,
(Kikuzaki,Kawasaki, & Nakatani, 1994). Their contents were in the respectively. Camphene shows a terpeney-camphoraceous taste
descending order of 6-gingerol, 6-shogaol, 8-gingerol and 10- whereas sabinene exhibits a warm, oily-peppery, woody-herba-
gingerol for two ginger rhizomes (Table 3). Although some differ- ceous and spicy taste with slightly pungent mouthfeel (Arctander,
ences in individual component content were found, total contents 1969). a-Curcumene shows a characteristic odour of turmeric and
of gingerols and shogaol were similar and were 7.52 and 7.39 mg/ slightly pungent bitter taste (Jain, Shrivastava, Nayak, & Sumbhate,
100 g dry weight for GG and CG, respectively. Shogaols, more 2007). Zingiberene is a major component of ginger oil and has a
pungent than the gingerols, are usually derived from the corre- warm, woody-spicy and very tenacious odour whereas a-farnesene
sponding gingerols during thermal processing or long-term storage shows a very mild, sweet and warm odour (Arctander, 1969). Neral
(Zhang, Iwaoka, Huang, Nakamoto, & Wong, 1994). However, only and geranial are widely used as a powerful lemon-fragrance
6-shogaol was found in fresh ginger rhizomes. Another active chemical (Arctander, 1969). Overall, ginger rhizomes would give a
component found in two ginger rhizomes was curcumin and its typical spicy ginger odour and taste.
content in GG was much higher than that in CG (Table 3). Curcumin Generally, the essential oil of plants showed some antimicrobial
possess a variety of biological activities, such as antioxidant, anti- activities (Williams, Stockley, Yan, & Home, 1998; Zaika, 1988). In
inflammatory, antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, and anticancer addition, gingerols exhibited potent antibacterial activity (Park
properties, etc. (Joe, Vijaykumar, & Lokesh, 2004). Curcumin was et al., 2008). Thus, the essential oil of ginger rhizomes with po-
also found to be good antioxidant and show better antioxidative tential antimicrobial activity might be useful for therapeutic use.
efficiency when compared to butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA),
butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), a-tocopherol and trolox in vitro 4.5. Antioxidant properties
(Ak & Gulcin, 2008). Previous studies have confirmed that curcumin
and its analogues show strong hepatoprotective effects against Yields of aqueous and ethanolic extracts from GG were
oxidative damage caused by ethanol (Graham, 2009). In in vitro 11.95  0.05 and 8.96  0.08(g/100 g); and those from CG were
experiments too curcumin inhibited iron catalysed lipid peroxida- 8.44  0.16 and 6.96  0.13(g/100 g), respectively. It seems that
tion in liver homogenates, scavenged nitricoxide spontaneously the yields of hot water and ethanol extracts from GG were higher
generated from nitroprusside and inhibited heat induced haemol- from those from CG whereas the yields of ethanolic extracts from
ysis of rat erythrocytes (Naik, Thakare, & Patil, 2011). It seems that both ginger rhizomes were lower. The antioxidant capacity of
the higher curcumin content in GG would provide more beneficial ginger rhizomes was measured by the TEAC method and the re-
effects in health. sults were expressed as the equivalent of the standard Trolox for
comparison. The TEAC values of ethanolic extracts were 5.8-fold
4.4. Volatile components higher than those of aqueous extracts for both ginger rhizomes
(Table 4). However, the TEAC values from GG and CG were com-
Using the SDE method, the yields of the essential oil were parable for aqueous (0.17e0.18 mmol/g) and ethanolic extracts
0.18  0.02 and 0.21  0.02% dry weight for GG and CG, (098e1.04 mmol/g).
The reducing power of ginger rhizomes was measured by the
Table 3 FRAP method and the results were also expressed as the equivalent
Content of gingerols and curcumin of Guangdong-ginger and Chu-ginger. of the standard Trolox for comparison. The FRAP values of ethanolic
Content (mg/100 g dry weight)
extracts were 7.2e8.0-fold higher than those of aqueous extracts
for both ginger rhizomes (Table 4). However, the FRAP values of
Guangdong-ginger Chu-ginger
ethanolic extracts from CG and GG were comparable whereas the
6-Shogaol 1.41  0.03b 1.85  0.02a FRAP values of the aqueous extract from GG was higher than that
6-Gingerol 5.59  0.09a 4.74  0.11b
from CG (P < 0.05). With regard to the TEAC and FRAP methods,
8-Gingerol 0.34  0.05b 0.75  0.06a
10-Gingerol 0.18  0.02a 0.05  0.03b both ethanolic extracts were more effective than both aqueous
Curcumin 2.32  0.09a 0.96  0.07b extracts.
Total Gingerol 6.11  0.03a 5.54  0.04b The scavenging ability assayed is the ability of extracts to react
Each value is expressed as mean  standard error (n ¼ 3). Means with different rapidly with DPPH radicals and reduce most DPPH radical mole-
letters within a row are significantly different (P < 0.05). cules. All EC50 values were in the range of 2.81e5.57 mg/mL,
 H.-y. Yeh et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 55 (2014) 329e334
Table 4
Antioxidant properties of Guangdong-ginger and Chu-ginger.
TEACa (mmol Trolox/g)
Guangdong-ginger Chu-ginger
b
Aqueous extract 0.17  0.02a 0.18  0.01a
Ethanolic extract 0.98  0.03a 1.04  0.02a
FRAPc (mmol Trolox/g)
Aqueous extract 1.75  0.02a 1.55  0.03b
Ethanolic extract 12.66  0.20a 12.47  0.14a
Scavenging abilityd
(EC50 at mg/mL)
Aqueous extract 3.25  0.18a 2.81  0.14b
Ethanolic extract 5.57  0.20a 4.30  0.22b
Chelating abilityd
(EC50 at mg/mL)
Aqueous extract 0.79  0.01a 0.62  0.02b
Ethanolic extract 18.06  0.52a 10.43  0.11b
a
Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity.
b
Each value is expressed as mean  standard error (n ¼ 3). Means with different
letters within a row are significantly different (P < 0.05).
c Appendix A. Supplementary data
Ferric reducing ability of plasma.
d
EC50 value: the effective concentration at which 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl
radicals were scavenged by 50%; and ferrous ions were chelated by 50%, respec-
tively. EC50 value was obtained by interpolation from linear regression analysis.
indicating that both extracts from two ginger rhizomes were rela-
tively effective in scavenging abilities on DPPH radicals (Table 4).
Aqueous extracts were more effective than ethanolic extracts for
both ginger rhizomes as evidence by their lower EC50 values. In
addition, EC50 values of CG were lower than those of GG for both
extracts. However, ascorbic acid and BHA were much more effective
with their EC50 values being 0.65 and 0.14 mg/mL, respectively.
Ferrous ions play an important role as catalysts in oxidative
process, leading to the formation of hydroxyl radicals and hydro-
peroxide decomposition by Fenton reaction. The chelating ability
assayed is the ability of extracts to inhibit the complex formation of
ferrozine with ferrous ions. Aqueous extracts were 16.8e22.9-fold
more effective in chelating abilities on ferrous ions than ethanolic
extracts for both ginger rhizomes as evidence by their lower EC50
values (Table 4). In addition, EC50 values of CG were lower than
those of GG for both extracts. However, EDTA was much more
effective with its EC50 value being 0.14 mg/mL.
With regard to four antioxidant properties assayed, two ex-
tracts from two ginger rhizomes were relatively effective. How-
ever, both extracts from CG were slightly more effective than those
from GG. Overall, ethanolic extracts were more effective in TEAC
and FRAP values whereas aqueous extracts were better at scav-
enging and chelating abilities. Fresh ginger methanolic extract
exhibits hypotensive, endothelium-independent vasodilator and
cardio-suppressant properties (Ghayur, Gilani, Afridi, & Houghton,
2005). Meanwhile, the fresh ginger aqueous extract showed it
lowers blood pressure (BP) effect through cholinergic and calcium
channel blocking (CCB) properties in experimental animals
(Ghayur et al., 2005).
These results might suggest higher medical suitability of alco-
holic and extracts ethanolic in various antioxidant applications.
5. Conclusion
In this research, two ginger rhizomes were comparable in car-
bohydrate, fat and fibre contents. Oxalic and tartaric acids were
two major acids in ginger rhizomes. However, total content of
organic acids was much higher in CG than in GG. Total contents of
gingerols and shogaol in two ginger rhizomes were similar but the
content of curcumin was higher in GG. Generally, the essential oils
from two ginger rhizomes exhibited similar volatile profiles and
333
monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids and aldehydes were three
major classes of compounds found. Totally, 60 and 65 different
compounds were identified from the essential oil of GG and CG,
respectively. Eight major components detected in the essential oils
(>4.5%), which would give a typical spicy ginger odour and taste,
were camphene, sabinene, a-curcumene, zingiberene, a-farne-
sene, b-sesquiphellandrene, neral, and geranial.
With regard to the antioxidant properties in terms of TEAC and
FRAP methods, both ethanolic extracts from ginger rhizomes were
more effective than both aqueous extracts. On the contrary,
aqueous extracts were more effective than ethanolic extracts in
scavenging and chelating abilities. With regard to four antioxidant
properties assayed, both extracts from CG were slightly more
effective than those from GG. Based on the results obtained, two
ginger rhizomes could be used as a flavouring agent in food and
also in the medicinal applications as an antioxidant.
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2013.08.003.
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