8.1 Advantages of Electric Motors

Gustafson, Robert J., and Mark T. Morgan. 2004. Electric Motors.
Chapter 8 in Fundamentals of
Electricity for Agriculture, 4rd edition, 205-248. St. Joseph, Michigan: ASAE. © American Society
of Agricultural Engineers.
CHAPTER 8
ELECTRIC
MOTORS
8.1 ADVANTAGES OF
ELECTRIC MOTORS
One of the principal advantages of electrical energy is the ease by which it can be
converted to mechanical energy. Over 60% of the electrical energy generated in the
U.S. is used by electric motors, according to the Department of Energy. The electric
motor is an efficient means of converting electrical energy into mechanical energy. As
shown below, efficiency of an electric motor surpasses that of both gasoline and diesel
engines.
Approximate Efficiency
Electric Motor 50-99%
Gasoline Engine 25%
Diesel Engine 40%
Electric motors have many advantages over other means of producing mechanical
energy, including:
• Low initial cost • Long life, many motors are designed
• Relatively inexpensive to operate for 35,000 hours of operation
• Easy to start • Compact
• Capable of starting a reasonable load • Simple to operate
• Can be automatically and remotely • Low noise level
controlled • No exhaust fumes
• Capable of withstanding temporary • Minimum of safety hazards
overloads
206 CHAPTER 8 ELECTRIC MOTORS
To make use of these advantages, we need to understand the basic principles of

how an electric motor converts electrical energy to mechanical energy, the characteris-
tics of various types of motors, how some of the characteristics are measured, what
characteristics can be determined by nameplate data, and how motors are controlled
and protected. These topics will be addressed in the following sections.
For discussion, electric motors are often classified in several ways. One classifica-
tion is by the type of electrical service required; for example, single-phase alternating
current, three-phase alternating current, or direct current. Other classification systems
are based on such items as type of starting mechanism, rotor style, frame or enclosure
style, application and power output.
8.2 AC MOTOR PRINCIPLES

The vast majority of electrical motors used in homes and on farms are alternating
current motors. To understand the principles of operation of a simple ac motor, a brief
review of three basic electrical principles is in order. They are: properties of electro-
magnets, electromagnetic induction, and alternating current.
An electromagnet can be produced by winding insulated wire around a soft iron
core. When current passes through the coil of wire, a magnetic field is produced with a
north (N) pole at one end of the iron core and a south (S) at the other. The orientation
of the N and S poles is dependent on the direction of current flow and changes each
time the current changes direction. It is important to remember that the electromagnet
produces a magnetic field only when current is flowing in the coil.
Induction is the phenomenon by which a current is induced in a conductor as it
passes through a magnetic field or as the field varies around the conductor. As dis-
cussed in Chapter 4, the direction of current flow depends on the direction of the wire
movement and the orientation of the magnetic field. The magnitude of the induced
voltage is controlled by (a) the strength of the magnetic field, (b) the rate at which the
flux lines of the magnetic field are being cut by the conductor, and (c) the number of
conductors cutting across the magnetic field.
Current which periodically changes its direction of flow is alternating current.
Current in the U. S. is generally at 60 Hz, or cycles per second, meaning the current
changes direction of flow 120 times each second.
Combining the principles reviewed, operation of an inductive-type electric motor
can be shown. An electric motor is designed with a stationary part called a stator and
a rotating part called a rotor. In some texts, the rotor is referred to as an armature.
The stationary section, stator, contains pairs of slotted cores made up of thin sec-
tions of soft iron. The cores are wound with insulated copper wire to form one or more
pairs of definite magnetic poles (Fig. 8.1). The stator windings are connected to an ac
source to form electromagnets.
One common type of rotor, the squirrel cage rotor, derives its name from its re-
semblance to an exercise cage for pet squirrels (Fig. 8.2). For a squirrel cage rotor, a
cylinder made up of thin sections of a special soft steel has slots cut in the surface.
Bare copper, brass or aluminum bars are mounted in the slots. The bars are short cir-
cuited at each end by rings but there are no electrical connections to this type of rotor.
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY FOR AGRICULTURE 207
POLE
POWER
SOURCE
WINDING
FIG. 8.1 SCHEMATIC OF A TWO-POLE STATOR
The rotor must be carefully balanced on a central shaft. The shaft extends beyond its
support bearings at one or both ends to provide for pulleys or other drive mechanisms.
Another type of rotor, the wound rotor, will be discussed later.
Assume a simplified rotor is inserted into a stator in the position shown in Fig. 8.3.
If the poles of the electromagnet (stator) are as shown, the north pole will induce a
north pole in the upper portion of the rotor. Likewise the south pole of the stator will
induce a south pole in the lower portion of the rotor. Because like poles tend to repel
each other, the rotor will rotate clockwise. If the polarity of the magnets are main-
tained, when the rotor arrives at the horizontal position (Fig. 8.4), the unlike poles will
tend to attract, drawing the rotor further around.
If, as the rotor again approaches a vertical position (180 degrees rotation from the
start) the polarities of the stator poles are reversed, the rotor will continue to be rotated
in the same direction.
SHAFT
COPPER
BARS
END RING
FIG. 8.2 SQUIRREL CAGE ROTOR
FIG. 8.3 SIMPLE AC MOTOR, POSITION 1
S N
FIG. 8.4 SIMPLE AC MOTOR, POSITON 2
If the stator is connected to an ac source, the polarity of the electromagnetic poles

will continue to alternate. As the rotor continues to spin, theoretically it will adjust
itself to the frequency of the source. For a 60 Hz source this would mean a rotational
speed of 60 revolutions per second or 3600 revolutions per minute for the simple two-
pole motor. This rotational speed, equal to the speed of the rotating magnetic field in
the stator, is called the synchronous speed.
As more sets of poles are added to the stator, the rotor does not travel as far to
reach the next pole; therefore the speed of the motor is reduced. The synchronous
speed of a motor can be expressed as a function of the number of poles and the fre-
quency of the source as
Frequency of Source 60 s
Revolutions per Minute = (Number of Poles/2) 1 min
More simply:
120 × Frequency
RPM = Number of Poles
In practice, however, the actual rotating speed is less than the theoretical speed
(synchronous speed) due to slip. Slip occurs due to the fact that the rotor bars must be
cutting across the stator’s lines of magnetic flux in order to induce a rotor voltage.
This fact means that the rotor must rotate slower than the theoretical speed. Usually
under no load, a motor runs 4 to 5% slower than the theoretical speed. In summary, in
order to create torque in an induction-type motor, there must be slip (rotor bars cutting
lines of magnetic flux). This means the actual speed of an induction-type motor will
always be less than the synchronous speed.
The type of motor selected largely depends on the starting requirements of the
equipment to be driven, the load during operation and the types of power sources
available. Selection of motors will be discussed more fully in section 8.5. The follow-
ing section will briefly discuss the design and operating characteristics of various
types of single-phase motors. Table 8.1 summarizes some of the important characteris-
tics of each type of single-phase motor.
8.3 SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS

A common type of motor used in the home, on the farm, and in light industry is the
single-phase, alternating current motor. Many single-phase motors are designated as
small or fractional-horsepower (less than 1 hp at 1700-1800 rpm) but can be as large
as 10 hp or more where three-phase power is not available. A problem arises with sin-
gle-phase motors in that they are not inherently self-starting. If the rotor of the simple
motor described earlier were to stop with the rotor in the alignment shown in Fig. 8.5,
there would be no force to start the rotor turning since the magnetic poles of the stator
FIG. 8.5 NON-START POINT FOR SIMPLE SINGLE-PHASE MOTOR

TABLE 8.1 Types of Single Phase Motors and Their Characteristics
Type/ Power Load-Starting Starting Electrically
Range Ability Current Characteristics Reversible Typical Uses
Split-Phase Easy Starting High; five to Inexpensive, simple Yes Fans, centrifugal pumps;
35 to 370 W loads. Develops seven times construction. Small for a given loads that increase as speed
1/20 to 1/2 hp 150 % of full- full-load motor power. Nearly constant increases.
load torque. current. speed with a varying load.
Capacitor- Hard starting Medium, Simple construction, long Yes Compressors, grain augers,
start loads. Develops three to six service. Good general-purpose conveyors, pumps.
100 W to 7.5 350 to 400 % of times full- motor suitable for most jobs. Specifically designed
kW full-load torque. load current. Nearly constant speed with capacitor motors are suitable
1/8 to 10 hp varying load. for silo unloaders and other
augers.
Two-value Hard starting Medium, Simple construction, long Yes Conveyors, barn cleaners,
capacitor loads. Develops three to five service, w/ min. maintenance. elevators, silo unloaders.
15 to 150 kW 350 to 450 % of times full- Requires more space to due to
2 to 20 hp full-load load current. larger capacitor.
Permanent- Easy starting Low, two to Inexpensive, simple Construc- Yes Fans and blowers.
split capacitor loads. Develop four times tion. Has no starting winding
35 to 750 W 150 percent of full-load switch.
1/20 to 1 hp full-load torque current.
Shaded pole Easy starting Medium Inexpensive, moderate No Small blowers, fans, small
3 to 370 W loads. efficiency, for light duty. appliances.
1/250 to 1/2 hp
Wound-rotor Very hard Low, two to Larger than equiv. size split- No* Conveyors, dray burr mills,
(Repulsion) starting loads. four times phase or capacitor motor. deep-well
125 W to 7.5 Develops 350 to full-load Running current varies only pumps, hoists, silo unloaders,
kW 450 % of full- current. slightly with load. bucket elevators.
1/6 to 10 hp load torque
Universal or Hard starting High High speed, small size for a Yes Portable tools, kitchen
series loads. Develops given hp. Typ. directly appliances.
5 W to 1.5 kW 350 to 450 % of connected to load. Speed
1/150 to 2 hp full-load torque. changes with load variations.
Synchronous Constant speed. Clocks and timers. Large
Very small, or compressors
> 200 hp
Soft-start Easy starting Low, 1.5 to Excellent for large loads Yes Crop driers, forage blowers,
7.5 to 560 kW loads 2 times full- requiring low starting torque irrigation pumps, agitators.
10 to 75 hp load current
* Reversible by brush ring change.
Source: Soderholm and Puckett (1974).
are directly in line with the induced poles in the rotor. Since all real rotors are round
and symmetrical, this condition would occur each time a single-phase motor is started.
Therefore, all single-phase motors require some type of starting mechanism. The start-
ing torque available and starting current requirements will vary with the type of
mechanism used. Often single-phase motors are classed by their type of starting
mechanism. Starting mechanisms will be discussed for each type of single-phase mo-
tor.
For any motor, during the starting period a current of a magnitude 2 to 7 times lar-
ger than the full-load current is required. The magnitude of the current surge will
depend on the motor type and design as well as the load to be started.
8.3.1 SPLIT-PHASE MOTORS
Split-phase (SP) induction motors are inexpensive and widely used for fractional
(less than one) horsepower applications. The mechanism used to start a split-phase
motor is a second stator winding, called a starting or auxiliary winding, connected in
parallel with the main, or running, stator winding. Split-phase motors are sometimes
referred to as resistance-start motors because the auxiliary winding is made of
smaller wire and with fewer turns than the main windings. Due to the higher resistance
of the smaller wire and lower inductance of the fewer turns, the current and magnetic
field reach a maximum in the auxiliary windings before the main windings. This
“phase shift” between the main winding and starting winding along with offsetting
the windings by 90° (as shown in Fig. 8.6) creates a rotating magnetic field subse-
quently starting the motor rotating. Since the rotor cannot line up with both sets of
windings simultaneously, a starting torque is always available at start-up. The action
of the two sets of windings to split the single-phase current into two phases yields the
name split-phase motor. The direction of rotation of this type of motor can be changed
by reversing the line connections to the auxiliary windings.
RUNNING WINDING
STARTING WINDING
FIG. 8.6 SPLIT-PHASE MOTOR WINDING CONFIGURATION

MAIN CENTRIFUGAL
WINDINGS ROTOR
SWITCH
AUXILIARY
WINDINGS
FIG. 8.7 SPLIT-PHASE MOTOR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
SCHEMATIC (SP)
Once the motor reaches approximately 75% of full speed, the auxiliary windings
are deactivated, usually by a centrifugal switch (Fig. 8.7). A centrifugal switch opens
or closes due to centrifugal forces above a specific rotating speed. The auxiliary wind-
ings of this type of motor are not designed to operate for extended periods of time be-
cause their higher resistance (denoted by the R in series with auxiliary windings in
Fig. 8.7) creates higher losses and heating. If the motor does not come up to speed, or
for some other reason the auxiliary windings are not deactivated, heat build-up will
likely damage or “burn-out” the auxiliary windings.
The smaller size of the auxiliary windings has the advantage of a small space re-
quirement. However, the small wire and small phase shift (20°-30°) limits the starting
current and starting torque of the motor. Split-phase motors are only suitable for han-
dling easy starting loads such as ventilation fans. They are rarely used for motors lar-
ger than one-half horsepower because of their relatively high starting current. Gener-
ally split-phase motors are limited to low starting torque applications where low cost is
more important than high starting currents.
8.3.2 CAPACITOR MOTORS
Simple capacitor-start induction-run (CS-IR) motors are nearly the same as
split-phase motors, except that a capacitor is connected in series with the auxiliary
windings (Fig. 8.8). The capacitor creates a larger phase shift between the starting and
running winding’s currents. The capacitor improves starting characteristics because (a)
increasing the split in the single-phase currents creates a wider time interval between
the two magnetic field peaks increasing starting torque and (b) it allows use of more
copper in the auxiliary windings and thus reduces starting current requirements. Like
the split-phase motor, a centrifugal switch disconnects the capacitor and starting wind-
ing at 75% of rated speed. The simple capacitor-start motor shown in Fig. 8.8 has ap-
proximately twice the starting torque and about one-third less starting current than a
split-phase motor.
CAPACITOR
MAIN CENTRIFUGAL
WINDINGS ROTOR
SWITCH
AUXILIARY
WINDINGS
FIG. 8.8 CAPACITOR-START MOTOR SCHEMATIC (CS-IR)
Two other types of capacitor motors are available. Both types differ from the stan-
dard capacitor-start motor because their auxiliary winding remains in the circuit at all
times. This implies the wire used for the auxiliary winding must be able to withstand
the heat build-up due to the continuous current flow.
Two-value capacitor motors (CS-CR, capacitor-start, capacitor-run) motors are
similar to CS-IR motors for starting (Fig. 8.9). However, during running, a smaller,
continuous duty capacitor remains in series with the auxiliary windings. This capacitor
gives greater efficiency by lowering the line current required by the motor. In this mo-
tor, a centrifugal switch simply disconnects the starting capacitor at 75% of rated
speed and leaves the auxiliary windings and run capacitor connected. CS-CR motors
have slightly higher starting and running torque than CS-IR motors and can therefore
handle more difficult starting loads. Starting current requirements for the two types are
about the same.
CAPACITORS
MAIN CENTRIFUGAL
WINDINGS ROTOR
SWITCH
AUXILIARY
WINDINGS
FIG. 8.9 TWO-VALUE CAPACITOR MOTOR SCHEMATIC (CS-CR)
MAIN
WINDINGS ROTOR
AUXILIARY
WINDINGS
FIG. 8.10 PERMANENT-SPLIT CAPACITOR MOTOR (PSC)
Permanent-split capacitor (PSC) motors are similar to CS-CR motors except the
same value of capacitance is used for both starting and running (Fig. 8.10). This has
the advantage of eliminating a centrifugal switch. However, since the capacitor is not
the ideal value for either starting or running but a compromise between the two, the
starting torque for these motors is much lower than for other capacitor motors.
The PSC motor is more sensitive to voltage variation than other squirrel cage in-
duction motors (Fig. 8.11). This can be an advantage, because speed can be controlled
by varying the voltage, or a disadvantage, since the motor will slow down with in-
creases in voltage drop of the feed wires. The simple method of speed control makes
PSC motors suitable for shaft-mounted fans and blowers.
For ratings of one-third horsepower and above, most capacitor-start motors are
manufactured for dual-voltage operation. For example, the main windings of a
115/230 V motor are in two sections that are connected in parallel for 115 V operation
and in series for 230 V operation (Fig. 8.12). Many manufacturers provide a wiring
diagram to clarify which connections should be made for high and low voltage opera-
tion.
Torque
Reduced-
voltage torque
vs. speed Operating points
curves
Fan or pump
load curve
Speed
FIG. 8.11 SPEED CONTROL OF A PSC MOTOR
FIG. 8.12 DUAL-VOLTAGE MOTOR CONNECTIONS
Capacitor motors are generally also electrically reversible by reversing the auxiliary
winding leads if they are accessible outside of the motor. PSC motors can actually be
reversed while they are running by switching the capacitor between the two identical
starting and running windings. The capacitor-type motors with a centrifugal switch
must slow down enough for the switch to close before they can be reversed. It is also
important to point out that capacitors designed for motor starting and motor running
are not interchangeable, even though both are about the same physical size. Motor
starting capacitors may have 20 times the capacitance of those used during motor run-
ning. Motor starting capacitors are also usually electrolytic-type capacitors. These
capacitors are not designed for continuous use while a motor is running.
8.3.3 WOUND-ROTOR MOTORS
Wound rotor motors get their name from the fact that their rotors are made up of
wire windings connected to a commutator ring and brushes much like a generator
armature (Fig. 8.13). The commutator ring allows for external connection to specific
windings in the rotor via the brushes. Depending on design, the brushes are connected
to external resistances during starting or short-circuited. The brushes connect only
selected windings on the rotor. These selected windings can be shifted with respect to
the stator windings. The stator winding current induces a current in the shifted rotor
windings. This produces a magnetic field in the rotor that is offset from the stator
poles. The fields from the two currents oppose each other and thus produce a torque.
These motors have excellent starting torque and low starting currents. Therefore, they
are commonly used for frequent starting and stopping of heavy inertial loads. How-
ever, these motors are more expensive than split-phase or capacitor motors and also
require more maintenance because of brush and commutator wear. Two types of
wound-rotor motors used for agricultural applications are discussed in more detail in
the following paragraphs.
FIG. 8.13 REPULSION-START MOTOR (RS-IR)
Repulsion-start induction-run (RS-IR) motors start as repulsion motors but

switch to operate as induction motors. At a predetermined speed, the commutator is
lifted to eliminate wear and then all of the rotor windings are short-circuited via a cen-
trifugal switch to give the equivalent of a squirrel cage winding. The repulsion-start
induction-run motors are the most common type of wound-rotor motors.
Repulsion (R) motor is a term often used for all wound-rotor motors. However, a
true repulsion motor is a type in which the brushes short-circuit only selected windings
on the commutator in such a manner that the magnetic field axis of the rotor is shifted
from the magnetic axis of the stator all of the time (Fig. 8.14). Unlike the RS-IR mo-
tor, a true repulsion motor starts and runs based on repulsion. The commutator is not
removed and the rotor bars are not short-circuited. The speed of this type of motor is
controlled by the load and position of the commutator brushes. This type of motor is
sometimes referred to as a variable-speed motor. It is also reversible by changing the
angle of the commutator with respect to the stator poles.
N
S
FIG 8.14 REPULSION MOTOR WITH COMMUTATOR POSITIONED

FOR CLOCKWISE ROTATION
COPPER
LOOP
FIG. 8.15 SHADED-POLE MOTOR
8.3.4 SHADED-POLE MOTORS

Shaded-pole motors are simply constructed, low cost motors for loads with low
starting torque requirements (Fig. 8.15). Instead of an auxiliary winding, shaded pole
motors have a continuous solid copper loop around a small portion of each pole. The
shading loop delays the build up of a magnetic field in that portion of the pole and
gives the motor some starting torque. Use of this type of motor is limited to light loads
such as small room fans and small mechanical devices due to low efficiency, very low
starting torque, and poor power factor.
8.3.5 UNIVERSAL OR SERIES MOTOR
The universal or series motor (UNIV) (Fig. 18.16) gets its designation from hav-
ing the stator and rotor in series. This type of motor will operate on either ac or dc
power sources. It is usually used as a special purpose motor. Often it is built into port-
able equipment such as drills, grinders, sanders, vacuum cleaners, and food mixers,
although very large series motors are used in locomotives to produce high torque at
low speed to start a heavy train and less torque at high speed just to keep the train
moving. The advantages of this type of motor include high power-to-size ratio and
rapid acceleration. This type of motor does not operate at a fixed speed, but rather runs
as fast as the load allows. A good example of this characteristic is an electric drill
where the motor slows as the load increases. Although the drill runs very fast with no
load, the friction of the bearings and motor limit the speed to a safe level.
FIG. 8.16 UNIVERSAL OR SERIES MOTOR
8.3.6 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

Synchronous motors are constant-speed motors. In fact their most important char-
acteristic is that their output speed is very exact. Their use in agriculture is limited to
clocks and timers. However, in other industries three-phase synchronous motors are
more widely used. Most synchronous motors used in industry are very large horse-
power and relatively low speed. For example, a synchronous motor rated at 750 hp
and 360 RPM would be lower in cost to install than a squirrel cage induction motor.
These large synchronous motors start like three-phase induction motors. Then, when
they approach their synchronous speed, a dc voltage is applied to the armature (rotor)
to create poles of fixed polarity. These poles will be attracted to the rotating magnetic
poles of the stator and “lock” into the synchronous speed of the stator field. Synchro-
nous motor speed can be controlled by both design and the ac line frequency.
8.4 THREE-PHASE MOTORS

Three-phase motors (usually referred to as polyphase motors) are the most com-
mon in industry. They are available in the induction, synchronous, and wound-rotor
type of designs similar in principle to their single-phase counterparts. However, a
three-phase motor has a set of stator windings for each of the phases and no starting
windings. Three-phase motor windings may either be wye or delta connected (Fig.
8.17). For balanced phase voltages, both types are similar in performance.
Having three-phase ac power permits a simple, low-cost design. With the three
windings 120° apart, there are no positions where torque is not produced to turn the
rotor, as there are for single-phase motors. Therefore, three-phase motors do not re-
quire a starting mechanism; they are inherently self-starting. This eliminates many
expense and maintenance problems associated with single-phase motors.
FIG. 8.17 THREE-PHASE MOTORS WITH WYE AND DELTA STATOR

WINDINGS
Three-phase motors are common from one-half horsepower and up. Those that
produce more than 1 hp are typically referred to as medium or integral horsepower
motors. Starting torque is generally high with low-to-moderate starting currents, four
to six times full-load current. Some typical uses of three-phase motors include crop
dryer fans and irrigation pumps. Use of three-phase motors is often limited by the
availability of three-phase power. More discussion of three-phase power and phase
converters was given in Chapter 4.
Three-phase induction motors are available in four main designs (A, B, C, and D)
as specified by NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) standards.
Differences in the designs of the squirrel cage create very different performance char-
acteristics for each type of motor. NEMA design B is the most commonly used three-
phase general purpose motor. Table 8.2 summarizes some of the characteristics of
NEMA design three-phase induction motors.
Although wound-rotor and synchronous motors were described in Section 8.3,
there are also three-phase versions of both types. Three-phase wound-rotor motors
have been commonly used for variable speed operations or those that require unusual
amounts of ruggedness. The wound-rotor induction motor is used where sudden stop-
page of the rotor is possible due to a jam. Rock crushers and automobile crushers are
examples.
One important application of three-phase synchronous motors is to increase the
power factor of a three-phase power system. An interesting fact of the synchronous
motor’s design is that it can have either a leading or lagging power factor. This leading
power factor can act like a capacitor bank to improve the entire system’s power factor.
The direction of rotation of a three-phase motor can be reversed by switching the
connections of any two of the three power lines. Switching two of the power lines re-
verses the direction of the rotating magnetic field in the stator. Controlled switching of
two-phase lines while the motor is running is sometimes used to reverse or dynami-
cally brake an ac motor. This is referred to as plug reversing or plug braking.
TABLE 8.2 Characteristics of Three-Phase Induction Motor Designs

Starting Starting
Torque (% Current (%
NEMA of rated of full-load
Design torque) current) Characteristics Applications
A Average; High; General purpose, more Same as design B
150 to typically overload capacity & where more
200% 800% or higher efficiency than chance for over-
greater design B. Requires re- load is
duced-voltage starting possible
above 7.5 hp.
B Average; Medium; General purpose, most Fans, blowers,
Typically 450 to commonly used. For rotary pumps,
150% 800% easy starting loads. Full- machine tools
load slip typically < 3%.
C High; Medium; For hard-to-start loads. High inertia
200 to 450 to Dual rotor bar design. loads, conveyors,
250% 800% reciprocating
pumps, compres-
sors,
pulverizers
D Very Medium; Maximum torque pro- Very high inertia
High; 450 to duced at starting. Lower loads, punch
> 275% 800% efficiency and higher presses, elevators,
slip (5 to 13%) than cranes, hoists
other designs.
8.5 MOTOR TERMINOLOGY

AND SELECTION
Successful motor selection entails choosing a motor that will meet load require-
ments without exceeding the motor’s temperature and torque limitations within the
physical environment of operation. The most common motor failure is due to over-
heating of the windings. Overheating breaks down the thin varnish-like insulation on
the windings causing shorting of the windings and motor failure. Overheating can be
the result of either excessive current flow or inadequate ventilation. Accumulation of
dust and dirt on and in the motor can be a severe problem when it prevents proper mo-
tor cooling.
The first step in motor selection is to determine the load characteristics, such as
power or torque requirements, speed, and duty cycle. Starting and running torques
must both be considered. Starting, or locked-rotor, torque requirements vary by
type of load from a small percentage of full load, as for fans, to several times full load,
as for conveyors and silo unloaders. At all times, from starting to full speed, the torque
supplied by the motor must be more than that required by the load. The greater the
excess torque, the more rapid the acceleration. By knowing the motor performance
characteristics, a motor that has enough torque to start the load, accelerate to full
speed, and handle the maximum overload can be selected.
Basic motor performance is described by a speed vs. torque curve. Fig. 8.18 shows
a speed-torque curve for a general purpose squirrel cage induction motor. The figure
shows how torque varies as speed increases from zero to maximum speed.
Several locations on the speed vs. torque curve have been given special names be-
cause of their significance in matching motor and load characteristics. They are:
Locked-Rotor Torque—motor torque at zero speed or the maximum torque avail-
able to start the load.
Pull-Up Torque—lowest value of torque produced by the motor between zero and
full-load. This may be less than the locked-rotor torque for some motors.
Full-Load Torque—torque necessary to produce the motor's rated horsepower at
rated speed.
Breakdown Torque—maximum torque a motor can carry without an abrupt drop
in speed that may make the motor stall or be inoperative.
Acceleration Torque—torque available for acceleration. This is not a specific
point on the curve, but is the difference between motor torque produced and
torque required by the load during acceleration.
Typical speed versus torque curves for NEMA type A, B, C, and D, three-phase mo-
tors are shown in Fig. 8.19.
FIG. 8.18 SPEED VS. TORQUE FOR A GENERAL PURPOSE

SQUIRREL CAGE MOTOR
300
Design D
250
TORQUE (% Full-load torque)

200
Design C
150
Design A or B
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
SPEED ( % Synchronous speed)
FIG. 8.19 GENERAL SPEED VERSUS TORQUE FOR
THREE-PHASE MOTORS
Once the required motor torque characteristics have been met, several other factors
about the motor design need to be considered. They include starting current require-
ments, temperature rating, duty cycle, enclosure type, and service factor. The motor
nameplate carries a good deal of the essential information about the motor. A typical
nameplate is shown in Fig. 8.20.
FIG. 8.20 TYPICAL ELECTRIC MOTOR NAMEPLATE

The following list gives a brief summary of the items generally found on the name-
plate of a motor. Some items are discussed in more detail following the list.
Name of the Manufacturer
Frame Designation—the NEMA designation of frame size.
Power or Horsepower—full-load wattage or horsepower rating for output power.
Motor Code—letter designating starting current requirement.
Cycles or Hertz—frequency of the source to be used.
Phase—number of phases of the source (single-phase, three-phase).
Revolutions per Minute—rated speed of the motor at full-load.
Voltage—voltage or voltages at which the motor is designed to operate.
Thermal Protection—indicates if built-in overload protection is provided.
Amperes—rated current at full-load.
Ambient Temperature or Temperature Rise—maximum environmental tem-
perature at which the motor should operate, or temperature rise of the motor
above ambient at full-load.
Time Rating—duty rating, continuous or intermittent.
Service Factor—the amount of over load the motor can tolerate continuously at
rated voltage and frequency.
Insulation Class—a designation of winding insulation generally used only for re-
winding.
Identification of Bearings—type of bearings sleeve or ball.
Power Factor—power factor at full-load appears on some recently manufactured
motors.
Efficiency—NEMA nominal efficiency of the motor.
Standard size frames and shaft heights have been established by NEMA for integral
horsepower motors. Standardization allows interchangeability between motors from
different manufacturers. A NEMA frame designation appears on the motor name-
plate. Shaft height in inches for integral horsepower motors may be obtained by divid-
ing the first two numbers of the frame size by four. Shaft height in inches for frac-
tional horsepower motors may be obtained by dividing the frame size by 16. Both the
mounting method/hole pattern and the shaft height are important when selecting a re-
placement motor to match an existing installation.
In cases where the maximum starting current that the motor draws may strain the
power system, the designation of the starting current (locked-rotor current) for the
motor is helpful. A motor code, designated by a letter on the nameplate, indicates the
starting current required. Table 8.3 shows some of the common letter designations.
The higher the locked-rotor kilowatt-ampere rating the higher the starting current
surge will be. Motors with very high starting current may not be permitted to start on
full voltage due to the branch circuit design or power company regulations. In this
case, reduced-voltage starting as described in Section 8.7.3 may be required.
TABLE 8.3 Motor Code Letters, Applied to Motor Starting on Full Voltage
Code Locked-Rotor Locked-Rotor
Letter kVA per hp kVA per kW
D 4.0 to 4.5 5.4 to 6.0
E 4.5 to 5.0 6.0 to 6.7
F 5.0 to 5.6 6.7 to 7.5
G 5.6 to 6.3 7.5 to 8.4
H 6.3 to 7.1 8.4 to 9.5
J 7.1 to 8.0 9.5 to 10.7
K 8.0 to 9.0 10.7 to 12.1
L 9.0 to 10.0 12.1 to 13.4
M 10.0 to 11.2 13.4 to 15.0
N 11.2 to 12.5 15.0 to 16.8
P 12.5 to 14.0 16.8 to 18.8
V 22.4 and up .
EXAMPLE 8.1 LOCKED-ROTOR CURRENT CALCULATION
Calculate the approximate locked-rotor current for a 1/2 hp 240 V motor with an H
motor code.
Solution
From Table 8.3, an H motor code implies 6.3 to 7.1 kVA/hp
VA 1
6,300 hp × 1/2 hp × 240 V = 13.1 A
VA 1
7,100 hp × 1/2 hp × 240 V = 14.8 A
Locked-rotor current would be in the range of 13.1 to 14.8 A.
The service factor is a multiplier indicating the maximum continuous load that the
motor can safely handle. For example, a service factor of 1.25 on a 10 hp motor indi-
cates that it could provide 12.5 hp on a continuous basis. Care must be taken to ensure
that other design limits like ambient temperature are not exceeded when operating
under these conditions.
Both bearing and winding insulation life are reduced as the operating temperature
of the motor increases. Nameplate data on temperature can be in one of two forms.
TABLE 8.4 Common Insulation Classes and Their Ratings

Insulation Class Temperature Rating
A 105°C
B 130°C
F 155°C
H 180°C
Sometimes it will state temperature rise or degree C rise. Temperature rise indicates
the change in temperature inside the motor when operating at full load. If the ambient
temperature of the air around the motor is 40°C and the temperature rise of the motor
is 50°C, points on the motor frame will reach 90°C under full load.
The second approach is to list the ambient temperature rating for the motor and
its insulation class. Nearly all electric motors are designed for a maximum ambient
temperature rating of 40°C (104°F). This implies that the motor should not be operated
in an environment above this temperature without special precautions for cooling the
motor.
The insulation is usually standardized to have one of four temperature ratings. The
temperature capability of each insulation class is defined as being the maximum tem-
perature at which the insulation can be operated to yield an average life of 20,000
hours. The ratings for common insulation classes are shown in Table 8.4.
A common rule of thumb is that a 10°C increase of winding temperature will result
in a 50% reduction in the expected motor lifetime (Fig. 8.21). This increase in winding
temperature can be due to either high ambient temperatures or overloading the motor
in normal ambient conditions.
Manufacturers often classify motors as continuous duty or intermittent duty. Mo-
tor duty cycle, or time, refers to how frequently the motor is started and for how long
it will run each time it is started. Continuous duty is defined as the type of service in
which the motor is operated at or near full load for more than 60 minutes at a time.
This would be the common situation for many loads. Intermittent duty is the type of
service in which the load is only on for 10, 20, or 30 minutes at a time with a rest or
cooling period between operations. Some examples of this type of load, which may be
serviced by an intermittent duty motor, include refrigerators and domestic water
pumps. Most motors are designed for continuous duty. The reason for making inter-
mittent duty motors is a matter of cost. Heat dissipation is not as critical on an inter-
mittent duty motor; therefore, some components can be constructed less expensively.
Intermittent duty motors are not generally recommended for agricultural or commer-
cial applications.
There are two main types of bearings used in motors, sleeve and ball bearings
(Fig. 8.22). The choice of which type to use depends mainly on the method and fre-
quency of lubrication and mounting orientation. The sleeve bearing consists of a brass
or bronze collar in which the shaft rotates. Sleeve bearings generally require more
frequent lubrication than ball bearings and are not well adapted to mounting positions
where the motor shaft is not nearly horizontal. Ball bearings consist of steel balls that
100000
Class A B F H
20,000 hr
10000 average life
Average life in hours

1000
100
10
1
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Hottest temperature °C
FIG. 8.21 AVERAGE INSULATION LIFE VS. TEMPERATURE
roll in a special cage around the shaft. Ball bearings are used on larger motors and
whenever end thrust is present on the motor shaft due to a belt, chain, or gear. Ball
bearings have less friction and require less frequent lubrication. However, ball bear-
ings are noisier and more expensive than sleeve bearings.
BRASS SLEEVE
FIG. 8.22 SLEEVE AND BALL BEARINGS

Nominal efficiency is another parameter found on most three-phase motor name-

plates. Nominal efficiency refers to the average efficiency of a large population of
motors of the same design. Since variations in materials and manufacturing processes
result in motor-to-motor efficiency variations, the full-load efficiency for a population
of motors of a given design is not a single value but rather a range. NEMA nominal
efficiency ratings and the minimum guaranteed efficiency for any motor given such a
rating are given in Table 8.4. The full-load efficiency of a motor, when operating at
rated voltage and frequency, should not be less than the minimum efficiency. Modifi-
cations in design to produce higher efficiency motors means a higher production cost.
Energy cost savings over time from improved efficiency need to be balanced against
higher initial costs in order to select an appropriate motor.
Minimum efficiency is the value that the manufacturer guarantees all motors of
that rating will meet or exceed.
TABLE 8.4 NEMA Efficiency Levels for Three-Phase

Medium Motors with Continuous Ratings
Nominal Minimum Nominal Minimum
Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency
99.0 98.8 90.2 88.5
98.9 98.7 89.5 87.5
98.8 98.6 88.5 86.5
98.7 98.5 87.5 85.5
98.6 98.4 86.5 84.0
98.5 98.2 85.5 82.5
98.4 98.0 84.0 81.5
98.2 97.8 82.5 80.0
98.0 97.6 81.5 78.5
97.8 97.4 80.0 77.0
97.6 97.1 78.5 75.5
97.4 96.8 77.0 74.0
97.1 96.5 75.5 72.0
96.8 96.2 74.0 70.0
96.5 95.8 72.0 68.0
96.2 95.4 70.0 66.0
95.8 95.0 68.0 64.0
95.4 94.5 66.0 62.0
95.0 94.1 64.0 59.5
94.5 93.6 62.0 57.5
94.1 93.0 59.5 55.0
93.6 92.4 57.5 52.5
93.0 91.7 55.0 50.5
92.4 91.0 52.5 48.0
91.7 90.2 50.5 46.0
91.0 89.5
TABLE 8.5 Full-Load Efficiencies of Energy Efficient Motors

(from NEMA Standard MG 1-2002 Table 51)
2 POLE 4 POLE 6 POLE 8 POLE
hp Nom. Eff. Min. Eff. Nom. Eff. Min. Eff. Nom. Eff. Min. Eff. Nom. Eff. Min. Eff.
OPEN MOTORS
1 - - 82.5 80.0 80.0 77.0 74.0 70.0
1.5 82.5 80.0 84.0 81.5 84.0 81.5 75.5 72.0
2 84.0 81.5 84.0 81.5 85.5 82.5 85.5 82.5
3 84.0 81.5 86.5 84.0 86.5 84.0 86.5 84.0
5 85.5 82.5 87.5 85.5 87.5 85.5 87.5 85.5
7.5 87.5 85.5 88.5 86.5 88.5 86.5 88.5 86.5
10 88.5 86.5 89.5 87.5 90.2 88.5 89.5 87.5
15 89.5 87.5 91.0 89.5 90.2 88.5 89.5 87.5
20 90.2 88.5 91.0 89.5 91.0 89.5 90.2 88.5
25 91.0 89.5 91.7 90.2 91.7 90.2 90.2 88.5
30 91.0 89.5 92.4 91.0 92.4 91.0 91.0 89.5
40 91.7 90.2 93.0 91.7 93.0 91.7 91.0 89.5
50 92.4 91.0 93.0 91.7 93.0 91.7 91.7 90.2
60 93.0 91.7 93.6 92.4 93.6 92.4 92.4 91.0
75 93.0 91.7 94.1 93.0 93.6 92.4 93.6 92.4
100 93.0 91.7 94.1 93.0 94.1 93.0 93.6 92.4
125 93.6 92.4 94.5 93.6 94.1 93.0 93.6 92.4
150 93.6 92.4 95.0 94.1 94.5 93.6 93.6 92.4
200 94.5 93.6 95.0 94.1 94.5 93.6 93.6 92.4
250 94.5 93.6 95.4 94.3 95.4 94.5 94.5 93.6
300 95.0 94.1 95.4 94.5 95.4 94.5 - -
350 95.0 94.1 95.4 94.5 95.4 94.5 - -
400 95.4 94.5 95.4 94.5 - - - -
450 95.8 95.0 95.8 95.0 - - - -
500 95.8 95.0 95.8 95.0 - - - -
ENCLOSED MOTORS
1 75.5 72.0 82.5 80.0 80.0 77.0 74.0 70.0
1.5 82.5 80.0 84.0 81.5 85.5 82.5 77.0 74.0
2 84.0 81.5 84.0 81.5 86.5 84.0 82.5 80.0
3 85.5 82.5 87.5 85.5 87.5 85.5 84.0 81.5
5 87.5 85.5 87.5 85.5 87.5 85.5 85.5 82.5
7.5 88.5 86.5 89.5 87.5 89.5 87.5 85.5 82.5
10 89.5 87.5 89.5 87.5 89.5 87.5 88.5 86.5
15 90.2 88.5 91.0 89.5 90.2 88.5 88.5 87.5
20 90.2 88.5 91.0 89.5 90.2 88.5 89.5 87.5
25 91.0 89.5 92.4 91.0 91.7 90.2 89.5 87.5
30 91.0 89.5 92.4 91.0 91.7 90.2 91.0 89.5
40 91.7 90.2 93.0 91.7 93.0 91.7 91.0 89.5
50 92.4 91.0 93.0 91.7 93.0 91.7 91.7 90.2
60 93.0 91.7 93.6 92.4 93.6 92.4 91.7 90.2
75 93.0 91.7 94.1 93.0 93.6 92.4 93.0 91.7
100 93.6 92.4 94.5 93.6 94.1 93.0 93.0 91.7
125 94.5 93.6 94.5 93.6 94.1 93.0 93.6 92.4
150 94.5 93.6 95.0 94.1 95.0 94.1 9.36 92.4
200 95.0 94.1 95.0 94.1 95.0 94.1 94.1 93.0
250 95.4 94.5 95.0 94.1 95.0 94.1 94.5 93.6
300 95.4 94.5 95.4 94.5 95.0 94.1 - -
350 95.4 94.5 95.4 94.5 95.0 94.1 - -
400 95.4 94.5 95.4 94.5 - - - -
450 95.4 94.5 95.4 94.5 - - - -
500 95.4 94.5 95.8 95.0 - - - -
Energy efficient motors first appeared on the market around 1975 as a result of the
recent energy crisis. These motors provide higher efficiency through higher cost de-
signs and materials. This obviously results in a more expensive motor. However, even
small improvements in the efficiency can result in significant reductions in operating
costs over the life of a motor. Table 8.5 below defines efficiencies of energy efficient
polyphase induction motors as defined by NEMA standards.
Due to the National Energy Policy Act (NEPACT) of 1992, most applications have
required energy-efficient motors since late 1997. In 2001, the U.S. electric motor in-
dustry agreed to the definition of premium efficient motors and included them in the
NEMA industry standard. The NEMA PremiumTM efficiency motors are expected to
help assist industrial motor users and utilities to optimize motor systems efficiency.
Table 8.6 defines that the full-load efficiencies for NEMA PremiumTM efficiency elec-
tric motors rated less than 600 V.
If a motor is provided with thermal protection that meets the definitions provided
by NEMA standards, the words “Thermally Protected” will be listed on the nameplate.
Motors rated above 1 hp and marked with the words “OVER TEMP. PROT. -.”
followed by the numeral 1, 2, or 3 are provided with winding overtemperature
protection devices that do not meet the definition of “Thermally Protected.” The
numeral indicates the type of winding overtemperature protection provided as follows:
Type 1 – Winding Running and Locked-Rotor Overtemperature Protection
Type 2 – Winding Running Overtemperature Protection
Type 3 – Winding Overtemperature Protection, Nonspecific Type
The winding running overtemperature protection (Type 2) is required to maintain the
winding temperatures under running load conditions 5°C less than the insulation class
rating + standard ambient (40°C).
Some motors may also be marked with a standard code, A for automatic reset or
M for manual reset. With automatic reset, the thermal protection will automatically
reset itself after a cool down period. Depending on how the motor is controlled, this
may or may not automatically restart the motor. With manual reset, the operator will
have to manually push a button to reset the thermal protection after a cooling down
period. Different applications will require different types of thermal protection.
Electric motors may need to operate under adverse environmental conditions. Dust,
dirt, or moisture may be present for many applications. Therefore, selection of the
proper type of enclosure is important for protection of the motor and its safe operation.
Common motor enclosures used in agricultural and industrial applications are open,
drip-proof, splash-proof, totally enclosed, and explosion-proof types (Fig. 8.23).
An open motor is one that has ventilation openings that permit the passage of air
over and around the windings. A drip-proof enclosure is an open type that protects a
motor from liquids and solid particles falling zero to 15° downward from vertical.
Outside air is pulled through openings in the end bell or shield of the motor (Fig.
8.23). These motors may be used outside, but only in dust-free areas, and should be
protected from the weather.
TABLE 8.6 (facing page). Full-Load Efficiencies for NEMA PremiumTM
Efficiency Motors Rated 600 Volts or Less (Random Wound)
(from NEMA Standard MG 1-2002 Table 52)
2 POLE 4 POLE 6 POLE

HP Nom. Eff. Min. Eff. Nom. Eff. Min. Eff. Nom. Eff. Min. Eff.
OPEN MOTORS
1 77.0 74.0 85.5 82.5 82.5 80.0
1.5 84.0 81.5 86.5 84.0 86.5 81.5
2 85.5 82.5 86.5 84.0 87.5 81.5
3 85.5 82.5 89.5 84.0 88.5 86.5
5 86.5 84.0 89.5 84.0 89.5 87.5
7.5 88.5 86.5 91.0 89.5 90.2 88.5
10 89.5 87.5 91.7 90.2 91.7 90.2
15 90.2 88.5 93.0 91.7 91.7 90.2
20 91.0 89.5 93.0 91.7 92.4 91.0
25 91.7 90.2 93.6 92.4 93.0 91.7
30 91.7 90.2 94.1 93.0 93.6 92.4
40 92.4 91.0 94.1 93.0 94.1 93.0
50 93.0 91.7 94.5 93.6 94.1 93.0
60 93.6 92.4 95.0 94.1 94.5 93.6
75 93.6 92.4 95.0 94.1 94.5 93.6
100 93.6 92.4 95.4 94.5 95.0 94.1
125 94.1 93.0 95.4 94.5 95.0 94.5
150 94.1 93.0 95.8 95.0 95.4 94.5
200 95.0 94.1 95.8 95.0 95.4 94.5
250 95.0 94.1 95.8 95.0 95.4 94.5
300 95.4 94.5 95.8 95.0 95.4 94.5
350 95.4 94.5 95.8 95.0 95.4 94.5
400 95.8 95.0 95.8 95.0 95.8 95.0
450 95.8 95.0 96.2 95.4 96.2 95.4
500 95.8 95.0 96.2 95.4 96.2 95.4
ENCLOSED MOTORS
1 77.0 74.0 85.5 82.5 82.5 80.0
1.5 84.0 81.5 86.5 84.0 87.5 85.5
2 85.5 82.5 86.5 84.0 88.5 86.5
3 86.5 84.0 89.5 87.5 89.5 87.5
5 88.5 86.5 89.5 87.5 89.5 87.5
7.5 89.5 87.5 91.7 90.2 91.0 89.5
10 90.2 88.5 91.7 90.2 91.0 89.5
15 91.0 89.5 92.4 91.0 91.7 90.2
20 91.0 89.5 93.0 91.7 91.7 90.2
25 91.7 90.2 93.6 92.4 93.0 91.7
30 91.7 90.2 93.6 92.4 93.0 91.7
40 92.4 91.0 94.1 93.0 94.1 93.0
50 93.0 91.7 94.5 93.6 94.1 93.0
60 93.6 92.4 95.0 94.1 94.5 93.6
75 93.6 92.4 95.4 94.5 94.5 93.6
100 94.1 93.0 95.4 94.5 95.0 94.1
125 95.0 94.1 95.4 94.5 95.0 94.1
150 95.0 94.1 95.8 95.0 95.8 95.0
200 95.4 94.5 96.2 95.4 95.8 95.0
250 95.8 95.0 96.2 95.4 95.8 95.0
300 95.8 95.0 96.2 95.4 95.8 95.0
350 95.8 95.0 96.2 95.4 95.8 95.0
400 95.8 95.0 96.2 95.4 95.8 95.0
450 95.8 95.0 96.2 95.4 95.8 95.0
500 95.8 95.0 96.2 95.4 95.8 95.0
FIG. 8.23 THREE MOTOR ENCLOSURE TYPES
A splash-proof enclosure has openings so constructed that drops of liquid or solid

particles can only enter the motor from an angle more than 100° downward from the
vertical (Fig. 8.23). These motors are also suitable for outdoor use in dust-free areas or
indoors in areas that are washed periodically.
Totally enclosed motors have an enclosure that prevents the free exchange of air
between the inside and outside of the case but is not completely airtight (Fig. 8.23).
Many totally enclosed motors have a fan on one end of the motor that blows air over
the outside of the case. This is called a totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC) motor. This
type of motor is recommended for dusty or wet areas. Totally enclosed motors cost
20% to 40% more than drip-proof motors, but may reduce repair bills in the long run.
An explosion-proof motor is a type of totally enclosed motor. This kind of motor
must be used in areas where hazardous vapors or dust conditions could cause an ex-
plosion or fire. Both the motor enclosure and the wiring box must be explosion-proof.
8.6 MEASUREMENT OF MOTOR

CHARACTERISITICS
By measuring the mechanical output of a motor and the electrical input to the mo-
tor under different load conditions, data can be developed to show the characteristics
of the motor. The mechanical output can be measured either with a dynamometer or
Prony brake test apparatus. A voltmeter, an ammeter, and a wattmeter are necessary to
measure electrical input.
A schematic of a simple Prony brake test apparatus is shown in Fig. 8.24. The
Prony brake uses a frictional load against a drum driven by the motor shaft. With this
apparatus, the torque created by the frictional force against the drum can be measured
and controlled.
From the Prony brake test, torque and horsepower can be calculated. Torque is the
length of the lever arm L times the force F. Power or work per unit time can be calcu-
lated from the torque and revolutionary speed as
Work Force × Distance
Power = Time = Time = F × 2πL × N
In units of horsepower, output power is expressed as

2πFLN
Output Power = 33000 hp
where F = force in pounds, lb

L = lever arm in feet, ft
N = rotational speed of shaft in revolutions per minute, RPM
1 hp
recalling 33,000 = ft-lb/min
FIG. 8.24 SIMPLE PRONY BRAKE APPARATUS

FIG. 8.25 ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTATION FOR MEASUREMENT

OF POWER INPUT TO A SINGLE-PHASE MOTOR
In units of watts, output power can be expressed as

Output Power = 2πFLN watts
where F = force in Newtons, N
L = lever arm in meters, m
N = rotational speed in cycles per second, Hz
If the instrumentation as shown in Fig. 8.25 is used in conjunction with the Prony
brake, factors such as efficiency and power factor can also be calculated at any load
condition. True input power is measured by the wattmeter. Motor efficiency is the
ratio of output power as measured by the Prony brake to the input power as measured
by the wattmeter.
Power Out
% Motor Efficiency = Power In × 100%
Apparent power can be calculated from the product of current and voltage meas-
urements. Therefore, power factor can be determined from the ratio of true to apparent
power, or
True Power Wattmeter Reading
Power Factor = Apparent Power =
Volts × Amperes
EXAMPLE 8.2 MOTOR CHARACTERISTIC CALCULATIONS
Calculate the horsepower output, efficiency, and power factor from the following data.
Electric meter readings
Im = 11.4 A Vm = 110 V P = 960 W
Prony brake data
F = 2 lb L = 1 ft N = 1,720 RPM
Solution
2πFLN 2π × 2 × 1 × 1720
Power = 33000 hp = 33000 hp = 0.66 hp
Output 746 W/hp

% Efficiency = Input × 100% = 0.66 hp × 960 W × 100% = 51%
Watts 960 W
Power Factor = = = 0.76
Volts × Amperes 110 V × 11.4 A
If efficiency and power factor are calculated over a range of motor loads, plots of
efficiency and power factor can be developed. Fig. 8.26 shows such a plot for a three-
phase motor. The horizontal axis is often scaled as a percent of the full-load rating of
the motor.
FIG. 8.26 TYPICAL THREE-PHASE MOTOR EFFICIENCY

AND POWER FACTOR
8.7 MOTOR PROTECTION

AND CONTROL
No matter what type of electric motor is selected, controls to start and stop the mo-
tor and some type of overload protection are needed. Since overload protection is
often built into the control system, these two topics are discussed together.
Electric motors present some special challenges from the standpoint of overcurrent
protection. Electric motors will “try” to provide the power required by the load, even
if it results in excessive currents and self-destruction due to excessive winding tem-
peratures. When excessive currents persist for sufficient time to cause damage and
overheating of the motor, the motor is said to be overloaded. However, currents of up
to six times the running current occur normally at starting and must be allowed. Con-
trol contacts and wires must be capable of carrying these larger currents without caus-
ing damage or excessive voltage drop. Therefore, overload protection must be specifi-
cally matched to the motor.
There are two main types of motor protective equipment available: fuses and
thermal-overload devices. As will be discussed in the next section, only fuses are
commonly included with manually operated switches. However, thermal-overload
devices are used on both manual and electromagnetic controllers.
Time-delay fuses afford both short-circuit and overload protection. As described in
Section 4.9, time-delay fuses can tolerate an overload for a brief period, thereby allow-
ing for starting current surges. Either plug or cartridge-type fuses can be used for mo-
tor protection.
Thermal-overload devices with either bimetallic elements (much like circuit
breakers) or eutectic elements (with action much like normal time-delay fuses) are
both available. A thermal-overload switch may be built into the motor itself or pro-
vided with the motor controller. The overload device generally opens the supply lines
directly on a fractional horsepower motor. With larger motors a relay system with
overload contacts must be used to disconnect the higher currents.
Thermal-overload devices built into motors or controllers can be either manual-
reset or automatic-reset. Manual-reset means a button must be pressed to reset the
tripped mechanism. This type is generally recommended for general purpose motors
because the condition causing the overload can be corrected before the motor restarts.
Unexpected start-ups, which might present safety hazards, are avoided. Automatic
reset mechanisms automatically attempt to restart the motor after the thermal device
cools.
A means of disconnecting the motor from the electrical supply is required for all
motor circuits. Either a manual or automatic means of opening and closing a circuit to
an electric motor can also be used as a controller. Types of controllers will vary by
both size of motor and type of application. For example, motors of 1/3 hp or less can be
controlled directly by plugging and unplugging at a receptacle. Larger motors may
also be plugged in, but must also have one of the types of controllers described in the
following sections.
8.7.1 MANUAL MOTOR CONTROLLERS

Manual switches are most often used to control small motors of 1/2 hp or less.
These switches are low cost and can be purchased with built-in overload protection.
Control switches for electric motors must be able to withstand the high starting current
and arcing that occurs when the circuit is opened due to the highly inductive nature of
the motor. Quick-make, quick-break switches equipped with arc quenchers are used.
This type of switch is rated by horsepower and voltage. Regular toggle-type switches
as used for light switches should not be used to control motors. They can withstand the
starting surges, but are not equipped with arc quenchers and therefore usually burn out
quickly.
For manual control, a fusible knife switch may be used. Time-delay fuses can usu-
ally be sized to avoid blowing during starting and still provide overload protection.
The knife-switch must be rated at or above the horsepower of the motor.
In many applications an inverse-time-delay circuit breaker is permitted as a motor
controller. The time-delay action allows for motor starting currents. Breakers are gen-
erally tested at six times the breaker rating to permit motor starting. Care must be
taken when sizing the breakers to protect the motor and still not trip due to starting in-
rush current.
Motor current for any manual switch should not exceed 80% of the motor full-load
rating. For example, a 20 A switch should not be used for motors with full-load cur-
rent over 16 A. However, a 20 A switch could be used for a 1 hp, 115 V (16 A) motor.
Some snap action switches, like the one shown in Fig. 8.27, are designed for mo-
tors and provide overload protection. They are preferred over ordinary switches and
are useable up to 2 hp.
FIG. 8.27 SNAP-ACTION MOTOR CONTROL SWITCH

MOTOR
HEATER
OVERLOAD CONTACT (NC)

STOP START
COIL AND CONTACTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAY
FIG. 8.28 SINGLE-PHASE MOTOR STARTER CIRCUIT
8.7.2 MAGNETIC MOTOR STARTERS

Magnetic motor starters are widely used for controlling motor loads. This type of
starter should be used in all motors larger than 2 hp and is an essential element in
automatic control systems. The difference between a manual switch and a magnetic
switch is in how the motor is started. Instead of a manual switch to open and close the
circuit directly, the magnetic switch works with manual or automatic control of a
magnetically controlled switch (relay). The operation of the magnetic controller will
be described in more detail in a Chapter 9.
Most magnetic starters also have built-in overload protection. For example, in the
unit shown in Fig. 8.28, as current passes through the motor circuit, it passes through a
heater. Heat is given off, but under normal conditions is not enough to cause the bi-
metallic overload switch to open. However, under an overload situation the excess
heat will cause the overload switch to open. When the overload contacts are opened,
the coil loses power and the contact points open, stopping current flow to the motor.
To restart the motor, the overload control is reset, and the start button pressed again.
8.7.3 REDUCED-VOLTAGE AC MOTOR STARTERS
As ac induction motors become larger and larger, their high starting currents begin
to have detrimental effects on the power system. By reducing the starting current
surge, higher horsepower motors can be used without adversely affecting other loads
on the line due to voltage drop as the motor starts.
In order to avoid this effect, there are several systems for reduced-voltage starting,
including resistance starting, reactor starting, autotransformer starting, wye-delta start-
ing, part-winding starting, and electronic soft starting. Most of these systems attempt
to reduce the current draw by slowly stepping up the voltage supplied to the motor
during starting. Perhaps the most sophisticated is the electronic soft starting, which
uses solid-state electronics, such as thyristors or silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs), to
control the ramp up to full voltage.
For example, in many cases single-phase motors over 5 or 7.5 hp will need to use
an electronic soft starter. Soft starting a motor limits the starting current to as low as
1.5 to 2 times the full-load current. However, the reduced starting current also reduces
the available starting torque to 50% to 90% of full-load torque. Therefore, this type of
motor starter is matched to easy starting loads such as drier fans, forage blowers, and
irrigation pumps.
8.7.4 VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE CONTROLLERS
The induction motor is basically a constant speed device that operates within a few
percent (typically within 3% to 5%) of the synchronous speed of the electrical supply.
There are several methods of controlling the speed of motors. Some of these include:
• Changing the number of poles in the motor
• Changing the power supply voltage
• Changing the resistance of wound-rotor motors
• Changing the frequency of the power supply.
The first method, changing the number of poles, is an option in some motors. By
using several sets of windings, several speeds can be achieved. The maximum number
of speeds available by changing the number of poles is usually limited to four. Two-
speed motors are very common.
The second option of changing the supply voltage was discussed briefly for single-
phase PSC motors (section 8.3.2).
The slip of the motor increases proportionally to the decrease in voltage squared.
However, this simultaneously decreases breakdown torque and can cause the motor to
stall. This method of speed control is not recommended.
Slip can also be varied by changing the amount of resistance in the rotor for
wound-rotor motors. This method of speed control uses external resistors in series
with the rotor circuit to limit the rotor current. This method will cause the speed to
vary with the load and also is inefficient due to the power lost by the resistors.
The final option of changing the frequency of the power source is very feasible and
economical due to the recent development of solid-state power switching devices. The
basic concept is to convert the 60 Hz ac to dc and then create the desired frequency
AC voltage (Fig. 8.29).
With a variable-frequency drive (VFD), a 50% decrease in the applied frequency
should decrease the motor speed by about 50%. The amount of slip and the breakdown
torque are virtually unaffected. This means that the torque vs. speed curve is basically
shifted to the left (Fig. 8.30). Likewise, if the frequency is increased by 50% over the
motors rated frequency, the torque vs. speed curve will shift to the right. If the motor
is used to drive a fan or pump, represented by the dashed load line in Fig. 8.30, then
the motor will operate at the intersection of the motor curve and the load curve.
60 Hz AC SUPPLY Variable-
DC
DC to AC frequency
AC to DC
rectifier inverter AC
circuit circuit
FIG 8.29 BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR VARIABLE-FREQUENCY

MOTOR DRIVE
Torque
30 Hz 60 Hz
90 Hz
Fan or pump
load curve
Speed
FIG. 8.30 VARIABLE-FREQUENCY CONTROL OF MOTOR SPEED
Applications of VFDs can save power. Recall that horsepower output is related to
both speed and torque by the equation
2πFLN
Power output = 33000 hp
Consider an example of operating the load at a slower speed to reduce air or water
flow through a system. This operating condition also reduces the torque required by
the load and the motor outputs less power. Compare this to using a dampener or valve
to restrict the flow of air or water and requiring the motor to run at the rated motor
speed and forcing the fluid through the restriction. This method wastes power.
When operating the motor at a condition higher than rated speed, both speed and
required torque may increase. This can easily overload the motor by exceeding its
horsepower rating. Therefore, if it is desired to operate a load such as a fan or pump
above 60 Hz, then the motor must be sized carefully to handle the load.
8.8 MOTOR BRANCH CIRCUITS

Motor branch circuits require special procedures for selecting the short circuit and
ground-fault protection, conductor size, motor control circuits, controllers, disconnect,
and overload protection. Fig. 8.31 illustrates the required components for all motor
branch circuits. Article 430 of the NEC code is specific to motors, motor circuits, and
controllers. This section will briefly cover several of these special procedures for mo-
tors operating under 600 V ac.
8.8.1 DISCONNECTING MEANS
NEC article 430 section IX describes the requirements for the disconnecting means
for all motor branch circuits. According to the code, each motor and controller must
have a disconnecting means located “in sight from” the motor or controller locations,
respectively. “In sight from” means visible and within 15 m. But, if the controller’s
disconnect is also located in sight from the motor and driven machinery location, it
can also serve as the motor disconnect.
Disconnect
Ground-fault & short-circuit

protection
Branch circuit
conductors
Controller
Overload protection devices
FIG. 8.31 MOTOR BRANCH CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
Each disconnect must open at least all ungrounded conductors, plainly indicate
whether in the open or closed position, and be readily accessible. According to the NEC
code, the disconnecting means must be capable of being locked in the “off” position.
The equipment used for the disconnecting means can include any of the listed items:
• Motor circuit switch, properly sized in hp rating
• Molded case circuit breaker
• Molded case switch
• Instantaneous trip circuit breaker, as part of a listed combination controller
• Self-protected combination controller
• Manual motor controller, marked as “suitable for motor disconnect.”
For stationary motors of 1/8 hp or less, the branch-circuit overcurrent device is per-
mitted to serve as the disconnecting means. For stationary motors of 2 hp or less, a
general use switch (rated > 2 times full-load motor current) or a general purpose snap
switch (ac rated > 1.25 times full-load motor current) or a manual motor controller
(described above) can be used as the disconnecting means. In addition, a horsepower-
rated plug and receptacle can serve as the disconnecting means for most motors. In
some cases, a switch or circuit breaker can serve as both the controller and disconnect-
ing means, or several motors can be served by one disconnecting means. The discon-
necting means for motor circuits rated 600 V nominal or less shall have an ampere
rating of at least 115% of the full-load current rating of the motor (see NEC code sec-
tion 430 for further details).
8.8.2 SHORT-CIRCUIT AND GROUND-FAULT PROTECTION
Short-circuit and ground-fault protection devices are required to protect the motor
branch-circuit conductors, the motor control apparatus and the motors against overcur-
rent due to shorts and grounds. You should recall the difference between a short circuit
and a ground fault as described in Chapter 4. Briefly, a short circuit is a direct connec-
tion of very low resistance between two conductors resulting in very high fault cur-
rents. A ground fault is a connection between an ungrounded conductor and the
ground, which may vary in resistance.
Typically, dual-element fuses are used for short-circuit and ground-fault protection
on motor branch circuits because they can be sized closer to the motor’s full-load
amperes providing better protection. However, non-time-delay fuses and inverse time
circuit breakers, along with other “listed” devices, can be used. “Listed” devices are
those that are tested and approved by an independent testing laboratory.
Based on the specifications of the NEC, a dual-element time-delay fuse can be
rated up to 175% of the full-load current of single-phase or three-phase motors, except
for wound-rotor motors which have a limit of 150%. But, if the motor cannot be
started without blowing the fuse, a maximum of 225% of full-load current is allowed.
For non-time-delay fuses, the rating can be up to 300% (or 400% if less than 600
amperes and unable to start under 300%) of the full-load current to allow for starting
currents. These fuses have to be rated much higher than time-delay fuses in order to
withstand the inrush of starting current. Likewise, inverse time circuit breakers can be
used if sized up to 250% of rated full-load current. In all cases, the full-load current
rating of the motor must be taken from Appendix Tables A.3 or A.4 unless the motor
has a current rating larger indicated on the nameplate.
EXAMPLE 8.3 BRANCH CIRCUIT SHORT CIRCUIT SIZING 1
Motor
Starter &
Thermal
overloads
M
Determine the maximum size time-delay fuse permitted for the 10 hp 230 V single-
phase squirrel cage induction motor in the figure.
Solution
From Table A.3, the full-load amps for the motor are 50 A.
The multiplier for a dual-element fuse is 175%, and 1.75 × 50 = 87.5 A.
Standard fuse sizes are 80, 90, 100, etc. Since the next higher standard size fuse is
allowed, select the 90 A fuse.
EXAMPLE 8.4 BRANCH CIRCUIT SHORT-CIRCUIT SIZING 2
What maximum size non-time-delay fuse is permitted for the motor in the above ex-
ample?
Solution
The multiplier for a non-time-delay fuse is 300%, and 3.00 × 50 = 150 A.
Standard size fuses in this range are 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, etc. Since this
matches a standard size, select the 150 A fuse.
If the motor cannot be started using this fuse, the size can be increased to a maxi-
mum of 400%. Since 4.00 × 50 = 200 A, and this is also a standard size, select the
200 A fuse.
8.8.3 WIRE SIZING

Motors perform best at rated voltages, therefore wires must be sized to avoid ex-
cessive voltage drop. Branch circuit conductors to individual motors should be se-
lected to carry 125% of full-load current of the motor with 2% or less voltage drop.
The 125% factor allows for a certain degree of overload. Notice that motor branch
circuit conductors do not have to be sized 150% to 300% to match the short-circuit
and ground-fault protection ratings. This is because the required overload protection
will adequately protect the circuit conductors.
When the conductors supply more than one motor on a branch circuit, the wire is
sized for a current value of 125% of the largest motor current plus 100% of the addi-
tional motor currents. Appendix Tables A.3 and A.4 give full-load currents for single-
and three-phase motors. Current values from those tables should be used in the wire
selection process unless the motor nameplate current is known and larger. If the
nameplate current is larger, it should be used.
Wire size required to meet the voltage drop and current carrying limitations is de-
termined in the same manner as described for feeder wires in Section 5.4 of this text.
The following two examples will demonstrate the process.
EXAMPLE 8.5 BRANCH CIRCUIT WIRE SIZING FOR

MOTORS 1
What size of copper conductor would be required for a 1/2 hp, single-phase motor lo-
cated 20 m from the service entrance, if
(a) The motor is wired for 120 V?
(b) The motor is wired for 240 V?
Solution
From Table A.3, full-load current is 9.8 A at 120 V and 4.9 A at 240 V.
(a) Allowable Voltage Drop = 2% × 120 V = 2.4 V
E 2.4 V
Allowable Resistance = I = = 0.20 ohm
1.25 × 9.8 A
0.2 ohm
R/1000 m = 40 m × 1000 = 5 ohm/1000 m
From Table A.2, No. 10 needed. Check allowable ampacity, Table A.5 – okay.
(b) Allowable Voltage Drop = 2 % × 240 V = 4.8 V
E 4.8 V
Allowable Resistance = I = = 0.78 ohm
1.25 × 4.9 A
0.78 ohm
R/1000 m = 40 m × 1000 = 19.5 ohm/1000 m
From Table A.2, No. 16 needed. Check allowable ampacity, Table A.5 – No. 14 or
No. 12 copper could be used for the branch circuit, but No. 16 may not be used for
branch circuit wiring.
EXAMPLE 8.6 BRANCH CIRCUIT WIRE SIZING FOR

MOTORS 2
Calculate the copper branch circuit conductor size needed for serving two motors, 3/4
hp and 1/2 hp, on the same 240 V branch circuit, if the motors are located 15 m from
the service entrance.
Solution
From Table A.3, Appendix A
3 1
/4 hp — 6.9 A full-load /2 hp — 4.9 A full-load
Total Current for calculations = 1.25 × 6.9 A + 4.9 A = 13.5 A
Allowable Voltage Drop = 2% × 240 V = 4.8 V
E 4.8 V
Allowable Resistance = I = 13.5 A = 0.35 ohm
0.35 ohm
R/1000 m = 30 m × 1000 = 11.8 ohm/1000 m
From Table A.2, need No. 14 for allowable resistance, and No. 14 is okay for 13.5 A
load with any insulation suitable to the environment (Table A.5).
8.8.4 CONTROLLER
The controller is any switch or device that is normally used to start and stop a mo-
tor by making and breaking the motor circuit current. The actual device that can serve
as the motor controller varies by motor size and application. Stationary motors
< 1/8 hp for continuous running devices like clocks can use the branch-circuit protec-
tive device as the controller, whereas portable motors of < 1/3 hp can use the attach-
ment plug and receptacle.
Regardless of the device used, it must be capable of interrupting the locked-rotor
current of the motor. The horsepower rating of the controller must not be lower than
the horsepower rating of the motor and in some circumstances must be up to 1.4 times
the motor rating. Unless a number of motors drive several parts of a single machine, or
a group of motors are protected by the same overcurrent device, each individual motor
requires its own controller. The controllers’ enclosure must be suitable for the envi-
ronment to which it will be exposed.
8.8.5 OVERLOAD PROTECTION
For any control device used, the heater/overload protection device is generally a
removable item that should be selected based on the nameplate current rating of the
motor to be controlled. Overload devices come in a wide range of rated tripping cur-
rents. Since the needs of a particular motor may not exactly match a standard, higher
ratings will be necessary. Table 8.7 gives the recommended and maximum ratings for
overload protection by percentage of full-load current rating.
TABLE 8.7 Overload Protection Rating as Percent of Nameplate Full-load Current
Motor Recommended Maximum
Motors with service factor of 1.15 or greater 125% 140%
Motors with a marked temperature rise not over 40°C 125% 140%
All other motors 115% 130%
8.8.6 GROUNDING
For safety purposes the frame of each motor should be connected to the grounding
system, equipment grounded. If an electrical fault develops in the motor, grounding
will prevent hazardous voltages between the motor frame and the earth. By supplying
a low resistance path for current, current due to the fault will not cause a hazard to
people and should trip the overcurrent protection. Motor grounding is described fur-
ther by the NEC article 430, section XII. Where the frame of a motor is not grounded,
it should be permanently and effectively insulated from the ground.
8.8.7 SUMMARY
The following measures must be provided for in the wiring system for a motor
based on NEC article 430:
• A means of disconnecting the motor from the electrical supply;
• Branch-circuit short-circuit and ground-fault protection based on the full-load
currents in Tables A.3 and A.4 to protect the conductors, motor and controller of
the motor circuit from destructive fault currents;
• Branch circuit conductors of appropriate size to carry 125 % of motor full-load
amperes from Tables A.3 or A.4 and avoid excessive voltage drop;
• A controller to start and stop the motor;
• Motor overload protection based on the nameplate current to prevent overload-
ing the motor and protect the conductors from overload currents under running
conditions; and
• Grounding of the motor frame for safety.
EXERCISES
1. What is the theoretical speed of a motor on a 60 Hz source if it has
(a) 2 poles?
(b) 4 poles?
(c) 6 poles?
2. What is the theoretical speed of a 120 V, 6-pole motor on a 50 Hz source?
3. An electric motor draws 2238 W and 12 A when operating on a 240 V 60 Hz
source. Determine the
(a) Power factor of the motor.
(b) Apparent power input to motor.
(c) True power input to motor.
(d) Horsepower output of the motor if it is 75% efficient.
4. The following is found on the nameplate of a motor:
3 hp 60 Hz 1 phase
120/240 V 34/17 A 1,740 RPM
(a) If the power factor of the motor is 0.80, what is the power input to the motor at
full load?
(b) What is the efficiency of the motor at full load?
(c) How much does it cost to operate the motor at full load for 100 hours at $0.06
per kWh?
5. (a) How many foot-pounds of work must be done in filling a 30,000 gallon tank
with water from a well in which the water level is 159 ft below the tank? (1 gal =
8 1/3 lb).
(b) What horsepower is needed to fill the tank in two hours assuming 100% effi-
ciency?
(c) If the motor and pump combination is 45% efficient, what size of motor is
needed?
6. What size of copper wire cable (THW insulation) is needed for the following mo-
tor if located 30 m from the service entrance?
3 hp 240 V single-phase
7. What size of wire is needed for a 5 hp single-phase motor located 12 m from the
source? Assume aluminum, UF insulation, and cable underground.
8. What size copper wire would be needed for a branch circuit to a 0.75 hp 240 V
motor located 75 feet from the service entrance?
9. What size of copper wire would be needed for a branch circuit to a 7.5 hp 240 V
motor on a vacuum pump located 25 ft from the service entrance?
10. What size overcurrent protection would be needed for the branch circuit in prob-
lem 9 if
(a) Time-delay fuses are used?
(b) Non-time-delay fuses are used?
(c) Circuit breakers are used?
11. Given the following table of results from a motor dynamometer test of a single-
phase motor, calculate horsepower, power factor, and efficiency for each load
level. Then plot, as a function of horsepower output, the following:
(a) Efficiency
(b) Power Factor
(c) Current
(d) Motor speed
Assume electrical instrumentation as shown in Fig. 8.25 and that the Prony brake
used has a lever arm of 0.25 ft.
Meter Readings
Motor
Speed Force Ammeter Voltmeter Wattmeter
(RPM) (lb) (A) (V) (W)
1,770 0 8.2 115 170
1,760 1 8.4 115 380
1,750 2 8.5 115 390
1,740 4 8.7 115 520
1,730 6 9.8 115 750
1,720 8 10.4 115 860
1,710 10 11.2 115 980
1,670 11 13.8 115 1,270
12. Given the following table of results from a motor dynamometer test of a single-
phase motor, calculate output power in watts, power factor, and efficiency for
each load level. Then plot, as a function of output power, the following:
(a) Efficiency
(b) Power Factor
(c) Current
(d) Motor speed
Assume electrical instrumentation as shown in Fig. 8.25 and that the Prony brake
used has a lever arm of 4.3 cm (0.043 m).
Meter Readings
Motor
Speed Force Ammeter Voltmeter Wattmeter
(Hz) (N) (A) (V) (W)
30.0 0.0 4.7 123 140
29.7 5.8 4.8 122 180
29.5 12.0 4.85 121 230
29.3 17.8 4.9 121 270
29.1 24.0 5.1 121 330
28.8 29.8 5.25 120 380
28.6 36.0 5.5 120 435
28.3 41.8 5.8 120 480
27.9 48.0 6.4 120 560
REFERENCES
NFPA. 2002. National Electric Code 2002. Natl. Fire Protection Assoc., Boston, MA.
NEMA Standards. 2002. MG-1-2002: Information Guide for General Purpose
Industrial AC Small and Medium Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor Standards. Natl.
Electrical Manufacturers Assoc., Rosslyn, VA.
Soderholm, L. H., and H. B. Puckett. 1974. Selecting and Using Electric Motors.
USDA Farmer Bulletin No. 2257, Washington, DC.

8.1 Advantages of Electric Motors

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8.1 Advantages of Electric Motors

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Gustafson, Robert J., and Mark T. Morgan. 2004. Electric Motors.

To make use of these advantages, we need to understand the basic principles of

8.2 AC MOTOR PRINCIPLES

FIG. 8.1 SCHEMATIC OF A TWO-POLE STATOR

FIG. 8.3 SIMPLE AC MOTOR, POSITION 1

FIG. 8.4 SIMPLE AC MOTOR, POSITON 2

If the stator is connected to an ac source, the polarity of the electromagnetic poles

8.3 SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS

FIG. 8.5 NON-START POINT FOR SIMPLE SINGLE-PHASE MOTOR

FIG. 8.6 SPLIT-PHASE MOTOR WINDING CONFIGURATION

FIG. 8.12 DUAL-VOLTAGE MOTOR CONNECTIONS

FIG. 8.13 REPULSION-START MOTOR (RS-IR)

Repulsion-start induction-run (RS-IR) motors start as repulsion motors but

FIG 8.14 REPULSION MOTOR WITH COMMUTATOR POSITIONED

FIG. 8.15 SHADED-POLE MOTOR

8.3.4 SHADED-POLE MOTORS

FIG. 8.16 UNIVERSAL OR SERIES MOTOR

8.3.6 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

8.4 THREE-PHASE MOTORS

FIG. 8.17 THREE-PHASE MOTORS WITH WYE AND DELTA STATOR

TABLE 8.2 Characteristics of Three-Phase Induction Motor Designs

8.5 MOTOR TERMINOLOGY

FIG. 8.18 SPEED VS. TORQUE FOR A GENERAL PURPOSE

TORQUE (% Full-load torque)

FIG. 8.20 TYPICAL ELECTRIC MOTOR NAMEPLATE

EXAMPLE 8.1 LOCKED-ROTOR CURRENT CALCULATION

Locked-rotor current would be in the range of 13.1 to 14.8 A.

TABLE 8.4 Common Insulation Classes and Their Ratings

Average life in hours

FIG. 8.22 SLEEVE AND BALL BEARINGS

Nominal efficiency is another parameter found on most three-phase motor name-

TABLE 8.4 NEMA Efficiency Levels for Three-Phase

TABLE 8.5 Full-Load Efficiencies of Energy Efficient Motors

2 POLE 4 POLE 6 POLE

FIG. 8.23 THREE MOTOR ENCLOSURE TYPES

A splash-proof enclosure has openings so constructed that drops of liquid or solid

8.6 MEASUREMENT OF MOTOR

In units of horsepower, output power is expressed as

where F = force in pounds, lb

FIG. 8.24 SIMPLE PRONY BRAKE APPARATUS

FIG. 8.25 ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTATION FOR MEASUREMENT

In units of watts, output power can be expressed as

EXAMPLE 8.2 MOTOR CHARACTERISTIC CALCULATIONS

Output 746 W/hp

FIG. 8.26 TYPICAL THREE-PHASE MOTOR EFFICIENCY

8.7 MOTOR PROTECTION

8.7.1 MANUAL MOTOR CONTROLLERS

FIG. 8.27 SNAP-ACTION MOTOR CONTROL SWITCH

OVERLOAD CONTACT (NC)

8.7.2 MAGNETIC MOTOR STARTERS

FIG 8.29 BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR VARIABLE-FREQUENCY

8.8 MOTOR BRANCH CIRCUITS

Ground-fault & short-circuit

Overload protection devices

FIG. 8.31 MOTOR BRANCH CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

EXAMPLE 8.3 BRANCH CIRCUIT SHORT CIRCUIT SIZING 1

EXAMPLE 8.4 BRANCH CIRCUIT SHORT-CIRCUIT SIZING 2

8.8.3 WIRE SIZING

EXAMPLE 8.5 BRANCH CIRCUIT WIRE SIZING FOR

EXAMPLE 8.6 BRANCH CIRCUIT WIRE SIZING FOR

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