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CT in SMPS
CT in SMPS
By BobMammano
CURRENT SENSING IN POWER Since there has been no published report thus far
of any single current monitoring approach which is
SUPPLIES
While it would be easy to classify the design of clearly superior in all the aspects given above, an im-
the typical power supply as a voltage regulation portant task in any new project is to prioritize the re-
quirements as each options will have its strengths and
problem, experienced designers recognize that very
high up on any priority list of tasks are issues related weaknesses in satisfying this list of issues. With
to the measurement and control of current. And, as it these characteristics in mind, let us first look at some
turns out, these are usually where more of the diffi- of the possibilities in measuring current.
culties lie. At the risk of being too philosophical, let SENSING AND MEASURING
me suggest that the measurement of voltage is a CURRENT
"passive" activity in that it can readily be done at al-
RESISnvE SENSING
most any place in the system without affecting per-
formance. Current measurements, however, are Discrete Resistors for Current Sensing
"intrusive" in that we have to "insert" some type of In almost all cases, current sensing means devel-
sensor and, in so doing, run a greater risk of affect- oping a voltage signal which is representative of the
ing the system we are trying to monitor or control. current flowing at the particular place of interest in
Which is, of course, justification for this topic in the circuit. Thus, a current sensing resistor should be
which we will attempt to present a compendium of considered as a current-to-voltage converter which, in
current sensing devices, techniques and applications order to perform its function, must be selected on the
as an aid to designers of a broad range of power sys- basis of a set of attributes such as the following:
tems. .Low value in order to minimize power losses
There are many reasons for monitoring current in (Rcs<l.Q for this discussion)
power supplies, and as many or more uses to make of .Low inductance because of high di/dt
the information once obtained. At least three of these .Tight tolerance on initial value and low tem-
which will be discussed herein, pertain to the use of perature coefficient for accuracy
current sensing for fault protection, for current-mode .High peak power rating to handle short duration
controlled voltage regulation, and for commanding high current pulses
current as a goal in itself. In all of these current .High temperature rating for reliability
1-1
Low value resistors in today's market consist of ~ -The first criteria in detennining a sense re-
wirewound, thick film, thin film, metal element, and sistor's value is often the voltage threshold of the
perhaps even other technologies. They come in a following circuitry which is going to operate on the
wide variety of form factors including axial and ver- sensed current infonnation. The simpler IC control-
tical through-hole mounted, power and chip surface lers, for example, will have a defined voltage range
mounted devices, two terminal and four terminal for current sensing, or a specific threshold for initi-
(Kelvin), on metallic or alumina substrates, and some ating over-current protection, and the value of the
with integral heat sinks. Representative samples of sensing resistor is then uniquely defined by the value
this variety are pictured in Figure 1. The following of the current to be measured. In more sophisticated
discussion is offered as an aid to understanding some applications where some signal amplification is
of the considerations in selecting and applying these available, the choice would be made on the basis of
devices to perform the function of current sensing. minimizing the voltage drop across the sense resistor.
Caddock Electronics' Type MV Isotek's PMA, PMD Surface Mount Caddock Electronics' Type SRIO Cur-
Power Film Resistor. Design uses four terminal package, IOmm x 6mm rent Sense Resistor. Kelvin connection
interdigitated non-inductive termina- x I.5mm. Resistance down to 3mQ vertical mount 1W non-inductive de-
tions. Power ratings from 1.5W to with <30ppml'C TCR sign. O.OOBW to I.OW, 1% standard
lOW tolerance.
Isotek's RTO Heat Sink Base Mount IRC's OARS series Surface Mount
two and four terminal configurations. sense resistor. As low as Sm.Q stan-
Uses TO-238 package and screw ter- dard, rated at IW with <30ppml'C
minal connections. Rated to 5OW with TCR. Mounting configuration mini-
<5Oppm TCR and <2nH inductance mizes TCR of copper leads
1-2
This process may be driven by the voltage itself -as connect to it. Note that these derating curves are
in low headroom regulators, for example -or by unique to the style of resistor, its value, its material,
power loss considerations stemming from either and its mounting configuration.
thermal requirements or efficiency goals. In either
case, minimizing the voltage drop requires a trade-off
study as there is almost always an accuracy or cost
penalty incurred. For example, amplifier or com-
parator input offset voltage variation represents a
fixed range of ambiguity which becomes an ever
more significant variable as the sense voltage is re-
duced. Other errors which might not be noticed with
higher voltage drops include losses in contacting the
sensing resistor and, potentially, even the effects of
thermal EMF generation at the connections.
Another important consideration relative to re-
sistor value is the variability of resistor materials
chosen by the various manufacturers of these devices.
Figure 2 -, A typical power derating curve for a current
These low values of resistance demand specialized sense resistor
materials and the manufacturers have responded with
a wide range of proprietary formulations, all with Peak or pulsed power capability is a function of
variations in their characteristics. Even within a par- energy (watt-seconds) because it is energy which cre-
ticular part type from a particular manufacturer, dif- ates heat, not just power alone. Peak power can
ferent resistor values may be made with different therefore be hundreds or thousands of times higher
materials with resultant differences in performance. than steady state power as long as the pulse duration
This is an important point and will be illustrated fur- is limited. An example of this is shown in the curves
ther in the discussion which follows. of Figure 3 which describe a one-watt surface mount
device from IRC which can have a pulse power rating
Power Rating -This parameter is often the driving of up to 40 watt-seconds. (Note that the discontinuity
indicator for selection of the proper technology for a in the curve is due to a material change at 0.Ol5.Q.)
sense resistor. An important part of the power con-
siderations is an understanding of the nature of the
current waveform to be experienced. The device may 50
1-3
Some technologies and package options may vice has a finite and non-linear characteristic, the
limit the surge current rather than the power, due to industry practice is to specify TCR as a linear rela-
limiting constraints on leads, wire bonds, or in the tionship between specified temperatures, such as
case of film devices, the rating of the film itself. This 20°C to 60°C, where 20°C is the reference tempera-
is an area where it is important not to make assump- ture. Since current sense resistors often operate at
tions but to gather specific data from the supplier of temperatures substantially above ambient tempera-
the particular device proposed for use, and then to ture, designers should be wary of TCR specifications
refine this information with measurements made in which do not provide curves over their entire operat-
the unique environment and mounting arrangement of ing range.
the proposed application.
TCR is normally specified in units of parts per
Tem12eratureCoefficient of Resistance -The TCR million per degree centigrade (ppmfC) and can be
of a sense resistor is an Important parameter when translated into accuracy by using the formula:
accuracy is required. All materials undergo a resis-
tivity change with temperature but this change is dif-
ferent and unique to each. Moreover, it is typically
In addition to the TCR of the resistor's element,
non-linear and -particularly at the higher tempera-
low-valued sense resistors can experience an addi-
tures -can be either positive or negative as shown in
tional error caused by the much higher TCR of the
the representative curves of Figure 4. It should be
copper connections. Copper has a TCR of
noted that manufacturers have come a long way with
+3900ppmfC and to illustrate the impact of this, con-
this technology and by combining various materials,
sider the resistor of Figure 5 which itself has a re-
and using unique processes, can now produce sensing
spectable TCR of lOppmfC but with one mil of
resistors with TCR's as close to zero as most any de-
total contact resistance (2Rcu), exhibits a much
signer would want. However, when a particular de-
poorer performance according to the curve shown.
'4{(%)
R2O
-0.1 -
-20 20 40 60 80 100
700
I TrC)
-0.1-
600
-0.2 -
~
500
-0.3 -
u
~ 400
MANGANIN
Do
8
~ 300
.~(%) ~
~
:--0.01- l' 0
i
005 01 015 02
~.. ...
l -0.02-1 .3ppmk"'! SPECIFIED RESISTANCE OF DEVICE [W]
-003-
.I
ZERANIN Figure 5 -The impact of contact resistance on total
sensed TCR.
1-5
posed to a high current slew rate, will result in an inches. Another difficulty is that copper has a tem-
inductive "step" voltage superimposed upon the sense perature coefficient of 0.39 % / °C, meaning that the
voltage as shown in Figure 9. This may merely con- voltage drop for a given current will increase some
tribute an error or, more commonly, prematurely trip 20% for a 50 °C temperature rise. However, for those
an overload-detecting comparator, or ring below applications where this technique is appropriate, the
ground and latch up the sense circuitry .Most sense following design data is provided [1]:
resistors on today's market are manufactured with The resistance of a metal path at a given tem-
"non-inductive" techniques but it should be remem- perature is governed by the equation:
bered that this is a subjective term and, the higher the
current, the less inductance it takes to create prob- R(T) = S(T) WidthLength
x Thickness
lems.
1-~
per etch on a PCB will self heat due to the power dis-
sipated by the resistor. This temperature rise above
ambient can be determined from the current and the
total resistor area by using guidelines from MIL-
STD-275E [2]. This information was used to gener-
ate Table 1 which provides the required dimensions
for a loz PCB resistor given a maximum current and
desired voltage drop. This data assumes a tempera-
ture rise of 30 °C above an ambient temperature of 60
degrees.
1-7
mum total voltage drop of 30 millivolts, signifi-
cantly minimizing both power loss and internal
heating.
The leadframe resistor voltage drop is measured
with Kelvin contacts provided by internal bond-
ing wires.
A chopper-stabilized, high-gain, auto-zero ampli-
fier is included to deliver a 0.5V signal from a
15A input current. The common-mode range of
the sensor can be either at ground or at a positive
voltage rail of up to 14V. Sensed current can be
bi-directional.
The amplifier is trimmed after assembly to cancel
the effects of both resistor tolerances and gain, as
well as packaging induced shifts. This product is
specified to measure current with an accuracy of
::!:2%. Using the Inductor as a Sense Resistor
Another interesting circuit idea for measuring
The amplifier has built-in temperature compen-
sation for the TC of the copper resistor and will current without a discrete sensing resistor has been
tend to track any self-heating as the chip is proposed by Pacholok [3] and is particularly appro-
mounted in the same package. priate for low voltage power converters where a volt-
age drop of several hundred millivolts for current
Using FET Drain-Source Resistance as a Sensor sensing would represent a significant efficiency loss.
With the successful utilization of power MOS-
This approach, illustrated with a boost converter cir-
FETs as the switching devices for the current we
cuit in Figure 13, recognizes that the voltage drop
wish to monitor, and the recognition that a FET is a
across a power inductor consists of two parts:
majority-carrier device with a fairly linear on-
resistance, the prospect of using the Rds(on) of the
1. V] = L~
FET as the current sensing resistor has gained recent dt
interest. An illustration of this approach is shown in
Figure 12 which shows a portion of the Unitrode 2. VR=IxR
UCC3582, a simple synchronous buck regulator, in
which short circuit protection is provided without the where the .'R" is the copper resistance of the in-
need of a separate current sensing resistor. With this ductor's winding. These two voltages add to form
device, the drain-source voltage of the external high- the total voltage across the inductor, VT. By adding
side switch is monitored during the on-time of the a closely coupled second winding with an equal
switch, and a voltage greater than 450 mY will initi- number of turns, but with minimal current loading,
ate pulse-by-pulse current limiting. While this is a this winding will have only VL across it. By then
very low-cost solution, one must recognize that the summing the voltages from the two windings such
actual current threshold will vary with unit-to-unit that the VL terms cancel out, one is left with only
variation of FET parameters, gate drive amplitude, VR, a voltage determined by the inductor current, and
and temperature. While these tolerances are probably the appropriate signal for a current-mode control
too great to allow this technique to be used for accu- loop. A simple current mirror circuit will convert
rate control, it may be perfectly acceptable if the only this differential VR term to a single-ended, ground-
issue is survivability in a fault condition. referenced signal compatible with the current sensing
pin of a UC3842 or similar device.
1-8
1+- VL --+1
NLn"rn!- Np = NL
V,N R = Np RESISTANCE VOUT
0-
-{>f--o
I+VL + VR-+i
-
-:f;ii} tTO I VS PWM
CONTROL
CONV
As
1-9
~
ear for extremely high peak currents. This device is repetitively interrupted, allowing time for transformer
still used today for measuring high-energy current reset.
pulses or transients with high-frequency harmonic The current sense transformer operates the same
content since the upper bandwidth can extend into the as any transformer, with the exception that the pri-
megahertz range. mary signal is a current. In a typical switching con-
verter application, the primary winding will consist
Current Transformers
of a single tum, with the secondary turns providing
With the availability of magnetic core materials,
the current attenuation. The primary-to-secondary
it could have been a simple but very significant ex-
tension of the Rogowski Coil technology to replace current relationship is given by
the air core with a material which concentrates the
magnetic flux inside the coil. With the flux con- ~=~
Ip Ns
tained within the coil instead of passing through it, a
direct relationship between the coil current and the
current in the conductor generating the field was and the resultant output voltage is defined by the load
achieved and the current transformer was born. The resistor, Rcs, as
similarities in the structures can be seen in the sketch
of a current transformer shown in Figure 15, but with
the coil now terminated with a low impedance, the
induced voltage becomes irrelevant and the output
voltage is instead determined by the coil current and
the load resistance. [6]
Figure 15 -A terminated current sense transformer Figure 16 .The typical electrical model for a current
will provide a voltage signal directly related to primary sense transformer.
current.
Core Issues -The current in the primary is trans-
Current sense transformers, of course, provide formed to the secondary, but the transformer must be
two important benefits over simple resistive sensing - excited through the action of the magnetizing current.
isolation between control and power and lower power The magnetizing current is supplied by the primary
losses. The lower power dissipation of a current and is therefore subtracted from the current available
sense transformer allows a much higher signal level, to drive the secondary. This leads to one of the de-
significantly improving the signal-to-noise environ- sign criteria for the transformer -low magnetizing
ment of the control system. The fact that a current current -achieved by providing a large magnetizing
sense transformer cannot work with DC currents is inductance. Additional requirements are typically
usually not particularly troubling when used in high saturating flux density, low core loss, and, of
switching power converters where the currents are course, small size and low cost.
1-10
In most high frequency applications (f > 50kHz), winding needs a resistor, Rcs, to convert the secon-
ferrite will be a good choice for the core material, but dary current to a voltage adaptable to the needs of the
at least one alternative is a Ni-Fe tape wound core. following current control circuitry .The purpose of
Materials such as Supermalloy have very high per- the diode is to allow the transformer's magnetizing
meability and saturating flux density compared to current to induce a high reverse voltage on the secon-
ferrites. Their permeability rolls off with frequency, dary when the primary current goes to zero in order
however, which gives the advantage to ferrite at fre- to provide a fast reset for the transformer's core, and
quencies above 50kHz. Tape wound cores also tend also to isolate this negative reset voltage from the
to be more expensive than ferrites for the same core control circuit.
size. On the other hand, tape wound cores can still be
cost effective at low frequencies where their higher
permeability and saturation level may allow for a
much smaller core than would be required if ferrite
were used. Common choices for ferrite include type
J or W materials from Magnetics, Inc. or H5B2 from
TDK.
Current sense transformer cores are almost al-
ways toroids. This shape minimizes leakage induc-
tance and there is no loss of permeability due to an
air gap which would be unavoidable with any type of
cut core configuration. Toroids are normally more Ste12one -Determine the Turns Ratio -Usually the
expensive to wind but this disadvantage is minimized design begins after the rest of the converter circuitry
with a single turn primary and the availability of has been defined. Initial parameters such as the
many ..off-the-shelf' standard designs. An example maximum secondary voltage are usually determined
of a simple high-frequency current sense transformer by the control circuit. For example, if using the
design is shown in Figure 17. [7][8] UC3842 Current-Mode PWM Controller, the maxi-
mum current input signal is 0.9 Volts. If we allow a
20% margin for current limiting, the maximum op-
erational signal, V c, becomes 0. 7V .Similarly, the
turns ratio is usually constrained by the desired sec-
ondary voltage, the primary current, and the need to
keep the control circuit power to a minimum. A rea-
sonable goal might be to keep the power dissipation
in the sense resistor to less than 62mW (so a 1/8W
resistor could be used). (Purests will note that we are
using peak values where accuracy would dictate the
use of rms, however the simplification is easily justi-
Figure 17 -A typical current sense transformer applica- fied and could be corrected if needed for a critical
ble to switching power supplies -Courtesy of Pulse Engi- design.) If the maximum primary current was to be 5
neering, Inc. Amps, and the full-scale secondary voltage is 0. 7V ,
then two equations in two unkl1owns can be written
Current Sense Transformer Design Procedure as
To illustrate a typical current sense transformer
design process, the schematic of Figure 18 will be Is2 Rcs ==O.O62Watt
used. Since the transformer is transforming current -
with zero voltage on the primary -the secondary IsRcs = O.7Volt
1-11
Solving these equations yields Rcs = 7.9 ohms. which can be met with 33 A WG wire. The total cop-
Once the sense resistor is determined, the secondary per area is then
current and hence the turns ratio can be calculated by
Area (total) = 50TxO.2x10-3 + 1Tx10x10-3
O.7V = 20 x 10-3cm2
Is = ~ 89 mA
7.9.Q
and if we use a fill factor of 0.4, a core with a win-
SA x IT dow area of 50x 10-3 cm2 would be appropriate,
~ = = 56 turns
Is 89mA such as a Magnetics, Inc. Core Number 40601. This
core has a cross-sectional area, Ae, of 0.21 cm' and
A comment here about turns ratio. As the secon- an effective path length, £ m, of 1.3 cm.
dary turns go up, the magnetizing inductance will
increase, thereby reducing the error, and the power Stel2 Three -Calculate Flux Densit~ -The concern
dissipation will go down, but the interwinding ca- here is to insure that the core will not be driven into
pacitance will tend to increase. However, it is often saturation. Using Faraday's law and assuming
desired to use a standard, off-the-shelf transformer. switching frequency of 200kHz (5 usec total period)
Common turns ratios are 50:1 and 100:1 and, al- and a maximum duty cycle of 40%, we can calculate
though it might make for a slightly higher resistor the maximum flux density as
dissipation, to keep this example simple we will
choose a turns ratio of 50. This gives a secondary
(Vc + V diode) x ton
current of 100mA (5A/50) and to maintain the same B =xlO8
control voltage of 0.7V , the resistor value will be re- Nsx Ae
duced to 7 .0, .
1.4Vx4O% x Susec
= x 108 = 27 Gauss
Stel2Two -Calculate the Wire Size -As a first cut, a SOT x O.21cm2
current density of 500 Alcm' can be used. Remem-
ber, the real parameter of interest is the power dissi-
pation, or how much power loss can be tolerated in This is certainly well below saturation and quite
the windings. Once you've determined the wire di- typical of current sense transformer design. Since the
ammeter,pick a core that can handle the copper area. secondary voltage is low and the turns ratio relatively
high, the flux density should be low.
Returning to our example, if the primary current
is SA, the wire size required is SteI1 Four -Calculate Magnetizing Inductance
With the knowledge that with type W ferrite, the ini-
Wire cross-section area tial permeability of the core, .uo , is 10,000 (and .UTis
SA 4n x 10-8), the inductance is given by
- = lOxlO-3 cm2
-SOOA/cm2
Ns x Ae
Lm=.uox.urx
which corresponds to 17 A WG wire size. Typically, I!mx 100
this is a single turn and therefore the total resistance 5OT x O.21cm2
= 104 x 4n x 10-8
will be quite small. A smaller wire size could be 1.3cm x 1OOcm I meter
used. The secondary wire size is =lmH
1-12
to limit the maximum voltage, with these existing
paths, it is usually unnecessary and serves only to
further lengthen the reset time. Another possible so-
lution, if needed, is the use of a zener as the rectify-
ingdiode
This issue of reset time and/or voltage can be-
come important in applications where the duty cycle
can approach 100%. In boost converters at startup,
and power factor controllers where the duty cycle
attempts to go to 100% with every zero-crossing of
the power line, reset time can become critical and
definitive steps may need to be taken to limit the
maximum duty cycle to something less than 100% in
order to keep the current sense transformer from satu-
Step Five -Reset Voltage -The last step is to de- rating. Saturation, if it does occur, can be a serious
termine the reset voltage required after each current problem in a current control application as it will
pulse. The cardinal rule of magnetics is that the volt- cause the sensed current signal on the secondary to
seconds must be equal. Therefore, diminish which, in turn, signals the control circuit to
force more current, which can lead to catastrophic
Vreset x toff = (Vc + V diode) x ton results.
Rearranging terms, we can calculate the reset
DC Current Transformers
voltage which will appear as
Wouldn't it be nice if we could combine the low
power loss and isolation of the current transformer
Vreset = (Vc+ Vdiode)~ with the ability to accurately measure DC currents as
toff accomplished with the shunt resistor? Actually, sev-
= (0.7 + 0.7) 40% /60% = 0.93V
eral solutions for a "DC transformer" have been pro-
p0sed in the past, one of which is shown in Figure
For this example, the reset voltage of less than
19. [9]
IV illustrates why, in most DC/DC converter appli-
cations, core reset is not a problem. If we were to
extend the maximum duty cycle to 95%, this example
would still only require a reset voltage of 27V. In the
typical application with a diode in series with the
transformer's secondary, one might assume that the
theoretical reset voltage would be determined by the
breakdown voltage of the diode as the magnetizing
inductance will force the flow of magnetizing current
somewhere in the secondary circuit when the primary
current is interrupted. This high voltage would, of Figure 19- Using two cores with an AC excitation voltage
course, make the reset time extremely short but there applied so that the magnetic fields cancel, implements
could be some reliability concerns. In actuality, a transformer with isolated, accurate response to DC
current.
however, instead of breaking down the diode, the
magnetizing current will flow into the interwinding
This transfomler uses two cores with an AC ex-
capacitance and through the reverse recovery of the
citation voltage applied to generate opposite-polarity
diode to the sense resistor. While an additional re-
flux excursions in each core. Using square-loop
sistor could be placed across the secondary winding
cores such as pemlalloy 80 or a high-frequency fer-
1-13
rite, the excitation voltage will drive the cores into The waveforms for this example are shown with
and out of saturation with opposite polarities at each squarewave excitation although the technique was
half-cycle. A simplified illustration of the operation initially described by Storm [10] for use with sine
on the B-H curves for each core is shown with the waves. And, of course, it should be obvious that this
two curves superimposed in Figure 20. The set and transformer will work with primary currents in either
reset points are determined by the excitation voltage direction. The secondary signal is rectified and the
on the two secondary windings connected in series, result is a DC current directly related to the absolute
but offset by the operating point defined by the pri- value of the primary current by the turns ratio. Im-
mary current common to both cores. portantly, this transformer can be made quite accurate
as, to a first order, excitation voltage levels, loading,
temperature, and core characteristics do not enter into
the equations. Of course, in today's technology, the
limited high frequency capability of magnetic cores
do represent a serious restriction for applicability to
switching power supplies.
However, Severns [11] has taken this approach
one step further, with potential applicability to high
frequency switching power supplies, with his design
of a unipolar version of this function using a single
core as shown in Figure 22.
1-14
2. When the pulse generator is on, Q I closes and the The basic relationship describing the output volt-
reversal in voltage across the secondary allows age from a Hall sensor is
the core to come out of saturation with a current
Is = Ip I Ns. At the same time, yo is developed VH=KHxlxB
by sampling the voltage on Rs caused by Is.
where I is the bias current through the sensor and B is
the magnetic flux passing through it. ~ is a coeffi-
This circuit could potentially operate with sarn-
cient defining the sensitivity of the sensor and it in-
pIing frequencies up to the megahertz region, allow-
cludes both the electron mobility and resistivity of
ing reasonable resolution of current waveshape with a
the semiconductor material as well as the geometry
bandwidth in excess of 100 kilohertz. An additional
benefit is that the low duty-cycle of the excitation
voltage acts as a multiplier to the turns ratio and al-
lows very high primary current without a corre-
sponding number of secondary turns. [12]
HALL SENSORS
Another element with potential application for
sensing DC current with electrical isolation is the
Hall-effect sensor, a device which is currently pro-
duced in silicon as a semiconductor component
where a certain amount of interfacing circuitry can be
integrated along with the sensing device into a single
silicon chip. The Hall-effect principle is that a volt-
age will be produced across a current-carrying semi- Figure 24 -The characteristic curve for a Hall sensor
conductor material under the influence of a magnetic designed for linear applications.
1-15
all show up in the fine print, and include the follow. This expression is for a round conductor where R
in!Z: is the distance in centimeters from the center of the
The sensitivity is low, unusually requiring conductor to the point of sensing, I is the current in
some form of "concentrator", which adds Amps, and B is the flux density in Gauss. The prac-
costs. tical limitations of this equation are easily seen in
Mechanical positioning can be tricky and that the flux density from a current of 100A would
may also add manufacturing costs. only be 100Gauss at 0.2 cm from the center of the
The range of linearity is limited, and there is conductor. A high-current solution proposed by Rip-
often an offset at zero current. pel [14] is illustrated in Figure 25 where he necked
The devices are sensitive to mechanical down the cross-section of a flat conductor so he could
stresses and ambient temperature variations, place the sensor close to the center, while still keep-
as well as unit-to-unit tolerances. ing the resulting hot-spot within acceptable bounds.
The sensing element has a large junction ca- For lower currents, some form of field concen-
pacitance which typically limits the maxi- trator will likely be required. Using a high-
mum frequency response to 20 -40 kilohertz. permeability core with a gap into which the Hall sen-
While isolated from the current they would sor can be placed allows usable flux densities to be
measure, these sensors do require some form achieved at much greater distances from the conduc-
of power supply for their own consumption. tor's center. Figure 26 illustrates this technique. [15]
The next step for greater sensitivity at lower cur-
However, within these confines, practical solu- rents would be to reduce the size of the conductor and
tions have been found. Some of these are outlined in wrap multiple turns around the field-concentrating
the following examples. core as shown in Figure 27. While this may appear
The simplest approach would be to just place the as an unacceptable complication, it should be noted
Hall sensor against the conductor containing the cur- that with a winding on a gapped core, we have cre-
rent to be measured. However the value of the flux ated an inductor which, of course, could be the circuit
level at this point is defined, from Ampere's Law, by inductor whose current we are trying to measure in
the first place. The only issue is whether the thick-
ness of the gap -which must be large enough to allow
the Hall sensor to fit -is acceptable for the design of
the inductor .
"-
1-16
this is turned into an output voltage by passing
through a sense resistor as shown in the figure. By
keeping the net flux at zero, most of the sensor toler-
ances are canceled and, in addition, the frequency
response is also enhanced.
Before leaving the subject of Hall-effect current
sensors, it might be interesting to mention an innova-
tive application proposed by Carrasco, et al [16] in
order to get an accurate current sensor with a band-
width from DC to beyond several hundred kilohertz.
This solution, which is illustrated in Figure 29, uses a
core with a Hall sensor and three windings. The first
is the primary and conducts the current to be meas-
ured. This, of course, could be a single turn. The
second is the compensating coil used to linearize the
Hall-effect device as described above. While this
Figure 27 -The flux from the current to be measured
improves the response of the Hall sensor, it will still
can bejitrther multiplied by adding turns to the core.
falloff at something less than lookHz. The third
In the above applications, the Hall sensor is es- winding forms a conventional current sensing trans-
sentially operating as an open-loop input device and, former which, while unable to pass DC, has a good
as was stated earlier, the variability's and non- high frequency capability. This signal is then scaled
linearity's of Hall-effect devices contribute to a sub- and added to that of the Hall output for a resultant
stantial inaccuracy in the resultant measurements. A very wide bandwidth as shown.
technique for minimizing or eliminating much of this
SENSE-FET TECHNOLOGY
inaccuracy is to enclose the sensor in an overall feed-
With the advent of power MOSFET technology,
back loop as shown in Figure 28. In this circuit, a
another alternative for sensing current in power sys-
low-current secondary winding is added to the core
whose function is to develop a magnetic flux in op-
position to that developed by the primary conductor.
The feedback loop forces the total magnetic field
within the core to zero and the current it takes to do
1-17
terns has become available. Since a power MOSFET
is constructed with multiple source contacts which
inherently have good current balancing between
them, the current through one will match, according
to their relative numbers, the current in all the others.
So by bringing one source out of the package on a
separate pin, the current in that pin will track that in
the power source pin with a ratio that can be made
accurate to within 3%. This current ratio is typically
made in the range of lOOOto ISOOso that the power
(a)
loss in the sensing circuitry is negligible. This device
can best be visualized as two units in parallel as
shown in Figure 30 where the sensing device has
source area A while the power device has an area of
nA. Note that the power source also includes a Kel-
vin contact to keep impedances in the power line
from contributing to a mismatch error .
{b)
1-18
sensing easier, however, short-circuit protection is
not possible. The issues here relate to grounding. If
the system ground is as shown, the voltage drop
across the sensing element will subtract from the load
voltage and regulation will be affected. Also the
ability to parallel power supplies to a common load
will be degraded. This is a popular location where
Figure 32 -A typical power switching stagewith pos-
the load might be a battery as both charging and dis-
sible current senselocations.
charge currents can be monitored with dual-polarity
might be easier to sense the current in the lower
sensing.
switch of a half-bridge topology, this location may
not provide output short circuit protection. Beyond Location (0 -Here the problems relate to separating
this, several possible locations for current sensing in the load ground from the input. Now paralleling
a power switching stage are shown in Figure 32 , and loads is practical but multiple power supplies cannot
the considerations, pro and con, are discussed below: be driven from the same source voltage, and the po-
larity of the current sense signal is negative with re-
Location (a) -The current here, and in the return
spect to load ground.
line, is total input current -both DC and ripple. It is
fine for input power calculations and power factor Transformer-Coupled Power Stages
control, but the DC requires a resistor sense. The The schematics shown in Figure 33 offer several
high side location is good for short circuit protection alternatives for current sensing strategies in higher
but does require a high common-mode input to the power applications. While full-bridge circuits are
sensing circuitry . shown, it should be fairly easy to extrapolate to half-
bridge, push-pull, and two-switch forward and fly-
Location (b) -This is switch current and a trans- back topologies. In these cases, current sensing
former is acceptable due to the pulsing current wave- transformers are often preferable and justifiable over
form. While there is a high common-mode voltage resistive sensing, both to save the power loss in a re-
here, at least it is as steady as the input voltage. This sistor shunt and to use the transformer's isolation to
is a good location for both peak current-mode control allow level shifting from the high-voltage rail down
and overall short-circuit protection. to low-voltage controls. The distinctions between
these circuits are described below:
Location (c) -This branch will yield average load or
inductor current but it is probably the worst place for Circuit (a) -If resistive sensing is proposed, this is
sensing due to the widely-swinging common-mode probably the most practical solution as the voltage
voltage -from below ground to the input voltage. levels are referenced to ground. There is a cautionary
point to be made, however, in that if direct ground-
Location (d) -The voltage range at this point is sta- referenced gate drive circuitry is used to drive the
bilized by the output voltage but the common-mode lower PET switches, the transient gate currents
capability must also include ground for startup and through the gate-source capacitance will show up in
short-circuit conditions. This is the ideal location for the current sensing circuitry , perhaps requiring extra
average current-mode control as the current is both filtering or blanking. This problem often dictates the
instantaneous inductor current and average load cur- use of gate-drive transformers which can be con-
rent. The DC value precludes the use of transformer nected directly from gate to source, bypassing the
sensing. current sensor.
Location ( e) -This branch, of course, is true load Circuit (b) -This circuit suffers from the same gate.
current and the low common-mode voltage makes drive issue as Circuit A but, in addition, the use of ,
1-19
(c)
transfonner in this location (and in Circuit C follow- output power transfonner). As a result, a series
ing) there is added concern in keeping the trans- blocking capacitor is often added to this circuit.
fonner from saturating with the uni-directional
current pulses. While this location is in series with Circuit (e} -This circuit uses two sensing primaries
the switches, there are two paths for current flow on a common core which alternate to allow the de-
which alternate and the only time allotted for reset- velopment of a uni-polarity signal on the secondary
ting the core is the deadband when all four switches with minimal expense. Since the core is driven in the
are off. same direction with each pulse, transformer reset
time must still be assured.
Circuit (c) -No gate drive problems but the poten-
tial for saturation. Circuit m -While this approach bears the cost of
two current transformers, it frees the circuit from all
Circuit (d) -This would appear to be an ideal appli- the problems described above. The two secondaries
cation for a current transformer as it will measure can be paralleled for a uni-polarity output.
true load current (reflected to the primary side) and
the current in the sensing circuitry alternates polarity Obtaining DC Average Current with Current
with each half cycle. Again, a cautionary note -if Sense Transformers
there are any unbalances in the two sides of the Two Alternating Current Sense Transformers Rec-
bridge, a net DC current could flow in the center leg ognizing that a current sense transformer requires
potentially saturating the current transformer (and the reset time, its use in power supplies must be to sense
1-20
"switched" current which is typically not the same as ductor current for both DC and AC excursions. A
the "average" current delivered to the load. One way current transformer is still applicable for the charging
around this limitation is to use two sensing trans- 'portion of the waveform while the power switch is
formers as shown in Figure 34, where one is placed conducting. The output from the current transformer
to measure the current in the power switch and the is turned into a low-impedance voltage waveform by
other sensescurrent in the free-wheeling diode which the action of Rcs in Figure 35, and applied to C2 to
flows when the switch is off. By summing their out- give the rising portion of the waveform. When the
puts as shown in the figure, a true inductor current power pulse is terminated by the action of the PWM
signal is constructed which is accurate both in wave- control, the current transformer's output goes to zero
form and in DC (or average) value. and the transformer is reset but, during this time, the
voltage on C2 discharges through R2, approximating
the downslope of inductor current as it delivers cur-
rent to Co and the load. Note that this application
allows the use of a current transformer to sense DC
load current on the secondary where the typical
higher current levels would make the use of a sense
resistor difficult. This could be particularly helpful
where sensing for load sharing is required.
1-21
contains an even more sophisticated version of this This added amplifier stage is very helpful as it
current synthesizer. [18] can perform three separate functions as outlined be-
low:
1-22
R2 < Vcm(amplifier max) matching, a common solution is to use ratiometric
Rl + R2 -Vo(max) + Vs(max) resistor packs for at least Rl and R2 which, in addi-
tion to providing close ratio tolerances, track well
3. The gain and output offset are then set according over temperature.
Resonant Switching
In the ever-expanding search for new power to-
pologies to improve the performance and reduce the
cost of power systems, one of the more popular de-
velopments has been the use of resonant switching as
a means for reducing switching losses in PWM con-
Figure 38 -The impact of component tolerances can be verters. The implication of this technology to current
demonstrated with the values for this typical design. sensing is not a major issue but designers need be
aware that in order to get resonant transitions, there
Resistor Matching -While the absolute values of the
are circulating currents which continue to flow in the
resistors in this circuit are not critical, the ratios be-
primary circuitry during the time a conventional
tween them are exceedingly so. Since we are looking
power switching stage would be non-conductive. A
for millivolt signals and the resistors have substantial
good illustration of this is the phase-shift controlled,
voltages across them, minor differences can create
bridge topology shown in Figure 40. [19]
significant errors which are graphed in Figure 39(a)
and (b). Because of the importance of resistor
1-23
E 0.8
,g
~ 0.6
~ 8
c
.E
o
z
E 6
.g
';;§:
~
0) 4
0)
"'
0;:
0)
~ 2
~
~
w 0
u
> O 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
RiR1 = 6
Input Offset Voltage (mV)
R3/R1= 10
(c)
Figure 39 - These curves show the relationship of the amplifier's output voltage accuracy to the tolerances of the circuit
parameters.
1-24
GA TE A -t ---~ ~ --I: r-=
GATE B II' I 1-
GATE C ' -
GATED
A=ER ~-- 1- -
VT I ~ I I I I
I I I
IM -L~L--L~--L---1~
-r-- I I It ---t 1
I I
IT t-~-
I
I I
v L -}==t:J==[.::.::.:!"
~ !'.,..; ~I I
I I I I I
, I
IL -~-~--;---~ ,--,-
10 11 12 !3 !4-!0
Figure 40 -In a resonant-switched bridge circuit. current sensing must be moved away from the power switches.
An examination of the primary current waveform, IT, even when the power switch is off, and thus need to
shows current flowing in the power devices even be included in the measurement system. The sche-
when nothing is being delivered to the output induc- matic of Figure 41 is recommended for use with the
tor. As a result, primary-side load current must be UC3855 PFC Controller so that as the auxiliary switch
monitored in one of the power rails, as shown in the turns on -prior to activating the main power switch -
figure. current through both the resonating inductor and ca-
Another example where resonant switching re- pacitor, as well as that in the power switch, will flow
quires special current sensing considerations is the through the current sensing transformer. [20]
Zero- Voltage Switched, boost converter particularly
CURRENT LIMIT PROTECTION
applicable to high power PFC preregulators. In this
Having spent a considerable portion of this paper
case, the resonant currents flow in the boost inductor,
discussing the measurement of current, it would now
seem appropriate to address some of the uses to
which this information would be put. And, of course,
high on this list should be current limit or overload
protection for power supplies. While most everyone
recognizes the need for short circuit protection, there
are many potential strategies to consider for its ac-
complishment and the following information should
help to place these in perspective.
Current Limiting
Constant Current Limiting -One of the most obvi-
Figure 4] .This circuit, recommended for the UC3855 ous approaches to overload protection is to invoke a
PFC Controller, insures that the current transformer will constant current limit at a definable threshold. This
measure the resonant current as well as that through the changes the power supply's output from a voltage to
main power switch.
a current source and would provide the same protec-
1-25
tion whether the fault was a minor overload or a dead
short. The implementation of constant current limit-
ing is typically done with a two-loop control system
as shown in Figure 42. This diagram shows two
feedback amplifiers, one for voltage and one for cur-
rent. They each use a voltage source as a reference
but the action of the current amplifier is to regulate
the voltage across the current sense resistor, thereby
regulating the current. The operation of the circuit is
that when the current is less than the limit threshold,
that amplifier is inactive and the voltage amplifier is
in control. When the current tries to exceed the limit
value, the current amplifier takes over and the voltage
Figure 43 -Output characteristics of a constant current
amplifier is disabled. This approach can be used in
limited power supply.
either linear or switching topologies with the only
difference being whether there is a pulse-width whatever it takes to keep the current constant. With a
modulator in the driver and power stage following the shorted output, the output voltage is of course, zero
anlplifiers. Note that it is load current that is being and a linear regulator in this mode will experience its
monitored in the circuit shown, not internal switch maximum internal dissipation as it is supporting the
current, so the next few waveforms do not apply to entire input voltage while simultaneously conducting
current-mode controlled applications. the maximum output current. This can often make
the thermal management problem in the fault mode
several times more difficult than when the regulator
is operating with normal loads.
1-26
~
shown in Figure 44. With foldback current limiting,
the power supply behaves normally at current levels
up to where current limiting starts to kick in. At this
point, the output voltage begins to fall and, as it does,
the current limit value is also reduced until, when the
output is completely shorted, the available current
has been reduced to 20-30% of the normal maximum
load value. So as the output voltage falls -increasing
the internal voltage drop -the current is reduced and
the power dissipated within the unit is, if not con-
stant, at least much more manageable.
The implementation of foldback current limiting
is usually based upon modifying the current limit
threshold as a function of a voltage measurement
which changes as the supply goes into current limit- Figure 46 -A problem with foldback is the possibility
ing. There are at least two common approaches to for latch up when starting.
~ LOAD
CURRENT
llMIT
ACTIV A TION
.r 1
Figure 47 -A method for providing constant current limit-
Figure 45 -The current limit value can be made to vary
ing with low average power dissipation.
with either Vout or (Vin -Vout).
1-27
RSENSE
PNP PASS DEVICE
V,N
difficult to predict when multiple supplies are used this type of current limiting has also been success-
with the potential of interactions between them. One fully applied to self-resetting circuit breaker func-
technique for solving this problem is the addition of a tions. There is one concern to duty-cycle current
time delay to the foldback portion of the circuit in limiting, however, in that the circuit has to be de-
order to let the supply start with constant current signed with a knowledge of the maximum output ca-
limiting and then apply foldback if a fault lasts longer pacitance expected. Too much capacity could
than the expected startup transient. prevent startup under load unless the minimum on-
time is set appropriately.
Dut~-C~cle Current Limiting -Another method for
providing current limiting with low internal power Pulse-b):-Pulse Current Limiting -Pulse-width
dissipation is to combine constant current limiting modulating controllers have long used a technique to
with a low duty-cycle interruption circuit as shown in limit overload by limiting time instead of current.
Figure 47. [21] The idea here is that under a fault The block diagram of Figure 49 provides an illustra-
condition the controller will allow conduction for tion of this technique. The oscillator initiates each
only a short interval and then shut down for substan- output pulse by resetting the PWM latch. Normally,
tially longer time (typically 3% on and 97% off). the pulse width is then determined by the ramp wave-
Under these conditions, even though the peak power form rising above the voltage amplifier's output and
may be high, the average is a fraction of that value. thus setting the PWM latch and terminating the out-
A diagram showing a typical implementation of put pulse. However, through a parallel path to the set
this type of fault management is shown in Figure 48 terminal of the PWM latch, the output pulse can be
where it is applied to a linear voltage regulator. Note terminated prematurely by an overcurrent signal from
that the current sense signal is used in both an analog the current sense comparator. This technique can be
loop to regulate the fault current, and in a digital form very effective and, of course, very easy to implement
to activate the timer. In addition to power supplies, with switching power supplies, however two consid-
1-28
only Vout. Therefore, a falling output voltage from
an overload can diminish the ability to completely
"reset" the inductor with each pulse and the net result
is an increasing current with increasing overload.
Preventing this usually means insuring that the in-
ductor's on-time volt-seconds stays less than the volt-
seconds for reset during the off-time. While this
would appear difficult with a direct short circuit on
the output, the fact that the output rectifier voltage is
still present may provide adequate reset voltage to
prevent saturation -at least for power supplies with
Figure 49 -Pulse-by-Pulse current limiting with a low regulated output voltages. A more positive solu-
PWM controlled switching regulator. tion is to increase the off-time as the supply's output
voltage falls (due to an overload) by lowering the
erations must be kept in mind: First, since there is no switching frequency in a way that insures both ade-
analog current limiting, only residual circuit induc- quate reset time for the transformer and a low aver-
tance limits the rise in current from a hard short dur- age current to the fault. This technique is called
ing the delay it takes for the current loop to react, and "Frequency Foldback" and is implemented in the
secondly, in a continuous fault condition, the power UCC3884 Advanced Current-Mode Controller.
stage will continue pulsing although, hopefully, with
very narrow pulses.
1-29
Soft-Start Hiccul2 Protection -Most switching sup- Figure 51 where the action is defined by the control
plies -and some linears as well -have in their control circuit power source. R(start) is made so large that,
circuitry a startup time constant (relatively long in while current through it will start the circuit, it is in-
comparison to the switching frequency) which can be adequate to maintain continuous operation, and that
exercised to recycle in the event of a fault. The pri- energy is derived from a secondary winding on the
mary purpose of this time constant is to allow a slow output inductor. The polarity is such that this auxil-
turn-on (soft-start) to minimize startup transients, iary winding delivers Vout (times the turns ratio) to
however, it obviously will also be useful in startup supply Vcc to the control circuit so, when Vo is
after a fault shutdown. The usual approach is to pro- shorted, Vcc will fall, eventually forcing the control-
vide two levels of current sensing by monitoring the ler to stop, at which time a restart is initiated. The
current waveform with two comparators with differ- hiccup time constant is then established by the energy
ent thresholds. The lower threshold invokes pulse- storage capacitor, Cc.
by-pulse current limiting allowing the circuit to con-
tinue to operate through a minor overload. The sec- Dela~ed Shutdown -A problem with using two dif-
ond comparator, with a higher threshold, sets a latch ferent current thresholds to make the decision as to
which discharges the soft-start capacitor and thereby whether the circuit goes into current limiting or a
reduces the output pulse width to zero. Resetting the shutdown mode, is that a fast fault transient may go
latch then allows the circuit to initiate another slow through both thresholds before the controller can re-
startup. If the system is set up to automatically reset act. One technique used to minimize what might be
the latch when the soft-start capacitor is fully dis- nuisance shutdowns is to provide a time delay before
charged, the operation is called "hiccup" protection allowing the higher threshold to initiate shutdown,
because, with a continuous fault, the circuit will al- however that can cause concerns as to how fast the
Iowa short burst of high-frequency pulses as the circuit will react to a major short. The control cir-
system tries to start, separated by relatively long pe- cuitry developed for the UCC3570 attempts to solve
riods while the soft-start capacitor is being dis- this issue by providing three levels of protection.
charged and then slowly recharged. Although this (See Figure 52) The first is pulse-by-pulse current
will continue as long as the fault is present, the aver- limiting which occurs at a threshold of 200mV and
age power should be much less than with pulse-by- merely reduces the normal pulse width under over-
pulse current limiting. load. The second is a shutdown signal but at a sig-
A simple implementation of hiccup fault protec- nificantly higher threshold -600m V. This will react
tion is possible with any PWM control circuit which quickly in the event of a serious fault. The third level
has a low-current startup mode. This is shown in
Figure 51 -Using energy from the output inductor to Figure 52 -The UCC3570 provides three levels of over.
supply the control circuit can automatically provide hic- current protection.
cup fault protection.
1-30
Leading-Edge Filter
"
E , ,
~ , I
5 , , Leading-Edge Blanking
u ,
,
." , Current Sense is 'Blind'
0)
"' I during blanking
Figure 53 -A typical current waveform on the pri. c I
0) I
mal)' side of an isolated power supply. cn I
1-31
current signal helps to make this topology substan-
tially more forgiving. Note that peak C/M senses
switch current, allowing the easy application of cur-
rent sensing transformers, while average C/M looks
at inductor current and thus needs a DC current
sensing scheme. [22]
L=~
PIN
BULK Vo
I
*= I ~
~
VAC
II~
C=2PoI1F
y- SENSE
~ --Ii
~
.
ISENSE
..,M. .,
Vo
Rcs
C3 CS
'R5 -11- 'RB ~R9 rlh
R7
-¥v'v-
~~
VAC
'R6
r- ---,
I
-= Vcc I
v
I
:R1 :R4 ~ r- I
~
--5--
PWM I
WAVE
FORM
REF~ ~ -==;- :
ICP GATE I
RAMP DRIVE I
~ x'L-- osc VI-"1/ I
I
I
I
I
Ic' Ic', UC3854
J
I
1-32
more thorough presentation. For all these contribu-
tions the author -and, one hopes, our readers -are
sincerely grateful.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
follow the zero crossings where the PWM command [4] Ray, W.F. and Davis, R.M., "Wideband AC Cur-
attempts to go to 100% duty cycle. [23] rent Transducer Measures High Current", PCIM
Magazine, September, 1994.
Load Sharing -Figure 58 illustrates a simplified
approach to adding load sharing to a power supply's [5] Bertsche, K.J., "A Modified Rogowski Coil for
control to allow reliable paralleling of multiple power Measurements of Hybrid Permanent Magnets",
modules. In this circuit, the DC output current is FERMILAB Conference Proceedings, 1996.
sensed and a voltage proportional to that value sent
[6] Waters, C., "Current Transformers Provide Ac-
out on a share bus to other modules intended to feed
curate, Isolated Measurements", PCIM Maga-
the same load. The voltage on the share bus is then
zine, December, 1986.
used to adjust the reference voltage level in each
module that individual outputs such that they each [7] Billings, K.H., "Switchmode Power Su1111I~
supply an equal contribution to the total load current. Handbook", McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1989.
[21]
[8] Williams, B.W., ..Power Electronics", McGraw-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Hill, Inc., 1992.
Significant contributions to this topic were made
by many individuals and the editor would specifically [9] Gytri, A. and Undeland, T.M., "Low Cost DC
wish to recognize the participation of Bill Andreycak, and AC Current Transducer with Isolation and
Jim Noon, and Larry Spaziani of the Unitrode Appli- Good Linearity", PCI Conference Proceedings,
cation Engineering Department for the material March, 1982.
which they provided. Helpful references and a more
[10] Stonn, H.F., "Magnetic Am121ifiers", Wiley and
complete understanding of the magnetic structures
Sons, 1955.
were the result of conversations with Lloyd Dixon of
Unitrode and Rudy Severns of Springtime Enter- [11] Sevems, R., "Improving and Simplifying High
prises. In addition, Sam Davis, Editor of PCIM Frequency DC Current Sensors", IEEE APEC
Magazine, contributed several references from his Conference, 1986.
archives which were appropriate to this subject. Fi-
nally, the cooperation from the many venders who [12] Houldsworth, J.A., "Purpose-Designed Ferrite
Toroids for Isolated Current Measurements in
supply products applicable to current sensing, and
Power Electronic Equipment", Signetics Appli-
shared their information for this writing, has also
cation Note.
helped to provide a much broader prospective and a
1-33
[13] Emerald, P. and Gilbert, J., "Introduction, The- [19] Andreycak, Bill, ..Phase-Shifted, Zero- Voltage
ory , and Fundamentals of Hall Effect Sensors Transition Design Considerations and the
and Transducers", PCIM Conference, Septem- UC3875 PWM Controller", Unitrode Applica-
ber,1995. tion Note U-136.
[14] Rippel, W.E., "A High Performance, Integrable [20] Noon, J.P., "Analysis and Design of a 250kHz,
Current Sensor", PCI Conference Proceedings, 500W Power Factor Correction Circuit Employ-
September,1987. ing Zero Voltage Transitions", Unitrode Appli-
cation Note U-153.
[15] Drafts, Bill, "Current Sensing Solutions for
Power Conversion and Intelligent Motion Appli- [21] Marnmano and Rodovski, "A New Linear
cations", PCIM Magazine, September, 1995. Regulator Features Switch-Mode Over Current
Protection", Unitrode Application Note U-116.
[ 16] Carrasco, J.A., et al, "Improved Magnetic Cou-
pled Current Sensing Techniques", IEEE APEC [22] Dixon, Lloyd, "Average Current Mode Control
Conference, 1996. of Switching Power Supplies", Unitrode Appli-
cation Note U-140.
[l7]Clemente, Ishii, and Young, "An Introduction to
the HEXSense Current Sensing Device", Inter- [23] Todd, Phil, "UC3854 Controlled Power Factor
national Rectifier Application Note AN-959. Correction Circuit Design", Unitrode Applica-
tion Note U-134.
[18]O'Connor, J.A., "The UC3848 Average Current
Mode Controller Squeezes Maximum perform- [24] Jordan, Mark, "UC3907 Load Share IC simpli-
ance from Single Switch Converters", Unitrode fies Parallel Power Supply Design", Unitrode
Application Note U-135. Application Note U-129.
1-34
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