J Fail. Anal. and Preven.
(2007) 7:187–191
DOI 10.1007/s11668-007-9037-1
C Æ A Æ S Æ E H Æ I Æ S Æ T Æ O
Corrosion Failure in the Sugar Industry: A Case Study
B. K. Panigrahi Æ S. Srikanth Æ J. Singh
Submitted: 14 March 2007 / in revised form: 23 May 2007 / Published online: 20 June 2007

ASM International 2007
Abstract Pitting corrosion of structural steel used in an
evaporator vessel for the sugar industry has been investi-
gated. A significant number of inclusion stringers and a
banded microstructure in the ordinary mild steel used were
main reasons the pitting initiated. A low-carbon (0.08% C
max) copper-bearing structural steel processed by a mod-
ified rolling practice that included intensive cross rolling
was developed to minimize the incidence of pitting in such
vessels.
Keywords Pitting corrosion
Sugar plant
Structural
steel
Cross rolling
Microstructure
Introduction
Structural steel (ASTM A 36) is the basic material for
construction for a wide variety of equipment vessels used
in the sugar industry, and corrosion of such equipment is a
major problem. For example, the evaporator is subjected to
corrosion, mainly by pitting, due to presence of SO2, NH3,
and mild acid (pH ~5) during processing of cane sugar [1].
The corrosion occurs in the base steel as well as in the
vicinity of fabrication welds. Cane juice is a complex
mixture of organic acids, inorganic salts, suspended soil,
and fiber [2]. The juice is also treated with antibacterial
agents, and to remove various impurities from juice it is
treated with lime. The treatment with lime makes the juice
alkaline, and the juice is then neutralized by passing SO2
gas through it at 70 to 80 C. The sulfited juice is then
B. K. Panigrahi (&)
S. Srikanth
J. Singh
R&D Center for Iron and Steel, Steel Authority of India Limited,
Ranchi 834002, India
e-mail: panigrahi@sail-rdcis.com
Æ R Æ Y
allowed to settle in a clarifier for 2 h before it is taken to an
evaporator for concentration. The evaporator vessel con-
sists essentially of a tubular ‘‘calendria’’ serving as a heat
exchanger (Fig. 1). The heating system surrounds the
outside of the tubes. The cylindrical body terminates at the
top in a ‘‘save all,’’ the objective of which is to separate
the liquid droplets that may be entrapped in the vapor from
the juice. In the evaporator, water is removed from the cane
juice. The evaporation is done in two stages: (i) concen-
tration of cane juice and (ii) separation of sugar crystals
from concentrated juice. The first stage is done in a mul-
tiple-effect evaporator for improved thermal economy, and
the second is performed in single-effect vessels (vacuum
pan). This paper discusses factors that caused premature
failure of multiple-effect evaporator vessels and the
processing of an improved steel that has been used to
minimize the corrosion.
Materials and Methods
Corroded steel plate samples were procured from the
evaporator at the location marked in Fig. 1. The initial
thickness of the steel plate was 12 mm. A 100 · 100 mm
plate was cut from corroded region for investigation.
Chemical analysis of plate was performed in an optical
emission spectrometer. For optical microscopy, small pie-
ces were cut from the corroded plate and mounted on edge
in curing epoxy at moderate temperature. The mounted
cross sections were mechanically ground and polished
under water with successively finer grits. The final
polishing was done with alumina paste. The polished
specimens were etched in 2% nital to reveal grain size,
nature, and location of pits with respect to inclusions and
microstructural phases. The morphology of inclusions was
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188
Fig. 1 Location of sample of corroded plate in evaporator
also studied on as-polished specimens. The surface
topography of corroded plate was studied in a scanning
electron microscope (SEM) at 20 keV using 10 · 10 mm
specimen. Electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) was done
in a microanalyzer fitted with a wavelength dispersive
spectrometer (WDS) at 15 keV to determine the elemental
distribution of carbon, manganese, silicon, and oxygen in
the corroded steel.
A commercial heat was made with small amount of copper
in an open hearth furnace (OHF). The molten steel was cast as
ingots weighing 12.5 T each and rolled to slabs 180 mm
thick. The slabs were then thermomechanically processed to
12 mm thick plates. The plate was characterized for its
microstructure, inclusion content, and mechanical properties
by standard procedures. These plates were supplied to the
sugar plant for fabrication of equipment vessels.
Results
Visual examination of corroded plate showed a rough,
corroded surface topography (Fig. 2a). Pitting was severe
in the inner surface of the evaporator and also in the heat-
affected zone (HAZ) of the welded region of the evaporator
vessel. The SEM surface topography of the pitted plate
from the evaporator vessel (Fig. 2b) showed the presence
of pits of varying dimensions with oxides. The oxides were
mainly Fe2O3 and FeO(OH).
The chemical composition of the corroded plate is given
in Table 1. The analysis of the steel showed that this is a
plain carbon steel (0.22% C) without copper conforming to
ASTM A 36 standard. The sulfur in steel was 0.032%.
The typical microstructure of a plate about 4 mm
beneath the surface showed a banded microstructure con-
sisting primarily of equiaxed grains of ferrite and pearlite
(Fig. 3a). The average ferrite grain size was 18.5 lm. The
pearlitic bands were aligned in the rolling direction. The
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J Fail. Anal. and Preven. (2007) 7:187–191
Fig. 2 Surface topography of corroded plate. (a) Macrograph. (b)
Scanning electron micrograph
Table 1 Chemical composition of corroded steel plates
Elements C Mn Si S P Cu
Concentration 0.22 0.77 0.27 0.032 0.020 Trace
(wt.%)
appearance of pits on the surface in the vicinity of pearlitic
band is shown in Fig. 3(b).
Sulfur in steel forms MnS inclusions. As this is basically
a plain carbon steel with 0.032% S, elongated MnS
stringers of varying sizes were observed. Some of the pits
were located close to the MnS stringers (Fig. 4). The vol-
ume fraction, size, and shape of inclusions are important in
determining the corrosion resistance of steel. The volume
fraction of inclusions for the evaporator steel was 0.37%,
and the average length of the inclusions was 17.2 lm.
Corrosion is extensive in the areas where major dimension
of inclusions is located at the material surface. In this case,
there is a larger inclusion/matrix interface where corrosion
can be initiated (Fig. 4).
A WDS line scan (Fig. 5) did not reveal much variation
in chemical composition across the surface. The peaks in
Mn Ka scan are due to enrichment of Mn in the pearlitic
J Fail. Anal. and Preven. (2007) 7:187–191
Fig. 3 Microstructures of corroded plate. (a) Mid-thickness.
(b) Close to surface
Fig. 4 Morphology of inclusions close to pits
189
band (Fig. 3a). Higher carbon is detrimental since it
increases the corrosion in dilute acidic media [3] such as
chemically treated cane juice. In dilute H2SO4 and HCl,
low-carbon steel is less corrosive than higher-carbon steel.
Inhomogeneous distribution of alloying elements is also
detrimental for corrosion resistance due to formation of
microgalvanic cells.
In some of these vessels, corrosion was observed in the
vicinity of the weld zone particularly near the fusion line.
Because vessels are fabricated by welding, selection of
optimum welding conditions is a prerequisite for corrosion
resistance. Because the corrosion was associated with the
macro/microstructure of the steel, an alternate material of
construction was selected.
The chemical composition of the OHF steel selected is
given in Table 2. This is a low-carbon steel with copper.
Sulfur was also kept low to improve corrosion resistance.
The processing schedule of plate is shown in Fig. 6. The
slabs were soaked at 1250 C. The number of rolling passes
was 17 with 10 to 20% reduction per pass. The plates were
cross-rolled at intermediate stage by turning them 90 on
the roller table as shown in Fig. 6. The objective was to
obtain a uniform moderate size grain structure after c fi a
transformation. This was achieved by control of pass
schedule and finishing the rolling in the recrystallized
austenite region at ~880 C [4, 5]. The microstructure of
the plate is shown in Fig. 7. It is predominantly an equi-
axed ferritic structure. The average ferrite grain size was
22.1 lm. The inclusions were mainly MnS. The volume
fraction of inclusions was 0.32%, and the average size was
17.0 lm. The shape of inclusions was mostly lenticular due
to intensive cross rolling of plate at the intermediate stage.
The cross rolling also forced the inclusions to be primarily
parallel to the plate surface.
Discussion
Alloying elements, impurity level, processing, and fabri-
cation affect pitting corrosion resistance of steel. The
corroded steel displayed relatively higher carbon, manga-
nese, and sulfur, as well as a banded microstructure with
MnS stringers. The formation of pits is associated with
increase of second-phase particles, mainly pearlite, and is
also due to larger inclusion/matrix interface area.
Reduction of carbon in modified steel (Table 2) has an
important bearing on microstructure since overall hetero-
geneity is reduced. Maintaining the finish rolling temper-
ature (FRT) in the recrystallized austenite region has also
eliminated the tendency toward banding, and grains
became uniform, equiaxed, and of moderate size, which are
beneficial for corrosion resistance. Reduction of sulfur in
steel and adoption of intensive cross rolling at intermediate
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190 J Fail. Anal. and Preven. (2007) 7:187–191

Fig. 5 Wavelength dispersive

spectroscopy line scan showing
variation of alloying elements
across the surface

Fig. 6 Thermomechanical
processing schedule of low-
carbon copper-bearing steel
plate

Table 2 Chemical composition of improved steel

Heat No. Composition, wt.%
C Mn Si S P Cu

4492 0.08 0.50 0.105 0.024 0.04 0.21

stage for the plate led to formation of lenticular-shaped

MnS inclusions that reduced the inclusion/matrix interface
area where corrosion can be initiated. The nonuniform
stress state of metal surrounding a stringer-type nonme-
tallic inclusion promoted electrochemical activity of metal/
inclusion interface area in the metal surrounding the
inclusion and formation of microgalvanic cells [6]. Fig. 7 Microstructure of low-carbon copper-bearing steel

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J Fail. Anal. and Preven. (2007) 7:187–191
The evaporator material was non-copper-bearing
carbon-manganese steel. Copper is known to improve
corrosion resistance of steel when added in small amounts
(0.20%) [7]. Copper has a beneficial effect on the passiv-
ation of iron and increases the corrosion resistance due to
formation of a very thin oxide film on the steel surface. The
localized enrichment of copper and other elements was
observed in the rust layer in multiple-alloy (copper, nickel,
chromium, phosphorus) weathering steel [8]. The enrich-
ment of copper is believed to play a major role in
preventing the development of pits. In mildly acidic media,
the initial stage of film development is similar in steels
without copper and in copper-bearing low-carbon steel.
However, at later stages, corrosion of copper-bearing
low-carbon steel reduces due to formation of an adherent,
more impervious protective rust layer [2, 9].
The corrosion resistance of steel is also influenced by its
processing history. Grain size plays an important role in
pitting corrosion [10]. The corroded plate exhibited non-
uniform grains (Fig. 3) due to the processing schedule of
plate. An equiaxed, uniform, and moderate grain size is
preferred and can be achieved by control of slab-soaking
temperature and rolling schedule of plate. Because elon-
gated ferrite grains, local regions with high dislocation
density, and the banded pearlite promote the formation of
microgalvanic cells, the microstructure of the steel con-
tributed to the corrosion. To obtain optimum grain size,
FRT of plates has been maintained in the recrystallized
austenite region. This favored formation of equiaxed ferrite
grains of moderate size after c fi a transformation.
Welding is the preferred fabrication procedure for the
evaporator vessels. The weld pool on freezing has regions
of varying composition. Heterogeneity builds up micro-
galvanic activity primarily due to formation of interstitial-
rich and interstitial-depleted areas. The HAZ has varying
grain sizes and microstructures due to weld thermal cycle.
Although improper welding may influence pitting corro-
sion in HAZ, it is usually the regions near the fusion line
that are highly affected. A cleaner steel and good welding
191
practice reduces the heterogeneity of weld zone and thus
reduces the tendency toward pitting corrosion. Fabrication
of an evaporator using this low-carbon steel led to superior
performance in service.
Conclusions
The investigation of the corroded plate from the evaporator
vessel revealed that the steel used for fabrication was
ordinary mild steel that contained a relatively high con-
centration of stringer-type inclusions. The steel also
exhibited a nonuniform grain structure with pearlitic bands.
The use of a low-carbon, low-sulfur steel with copper
additions together with processing in a recrystallized
austenite regime and use of optimum cross rolling at
intermediate stage led to superior performance of evapo-
rator vessels in sugar industry.
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