A Course of the English Verb

The verb is that part of speech which denotes actions such as: to go, processes in
the form of actions: to sleep, to lay or the appearance or modification of a characteristic
or attitude such as: to weaken, to harden. Verbs in English can be classified under
different heads such as in accordance with:
a. composition;
b. derivation;
c. basic forms;
d. semantic content;
e. lexical aspect and predication.
a. According to their composition English verbs fall into:
- simple;
- compound;
- complex;
- verbal phrases.
Simple verbs are verbs which can not be decomposed into further morphological
units or elements: go, like, hate, come etc.
Compound verbs, on the other hand, are verbs which can be decomposed into one
or more morphological units ( parts of speech) which are formed of two or more parts of
speech, which are written together and contribute to the respective meaning.
It is to be stressed that compound verbs are a perfect semantic fusion.
For example, compound verbs may be formed by:
- a noun+ a verb: way( noun) + lay ( verb) = waylay ( verb) – a tine calea;
- an adjective + a verb: white ( adj) + wash ( verb) = whitewash ( verb) - a
varui;
- an adverb + a verb: broad ( adv) + cast ( verb) = broadcast ( verb)

In the case of such compounds, the grammatical fusion is so strong that

they are inflected to the end of the 3rd person conjugation: whitewashes,
broadcasted.
Complex verbs are disconnected: verb + an adverbial particle or a
preposition combinations which may function or may not function as a semantic
fusion. Special attention should be paid to the combination of verbs with adverbs
in which there is no semantic fusion between the two words in the sense that
questions may be asked in connection with the respective complex verbs.
Compare, for example: come in, go out, which are a verb + an adverb
combination with such a combination as: to look after, to look out to, to look out,
when one has semantic fusion.
 Such combinations ( complex verbs) as: to look after, to look for, to look
up to are also called phrasal verbs.

Verbal phrases are a verb + a nominal part combination in which the

respective verb diminishes its lexical value and the nominal element becomes
predominant: to have a look ( = to look), to have a try ( =to try) and the like.
In point of their derivation, there are the following types:
a. verbs formed by prefixation that is the addition of prefixes in front of a
noun or adjective to form verbs: danger- to indanger, noble- to inoble, large- to
inlarge.
b. verbs formed by suffixation: light+ en= lighten, broad+ en = broaden,
solid+ ify= solidify, vandal+ ize= vandalize, local+ ize = localize.
Conversion is a prolific way of forming verbs in English according to
which a number of nouns, adjectives, adverbs and pronouns are converted into
verbs just by placing the infinitival particle to in front and treating them as verbs
proper.
The nouns: paper- to paper; book-to book; black- to black; blue- to
blue; down – to down prices.

Classification of verbs in point of their basic forms

There are three basic forms in English as follows:
a. the Indefinite Infinitive form: to go;
b. the Past Tense Indicative form: went, looked;
c. the Past Participle form: gone, looked.
All these three forms are considered basic forms on account of their
extensive usage in the conjugation of the English verb as well as in the formation of its
nonfinite ( non-personal) forms.
As can be seen from the above classification, English irregular verbs have
special forms for Past Tense and Past Participle.
A small group of verbs, the modal inflective verbs have either two forms
or even one form only. For example: can/ could, shall/ should, but ought to.
There are the following spelling rules of regular verbs in their Past Simple
and Past Participle.
Final consonants of verbs are compressed if the preceding vowel sound is short
and stressed. As an observation to this, one should remember that one syllable verbs are
considered stressed.
For example: stoop [ stu:p] – stooped (it is not stressed) / stop [ stop] – stopped
(it is stressed) , develop[ di’ velop] - developped.
Verbs ending in the consonant letter l double it no matter whether the respective
syllable is stressed or not in British English while in American English l is only doubled
when the last syllable is stressed. Thus we have travelled in British English and traveled
in American English.
On the other hand, we do have compel – compelled both in British and American
English.
The final e of the Infinitive is dropped when adding the –ed ending: love- loved.
The final y passes into i + the respective –ed ending: verify- verified.
 In point of pronunciation, the following rules are to be observed:
Verbs ending in a vowel sound or in all the voiced consonants with the
exception of do get the phonetic [ d]:
to verify – verified; to bob- bobbed; to gag- gagged;
Verbs ending in voiceless consonant sounds with the exception of
consonant t get this consonant sound in pronunciation:
to look- looked; to wash- washed
Verbs ending in the consonant t, d get the phonetic [id]:
to loot- looted; to trust- trusted.

Classification of verbs in point of semantic content

According to this classification, verbs fall into:

a. Principal or notional verbs which have a full lexical meaning and do not
specifically need any other grammatical means when used as verbs: to love, to hate etc.
b. Non-principal which have a diminished lexical value or no lexical value at all
as is the case of auxiliary verbs.

Classification of verbs in point of lexical aspect and predication

In point of their lexical aspect which is some kind of implied duration expressed
by the respective verbs, they fall into:
a. durative verbs;
b. time/ point verbs
c. verbs of double aspect.
Durative verbs express actions or states which last in time such as: to exist, to
live, to work;
Time/ Point verbs express actions which occur in a fraction of time: to stop, to
start, to blow up etc.
Verbs of aspect may be used either as durative verbs or time/ point verbs in
different contexts.
For example:
Compare the lexical meaning or aspect of the verb hear:
She hears well. // She heard a noise in the pantry.
In point of their predication that is their capacity of making sense by themselves
or with the help of other grammatical means, verbs fall into: transitive verbs ( which as a
matter of fact are also principal or notional verbs) and verbs of incomplete predication
which only make sense in connection with principal notional verbs which is the case of:
English auxiliary verbs, English link verbs, English modal defective verbs.
Link verbs are a special category of verbs of incomplete predication. They are
connected to a nominal part (called the predicative) in order to form the so-called
nominal predicate.
There are special cases when a verb may have a noun attached to it both as an
object or as a predicative and a difference between the two ways in which the same verb
is used that is as a notional- transitive verb of complete predication or as a link verb is
shown by the possibility or impossibility of putting this verb into the passive voice.
For example, in the sentence:
He made a fine soldier, the verb made is replaceable by the auxiliary was which
makes it a link verb and the passive transformation is not possible, while in the sentence:
They made a fine soldier out of him, the verb made is also a verb of full
predication and the passive transformation is possible:
He was made a fine soldier by them.

Auxiliary verbs
An auxiliary verb is a verb devoid of any lexical (semantic) value by means of
which different tenses and moods are formed in English. A special category is formed by
the so-called modal verbs which are, in fact, semi-auxiliary verbs that verbs which apart
from not having all the conjugation possibility as the other auxiliary verbs proper, they
also express different modal connotations of command, interdiction, request, supposition,
probability, improbability etc. There are the following proper auxiliary verbs in English:
To have
It helps the formation of the perfect tenses in English that is the Present Perfect
and Past Perfect as well as the formation of the Perfect Infinitive [the infinitive to have +
the past participle form of the respective verb]: to have- to have had; to be- to have been,
and finally the Perfect Gerund and the Perfect Participle forms of the verbs in English.
Compare:
Having finished work, they left for home.
with:
My having gone there was a terrible accident.
In the first example, the structure having finished represents the perfect participle
form of the verb to finish, having the syntactic function of an adverbial modifier of time.
In the second example, the structure having gone is a perfect gerund form and not
a participle form because in this context it behaves rather than a noun preceded by an
adjective, in this case a possessive pronominal adjective answering the question: who’s
going?, who’s having gone?, than a verb.
To be
The auxiliary to be is used to form:
a. The continuous aspect in English verbs;
b. The Passive Voice of the English verbs.
To do
The auxiliary verb to do is used to form the interrogative and negative forms of an
English verb in the Present Tense and Past Tense conjugations of Indicative Mood.
Observation: The same auxiliary to do with its forms do/ did is used emphatically
in front of otherwise affirmative Present Tense and Past Tense Indicative Mood forms
such as in:
I do like it. He does go there many times. He did do it.
Observation: The auxiliary verb to do is not used in an interrogative sentence in
connection with the Present Tense Simple Aspect or Past Tense Simple Aspect situation
when the subject of the respective sentence is expressed by the interrogative pronouns
who, what or which.
Examples: Who comes next? Who did it? What happened?
The same applies to subjects within which the pronouns what and which function
as attributes.
Examples: Which boy comes next? What question you like best?
Shall/ Will
They help the formation of the Future Tense proper as well as of the Future
Perfect Tense Indicative Mood.
Example: By the time we arrive there, George will already have gone.
Should/ Would
They help the formation of the Future in the Past, of the Future Perfect in the
Past and of the Conditional Perfect forms of the same verbs.
To let
This auxiliary verb helps the formation of some imperative – first and third
singular and plural person forms such as:
Let him do it! Let us do it!

Modal auxiliary verbs (also called modal defective verbs)

It is common knowledge that any linguistic utterance beside transmitting
information proper, it also expresses an attitude of the speaker towards the respective
communication, attitude which may be intellective, expressing the speaker’s attitude,
curiosity, lack of curiosity, agreement, disagreement as well as volitive expressing
determination, lack of determination, authority, lack of authority and above all emotional
expressing: pleasure, sympathy, lack of sympathy etc.
There are the following modal verbs in English: shall/ should; will/ would; may/
might; can/could; must; ought to; need; dare.
There are the following characteristics of modal verbs:
- they are followed by a short infinitive or perfect infinitive;
- they don’t have long infinitive;
- they don’t have forms for past participle or for present participle (-ing);
- they don’t have all the basic forms, so they can not be conjugated in certain
tenses or moods; some of them have modal equivalents such as:
can- to be able to;
may- to be allowed to, to be permitted to;
must- to have to;
will- to want to.
- they do not take the –s ending in the third person of Present Tense, Indicative
Mood;
- they add the negation not for their negative forms and change places with the
subject for their interrogative forms.
Modal verbs have a weaken lexical value expressing the way in which the speaker
considers the action or state expressed by the respective verb such as: necessary,
obligatory, desired, possible, probable, improbable etc.
Shall expresses:
- offer: Shall I help you carry your bags?
- determination, resolution: Students shall attend classes regularly.
- promise ( in the second and third person): You shall have a present for your
birthday.
- threat ( in the second and third person) : You shall do that whether you like it
or not.
- interdiction: People shall not bring dogs in the hotel.
Should expresses:
- present duty ( obligation) : You should pay your debts to the bank.
- past duty ( obligation) : You should have contacted him as soon as you
arrived there.
- advice or opinion: You should do more exercise if you want to lose weight.
- present wish (in the first person singular with the verb to like) : I should like
to see this concert.
- past wish: I should have liked to go to the concert but I couldn’t find my
tickets.
- regulations, stipulations: The form should be filled in according to the pattern.
- probability or deduction: The train should be coming into the railway station.
- surprise, disbelief, protest, revolt: How should I come when I know he cannot
stand me? ; Why should he do this job?
- future chance ( in conditional sentences) : If anyone should call, tell
everybody that I am out of town.

Will expresses:
- promise, determination ( in the first person): I will do that, I refuse to be
defeated.
- habitual persistence ( in the second and third person): If you will smoke, you
will get ill.
- command or rule: You will stay here until I tell you to go.
- refusal ( in the negative): I will not go on that trip.
- invitation: Will you join us at the party?
- polite request: Will you, please, close the window?
- habitual/ repeated action in the present: Every Sunday they will visit their
grandparents.
- supposition or deduction in the present: He will be there by now.

Would expresses:
- past refusal: I told him not to go there but he wouldn’t listen.
- habitual/ repeated action in the past: When we were younger, we would go out
very often.
- polite request or invitation: Would you mind waiting here?
- distrust, suspicion, unbelievable fact ( in the second person) : You wouldn’t
do that!

May expresses:
- granting of permission: You may leave when the meeting is over.
 - official interdiction: You may not leave before finishing your work.
- polite request or refuse: May I use your phone? ; I’m sorry, you may not.
- possibility or probability (in the future or present): Mary may be working in
the garden at this hour. ; It may rain tomorrow.
- suggestion ( may + as well): You may as well take a bus if you don’t find a
cab.
Might expresses:
- polite request ( more polite than may) : If you don’t mind, I might ask you
something.
- possibility or supposition ( in the future or present): She might come today.
- reproach or complaint: You might have told us the dog was in the garden.
- annoyance, irritation, dissatisfaction: You might tell me the truth.
Can expresses:
- physical or intellectual skill: He can speak English very well. ; He can see the
bird flying.
- inability ( in the negative): Grandfather is getting old; he cannot hear very
well and cannot see without his glasses.
- logical impossibility: She can’t be German, she has French accent.
- permission: Can I pay by credit card, please?
- official interdiction: You can’t smoke in the hospital.
- request or offer of help: Can I ask you something?
Could expresses:
- physical or intellectual ability in the past: He could speak Spanish when he
was a child.
- logical impossibility: You couldn’t have met my father, he is not in town.
- permission: You could go into the doctor’s office when the previous patient
went out.
Must expresses:
- obligation: You must come back now.
- order or persuasive invitation: You must leave at once.
- interdiction: You must not move your leg when it is broken.
- logical deduction or strong possibility: The building must be very old.
Ought to expresses:
- moral obligation: You ought to call your mother at least once a week.
Need expresses:
- necessary or unnecessary action: I doubt whether anyone need know.;
You need not go to the office in week-ends.
Dare expresses:
- daring: Very few people dared speak up at the reunion.
 The grammatical categories of the English verb

The English verb has four specific grammatical categories: voice, aspect, mood
and tense as well as two other categories which are also common to other parts of speech:
person and number.
Voice is the grammatical category expressing the relation between the subject of a
sentence and the direct object in the sentence.
In English, there are two voices proper: active voice and passive voice.
Active voice shows that the action or state expressed by the predicative verb is
performed by the respective grammatical subject.
Example: John invited all his friends to his birthday party.
Passive voice shows that the action expressed by the predicative verb is suffered
by the grammatical subject.
Example: All of John’s friends were invited to his birthday party.
The passive form of an English principal verb is made up of the auxiliary to be
which is conjugated in the required mood, aspect and tense as well as form ( affirmative,
negative, interrogative) followed by the past participle form of the verb to be conjugated.

Passive Voice

When an active voice turns in a passive voice form there are two situations:
a. the subject of the active construction becomes an expressed or
unexpressed object of instrument or object of agency in the respective passive
construction, while the direct object of the active construction becomes the subject of the
new passive construction.
Example: John broke the window.
The window was broken by John.
b. an indirect object in an active construction becomes the subject of a
passive construction and the formal subject ( object of agency).
I gave George a new chance.
A new chance was given to George by me.
George was given a new chance by me.
Observation: As a rule, Passive Voice forms are not used in the continuous aspect
in the Perfect Tenses of Indicative Mood or in the Conditional Perfect forms. However,
passive forms are used in the Present Tense Continuous affirmative, more rarely in the
negative as well as in the Past Tense Continuous Indicative Mood.
Example: They are reading a good book now.
A good book is being read (by them) now.
He was writing a letter yesterday at five o’clock.
A letter was being written (by him) yesterday at five o’clock.
 A special type of passive is to be found especially in colloquial speech in the
present form of the verb to get instead of the auxiliary to be which is conjugated in its
past, present or future tense followed by the respective past participle notional ( principal)
verb.
Sentences containing such a construction do not, as a rule, include the real subject
the form of an adverbial modifier of agency.
Example: Thousand of people get killed or injured on Romanian roads each year.
Special care should be taken when the verb get is used as a link verb of becoming
in apparently passive constructions such as: to get dressed, to get bored, to get excited/
scared etc.
Similarly, the construction to get used to should be understood as a link verb of
being + an adjectival construction represented either by an -ing form or by a noun or a
noun equivalent.
For example: Although he has never driven a foreign made car, he is now getting
used to driving his Audi.
Although she’s not used to getting up early, she is doing her best to
go to work in time.
Elliptical passive
There are cases of ellipsis in passive constructions especially in relative
subordinate clauses.
Example: By orders from the police, all cars illegally parked (all cars which have
been parked) have been craned onto tracks and taken to a special parking lot.

The use of Passive Voice in English

Although the meaning of an active construction does not differ from its passive
counter part, there are not perfect semantic synonyms particularly because of the sentence
stress which renders the meaning of one or the other sentence part more prominent.
There are about the following cases of passive voice instead of active voice
construction as follows:
a. When the active subject is difficult to be established.
Example: Apparently the house has not been lived in for many years.
b. When, for some reason or other, the active voice subject is not worth
mentioning.
Example: They were shown round the garden first and then they were invited in.
c. When the passive grammatical subject is the all important element in the
sentence.
Example: Ben Jonson was banned from all official rights for alleged drug usage.
There are cases in English when a passive sense may be implied in certain English
verbs which as a matter of fact are not in the passive voice.
This coat wears well. (se poartă bine)
The flowers sold quickly. (s-au vandut bine)
The field did not flood. (n-a fost inundat)
As can be noticed from the above examples, a possible direct object from an
active construction is used as a grammatical subject in a construction which preserves an
active voice structure with a definite passive meaning.
For example: The overflowing water flooded the field.
 The field did not flood. instead of The field was not flooded.

Grammatical aspect of English verbs

The English language has the grammatical category of aspect represented by

special grammatical patterns or morphological forms of the English verb which allow one
to distinguish between durative or non-durative character of the action or state expressed
by the respective verb.
This distinction is made by contrasting two sets of verbal forms on the principal
of the use or non-use of the pattern be + indefinite participle.
Observation: Although from a theoretical point of view, an English verb can be
conjugated in all moods, tenses and forms, in real practice, the continuous aspect is
almost never used in negative perfect tenses.
Although, I shall have been finishing is possible, the simple aspect form is usually
used in such a tense: I shall have finished.
In actual practice, the usage or non- usage of simple aspect forms or of continuous
aspect forms of different forms is determined as the following:
1. their lexical meaning;
2. their grammatical tense;
3. their different determiners.
As to no. 1. there is the case of the time/ point verbs whose action is understood
as instantaneous.
For example, one can hardly say something like: The athletes were starting when
they heard the pistol shot.
On the other hand, in point of no. 2., there are time/ point verbs which are used in
the continuous aspect when the action denoted by them is viewed as repeated.
The spectators were standing up and sitting down while cheering the singer.
As concerning no. 3.:
While they drove home, they had a long discussion about what had happened.
There are the following cases when the continuous aspect is not as a rule used:
a. in the case of some English verbs whose basic meaning excludes their
possibility to be used in a continuous aspect: to belong, to posses, to seem, to exist;
b. the English auxiliary to be when it expresses existence.
Observation: The same verb to be is used in the continuous aspect to express a
temporary state or a temporary quality.
Example: Leave little Johnny alone! He is just being naughty.
Compare with: John is naughty. (He is generally naughty).
c. the so-called verbs of perception: to see, to hear, to smell are not used in
the continuous aspect with their basic meaning, but they can be used in the continuous
aspect when the speaker implies the voluntary use or the voluntary exertion of the
respective sense.
Compare: He sees well although he is very old.
with: You are seeing things.
Observation: The same verb to see is used in the continuous aspect with a change
of meaning such as in:
The doctor is just seeing the patient.
 I’m seeing John tomorrow.

Finite and non-finite forms of the English verb

The traditional forms of the English verb fall into two categories:
a. personal or finite that is: the Indicative, the Imperative, the Conditional, the
Subjunctive;
b. impersonal or non-finite that is: the Infinitive, the Gerund and the Participle.
The personal forms of the English verb are directly connected to the subject and
they perform in the sentence the function of predicate or part of a predicate.
Like in Romanian grammar, they are called Moods. The impersonal forms of the
English verb are not as a rule connected to the subject and even when they enter some
implied predicative relations with the agent of the action, they only fulfill secondary
functions in the sentence. These forms are not considered moods in modern English
grammar.

The category of mood in English verbs

The main grammatical category is the category of mood and it expresses the
modality in which the speaker considers the action or state expressed by the verb as being
real, desirable or ordered, presupposed, advised or requested. In contemporary English,
the grammatical mood of the verb is also connected to its other categories of tense, voice
and aspect.

Tenses of the Indicative Mood

In strictly chronological order, starting from the past, there are the following
tenses of the Indicative Mood: Past Perfect, Past Tense or Preterite, Present Perfect,
Present Tense, Future Perfect and Future Tense.

The Present Tense Indicative Mood- active voice

By a simplified definition the grammatical tense called present expresses an

action or state which holds good at the present moment of speaking. In reality, the
Present Tense may also be used as referring to the past in the case of the so-called
historic past, in order to make a description seem present and vivid in historical accounts
as well as in dramatic speech descriptions, in fiction and at the same time it may also be
used as referring to the future in conditional subordinate clauses or in main sentences
having a future reference such as in :
The train leaves in five minutes.
 In point of form, the Present Tense Simple coincides with the indefinite short
Infinitive in all persons with the exception of the third person singular which, apart from
the case of modal verbs, ends in –s.

The interrogative form of the Present Tense Simple is made up with the help of
the auxiliary to do conjugated in the Present Tense Simple interrogative form and
followed by the short Indefinite Infinitive of the English verb.
Examples: Do I come?
Does he/ she come?
Did he come?
The negative form of the Simple Present is made up with the help of the auxiliary
to do, conjugated in the Present Tense negative form and followed by the Indefinite short
Infinitive.
There are the following rules to be observed when adding the –s ending in the
third person singular:
a. Verbs ending in –y preceded by a consonant change –y into –i and add a linking
-e plus the -s ending:
I try- he tries;
b. Verbs ending in –ss, -sh, -ch, -x, -zz add –es:
I fuss- he fusses; I wash- he washes; I couch- he couches; I buzz-he
buzzes.
c. The verbs to do and to go as well as their compounds add –es.
d. The verbs to be and to have have an irregular Present Tense conjugation.
e. Modal verbs do not add –s in the third person singular.
f. In all the other cases, when verbs end in vowels or in a consonant, the –s ending
is added.
Uses of the Present Tense Simple:
1. to denote some general or universal truth as well as some general statement:
The sun rises in the East and sets in the West.
Water freezes at zero degrees Celsius.
2. to denote some action, state or ability which characterizes the subject:
The herbivores feed on grass.
He speaks three foreign languages.
3. to denote habitual or recurrent actions or states often with the help of an adverb
or adverbial phrase of frequency such as: always, often, seldom, usually, ever, never,
whenever, every day, on weekends, as a rule, repeatedly, now and then, from time to
time:
He sits up late every night.
He never misses news on the radio.
Whenever he visits us, he brings his dog along with him.
4. to show that the action simply occurs without stressing the idea of being in
progress:
We acknowledge receipt of your letter sent yesterday.
5. with verbs expressing movements in radio or sports commentaries and
interviews, in exclamations, for dramatic narrative when describing the action of a play,
opera, game etc.:
 There comes John.
There goes your train.
The whole team presses forward in a last attempt to appropriate victory.
When the curtain rises, Juliet is sitting at the desk.
The phone rings, she picks it up and listens quietly.
6. to introduce quotations directly or indirectly when the respective introductory
verb does not express an action which is going on at the present moment of speaking.
Rabelais says: Appetite comes with eating.
7. instead of the Present Perfect of some verbs denoting pieces of information
such as: to hear, to forget, to learn, to tell, to be told, to understand, to write.
I learn he is no longer in hospital.
I hear he has moved to another town.
I’m told he’s not a man to be trusted.
8. It is used instead of the Past Tense as a historic or narrative present, a case in
which it renders some past events more vivid and dramatic.
I went in and closed the door.
Suddenly a voice calls out of the dark and startles me.
This narrative present is very rarely used in spoken English, being characteristic
of literary English language.
9. The Present Tense is used instead of the future in conditional or concessive
subordinate clauses as well as in time clauses. In such a case, it is used after such
subordinators as: if, assuming that, presuming that, provided that, given that, unless, even
if, in case, whatever, after, once, until, as soon as, before, whenever etc.
If he comes again, I will not speak to him.
When you grow up you will be allowed to do whatever you want.
Even if the meeting is cancelled, we will continue to work on the project.
10.After such verbs as: to hope, to suppose, to assume used in the imperative, the
Present Tense can often be used instead of the will+ infinitive future.
I hope that he comes in time.
Let’s assume our opponents win the elections.
 The Present Continuous Tense

The Present Tense Continuous form of an English verb denotes present tense. It
is, as a rule, used for actions or states happening now in the present moment of speaking
or happening in a period of time including the present moment of speaking.
Compare, for example:
Look! It is snowing outside. ( now/ at this very moment)
Have you heard it? John is writing a book. ( he started writing it days/
months before the present moment of speaking and supposedly he is doing it at the
present moment of speaking and it’s going to be writing it days/ months after the present
moment of speaking.
The Present Tense Continuous form is not always marked by time markers
of the type: now, at this very moment etc. As a rule, the English speakers understand this
continuous tense to mean right now or a period including right now.
When time markers are used, especially for emphasis, they are, besides the usual
ones: now, right now, at present, combinations of: this week, this month, this year, this
very moment, these days/ months/ years, also today, at the moment etc.

The form of the Continuous Aspect

All the forms of the Present Continuous aspect are formed with the help of the
auxiliary verb to be, which is conjugated for the respective affirmative, interrogative and
negative forms followed by the indefinite/ present participle form of the verb to be
conjugated.
Observation: In current speech, one employs the respective contracted forms of
the auxiliary to be such as: I’m, You’re, He’s/ She’s/ It’s, We’re, You’re, They’re
reading... // I’m not, You aren’t, He/ She/ It isn’t, We aren’t, You aren’t, They aren’t
doing this now.

Rules concerning the spelling of the indefinite participle/ of forming the indefinite
participle

a. When an infinitive verb ends in –e, it drops that –e before the –ing:
like- liking; love- loving; live- living, hope- hoping
Observation: This rule does not apply when an infinitive verb ends in double e:
see- seeing; agree- agreeing.
 b. When an one syllable verb, which only has one letter vowel, ends in one
consonant, the respective consonant is doubled:
drop- dropping, stop- stopping, hop- hopping.

Observation: When there are two letters- vowel, the consonant is not doubled.
stop - stopping but stoop - stooping
c. Verbs of two or more syllables whose last syllable contains one vowel letter
and ends in a single consonant, double the respective consonant if that final syllable is
stressed and contains one vowel- letter.
forget- forgetting
d. The consonant letter –l is however always doubled in British English as
opposed to American English.
travel- travelling ( British English) / travel- traveling ( American English)

Use of the Present Continuous

Present Continuous is used:

a. to express actions or states occurring at the very present moment of speaking:
It is drizzling outside now.
b. to express/ denote an act or state characteristic of the subject at about this
present time/ moment of speaking ( including a previous past moment/ the present
moment of speaking and perhaps some period of future time).
John’s brother is living in the country side. ( He started living some time
ago, he is living there now and he is going to live there for some years).
c. to express a definite arrangement in the near future usually with a suitable
adverbial modifier of near future time such as: tonight, tomorrow, next week, this
summer, this coming winter etc.
What are we having for dinner? ( needs no further time markers such as
tonight, but it is clear from the context that the action expressed by the continuous form is
not actually taking place at the very moment of speaking, but it is going to take place
after some minutes/ hours/ the very moment of speaking).
When are you going to the country side? ( The speaker clearly has in mind
a near future appointment in real time such as: for the weekend, tomorrow, anyway, a
period of time understood as ceaselessly).
How long are they staying in Paris?
Who else is coming to the party tomorrow night?
d. with such adverbs as: always, forever, constantly, all the time, incessantly,
ceaselessly etc., the present continuous form is used for actions which to the speaker
seem either annoying, disturbing, unreasonable and the like.
Wife about husband: Tom is always going away for the weekends to see his
parents in the country-side.
It is forever snowing here.
 On the other hand, the continuous form of the verb, which is not as a rule
conjugated in the continuous aspect, such as the auxiliary verb to be, is used to show that
an action or state is temporary.

Verbs which are not as a rule used in the continuous aspect include:
- state verbs: to belong to, to concern, to consist of, to contain, to cost, to depend
on, to deserve, to hold, to keep on, to matter, to owe, to own, to possess, to resemble.
Compare:
How much does this dictionary cost? with
God knows what this meal is costing me! (temporary meaning)
- perception verbs: to see, to hear, to look, to feel, to smell, to sound, to seem, to
appear, to taste.
I hear whenever you slam the door.
Can you hear the wind?
- emotion and wishing verbs: to want, to prefer, to intend to, to refuse, to forgive,
to hope, to like, to dislike, to love, to hate, to enjoy, to wish, to desire, can’t stand/ can’t
bear etc.
I like coffee cream.
I hate it. I prefer orange cream.
But: What a hat! I am hating it! (temporary feeling)
- verbs of thinking: to think, to feel, to imagine, to know, to mean, to suppose, to
understand, to believe, to realize, to doubt, to agree, to note, to remember, to forget, to
suspect, to consider, to expect etc.
I thought that they would dine out. ( state)
But: Be quiet! I am thinking. ( activity)
Observation: There are exceptions in connection with the above mentioned verbs,
cases in which the respective verbs either change their basic means or the action or state
expressed by them is stressed upon.
The doctor is just seeing the patient. ( to consult)
The manager is seeing the new employee tomorrow. ( to meet)
I’m seeing it tomorrow. ( to arrange)
I’ve been hearing all about it lately. ( receiving news)
Stop talking, please! I’m hearing a strange sound coming from the cellar.
( I’m making efforts to hear.)
How do you like life at University?
I’m loving it. ( to enjoy)
 The Present Perfect Tense

The Present Perfect Tense is a grammatical tense which refers to past and/ or
present together.
For example: If the verb has a durative association, its present perfect form
signifies that an action or a condition which was begun in a certain moment in the past,
still continues at the present moment or when a verb has no durative association, a
present perfect form shows that an action or condition happened in the past, but has some
visible or implied consequences on the present moment of speaking.
Thirdly, a present perfect form of a verb may refer to an action or condition
performed/ fulfilled in an indefinite moment of past time which can go back in time to
our earliest memories.

Form of the Present Perfect

The Present Perfect tense form of a verb, simple aspect, is formed with the help of
present tense affirmative forms of the auxiliary to have which is conjugated for the other
interrogative- negative forms followed by the past participle form of the verb to be
conjugated.
Observation: In current speech or when one wants to render other people’s
speech, the respective contracted forms of the auxiliary are used.
I have/ I’ve / I haven’t been there before.
You’ve/ You haven’t
He’s/ She’s/ It’s/ He hasn’t/ She hasn’t/ It hasn’t

Use of the Present Perfect Tense

It is used:
1. to show (express) a recently finished action usually with the help of the adverb
just.
They have just arrived.
Such a combination is chiefly used in the affirmative, and very rarely in the
interrogative. When one uses a Present Perfect Tense form to show a negative action in
connection with a period of past time which is close to the present moment of speaking,
the adverb to be used is yet and not just.
They have just arrived.
They have not arrived yet.
Have they arrived yet?
2. to express a past action whose time is not given and not definite.
I have seen this movie.
 I have been there before. (some time in the past).
3. to express an action which has happened in an indefinite period of past time, of
an incomplete period of past time in conjunction with the adverbs: lately, recently, yet, so
far, already, almost, always, ever, never and with combinations of this, these, these past
days etc.
I haven’t seen him lately. ( indefinite period of past time).
I’ve worked a lot this week. ( incomplete period)
4. to express an action beginning in a past moment of time and still continuing in
the present moment of speaking ( when one wants to stress the continuity of the
respective action, one also uses the Present Perfect Continuous).
He has lived here all his life.
I have smoked since I left school.

The Present Perfect Continuous

The present perfect continuous form is formed with the help of the auxiliary to be
which is conjugated in the affirmative, negative, interrogative and interrogative-negative
forms followed by the indefinite participle form of the verb to be conjugated.
Observation: in current speech the respective contracted forms are used.
I have been talking for five minutes.
I’ve been talking for five minutes.

Use of the Present Perfect Continuous

Observation: The same verbs which as a rule are not used in the continuous aspect
are not used in the present perfect continuous form as well.
Present Perfect Continuous is used:
1. to express an action which began in the past, has unfolded toward the present
moment of speaking and has just only finished before the present moment of speaking.
Have you been waiting long? (evidently you are no longer waiting)
I’ve just been talking to the owner of the shop and he said he could offer
you a temporary job for the summer. ( Present Perfect Continuous implies the idea of an
action which has just finished)
I’ve talked to the owner of the shop ( I did it past, in a certain moment in
the past).
2. for an action which began in a certain moment in the past and has or not
continued into the present moment of speaking.
I’ve been living in this town for twenty years. ( and I’m still living)
Observation: The same idea can be expressed with the Present Perfect Simple
Tense form with the difference that by using a Present Perfect Continuous, the speaker
lays stress on the continuing character of the action over the period implied and also on
its continuity at the present moment of speaking.

Comparison between Present Perfect Simple and Present Perfect Continuous

1. Observation: When the idea is of an action which began in the past and still
continues or has just finished, either form can be used (the difference being one of
emphasis in the case of the continuous form).
I’ve lived here for 20 years.
I’ve been living here for 20 years.
I’ve wanted to teach him a lesson for a very long time.
I’ve been wanting to teach him a lesson for a very long time.
The special usage of the verb to want points to that feeling expressed in its high
degree, apart from the usage of the simple form which expresses something which has
been done in the past.
2. A repeated action in the Present Perfect Simple tense can be expressed in the
Present Perfect Continuous tense with the following difference: the Present Perfect
Simple form allows one to use a numeral to count the number of times the respective
action has taken place while with the Continuous Present Perfect form no such thing is
possible.
Compare: I’ve written six letters since breakfast.
I’ve been writing several letters since morning. ( a repeated action is
suggested, but the number of actions is not mentioned).
Observation: With Present Perfect Continuous the exact number of actions can’t
be specified.
What have you been doing today?
I have been doing things around the house.
Obervation1: The Present Perfect Continuous form of the verb can be used with
or without a time phrase to express an action which began in the past and is still
continuing or has just only finished, while the Present Perfect Simple form can only do
these things with the help of suitable adverbs: just, often, always, ever, lately etc.
Compare: I’ve been thinking it over.
I’ve thought it over lately.
Observation 2: Remember that without a time expression a Simple Present Perfect
form only refers to one past completed action.
I’ve talked to John and he says…
I’ve talked to John only once. ( some time in an indefinite past period of time
which is not worth mentioning it).
I’ve talked to John several times.
I’ve just talked to John.
I’ve been talking to John and he says…
 The Past Tense Simple

The affirmative form of this tense for regular verbs is formed with the help of –ed
ending which is added to the short indefinite infinitive form of the verb to be conjugated.
Observation: When a verb ends in the letter -e, that –e is dropped
to cook- cooked but to like- liked.
The negative, interrogative and interrogative- negative forms are built by
conjugating the past tense form of the auxiliary to do – did followed by the short
indefinite infinitive form of the respective verb:
He did not play.
He didn’t play.
Did he play?
Didn’t he play?

Usage of the Simple Past Tense

The basic use of the Simple Past Tense in English is to describe ( to express) one
complete action in a definite moment in the past or to denote states or actions occurring at
a definite moment in the past. Sometimes, even in a definite interval of past time.
The respective past moments or intervals are as a rule expressed by time- markers
or are clearly understood from the context of the communication. In detail, there are the
following uses:
a. for actions or states belonging to a definite past time marked by such time
markers as: a few moments ago, yesterday, last week, last year etc. as well as by specific
points of time with the help of such preposition as: in, at ( at seven o’clock), on ( on
Monday), in ( in that week).
Compare: I didn’t see him two minutes ago.
I haven’t seen him since he left.
b. when the specific time of the past action is asked about especially with the
interrogative adverb when:
When did you see him?
When did you meet him?
c. when a Past Tense Simple aspect form is supposed to denote repeated actions
or states which occurred in a definite period of past time which is either mentioned with
the help of such adverbs of frequency: every day, often, always, repeatedly, sometimes,
rarely, ever, never whose frequentative character is specifically placed in a definite
period of past time either by the context or by the presence of an adverb of definite time
such as:
 When we were younger (definite period of time, we are not so young
anymore) we always/ very rarely/ often/ never went out and danced all night.
Observation: The idea of a repeated customary action in the past can also be
expressed with the help of the modal auxiliary would (slightly stressed in speech)
followed by the short infinitive or with the help of the modal equivalent phrase used to:
When we were younger, we would go out a lot.
When we were younger, we used to spend our weekends out.
d. to express that an action or state did occur, clearly took place, even though this
time is not mentioned, but is known by both parties ( speaker and listener) or it only
exists in the speaker’s mind.
How did you get to know him?
Where did you meet this man?
Did you talk to John?
What did Helen tell you?
Observation: We usually use Present Perfect when we speak about the past in the
present moment.
e. to show that a series of actions happened or began to happen one after the other
in the past:
The thief drove into the car park, got out of his car, looked for a car
whose doors were not locked and when he found one, he went in to steal whatever he
found in there.
f. the Past Tense Simple aspect is the usual narrative tense to show actions which
took place in the past or to describe some future imaginary reality.
It had been a long day and John was tired. A touch and a scream set into
the real of the seat before him sprang to life.

Special uses of the Simple Past Tense

a. a special Past Tense Simple aspect replaces the Simple Present Tense in several
polite questions and request such as in:
A: What can I do for you?
B: I wanted to see you for a moment.
A: What did you want to talk to me about?
Observation: Such a situation is also to be met in indirect statements.
Our motifs were not a total refusal of any suggestions by the opposition.
The condition was though a change in the spirit of the respective proposals.
b. instead of The Past Continuous and assuming its function of showing
continuity, as past tense form of that action:
And Julia sat with Juan/ Half embraced/ And half retiring from the
glowing arm.
Observation: The Simple Past Tense may be used to show that two continuous
past actions were happening in parallel at the same time if the continuity of the respective
actions is shown clearly enough by the sense of the respective sentence or by the
presence of such conjunctions of duration such as while or whilst.
They were singing happily while they were driving home after their picnic.
They sang happily while they drove home after their picnic.
 They were singing happily while they drove after their picnic.
They sang happily while they were driving after their picnic.

c. a Past Tense Simple aspect form may be used instead of a Past Perfect form
such as before a subordinate clause introduced by the conjunction before or in
subordinate clauses in which the anteriority of the action which, as a rule, is expressed by
a Past Perfect form is clearly understood from the context.
John left before we arrived at the station.
John had already left when we arrived at the station.
When we arrived at the station, John had left.
d. the Past Tense Simple aspect form is the tense to be used to render the Simple
Present Tense in Indirect Speech (with the respective exceptions).
D.S.: I can’t come. I’m too tired.
I.S.: He said he couldn’t come because he was too tired.
But: D. S.: John is surely married. I went to his wedding party two weeks ago.
may become: I.S.: Jane said that John is surely married. She had been to his wedding
party two weeks ago.
e. a Past Tense Simple aspect form is used instead of the Future in the Past or
Future Perfect in the Past in temporal clauses.
When I last talked to John, he told me that he didn’t know when he would come to
see us, but he promised me that he would phone us as soon as he knew when he would
come.

The Past Continuous

The Past Continuous is formed with the help of the affirmative, negative,
interrogative and negative-interrogative of the auxiliary to be conjugated in its Past Tense
followed by the indefinite participle of the verb to be conjugated.
Observation: In current speech, the respective contracted forms of the auxiliary
are used.

Uses of the Past Continuous

a. to express an action which was continuous at a given moment of past time

( usually expressed by a suitable adverbial modifier of past time or by a whole time
subordinate clause).
Yesterday at 3 o’ clock p.m. I was talking over the phone with a friend.
When the accident happened, I was crossing the street myself.
b. to render the Present Continuous aspect in Indirect Speech.
D.S.: I’m going to fly to London tonight.
I.S.: That person said he was going to fly to London that night.
c. to express disapproval of an action or situation which in the speaker’s opinion
happened much too often or was happening at some moment in the past on a temporary
basis ( as is the case of the Present Continuous form used in similar circumstances). The
usage of Continuous Past Tense form expresses the speaker disapproval of some actions.
 Everybody is glad they’ve left the neighborhood. They were always
quarrelling with everybody.
In such cases of usage such adverbs of frequency as: always, all the time,
incessantly are also present. As a rule, with such adverbs, the simple aspect is used.
They always quarrel with everybody. ( but the continuous form is more
expressive)
I didn’t pay much attention to John. He was just being naughty.
d. to stress the idea that an action was continuous over a period of past time
between two extremities expressed with suitable adverbial modifiers of time: between…
and…, from… to…
Between the second and the seventh day of last month, they were staying
with the Smiths.
Observation: The usage of a continuous form in such situations is rather optional,
being a matter of stronger modality rather than of grammar proper, the Simple Past Tense
form is expressing almost the same thing.
Compare: Between the second and the seventh day of last month, they stayed with
the Smiths.
He can’t be the thief, Sir, between nine and eleven last night when you say the
burglary took place, I and John were playing chess at my place. (the speaker is trying to
be very convincing).

The Past Perfect Tense

The Past Perfect Tense is formed with the help of the auxiliary had which is
conjugated for the affirmative, negative, interrogative and negative-interrogative forms
followed by the past participle of the verb to be conjugated.
In current speech, the usual contracted forms of the auxiliary are used: I’d come, I
hadn’t come.
There are the following uses of the Past Perfect:
a. to show that an action took place before another past action: happened and
finished before a past moment of time which may be expressed by a suitable adverbial of
past time or before another finished past action.
By the end of that week, they had finished all their supplies so they had to
go and buy some more.
Yesterday at three o’clock in the afternoon, they had all come back from
Bucharest.
We had had lunch when the guests arrived at last. (the action was finished
before another action).
b. to show ( to express) an action which had begun before some mentioned or
unmentioned moment of past time and was still going on that past moment pointed in
time, or just stopped before it.
 In such cases the Past Perfect is used in connection with such words and
expressions which indicate the respective period of time such as: since, for, always,
never, just, yet, already.
When I met them, they had been married for ten years.
Compare with: They had been married. ( which only means that they were
married at some moment or for a period in the past, but no longer married in the present
moment of speaking).
The Past Tense and Past Perfect Tense in Time Clauses

a. Observation: The Past Simple Tense is used after the conjunction when in a
time subordinate clause when two simple past tenses forms: the one in the main clause
and the other in the time subordinate clause might give one the wrong impression that the
two actions happened simultaneously.
When he had told them everything he had to say, he sat down.
Compare with:
When he told them what he had to say, he sat down. ( told after when
suggests that the action of telling took place at the same time with the action of sitting).
Observation: When things are very clear from the context, when it is clearly
understood that one action followed the other in the sense that they didn’t happen
simultaneously, than two simple past tenses can be used in the respective sentence.
When he reached the house, he heard someone shutting inside.
When he thought better of it, he realized he still had a slim chance of
recovering part of his money.
When he got out of his car, someone started shutting at him.
When has a double meaning: - something happened on a certain moment;
- when in the sense of after.
Observation: However, when we wish to emphasis that the first action had taken
place before the second action, the Past Perfect is used after when.
When he had inspected the new building, the managing director
congratulated the builders for their perfect job.
b. When the Time Clause is introduced by the conjunction after, both Past Tense
and Past Perfect are used in alternation.
After he came/ had come // he finished / had finished the work.
c. with the adverbs: till, until or the adverbial compound conjunctions: as soon as,
before, the Past Perfect Tense is only used for emphasis.
The witness refused to sign the testimony till he had read it through once
more.
Not until he had read it through once more, did the witness accept.
d. actions viewed in retrospect from a point in the past are as a rule expressed
with the Past Perfect form.
They had been born there and had lived there all their life, so they
couldn’t decide to move elsewhere.
Observation: When a Past Perfect Tense simple aspect form is preceded by a
negative, restrictive adverb of the type: hardly, never, barely, scarcely, only and its
compounds, at no time or by a whole time clause containing such an adverb or adverbial
phrases, one resorts to both grammatical and stylistic inversion of the auxiliary had with
the respective subject.
No sooner had they finished the first job, than they started the second.
Barely/ Scarcely/ Hardly had they finished the first job, when they started
the second.
Observation: When the same adverbs are placed in their usual place ( close to the
verb whose action they modify), no such inversion takes place, only when they are put at
the beginning of the sentence.
They had no sooner finished the first job, than they started the second.

The Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Past Perfect Continuous Tense is formed with the help of the auxiliary to be
conjugated in its affirmative, negative, interrogative and negative-interrogative Past
Perfect forms followed by the indefinite participle form of the verb to be conjugated.
Observation: Like in the case of similar analytical tenses or moods, the usual
place of different adverbs is after the first auxiliary, in this case, had.
He told me that he had continuously been driving.
Observation: The same verbs mentioned in the cases of other continuous tenses
are not, as a rule, conjugated in the Past Perfect Continuous.
Observation: The Past Perfect Continuous is not, as a rule, used in the Passive
Voice, the Past Perfect Tense Simple aspect being used instead.
The following example: They had been working for several hours when I arrived
there, can only be rendered in the Passive Voice as: Work had been done for several
hours and not Work had been being done for several hours when I arrived there.

Uses of the Past Perfect Continuous

Observation: This continuous form of the Past Perfect bears the same relationship
to the Simple Past Perfect form as the Present Perfect Continuous form bears to the
Simple Present Perfect form.
There are the following main uses:
a. to express that an action or state had begun before the time of speaking in the
past ( a definite past moment) and had been continuous up just before it.
I had been dressing when somebody knocked at the door.
Observation: The Past Perfect Tense simple aspect is clearer to be used to express
the above:
I had just dressed when somebody knocked at the door.
b. for actions which were continuous for a period of past time before an expressed
or unexpressed past moment and were still continuous at the respective past moment.
Since his birth he had been living there with his parents.
c. repeated actions can be expressed in the Past Perfect form in a similar way such
as an action can be expressed by the Present Perfect Continuous form.
Compare: He had tried to contact her several times.
With: He had been trying to contact her several times.
 Observation: The same difference between the Present Perfect Tense simple
aspect and the Past Perfect Tense continuous aspect when expressing a fix number of past
actions or an indefinite number of past actions hold true in the case of Past Perfect Tense
Continuous and Simple forms ( the possibility referring to the number of past action can
count).
Observation: As concerns the difference between the possibility of the past simple
tense of the simple aspect to express a single finished action and the way in which the
Past Perfect Tense continuous form may express about the same thing, things are as
follows:
-The Past Perfect Tense simple aspect form only states that the respective action
took place (had taken place) once and had been finished at a certain past perfect moment
of time;
When I arrived home, I realized that someone had broken into my absence ( one
action- one finished action).
But in the sentence: When I saw my little boy’s smear face, I knew he had been
stealing jam from the pantry.
In the case of this second example, the speaker points both to a considerable
period of time the child had spent doing/ performing his thievery acts and also to the fact
that the respective action might have taken several trips/ might have been repeated
several times ( unspecified number of actions).
d. in Indirect Speech to render Present Perfect Tense continuous forms:
He said he had been travelling since morning.
The snow had started to come down in the late afternoon. I saw it through the
window of my office building where I work as a secretary. It had been snowing for an
hour when I started to drive home. The cars had been driving slowly because of the
dangerous roads. It was slippery snow that froze when it hit the roads. Earlier, the snow
had been melting, but by evening it was staying on the roads. Police cars had been
checking the traffic regularly. I had been driving for 20 minutes when the accident
happened.

The Future Tense

There are several possibilities in English to express future time with the categories
of futurity, modality and aspect contributing to it. Thus, apart from: shall/ will + short
indefinite infinitive or perfect infinitive constructions, future time in English is also
expressed by means of modal auxiliary + infinitive constructions, as well as by Present
Tense Simple or Continuous forms, as well as by a number of constructions such as: to be
going to, to be about to, to be to etc.
a. The Simple Present Tense is used to express planned future actions, particularly
when such plans imply the idea of a travel such as in the following examples:
 We leave here at six, arrive in Bucharest at eight and take a plane to Paris in the
afternoon.
A Simple Present Tense form is also used to express future time in bus station
departure/ arrival etc. especially with dynamic transitional verbs of the type: to arrive, to
leave, to take off, to lend, to come etc.
The Orient Express leaves in five minutes from platform one.
Observation1: A Present Tense Simple aspect form is also used to express future
time in the so-called type one subordinate conditional clause or in time subordinate
clause.
If I have time, I’ll come again tomorrow.
When I have some more time, I’ll attend to it myself.
Observation2: A Simple Present Tense form can also be used in a main clause to
express a marked future of unusual certainty such as: statements about the calendar:
Today is Wednesday, tomorrow is Thursday.
Observation3: A Simple Present Tense form can also be used to express the so-
called picturesque events in the near future with a fix hour of occurrence.
What time is the football match tomorrow?
The exhibition opens on Saturday afternoon.

b. When used to express a future action which in the speaker’s mind realization is
not very far away in the future from the present moment of speaking, the Continuous
Present Tense form implied is necessarily accompanied, in the same sentence, by suitable
adverbial modifier of near future time such as: in a few hours/ days/ weeks/ months/
tonight/ this coming week/ these coming weeks/ next month/ this coming summer and the
like.
We are leaving tonight.
She is leaving at the end of the week.
Observation1: The verb to go and to come can be used in their Present Tense
Continuous form to express a near future without an adverbial time modifier in the
sentence.
Where are you going?
I’m going to a cinema.
Are you coming with me?
Yes, I’m just coming. Wait for me, please.
Observation2: The Present Continuous Tense is used to express near future
especially in connection with such dynamic transitional verbs (which show a transition
from a state to another) such as: to come, to go, to stop, to begin etc.
The plane is taking off at 12.30.
The new manager is coming by the end of the week.
Observation3: The verbs which are not used in the continuous aspect are only
used to express near future with their continuous form with a change of their basic
meaning such as in: I’m seeing him again tomorrow. (meeting) or otherwise, they are put
in their Simple Future Tense form to express the same idea of near future.
We shall know the results tomorrow.
Observation4: The verb to be itself can be used in its continuous form to express
near future within a Present Tense Continuous Passive Voice construction.
 My new car is being delivered tomorrow.

c. The Going to form is in fact a combination of the Present Tense Continuous

form of the verb to go + an indefinite long infinitive form of the meaningful verb. It is
mainly used to express the so-called Future of Present Intention, about a future action
with the additional sense that some preparations for the intended future action has already
been made at the moment of speaking. Thus in the sentence:
We are going to leave for the seaside., the idea is that we have started making
preparations some time ago for this going to the seaside.
Observation1: By comparison with the Present Tense Continuous, the Going to
form can be used to express future of intention without an adverbial modifier of time in
which case the time of the future action can extend to very distant future to indefinite
future time such as in the example:
We are going to emigrate to the USA., in which case the real future time of the
action can not be deduced – the intention, on the other hand, is predominant, while by
using an adverbial modifier of near future time, one has both near future and future of
intention.
We are going to visit them next week. expresses both near future and future of
intention.
Observation2: A particular case is the usage of the Going to form which expresses
intention with the modal equivalent verbal form to have to such as in:
I’m going to have to punish my little Johnny. He’s been acting too naughtily
lately.
Future of Intention is also present in the case of the special usage of the
auxiliaries shall/ will in all the persons which is the case of shall in the second and third
persons or of the auxiliary will in the first person that is singular and plural in the
affirmative and negative slightly accentuated with resulting modal connotations.
For example: In the dialogue:
A: The telephone is ringing.
B: I will go and answer it. (The auxiliary will expresses both futurity, but also a
voluntary action on the part of the second speaker, his willingness to perform that action.)
On the other hand, in the sentence: Those despicable people shall get what they
deserve. In the verbal construction shall get, the idea is of futurity, but also of threat.
In the sentence: Don’t worry! I will be there in time., the idea is both of futurity,
but also of positive volition, while in the sentence: I won’t do that no matter what they
say., the idea is of refusal, of stubbornness, but also of futurity.
If we are to compare the Going to form to express future of intention with the
will + infinitive future, the difference is that the going to form expresses both premeditate
action and intention, while the will+ infinitive future of intention only expresses intention
and not premeditation.
Compare:
A: The telephone is ringing.
B: I’ll go and answer it. ( only intention, willingness)
with:
A: Why have you saved so much money in such a short time?
B: Because I’m going to buy a car. ( premeditated intention)
 The Future Tense Simple

The Future Tense Simple aspect in English is formed with the auxiliary shall for
the first person ( singular and plural) and will for the second and third conjugated as
auxiliaries in the affirmative, negative, interrogative and negative- interrogative followed
by the short indefinite infinitive form of the verb to be conjugated.
Observation1: In current speech the respective contracted forms of the auxiliaries
are used: I’ll/ I’ll not/ I won’t/ I shan’t.
Observation2: In actual usage it is rather difficult to separate between the neutral
and modal functions of the auxiliary shall and will, that is why shall, for example, is used
for a colourless neutral future in the first person singular and plural in British English
only, while will is used for the same purpose in the rest of the English speaking world.
That is why, in order to be on the safe sight, a neutral/ unstressed will is used in the first
person singular and plural instead of shall.
I will be there. (implies the idea of the Future Tense proper, but also some kind of
modality).

The Future Continuous Tense

Like any other continuous tense, Future Continuous is formed by conjugating the
auxiliary to be in its future affirmative, negative, interrogative, negative-interrogative
forms followed by the indefinite participle of the verb to be conjugated.
Usage:
It is used:
1. to express a future action without intention, avoiding in this way any possible
connotations especially the first person singular and plural.
Compare:
When will you come again?
with: When will you be coming?
In the first example, the message may be impaired by the many possible
connotations of the auxiliary will ( volition, promise, determination), while in the second,
no such possibilities are present and the idea is very clear, that of a casual non-definite
question about a future possible action.
Compare again:
Will you come again tomorrow? ( a possible command)
with: Will you be coming again tomorrow? ( expresses the speaker’s curiosity, no
idea of command or invitation implied).
I’ll see you tomorrow. ( The speaker’s determination or expressed intention to
meet the other person according to his own wish is quite clear).
I’ll be seeing you tomorrow. ( The Future Continuous form only indicates that the
two persons are going to see each other in the ordinary course of future events such as at
the working place or at a place they’ve been seeing each other in the past as well).
 Observation: If we are to compare the Future Continuous with the Present
Continuous form used to express near future, we may have the following comments:
The Present Continuous form used as such implies the idea of a future deliberate/
planned action.
Employer: I’m seeing the new salesgirl tomorrow. ( We have arranged between us
for such a meeting tomorrow.)
whiles in the example:
Employer to the new salesgirl: I’ll be seeing you tomorrow ( I’ll see you the same
way as I will see the other people in the department.)
Observation: The Present Continuous Tense can only be used with an adverbial
modifier of definite near future time, while the Future Continuous form can be used
without an adverbial of definite time to express both near and distant future.
Compare:
I’m coming again tomorrow/ next week/ month etc.
with: I’ll be coming again tomorrow/ next month etc.
2. to stress the idea that a future action/ state will be continuous for a period of
time in the future.
Tomorrow I’ll be reading all day/ from morning till night.
3. for an action which will continue in the future without any time limit, implying
the idea that it will be continuous at a definite moment in the future, but it may have
begun minutes/ hours of that future moment and it might just go on for an indefinite
period of future time.
When we arrive home, the children will be sleeping.
Compare:
I will go in France. ( I am decided to go)
I will be going in France. ( I intend to go)

The Future Perfect Tense

The Future Perfect Tense is formed with the auxiliary shall/will conjugated in
their affirmative, negative, interrogative, negative-interrogative forms followed by the
short perfect infinitive form of the verb to be conjugated.
Observation1: In current speech the respective contracted forms of the auxiliary
are used.
Observation2: In its usage, the Future Perfect Tense is usually associated with the
preposition by which expresses that the action of a Future Perfect Tense form stops just
before the moment of future time expressed by an adverbial modifier introduced by this
preposition.
The children will have gone to bed by ten o’clock.

Usage of the Future Perfect Tense

It is used:
 1. to express an action which is begun before a given future moment and still
going on at the respective future moment and continuous especially when the preposition
for ( and sometime since) is used.
By this time next year 3 years will have passed since I entered University.
Compare with:
3 years have passed since I entered University.
It is 3 years since I entered University.
Observation: One should be careful to interpret correctly cases of modal will +
perfect infinitive to express present supposition, assumption about a past action/ event, a
structure which may be forcedly interpreted as a future perfect structure.

It is after 11 o’clock. They will already have gone to bed. ( present deduction)
They have gone to bed.
You must be Mr. Smith. (stronger supposition).
You will be Mr. Smith. He called last night.
Modal verbs: shall/ will/ may/ must will send the action to the past as a present
supposition.

The Future Perfect Continuous

It is formed like any other continuous form with the help of the Future Perfect
Simple aspect form of the auxiliary to be such as shall/ will have been followed by the
indefinite participle form of the verb to be conjugated.
The auxiliary is conjugated in the interrogative, negative, negative-interrogative
as usual.
They will have been waiting.
They will not have been waiting.
Will they have been waiting?
Will they have not been waiting?

Usage of the Future Perfect Continuous

It is used to show that an action began before a future given moment, is

continuous until that future moment and continues into it.
By the time we arrive home, the children will have been sleeping.
Observation: There is the same difference between the Future Perfect Simple and
Future Perfect Continuous to express an action which is continuous for a future period of
time and then continues into another future period of time expressed by an adverbial
modifier of future time in the sense that the continuous form stresses, emphasizes the
continuity of the respective action over the whole period of time implied.
Compare: By the time we arrived home, the children will have slept for several
hours. ( from a grammatical and semantical point of view it is correct, but the continuity
of the action is not stressed)
With: By the time we arrived home, the children will have been sleeping for
several hours. ( the continuity of the action is very well stressed).
 Observation: The same restrictions concerning the use of Future Tense forms in
temporal and conditional subordinate clauses holds true in the case of the Future Perfect
forms both in direct or indirect speech.
Voi veni cu siguranta, dar numai dup ace voi pune toate lucrurile la punct.
I will surely come/ I will come for sure, but only after I have set all my things
straight.
A promis ca va veni cu siguranta, dar numai dupa ce va pune toate lucrurile la
punct.
He promised that he would surely come, but only after he had set all his things
straight.

The Imperative Mood

The Imperative Mood expresses a direct, positive or negative order, suggestion,

request, piece of advice, a threat etc. In point of form, it has only one form that is the
second person singular and plural which coincides with the short indefinite infinitive
form of the respective verb. For example: from to go – go!, to write- write!
Observation1: As a rule, when used alone, an imperative form is accompanied by
an exclamation mark at the end.
Observation2: The modal auxiliary verbs do not have imperative forms, nor do
they function as modal imperative auxiliaries. In the first and third persons singular and
plural, the idea of the imperative is expressed with the help of the subjunctive form of the
auxiliary let, which by some grammarians is called the indirect imperative.
For example: Let me think! (1st sg)
Think! (2nd sg)
Let him/her think! ( 3rd sg)
Let us ( Let’s) think! (1st pl)
Think! ( 2nd pl)
Let them think! ( 3rd pl)
The negative form of the Imperative is made with the help of the negative form of
the auxiliary do, followed by the respective short infinitive of the verb.
Do it!
Don’t do it!
Observation: When one uses such negation as: never, none, nobody, no one, they
replace the negative form of to do.
Compare: Don’t say such things again!
with: Never say such things again!
Don’t go away!
with: None of you goes away!
Observation: In poetry, the auxiliary do is often dropped for the negative
imperative form.( stylistic effect)
O, hart, loose not thy nature!
 On the other hand, in the first and third person in the singular and plural, both the
negative forms of the auxiliary do as well as the negative of let are used with the
difference that the negative forms of do are used in current speech or written English, in
ordinary current speech or written language, whilst the negative forms with let are used in
the literary English and in the formal official or rhetorical style.
Compare: Don’t let me disturb you!
Don’t let us do such a foolish thing again!
with: Let us not fool ourselves with empty promises!

Other uses of the Imperative:

The Imperative may also be used:

- to express a threat.
For example: Do that and you’ll get it!
Do that and you’ll get what’s coming!

- in a subordinate clause with the conditional or a purpose concessive meaning

which is often connected with the conjunction and to its region clause which may have its
verb in the indicative or imperative mood.
Don’t worry, be happy!
Let her hide behind the moon, he will find her still!
- a special usage of the imperative is in connection with some diminutive words or
affective addresses appellations of the type:
Darling, please!
Don’t forget to be early!
Here, kitties!

The Subject of the Imperative

As a rule, the imperative form does not have a subject and when it does it only
happens in the case of the second person singular and plural. Such a subject is stressed
and conveys a strong modality of positive or negative feelings on the part of the speaker
such as feelings of: anger, irritation or satisfaction.
This type of subject is represented by the personal pronoun you , either by a
common or proper name. When the personal pronoun you is used as a subject, it either
precedes the imperative form such as in: You go there and solve the problem! ( irritation,
dissatisfaction with the person implied) or, in certain expressions, the pronoun you
follows the imperative form: Mind you!
The following indefinite pronouns that is: everybody, somebody, someone are
used as subjects of the imperative form either in front of it or after it.
Somebody go and fetch a pail of water!
 The Subjunctive Mood

A traditional approach to the Subjunctive Mood allows for its classification into
two categories:
a. the Synthetic Subjunctive
b. the Analytical Subjunctive
Observation: More recent grammars only mention as subjunctive forms the
synthetic subjunctive, also called present synthetic subjunctive, while what in traditional
grammar is called the synthetic subjunctive past tense and the synthetic subjunctive past
perfect, with the exception of the form were of the verb to be as a synthetic past tense
subjunctive form, are considered past tense/ past perfect indicative mood forms and
whatever analytical subjunctive forms considered by traditional grammar are considered
just subjunctive mood equivalents.
Still: I wish I had more time/ more possibilities.
I wish I knew the truth.
had, knew- Synthetic Subjunctive Past Tense ( both the forms had and knew refer
to a present moment and not to a past definite one).
Compare: I knew it yesterday.
I wish I knew it.

The Synthetic Subjunctive

The Synthetic Subjunctive has three tenses:

a. The Subjunctive Present is a survivor of the old independent subjunctive and
has the same form in all the persons singular and plural that is the indefinite short
infinitive form of the respective verb: I go- he go.
The same applies to the auxiliary to be with the form be as a Present Synthetic
Subjunctive for all the persons: May God be with you!
The Present Synthetic Subjunctive is used as follows:
- in official and elevated style in British England as well as a common form in
American English.
It is important that he come here at once.
- in certain exclamations to express wish and hope very often involving
supernatural powers: God bless you!
God forbid!
God save the Queen!
- in a number of set phrases such as in:
So be it!
- in a wide variety of subordinate clauses as follows:
- in concessive subordinate clause without a conjunction in between its main
clause:
Come what may, I’ll help you!
Cost what it may, I will go there!
- in object clauses:
We desire that this privilege be extended to others.
 Joe suggested that Peter show this to his wife.
- in concessive, conditional subordinate clauses beginning with a conjunction:
If this rumour be true or not, we can not remain here any longer.
If we be in time, we shall find him at home.
Observation: This kind of usage is only to be met in formal English, otherwise
present indicative forms ( past indicative forms) are used instead:
If this rumour is true or not, we can not remain here any longer.
If we are in time, we shall find him at home.
b. The Synthetic Subjunctive Past Tense coincides in form with the Past Tense of
the indicative mood, except the auxiliary to be which has the form were in all the persons,
being considered the only survival form of the former past tense subjunctive, which in
old English had different endings ( a different ending for each person).
This type of Subjunctive is used in variate subordinate clauses, after the verb
wish, as well as after the compound conjunctions: as if, as though, if only, even if, even
though, as well as after the conjunctions if and though to express the idea of
improbability or unreality in the present moment of speaking.
I wish you didn’t go there so often. ( but you do)
If it rained for six months ( which is improbable), the water would fill all
the lakes.
If only I were younger! ( unreal)
He bosses me around as if I were his suborder. ( unreal, untrue)

The Synthetic Subjunctive Past Tense is used after:

- It is time / It is high time +subject
Observation: After these expressions, we can use either a synthetic
subjunctive past tense form or for+ object + infinitive constructions.
It is time we left. as compared to:
It is time for us to leave.
Observation: There is a slight difference in meaning between the two: the
subjunctive implies the idea that there is already too late for the action to leave,
while the construction for+ object + infinitive implies that the right time has come
for the action of leaving.
Compare:
Father speaking to son: It is time for you to start earning your own living (
the right time has come).
with: It is time you started earning your own living. ( the son has passed
the usual age for starting work).
Observation: The adjective high is sometimes implied with the subjunctive
after it is. The adjective is used to increase the modality of impatience,
insatisfaction, criticism.
You are a big boy now. It’s high time you started making your own bed!
- the modal construction would sooner/ would rather
These constructions are followed by a short infinitive when their subject is
going to perform the action which follows, while when another subject is going to
perform the respective action, the verb implied is put into its past tense/ past
perfect tense subjunctive mood form.
 Compare: I would rather go now.
with: I would rather you went now.
or: I would rather not go there tonight as compared to:
I would rather you didn’t go there tonight.
My daughter wants to go to the seaside this summer, but I would rather/
sooner she went up the mountains instead.
A special case is represented by the modal past subjunctive with would
after wish in which case, the speaker not only expresses his criticism, disapproval,
but he also makes it clear that the other person does what he does, doesn’t do
what he doesn’t do in a persistent way.
Compare:
I would like you not to go there. (expresses desire, no special modal
connotation)
I wish you didn’t go there so often. ( you go there often and I don’t like it)
I wish you wouldn’t go there so often. ( you do so, though you know that I
don’t like it, but you do it nevertheless)

c. The Synthetic Subjunctive Past Perfect Tense coincides in form with the
Past Perfect Tense of the indicative mood, with the difference that it has only
affirmative and negative forms.
- Such subjunctive forms are used after the compound conjunctions: as if,
as though in a subordinate comparative clause when we refer to an unreal or
imaginary action in the past.
He talks about Rome as if he had spent all his life there. ( but I know he
hasn’t or nobody knows about it).
He looks as if / as though he hadn’t had a decent meal for a week.
- The same Past Perfect Subjunctive is used after the conjunction if.
If I had known him better/ Had I known him better, I should not have gone
into business with him. ( but I didn’t know him).
- Another usage of the Subjunctive Past Perfect is in a direct clause in
conjunction with a wish or regret expressed in the regent clause with the verb
wish.
I wish he had not behaved too foolishly.
I wish he had behaved more wisely.
- A special usage is after the modal expression would rather/ would
sooner which has the same structural pattern as the wish + past perfect
subjunctive structure.
Compare: I would rather he had not behaved so foolishly.
with: I wish he had not behaved so foolishly.
Observation: In indirect speech situations, the past perfect subjunctive
form stays unchanged including the would rather past perfect subjunctive.
Direct Speech: I wish he had not behaved so foolishly.
Indirect Speech: He said he wished he had not behaved so foolishly.
Direct Speech: I wished I had never been born.
 Indirect Speech: He said that he had wished he had never been born.
Observation: There are cases when all the forms, including Subjunctive
Present, Subjunctive Past Tense and Subjunctive Past Perfect, stay unchanged.
Direct Speech: It is important that you be there tomorrow.
Indirect Speech: He said to me it was important that I be there the next
day.
Direct Speech: I wish you didn’t go there so often.
Indirect Speech: He said he wished I didn’t go there so often.
Direct Speech: I wish you hadn’t gone there alone.
Indirect Speech: He said he wished I hadn’t gone there alone.
Subjunctive forms after wish, would rather, would sooner, have a strong
modality expressing the speaker’s disagreement, dissatisfaction, his criticism,
reproach of the respective reality or unreality.

The Analytical Subjunctive

The Analytical Subjunctive is a combination of a modal verb such as:

shall/ should, may/ might, will/ would, can/ could and an indefinite short infinitive
form. The most frequently used form of the Analytical Subjunctive is shall/
should + short infinitive.
Shall + short infinitive is used:
- in interrogative independent sentences
Shall I come with you?
- in Tag- questions
Let’s begin, shall we?
Should + short infinitive is used:
- in questions and sentences that begin with How? or Wh-?
How should I know?
Why should you waste your time?
- after the verbs: demand, insist, order, request, propose, decide,
advise, expect, suggest, recommend etc. + THAT
The manager ordered that the papers should be ready
immediately.
- after the impersonal expressions ( It is + adjective + that)
It is important/ strange/ advisable/ surprising/ absurd/ impossible/
vital etc. + that
It is important that everybody should be present.
- in adverbial clauses of purpose introduced by so that/ lest.
He said he was competent at his job, so that we might trust him.
 The use of the subjunctive tenses in wish

The past and past perfect subjunctive forms are used after the verb wish to
express or indicate an unreal situation in the present or in the past about which the
speaker essentially expresses his regret or disagreement as follows:
a. wish + a past tense subjunctive expresses the speaker’s regret or
disagreement about a present action or state:
I wish I knew. ( I’m sorry I don’t know)
I wish that girl were not so arrogant. ( She is arrogant and I
disagree with it).
Observation: Wish + past tense subjunctive sometimes takes the form of
wish + modal subjunctive with would in which case the speaker also indicates that
the other person persists in doing something which he considers/ which they
consider negative as a negative attitude or action performed by the other person.
I wish it would stop raining.
b. When the action regretted, criticized etc. occurred or didn’t occur in the
past ( as viewed from the present moment of speaking), the subjunctive past
perfect is used after it:
I wished I had not gone to Peter’s party. ( I did go, but I regret it)
I wish you had been driving more carefully. ( you didn’t drive
carefully, I’m dissatisfied with it)
Observation: In changing expression of reality into wishes, without really
changing the meaning of communication, one should remember the following:
a. positive reality becomes a negative wish;
b. negative reality becomes a positive wish.
I’m sorry I don’t like he does such things.
I wish he didn’t do such things. ( positive reality – negative wish)
I’m sorry she’s not here with me.
I wish she were here with me. ( negative reality- positive wish)
Observation: Normally, the verb wish is followed by an infinitive form
and it is used in the same sense as want + infinitive or the modal expression
would like + infinitive.
I wish to see Mr. Smith.
I want to see Mr. Smith.
I would like to see Mr. Smith.
They are all perfectly synonyms in meaning. The difference though is that
in actual usage, wish + infinitive is felt as more authoritative / demanding than
want/ would like+ infinitive.
I wish to know implies, for example, the idea that the speaker really wants
that someone answer him/ give him an answer, while I would like to know/ I want
to know express the respective desire without pointing to another person to
answer.
 The Conditional Mood

The Conditional Mood has two forms: the conditional present and the
conditional past/ perfect.
The conditional present is formed with the help of the auxiliaries should
( for the first person singular and plural) and would ( for the rest of the persons)
which are conjugated for the affirmative, interrogative and negative followed by
the indefinite infinitive form of the verb to be conjugated.
I should not do that.
I shouldn’t do that.
Should I do that?
There are the following uses of the conditional present form:
- in independent sentences to express intention or desire about the future, a
case in which there is still a hidden idea of a condition on whose fulfillment
depends the realization of the respective wish, desire etc.
I should go there sometime in the future, you know. ( in this
example it is very difficult to distinguish between the modal meaning of should
and the neutral should as an auxiliary.
In the example: I should be very happy to meet him, there is still felt the
existence of the accompanying condition implied here ( if I met him).
- a second usage of the conditional present is in connection with verbs
expressing desire: to wish, to like, to want in which case, the idea of condition can
be excluded all together and the conditional form expresses only desire; one’s
wish resembling in that matter the Romanian optativ.
I should like to see your cousin Henry.
- a third usage is with a number of modal defective verbs in their past
tense form in which case the idea of condition is also excluded. This combination
of a modal verb + short indefinite infinitive is also called the modal conditional
present which expresses the respective modal connotations of the auxiliaries.
You should go there tomorrow.
He might already be there.
Observation: With some grammarians such modal conditional forms are
only considered modal constructions without a grammatical model attributed to
them.
The conditional present continuous is formed with the conditional present
simple aspect of the auxiliary to be ( which is conjugated in its affirmative,
negative and interrogative forms) followed by the indefinite participle form of the
verb to be conjugated: I should be doing/ should be sleeping/ should not be going/
shouldn’t be going/ should I not be going?/ shouldn’t I be going?
The conditional present continuous forms are only used in conjunction
with modal defective verbs such as in:
Mother speaking to children:” Shouldn’t you be sleeping?

The conditional past or perfect conditional is formed with the same

auxiliaries should/ would followed by the short perfect infinitive form of the verb
to be conjugated such as: you would have gone/ you would not have gone/ you
wouldn’t have gone/ would you have gone?/ wouldn’t you have gone?
Observation: Like in the case of the conditional present, the passive voice
forms of the conditional past are formed with the help of the conditional past form
of the auxiliary to be followed by the past participle form of the verb to be
conjugated: You would be asked./ You would have been asked.
The conditional past is mostly used in the main clause of a conditional
sentence to denote an action or state whose fulfillment depends on the fulfillment
of a condition expressed in a subordinate clause of condition.
If you had hurried, you would/ could have caught the 7 o’clock train in
the morning.
Had you hurried, you would/ could have caught the 7 o’clock train in the
morning.
If you hadn’t taken a taxi, you wouldn’t have caught that train.
Like the present conditional, the conditional past can be used in
independent sentences with verbs expressing desire: wish, want, like, desire etc., a
case in which the idea of condition is excluded.
Compare:
He would have liked to spend a few more days there.
with:
He would have stayed a few more days there, you know. ( if…)
Observation: When a modal verb is used instead of the auxiliaries should/
would ( or when should/ would are used as modal auxiliaries), the resulting
construction is called a modal perfect conditional or a modal past conditional.
You should have read that book more attractively.

The Use of Tenses in Conditional Sentences

Conditional sentences have two parts: the so- called if clause and the main
clause. The operating principle of a conditional sentence is as follows: in the
conditional clause is set a condition on whose fulfillment depends the fulfillment
of the action expressed by the predicate in the respective main clause.
There are three more common kinds of types of conditional sentences,
each of them containing set/ fixed pairs of tenses and moods.
Type I expresses a probable condition, the verb in the if clause is in the
present tense and the verb in the main clause is in the future tense, indicative
mood.
If they try hard, they will succeed.
Observation: In Indirect Speech, the respective rules are applied.
He said that if they tried hard, they would succeed.
 There are different other combinations of tenses in the conditional
sentence within the indicative mood as follows:
a. Present Tense- Present Tense
A: What do you usually do on weekends?
B: Well, if I have both money and time, I go places.
b. Present Tense in the if clause- Imperative Mood in the main clause
If you have time tomorrow, go and speak with John about our
problem!
c. Present Perfect in the if clause – Imperative Mood in the main clause
If you have finally come at this late hour, come and help me wash
the dishes!
d. Present Perfect in the if clause – a why negative-interrogative Present
Tense in the main clause
If you have travelled so much, why don’t you lay down for a few
hours?
e. Past Tense- Past Tense
A: What did you use to do on weekends there?
B: Well, if I had money and time, I went picnicking.
f. Past Perfect in the if clause- Past Tense in a why negative- interrogative
main clause
If you had arrived there first, why didn’t you make the fire?
Observation: In the more common type I conditional clause (Present Tense
in the if clause), one can also use the modal verbs should, may, can.
Should is used to express the speaker’s uncertainty, disbelief as to the
probable fulfillment of the condition in the if clause.
Compare: If you see John, tell him I want to talk to him. ( action probable,
no personal opinion of the speaker)
with: If you should see John, tell him I want to talk to him.
Should you see John, tell him I want to talk to him. ( the action is
possible, but the speaker doesn’t believe personally it is possible)
If by any chance you happen to see John,… (the verb keeps its
proper meaning)
If you may see John, … ( the verb keeps its meaning of possibility)
If you won’t go there tonight, I will punish you/ I will have to
punish you.

Type II of conditional sentence implies that the action in the main clause is
improbable or unreal, following an improbable or unreal condition set in the if
clause.
The verb in the main clause is in the Conditional Present or in the Modal
Conditional Present and the verb in the if clause is in the Past Tense Subjunctive
or in the Modal Subjunctive Past Tense.
If you went there tomorrow, you could talk to John.
If he invited me, I would go there.
Observation: Should is also possible in if clause if there is a certain
modality on the part of the speaker.
 What would you do if you should meet a bear in the woods?
if you were to meet a bear in the woods?

Type III of conditional sentence expresses an impossible condition in the

idea that the respective condition can no longer be fulfilled in the moment of
speaking since it refers to past events.
If you had gone there ( but you didn’t go), you could have talked to
John.
Besides the conjunction if, a conditional clause can also be introduced by
the following compound conjunctions or simple conjunctions such as: if only, in
case, on condition that, provided, provided that, providing that, suppose, suppose
that etc.
Observation: There are cases when conditional sequence of tenses in the
three types of conditional sentences is not observed and one may have such
combinations called mixed type conditional sentence as:
If I hadn’t lost my watch, I should/ would know the time now.
I want to talk to you if you would call tomorrow.
I should like to go there myself if you say you are not going.
If you had told him to come, we shouldn’t/ wouldn’t be waiting for
him here.
If you had told him to come, we wouldn’t have been waiting here
for two hours.

Modal verbs

Shall as a modal auxiliary is used to connote the following:

a. asking for advice, offer ( to help, to do something)- in the first person:
Shall I do this tomorrow?
Shall I help you?
Shall I come with you?
b. the speaker’s promise or threat in the future- in the second and third
persons:
Mother to child: You shall get a nice present if you behave
yourself when the guests are here. ( promise)
Eliza speaking: You shall have it, Mr. Higgins! (threat)
c. an indirect order or command such as in regulations, legal documents,
on certain official occasions with the observation that in current English must and
its equivalents to have to or to be to are to be used instead:
Yachts shall go round the course passing the marks in the correct
order.
Members shall enter the names of their guest in the book provided.
 Observation: When sentences of this type are put in Indirect Speech, the
auxiliary shall is replaced by the forms of must: to have to, to be to.

Should as a modal auxiliary is used in all the persons to express:

a. the idea of duty, as well as to indicate whatever the speaker considers to
be a correct or sensible action to be performed by the other persons.
I think I should leave.
I think I should be leaving now.
You should do more exercises if you want to loose weight.
You’ve spelt the word wrong. There should be another “s” in the
middle of it.
They shouldn’t allow teenagers to smoke. It’s bad for their health.
Observation: In contemporary English, these meanings of should are
considered the same with those of ought to. But, the usage of should points to the
speaker’s own attitude towards the communication or opinion about it, while in
the case of ought to, the speaker only knows about whatever is either sensible,
correct or common practice or customary without giving his own piece of mind
about the communication at the same time. In all cases of usage, should is less
forceful than must or have to and consequently it is used in all cases when no
authority is implied on the part of the speaker and the speaker himself avoids such
a situation of authority on his part towards the other persons.
b. a past sensible action which was or was not performed (when it is
followed by a Perfect Infinitive).
Observation: The accompanying modality in such cases of usage is also
one of disagreement, dissatisfaction, criticism or reproach on the part of the
speaker as well.
You should have stopped seeing him when you found out he was not a
honest person. ( action not finished)
You shouldn’t have told them we were going to visit them, I meant it as a
surprise to them. ( action stopped)
c. The present wish or desire can be expressed with the modal expression
should like + long indefinite infinitive form with the observation that recent
grammar of the language recommend the usage of would like + infinitive instead
of should like in the first person, perhaps on account of the strong modality of
should expressing obligation.
I should like to leave no later than six o’clock tonight.
When the present wish/ desire refers to something in the past, the
expression is followed by the long Perfect Infinitive form:
Mother talking to daughter: I should like to have had even a quarter of the
opportunities in life that you have had so far.
When one wants to express a past wish/ desire, one uses should have liked
followed by long Indefinite Infinitive form.
I should have liked to go to a concert last night, but my wife had a terrible
headache and we watched television instead.
d. In a subordinate conditional clause of so-called type one (I), should is
used followed by a short Indefinite Infinitive to express the idea of future chance
that is of an action which is only going to take place by chance ( the speaker
doesn’t really think that the respective future action expressed by the Infinitive
form following should is going to take place).
Compare:
If you see George, tell him I want to talk to him.
If you should see George, tell him I want to talk to him.
In the first example, in the speaker’s mind there is a fair chance for the
other person to meet George in the future, while the other person may feel under
the obligation to look out for George.
In the second example, on the other hand, the speaker considers it unlikely
for the other person to meet George in the future course of events, but he asks the
other person something in connection with George just in case.
e. An unstressed should in the third person singular and plural is used in
official style for expressing regulations, stipulations, replacing must which may
sound too categorical or authoritative.
Application should be made by filling in this form.
f. Should is also used idiomatically with the pronouns: who, what, where
in dramatic expressions of surprise.
And after walking for hours on end through the thick jungle, what should
we come across in the middle of the path but this enormous snake.
g. Should is used after the conjunction lest, mostly in official style and in
written legal documents followed by present or perfect infinitive affirmative form
only.
He was terrified lest he should be attacked by wild animals at night.
He began to worry lest the children should have met with some accident.

Will as a modal auxiliary is used to express the following:

a. determination both in the present or in the future or persistence in
performing a negative action from the point of view of the speaker.
I will do it. (I refuse to be defeated by it.)
If you will smoke so much, you mustn’t be surprised that you have
such a nasty cough.
b. refusal, stubbornness both in the future and in the present by an
emphasized will + not + short indefinite infinitive as well as by an unemphasized
will + emphasized not+ indefinite infinitive or by an emphasized won’t +
infinitive.
I will not go there whatever you might say.
I will not go there whatever you might say.
I won’t go there whatever you might say.
c. Positive volition, willingness, expressed by an unemphasized will in all
persons.
He says he will agree to our proposal now.
d. an offer or invitation.
Will you have some more coffee?
Will you come to tea tomorrow?
 e. a request, not an invitation, concerning both the present and the future
( it can be expressed by an unemphasized will + Indefinite Infinitive in the first
and second person singular and plural).
Will you, please, close the door for me?
Come here, will you?
Observation: When will is used after imperatives it is to be used carefully,
for example, among equals, the same age, the same position or from superior to
inferior, otherwise, it may sound rather offensive.
Close the door, will you?
f. a present supposition expressed in connection with the second or the
third persons can be made by will + short Perfect Infinitive form if we refer to the
past and will + Indefinite Infinitive form if we refer to the present.
It is after eleven o’clock. They will have gone to bed already.
Three hours have passed. He will be there by now.
g. Will as a modal auxiliary or as an aspect auxiliary + an indefinite
infinitive form can express in the present, not only the idea of the repetition of an
action, but also the idea of habit. This frequentative character of will can be
emphasized by the usage of some adverbs of frequency: often, always, many
times etc.
He will always do things which later on he regrets.
They will go to the country side every other week.
Every Sunday they will go for a short walk.
Observation: It is to be noticed however that this use of will to express
habits, as in the above examples, is becoming somewhat rare and the Simple
Present is used instead of such cases:
Every Sunday they go for a long walk.

The modal defective would expresses:

a. determination, persistence in the past, a situation in which it is slightly
stressed.
He would smoke heavily in spite of his doctors’ advice.
I told the young boy not to climb that tree, but he would.
b. refusal in the past can be expressed with the negative form of would
with the accent placed either on would or on the negation not or on the contracted
form wouldn’t.
He would not follow his doctors’ advice.
c. a habitual action in the past can be expressed by an unemphasized
would in all the persons.
When they were younger, they would get out a lot.
d. a polite request in the present in the second person singular and plural
such as:
Would you do that for me?
Would you kindly pass the salt?
Would you hold on a minute?
Observation: Would is considered more polite than will in similar
contexts.
 e. an offer or invitation in the first, second or third person expressed with
would + like, which replaces should + like in contemporary English.
Compare the following examples:
Client to secretary:
“I want to see Mr. Smith”
With: “I would like to see Mr. Smith.” ( more polite request)
f. Present wish or present desire about a situation in the past can be
expressed like in the case of should like with would like + long Perfect Infinitive.
I would like to have been there myself, but I couldn’t. ( wish + Past
Perfect Subjunctive is a proper equivalent: I wish I had been there myself).
g. Past wish, past desire can be expressed with would have liked + long
Indefinite Infinitive:
She would have liked to go to a concert last night.
or even with would have liked + long perfect infinitive:
She would have liked to have gone to a concert last night.
h. Would is used after wish to form the so-called Modal Analytical Past
Subjunctive to express a not very hopeful wish about the future on the part of the
speaker as well as the idea that someone or something performs, from the
speaker’s point of view, a negative action purposefully.
I wish it would stop raining.
Compare:
I wish you were more attentive. (Someone is not attentive- The
teacher considers it a pity someone is not attentive in a necessary degree – some
kind of reproach is contained in the teacher using a Subjunctive Past Tense form).
With:
I wish you would be more attentive ( Someone is not attentive –
The teacher doesn’t like it, teacher disagrees, teacher points out that the other
person is perfectly aware of his not being attentive, but he just does so willingly).
Observation: A special use of would is in the conditional subordinate
clause expressed either as a form of polite address or a very polite request:
If you would be so kind as to help me, I would be very thankful to
you.

May as a modal auxiliary can express the following:

a. existence of permission for the first person singular and plural
We may go now.
b. granting for permission for the second and third person
He may go now.
You may go now.
c. denial of permission ( refusal) in the second and third person
The castle grounds may not be visited by the public.
Observation: If I may/ If I may say so are polite set phrases used in formal
speech.
I’ll let you know my answer in 24 hours, if I may.
If I may say so, you were completely wrong.
 d. possibility, probability in the affirmative or negative followed by an
indefinite short infinitive.
She may not know you are here.
e. present supposition about a past moment can be expressed by may +
shot perfect infinitive
You should stop. He may have left already.
Let’s try and ring him up again. He may not have gone to bed yet.

Might as a modal auxiliary can express:

a. possibility or probability with a present or future reference expressing a
greater degree of an unlikeliness for the respective action to take place or to be
true.
Compare: He may come by a night train. ( a certain degree of certitude)
With: He might come by a night train. ( a lesser degree of certitude)

b. supposition about past actions ( expressed by might+ perfect infinitive)

Let’s not go to his place. He might have fallen asleep already.
c. the speaker’s reproach for or disapproval of or irritation at the non-
performance or non-occurrence of an action in the past expressed by might+
perfect infinitive.
You might have warned us that the paint on that bench was fresh.
d. A very emphatic intention in the first person can be expressed with
might in combination with the adverbial phrase as well + Indefinite Infinitive or
Short Perfect Infinitive.
I might as well stat at once.
e. a recommended action with the same might + as well structure.
You might as well try again. You never know.
f. a very casual command or request used between close persons.
You might post this letter for me in your way to university.

Can as a modal auxiliary has two forms: can- considered a Present Tense
Indicative Mood and could – Past Tense Indicative Mood which is also used as a
modal Present or Past Conditional.
Usages:
- present physical ability, intellectual capacity can be expressed by can
followed by short infinitive:
He is very strong. He can lift a 100 kg.
He is very gifted. He can speak three foreign languages.
He can play the piano as well as the violin.
When such physical ability is expressed in connection with the past action,
can+ short perfect infinitive is used.
Compare:
I can’t imagine how he managed to go home.
 Well, he can have taken the 8 o’clock train. ( there is a train of 8 o’clock,
one points the very circumstance)
With: I can’t imagine how he managed to go home.
Well, he may have taken the 8 o’ clock train. ( supposition)
Observation: When one expresses mental activities such as the idea of to
hear, to see, to think, to imagine etc., the respective verbs are usually preceded by
the verb can in order to stress that activity of the senses.
I hear- I can hear; I see- I can see.
The idea is that the usage of can in such instances points to the momentary
exertion of the respective sense: I can hear now as opposed to: I see well. I don’t
need spectacles.
- a special usage of can for all the persons, singular and plural, is to
express permission.
Compare: You may go now. / May I take a chair?
With: You can go now. / Can I take a chair?
The usage of can is felt as colloquial, while the usage of may is felt as
rather formal.
- possibility in the present or logical lack of possibility can be expressed in
the present with an affirmative or negative can.
Cars can cost thousands of dollars nowadays.
You can’t swim here on account of the sharks.
Observation: When one wants to refer to the future, one resorts to to be
able to in order to express the same.
He will not be able to swim there on account there are a lot of
sharks.
- logical impossibility ( the so-called negative deduction) about a present
event can be expressed by the negative form can’t.
Here comes Peter.
He/ It can’t be Peter. I talked to him over the telephone a half an
hour ago and he said he was in London.
I hear the police accuse Peter of stealing that car.
It can’t be Peter, I know him very well.
When the negative deduction is made about a past situation, than can’t +
a short perfect infinitive form is used.
London policeman talking: We’re looking for your husband, madam. We
suspect he broke into the corner shop last night.
Lady answering: But he can’t have done that, he phoned me from Paris
last night. ( a logical negative deduction)
Observation: Could + perfect infinitive can express the same idea
(couldn’t have done it) with perhaps a slight difference in emphasis ( accent,
stress). The emphasis is stronger in case of can.

The form could is also used:

- in polite requests in the present as a more polite perhaps equivalent of
would in: would you?
Compare: Could you lend me your pen?
 With: Would you lend me your pen?
Would may be felt as too strong on account of its referring to the other
person’s willingness in certain contexts. In such a request could does not possibly
refer to the other person ability.
- past ability is expressed with could + a short infinitive with the
following observation: in the affirmative, when only one particular action which
only occurs once is referred to, then one uses was able to and not could.
Although there was a strong frontal wind blowing, they were finally able
to sail to the shore.
Observation1: Compare the above with: When he was a young man, he
could sail his boat to practically any corner of the world, a case in which could
sail refers to a habitual past ability.
Observation2: When there is again a case of only one action which didn’t
take place once couldn’t can be used.
Because there was a strong frontal wind blowing, they couldn’t sail to the
shore.
- could + perfect infinitive can also be used to express the idea of past
ability/ capability. There are the following situations:
- the action was clearly not performed ( which is the case of the modal
past conditional such as: He could have caught the 8 o’clock train if he had
hurried.
- the speaker doesn’t really know whether the action was performed or
not, he only mentions the physical possibility/ capabilities which someone might
have resorted to or not:
A: The money has disappeared. Who could have taken it?
B: Tom could have taken it. He was the last to leave the office yesterday.

Must has only one form ( present tense indicative form) with the following
modal connotation:
- self- imposed obligation by the speaker himself: I must work more if I
want to make any visible progress.
When used in connection with the first person, the idea is that the speaker
acknowledges of an existing obligation at the same time declaring himself under
the respective obligation: It’s getting late, I must really go now. ( the speaker both
mentions the respective obligation: it’s late, but also shows his willingness to
leave). By comparison: It’s getting late, I have to go now. (obligation, but this
time, external obligation to the speaker who only let us know that some external
authority, circumstance, reality imposes it on him to leave without expressing his
willingness to do so).
- obligation in the form of order, command from the first person to the
second or third person with must+ short infinitive: You must leave right now!
Observation: A very special case is represented by must + short infinitive,
which only expresses the idea of necessity for the other person to perform an
action with the speaker letting him know that the respective action is going to be
quite beneficial to the person addressed to.
But, sir, you must really go there, it’s a wonderful place.
 You must really read this book. You are going to like it very much.
- strong supposition ( emphatic) in the present close to real certainty
expressed with must + short infinitive, a case in which the speaker relies on some
expressed circumstantial evidence in support of his supposition.
They must be at home already, the lights are on.
Look! The lights are on, they must have arrived.
Observation: In this sense, must+ perfect infinitive has no possible
negative form.
In a similar way, when must expresses the idea of the so-called self-
imposed obligation in the first person singular or plural, must is not necessary
changed to had to in Indirect Speech.
Direct Speech: You mustn’t come here again, she said.
Indirect Speech: She said he mustn’t go there again.
There are contexts in which mustn’t doesn’t express an interdiction, but,
on the contrary, it expresses an emphatic piece of advice, a warning for somebody
or someone not to perform an action which may prove dangerous.
Look out! You mustn’t strike a match! The room is full of gas.
You mustn’t go there alone, sir. It’s dangerous.

Ought to is a modal verb with only one form which accounts for an
indicative past tense mood as well as for a modal present conditional form. There
are two grammatical interpretations of:
- as ought followed by a long infinitive form or
- as ought to ( a modal verb + an obligatory particle) followed by a
short infinitive.
The first interpretation seems more logic in the sense of its formal
conjugation (affirmative, negative, interrogative), the negation not being placed
near ought:
I ought not= oughtn’t
Ought I to go?
Oughtn’t I to go?
Observation: In conversation, ought or ought to can be used alone in
answers, a case in which the long infinitive to follow is understood from the
context.
You know you ought to buy a new car.
Yes, I know I ought to.
- Essentially, the modal meaning of ought is that of duty or moral
obligation with no authority implied.
We ought to be going ( It’s the right time for us to be going= It’s so early /
or late hour).
as compared to:
We should be going ( the speaker also expresses his willingness to go).
In Indirect Speech, a ought + long indefinite infinitive form stays
unchanged.
We ought to be going now, he said.
He said (that) they ought to be going then.
 - Disapproval of or reproach for a duty which was or was not done in the
past can be expressed by ought + infinitive form.
You ought to have told me that the paint on that bench was fresh.
Observation: Contemporary grammars mention the possibility of using
should + perfect infinitive in alternation with ought to and expressing the same
thing.
Observation: At the same time, there is a slight difference in the modal
connotation of ought to and should + perfect infinitive in the sense that in the case
of ought to, the speaker doesn’t implicate himself directly, while by using should,
the speaker involves his own opinion.
Should is stronger, always involving the speaker’s opinion.

Comparison between ought, have to and must

a. Tom, you ought to attend the funeral. (no authority involved on the part
of the speaker. The speaker is only reminding Tom that his relation with his own
relatives imposes on him, as a moral obligation, to participate to the funeral.)
b. Father talking to son: You have to obey your teachers, son! ( father
reminds his son of existing school regulations which he considers an external
obligation having nothing to do with his parental obligation).
c. Son, you must obey your teachers! ( the speaker expresses his own
direct authority in connection with an issue he totally agrees with).
Ought and must can both be used to express advice, with must a lot
stronger than ought.
You ought to go to Paris, sir, it’s the most wonderful city in the world.

The non- personal ( non- finite) forms of the English verb

In contrast with the personal forms, the non-personal forms do not contain/
express the grammatical category of person, number or mood and can not be used as such
as predicates in the sentence ( they can only be parts of the sentence).
As the category of tense, one can still distinguish between a present
( indefinite) form and a perfect form.
Compare: to go ( indefinite or present infinitive) with to have gone
( perfect infinitive) or going ( indefinite participle or gerund form) with having
gone ( perfect participle or perfect gerund form).
There are five such non-finite or impersonal forms of the English verb in
contemporary English, mainly: the infinitive, the gerund, the participle, the verbal
noun and the verbal adjective.
In the case of a number of grammarians, the verbal noun is included in the
larger category of the gerund and the verbal adjective is just considered an
adjective proper:
Examples: an interesting book – adjective proper;
a flying object – a verbal adjective coming from a participle ( suggests
movement).
 The Infinitive Mood

An infinitive form names an action or a state expressed by the respective

verb without reference to the grammatical categories of person, number or mood.
Example: to go- we can not distinguish the author of the action of going, if
there is only one or more persons performing the action.
The infinitive form- the basic form of the verb ( which is used with or
without the particle to) helps the formation of various moods and tenses.
Observation: The auxiliary modal verbs do not have long infinitive form
or usage.

The grammatical categories of aspect, voice and tense with the infinitive

An infinitive form/ verb has both simple and continuous aspect in the
active or passive voice as well as two so-called tenses ( present/ indefinite and
perfect infinitive).
Example: the form to begin is a present/ indefinite tense, simple aspect,
active voice form.
to have begun is a perfect tense, simple aspect, active voice form.
to be going is identified as an present tense, continuous aspect, active
voice.
to have been going is a perfect tense, continuous aspect, active voice.
On the other hand, the form: to be built is a present tense, simple aspect,
passive voice.
to have been built – present tense, simple aspect, passive voice.
Observation: Such a form as: to be being built as a present tense,
continuous aspect, passive voice form is almost never used and there is no perfect
correspondent, no passive perfect continuous correspondent to it.

The Present Infinitive has two forms: a long form ( with the particle to)
and a short one ( without the particle to).
Observation: A present/ indefinite infinitive expresses the same tense,
present, past or future as the verb preceding it.
Example: He wanted to go there yesterday.
He wants to leave tomorrow.
I’m sure he will want to leave tomorrow.
Compare: to go, to have gone, not to have gone.
Observation: As can be seen, the negative form of a non-finite form adds
the negation not.
However, there are situations in which a number of adverbs, including the
adverbial particle not are interpolated in between to have and the respective
participle, either for stylistic effect or in cases in which the placing of such
adverbs including not in front of the perfect infinitive form would affect the
meaning of the communication.
 Such an interpolation of the negation not or of an adverb between the
particle to and the infinitival particle proper ( to go- to not go) or in between to
have and the respective past participle form to have gone – to have always gone,
to have not gone is called split infinitive form which is such a very particular case
of the infinitive usage and not a rule.

The Perfect Infinitive is formed with the indefinite infinitive form of the
auxiliary verb to have followed by the past participle form of the verb in question:
to have been, to have gone, to have seen.
The usual negative form is made by placing the negation not in front: to
have been- not to have been.
Although the perfect infinitive is a non-finite form of the English verb, it
does have a tense distinction. It refers the action of its past participle verb to an
earlier time than that expressed by the tense of the verb preceding it, which
justifies its denomination of perfect infinitive.
Compare: George is known to do such things.- to do has a present tense
reference on the account of the form is known.
with: John is known to have done such things in the past.- to have done,
by its very form, refers to a past situation when John used to do such things.
You will want to have finished all your office work for this year by
December the 27th if you wish to begin your vacation then. – to have finished
refers to a period of time before the time expressed by the future form you will
want.

Uses of the Indefinite Infinitive/ Perfect Infinitive

An indefinite infinitive form is used to form:

- the present tense affirmative form of the English principal verbs: I do/
he does.
- the future tense simple aspect of the English principal verbs: I will do it.
- future in the past: he would go.
- the imperative: Go! Come!
- the synthetic subjunctive present: It is important that he go.
- part of the analytical subjunctive: It is important that he should go.

A perfect infinitive form is used to form:

- the future perfect: I shall have finished.
- future perfect in the past: He said that he would have finished.
- perfect conditional: should/ would have gone.
- modal perfect conditional: I could have gone there.

Other uses of the Infinitive:

- in the so-called to be + infinitive construction to convey an order or
instructions in general: You are to stay here ( until told otherwise).
 - to convey the idea of a plan or the occurrence of a future event especially
in mass-media/ communication/ news: The middle- east peace talks are to take
place in Paris.
The foreign football delegation was to be put up at a four star hotel.
- in the so-called to be about + infinitive construction to express
immediate future with the adverb just stressing the idea of immediate/ near future:
The match is just about to begin.
- to express purpose: He hurried to catch an early bus.
Observation: In the case of the imperative forms: go and come, the
infinitive of purpose is changed into another imperative linked to the former by
the conjunction and: Go and tell him! Come and help me!
- after the adverb only to express a disappointing result of some situation:
He hurried to arrive home only to find nobody there.
In the case of the infinitive forms of the verbs: to learn, to find, to see, to
hear used without the adverb only, the idea of misfortune disappears:
He returned home after a long absence to find everybody safe and sound.
- after such numeratives as: the first, the second, the last, the only one to
replace a whole subordinate relative clause.
They were the last that came.
They were the last to come.
This is the best action which can be taken under the
circumstances.
This is the best action to be taken under the circumstances.
- after it is, it was+ an adjective + of followed by pronoun: of me, of you.
It was very kind of you, Mr. Smith to let me know about this possible post
of your firm.
- after the adverbs too or enough or so and the adverb so as.
Another important use of an infinitive form is as subject or as part of the
subject in the sentence:
To go there would be a stupid mistake.

The Infinitive + Accusative represents a combination of a noun or

pronoun in the accusative ( following a transitive verb) and a short or long
infinitive form which is in a predicative relationship with the respective
accusative form. ( they form together a complex direct object)
I helped him finish the job/ to finish the job.
In all the cases of usage, the action suggested by the infinitive form is
seen as finished.
In such a construction, one uses a short infinitive form after the verbs of
the senses: to see, to hear, to perceive, to watch etc., as well as after the verbs: to
make, to let, to help ( followed also by a long infinitive form).
I saw him do it.
I let him do it.
but: I helped him do it.
I helped him to do it.
 Observation1: It is to be kept in mind that in the case of a passive
transformation, which turns the infinitive + accusative construction into a
nominative + infinitive construction, the respective infinitive form is always long.
I saw him do it.
He was seen to do it.
Observation2: A long infinitive form is used in this construction after the
following categories of verbs:
- verbs of wish: I want you to do that.
- verbs expressing mental activities: to think, to suppose, to imagine, to
guess etc.
I imagine him to be a tall man.
- verbs expressing feelings and emotions: to hate, to love, to like, to dislike etc.
I hate him to behave like that towards his dog.
I’d like you to come with us.
- verbs with obligatory prepositions such as: to wait for, to rely on, to count on, to
count upon.
I count upon you to solve this situation.
We are waiting for him to come.

The Nominative + Infinitive construction is made up of a noun or a pronoun in

the nominative case followed by a predicative verb either in the passive or active voice
and a long infinitive form in all cases. The nominative noun or pronoun and the long
infinitive form together the complex subject of the respective sentence.
Such a Nominative + Infinitive construction is used as follows:
- as a substitute for a subject clause depending on such verbs as: to see, to appear,
to happen, to turn out etc.
It appears/ seems that George is 60 years old.
George appears to be 60 years.
George seems to be 60.
- as a passive equivalent of an Accusative + Infinitive construction with verbs of
the senses and verbs of mental activities:
I think him to be very clever.
He is thought to be very clever by me.
- it is also found in the form of is/ are certain + the word groups: is/ are likely; is/
are sure; is/ are certain or other combinations of the verb to be + adjective + long
infinitive: They are likely/ are expected/ are sure/ are certain to come tonight.

The so-called for + to infinitive construction contains a long infinitive which

stands in a predicative relationship to the noun and pronoun in the accusative case
preceded by the preposition for.
Such constructions are used as subjects introduced by the pronoun it following a
nominal predicate whose predicative part is represented by such adjectives as: necessary,
advisable, possible, impossible, imperative, difficult, easy and the like.
It is absolutely necessary for you to go there.
- as a subject in front position in the sentence
For her to do such hard work was all but pleasant.
 The –ing form in English

In traditional grammar, this form includes: the indefinite/ present participle, the
indefinite / present gerund, the verbal noun and the verbal adjective denominated as the –
ing form on account of the respective suffix.
The grammatical agreement of these four –ing forms can only be established in a
context depending on their respective determinatives or on their syntactical functions.
Thus, the participle is a strictly verbal form and, as a consequence to this, its
determinatives are verbal.
The gerund has a double nature. It has both the characteristics of a noun and those
of a verb, which allows its recognition on the basis of both noun determiners and
functions in the sentence as well as verbal determiners.
The verbal noun has all the characteristics of a noun functioning as a noun
properly. The verbal adjective is used either as part of a nominal predicate or as an
attribute determining a noun.
He is always willing. ( adj. – binevoitor)
He is a strapping fellow. ( adj.- de nădejde)
Consider also the following example:
The messenger had important news regarding/ concerning the missing person.
( preposition- despre, privitoare la)

The Indefinite Participle is a non-finite form of the English verb which denotes an
action or a state like a principal verb, without being able, at the same time, to form a
predicate by itself.
The form of the indefinite participle originates in a short indefinite form to which
the –ing suffix ending is attached.
The main use of the indefinite participle form is that of building a continuous
aspect of the English principal verbs in three of the four moods: indicative, conditional
and subjunctive.
I wish you wouldn’t be driving so fast. ( modal analytical subjunctive continuous
form- points to the speaker’s dissatisfaction)
The Indefinite Participle has two voice forms:
- active voice: asking, going, doing etc.
- passive voice: being asked, being gone, being finished etc.
Observation: There are no interrogative and interrogative-negative forms with the
indefinite participle, but it does have negative forms, a case in which the negation not is
placed in front: having asked- not having asked.
Since the indefinite participle has only verbal characteristics, it only has verbal
determinatives. Thus, in a sentence, an indefinite participle form can be determined as
follows:
1. can be followed/ determined by an Indirect Object:
I was not talking to you.
2. can be followed by a Direct Object like any other principal verb:
I was just helping him to pick up his things.
 3. can be followed by a Prepositional Object, introduced by a preposition, other
than to or for in certain contexts:
He was talking about his parents.
4. can be followed by an adverbial modifier:
All of a sudden, he saw a man hiding ( who was hiding) behind some
trees.

Syntactical functions of the indefinite participle

The indefinite participle can function:

a. as part of the verbal predicate ( in the continuous aspect situation)
He is sleeping.
b. as a predicative adjunct in a double predicate, after such verbs as: to come, to
go, to pass or after the direct object of the verbs: to keep, to set and to start.
The little girl came running at her mother’s urgent call.
came + running = double predicate ( she came and she was running)
She passed smiling by us.
He set the engine running.
He kept us waiting for hours.
He started the engine running.
c. as part of an attribute:
The little boy crying out loud is my nephew.
d. as part of an adverbial modifier:
Arriving late, he found no dinner waiting for him. ( adverbial modifier of cause)
Finishing work, he left. ( adverbial modifier of time)
He stopped as if not knowing what to do next. ( adverbial modifier of
comparison)
e. in a number of parenthetical participial phrases of the type: generally speaking,
judging by appearances, taking everything into consideration, admitting that,
considering that, leaving aside, talking about, strictly speaking etc.

Perfect Participle is made up of the indefinite participle form of to have followed

by the past participle form of the verb in question:
being- having been; having- having had;
seeing- having seen.
In a sentence, a perfect participle form denotes the idea of an action or a state
prior to the action or state denoted by the personal verb in the respective sentence:
Having finished the job, they left.
Having said good-bye to all who have seen him off, Peter started the engine of the
boat which was to take him round the world.
A perfect participle form has active and passive voice distinctions:
active voice: having set.
passive voice: having been set.
In the sentence, the perfect participle functions as:
a. adverbial modifier of time or part of an adverbial modifier of time:
Having bought all the items on the list, they returned home.
 b. adverbial modifier or part of an adverbial modifier of cause:
Having finished all their fuel and food supplies, the captain and all his
brave companions died one after the other from cold, hunger and starvation.

Special constructions with the participle

The Accusative + Participle construction is almost homonymous with the

Accusative+ Infinitive construction form which differs slightly in the sense that it lays
stress on the continuity of a state or of an action at a certain moment, which are
denominated by the participle form of the verb.
By comparison, in the Accusative+ Infinitive construction the stress is laid on the
finished character of the action or state denominated by the infinitive verb.
I saw him cross the street. ( action finished)
I saw him crossing the street. ( action in progress) = I saw him while he
was crossing the street.
As can be seen in the above example, the construction is made up of a principal
transitive verb, followed by a common or proper noun/ pronoun in the accusative case +
the principal verb in its indefinite participle form. From a syntactical point of view, it is
considered/ denominated as an objective predicative ( nume predicativ al obiectului
direct) which forms a double predicate with the respective principal verb in the sentence.
Such a construction is used in conjunction with the following verbs:
a. verbs of perception: to see, to hear, to perceive, to smell, to taste etc.
I heard him opening the door.
I smelt smog coming out of the room.
b. after a number of verbs including: to find, to imagine, to keep, to leave, to set,
to start, to have, to catch.
Policeman talking: You can go now, young man, but don’t you ever let me
catch you shoplifting again.
He left her crying.
She kept him waiting.
He set the engine running.
The Nominative + Participle construction represents the passive equivalent of the
Accusative + Participle construction. It is a construction analogous to the Nominative+
Infinitive construction. Again, it lays stress, by comparison, on the continuity of the
action of the participle form and not on the finished character of the actions as is the case
of the other construction, the Nominative+ Infinitive.
Compare: The burglar was seen climbing up the drainpipe.
with: The burglar was seen to climb up the drainpipe.

The Nominative Absolute Participial construction is a special construction in

which the indefinite perfect participle form stands in a predicative relation to a noun or
pronoun in the nominative case which is not the subject of the sentence but only a part of
an adverbial modifier of time, cause, condition or of attending circumstances.
a. part of an adverbial modifier of time:
The shelling having stopped, they rushed to give first aid to the wounded. = After
the shelling had stopped, they rushed to give first aid to the wounded.
 b. part of an adverbial modifier of cause:
The President being absent, no final decision could be taken. = Because the
Presindent was absent, no final decision could be taken.
c. part of an adverbial modifier of condition:
The ceasefire will be total, all the belligerent factions agreeing to sit down at the
negotiation table. = The ceasefire will be total, if all the belligerent factions agreeing to
sit down at the negotiation table.
d. part of an adverbial modifier of attending circumstances:
At that moment, the whole building collapsed, the smog and soot reaching the low
ceiling of dark clouds.

The Gerund

The forms of the Gerund in English are similar those of present/ perfect
participle: going- having gone, with the observation that while indefinite/ perfect
participle forms have only verbal functions or behaviour, the Gerund has both nominal
functions and verbal features. Both aspects ( nominal and verbal), are in most cases
present or appear in the same context.
On the one hand, by the presence of noun determiners such as: possessive
adjectives or prepositions, as well as verbal determiners such as: direct objects following
or adverbs defining them.
There are 4 distinctive features of the gerund in English:
a. it has voice and tense distinctions:
I dislike his smoking so much.
Observation: There are special cases when an active voice gerund form is implied
with a passive content meaning:
This boy deserves punishing. = This boy deserves being punished.
In a similar way, in connection with the verbs: to need, to require, to want as well
as the adjective worth, the gerund complement is always in the active voice, in many
cases with a passive meaning.
This book is worth reading.
The place is worth seeing.
Your garden wants wetting.
This house will need a total doing over before we can even think of moving in.

The verbal characteristics of the Gerund:

1. It can be followed by a Direct Object in the sentence:

The garden wants weeding.
This book is worth reading it.
2. A gerund form can be characterized by an adverbial modifier:
If a thing is worth doing, it is worth doing well.
3. It may have a subject, which is not the subject in the sentence:
She got a sense of it being her duty.
 The nominal characteristics of the Gerund:

1. It can be determined by possessive adjectives or by nouns in the synthetic

genitive:
Would you mind my smocking here?
The sound of a baby’s crying helped the fireman locate the whole family.
2. It may be preceded by a preposition:
Jane doesn’t care for cooking very much.
3. It can be part of a subject, part of a predicative or part of the predicate, part of
an object or of an adverbial modifier.
My suggestion is going there at once. ( it is not the continuous aspect, the gerund
form going is part of the nominal predicate)
4. A number of verbs: to admit, to avoid, to consider, to dislike, to like, to hate, to
keep etc. are specifically followed by a gerund form as well as some
phrasal verbs: to accuse of, to be afraid of, to be surprised at, to consist of/ in, to give up,
to object to, to prevent from, to rely on, to worry about.
5. A number of nouns followed by obligatory prepositions are also followed by
gerund forms: addiction to taking drugs, astonishment at seeing something, strong belief
in doing something, habit of doing something, interest in, reason for, pleasure in,
possibility of, skill in etc.
6. A number of adjectives and participles followed by obligatory prepositions are
followed by gerund forms: to be angry about, certain about, happy about, interested in,
late in, afraid of etc.

Syntactical functions of the Gerund

a. part of a subject:
Reading books is his favourite activity.
b. adverbial modifier of time or part of an adverbial modifier of time:
Compare:
Finishing work, they left.
With:
After finishing work, they left.
c. direct object:
He stopped going there after that night.
I like going there from time to time.

The Perfect Gerund denotes an action or a state prior to that expressed by the
notional verb in the sentence while displaying one or the other of its noun functions.
Syntactical functions:
a. direct object or part of the direct object:
I remember having seen him before.
b. part of an adverbial modifier of time:
After having rested for an hour, they started again.
 c. adverbial modifier of cause:
Because of his having arrived late, the meeting was postponed.

The Accusative with the Gerund ( the so- called gerundial construction) is a
construction in which the gerund form displays its verbal characteristics, establishing a
predicative relation with a noun or pronoun in the genitive case.
Would you mind my staying here doing this? ( the respective gerund form
functions as a direct object in the accusative case, but at the same time it is in a
predicative relationship with the preceded noun/ pronoun in the genitive case, functioning
as a predicate.
Would you mind my smocking here?

The Verbal Noun is an abstraction or an abstract word or noun in –ing formed

from a verb+ ing ending which denotes an action or a state without discharging any
verbal function in the sentence.
In many dictionaries such –ing forms are registered as nouns proper.
Examples: saying- sayings ( proverbe); leave- leavings ( resturi); filling-
fillings ( plombe) etc.

The differences between a verbal noun and the gerund can be exemplified as
follows:

The verbal noun The Gerund

a. it can form the subject by itself: a. it can only be part of the subject in the
Reading is useful. sentence:
Seeing is believing. His coming was quite unexpected.

b. it can be preceded by articles: b. it can not be preceded by articles:The

The reading of the book lasted a week. reading of the book = verbal noun

c. it can be determined by an adjective c. it can be accompanied by adverbs and

proper possessive adjectives.
Good reading is useful. His coming late was unusual.

d. it can not be followed by a direct object d. it can be followed by a direct object:

Reading books is useful.

e. it has no voice or tense distinctions. e. it has tense and voice distinctions:

reading- having read;
asking- being asked; having asked- having
been asked.
The verbal adjective

English adjectives ending in –ing can be divided into three categories:

a. ing adjectives which have degrees of comparison: comparative and
superlative and from a syntactical point of view behave like adjective proper:
interesting, surprising etc.
b. ing adjectives which are clearly derived from an –ing participle form
having a verbal nature, but not discharging a verbal function ( they do not have
degrees of comparison), they suggest a temporary state or quality which allows
one to assimilate them with qualitative adjectives: aching leg/ tooth, boiling
water, running water, flying carpet etc.
The Past Participle is a non-finite form of the English verb with the help
of which are built certain compound tenses such as: perfect infinitive, past perfect,
present perfect, the perfect participle and perfect gerund as well as passive voice
of English notional verbs.
In point of form, there are regular past participle forms formed with the
help of the –ed suffix from short indefinite infinitive forms: to like- liked, or they
exist as such in the case of English irregular verbs: be- been, have- had, write-
written.
A number of past participle forms have parallel adjectival forms which
forms originate in past participle forms. They also discharge no verbal functions
and are considered adjectives proper:
bound- bounded ( obliged) died – dead
drunk- drunken loved- beloved.

Syntactical functions:
a. predicative or part of the predicative:
The old oak tree was struck down by lightening.
b. part of an attribute:
A white- haired man was sitting in the corner of the room.

The misrelated participle

In a sentence, an indefinite participle form or perfect participle form
usually refers its meaning to the noun or pronoun which precedes it.
The burglar believing that he was alone in the building, turned the TV set
on.
There are also cases when the participle form such as the past participle
form is separated by the noun or pronoun to which it refers by a predicate or by a
notional verb.
Tom and his girlfriend came first, followed ( being followed) by Peter and
Mary.
A participle form can also be placed at the beginning of the sentence
referring its meaning to the subject of the notional verb in the sentence.
Believing that he was alone in the building, the burglar turned the TV on.
 Now, if the rule is broken in the sense that by wrongly placing the
participle form in the sentence and as a consequence its meaning is referred to the
wrong noun or pronoun in the sentence, such a participle form is said to be
misrelated ( that is connected in the wrong way and the meaning of the respective
utterance is affected).
Climbing up the wrong side of the mountain an avalanche caught them
unawares.
Such a sentence should be reformulated:
Climbing up the wrong side of the mountain, they were caught unaware
by an avalanche.

The Adverb

The function of the adverb in the English sentence is to be a qualifier of a verb, of

an adjective, of another adverb. In special contexts an adverb may function as a qualifier
for a whole sentence:
He laughs longer, who laughs last. ( Cine râde la urmă, râde mai bine)
The first act is ingenious, the second beautiful, the third abominably clever.
A: “Good morning, Mrs. Jones, how are you? “
B: “I’m quite well, thank you. How are you?”
Observation: An adverb can also determine/ qualify a noun or a pronoun:
Only John could have done it.
Practically everyone did their share.
In a similar way, an adverb can determine a participle, a gerund as well as an
infinitive form:
a well done thing. ( past participle)
John was coming quickly towards us. ( indefinite participle)
Drinking heavily is bad for health. ( gerund)

The form of the adverb in English

As a rule, adverbs are formed by the addition to adjectives of the –ly suffix:
clever- cleverly; sharp- sharply; short- shortly;
There are the following orthographical situations when the –ly suffix is added:
- adjectives ending –y preceded by a consonant change -y into –i:
naughty- naughtily
Observation: A number of adjectives do not obey this rule:
shy- shyly; dry- dryly; sly- slyly.
- after a vowel, the ending y is preserved as a rule:
gay ( vesel) – gayly, but also gaily.
- final -e is dropped in the following three adjectives:
due ( care se cuvine) - duly, true- truly, whole- wholly.
 - the ending –le with syllabic value is dropped:
noble- nobly; simple- simply; notable- notably.
- adjectives ending in double l drop one before the –ly ending:
full- fully; dull- dully.
- the adjectives: public and politic have regular corresponding adverbial
forms: publicly and politicly , but the other adjectives ending in –ic add –al before the –
ly suffix: magestic- majestically, drastic- drastically, emphatic- emphatically.

Classification of adverbs can be done according to their form and to their

meaning.
According to their form, adverbs fall into:
a. simple;
b. derived;
c. compound;
d. adverbial phrases;
e. other adverbial constructions.

a. Simple adverbs are: in, out, up, down etc.

b. Derived adverbs are formed from other parts of speech with the help of suffixes
and prefixes: long- along; sleep- asleep etc.
c. Compound adverbs are made of two or several parts of speech forming a
perfect semantic fusion: some+ times= sometimes; here + by = hereby.
d. Adverbial phrases are groups of words which can function as adverbs in the
sentence and they are felt as semantic fusion by their high frequency of usage:
topsy turny = neorânduială
to and fro = încolo şi încoace.
e. Adverbial constructions are combinations of different parts of speech with
prepositions functioning as adverbs, constructions which are not perfect semantic fusion.
In many cases, other parts of speech can be introduced in between the respective
preposition and the other parts of the construction. More than that, such constructions can
easily be replaced by other correspondent constructions with the same meaning.
She came to me to ask for advice.
She came to me for help.
He came in out of the dark.
He came in out of the rain.

There are the following types of adverbs:

a. adverb of time which shows the time when an action occurs/ takes place or the
time of a state or of a quality; the usual question: when?
Such adverbs are represented by simple words referring to past, present or future
periods of time of the type: tomorrow, next, before, weekly, monthly etc. or in the form of
adverbial phrases in the above mentioned combinations: in these past weeks, in the
future, in the long run, for a short time, for a long time etc.
There are about the following usual positions of adverbs of time in a sentence:
1. end position in the sentence: John will come tomorrow.
 2. front position ( with the respective emphasis on the importance of the
respective time dimension): Today we are going to take a long rest and tomorrow we
leave at sunrise.
3. mid position in the sentence: We will soon know the truth about the matter.
Observation: Only a number of short adverbs of time go into mid position in the
sentence. A list of such short adverbs will include: now, then, just, recently, immediately,
finally, since, already etc.
There are cases when an adverb of time can modify a noun by preceding it.
Exports last year were at their lowest.

Special uses of adverbs of time such as: yet, still, already.

Yet is used at the end of a question. It expresses an action which has already
happened or happened very soon.
The same adverb yet is placed at the end of a negative statement in connection
with the respective question:
A: Has George arrived yet?
B: No, not yet.
Observation: When yet is placed in mid position in connection with a negative
statement, it sounds rather formal.
We have not reached a reasonable conclusion yet.
We have not yet reached a reasonable conclusion.
Still is used in mid position in positive statements and questions.
No, we have not finished yet. We are still working on it.
A special usage of still is after the subject in negative statements to express an
unfulfilled action ( an action which has not taken place) like yet in end position to which
meaning it adds the modality of either surprise or discontent.
Compare: They haven’t arrived yet. ( only the time dimension is mentioned)
with: They still haven’t arrived.
Already is used to express something happening sooner than expected, is mainly
used in mid position, in positive statements or in questions.
They have already finished.
Have they already arrive?
When used in end position, the respective time dimension is emphasized.
The same adverb already is used immediately after the subject or before a
stressed auxiliary.
I have already finished.
I already have finished work, sir.

The adverbs no longer, anymore, any longer.

As a rule, no longer is used in mid position to show the end of an action or state:
George is no longer ill.
Mr. Smith no longer works with us.
As a less formal alternative to no longer in mid position, one uses anymore or any
longer in end position in negative statements.
Compare: Mr. Smith no longer works with us.
with: Mr. Smith doesn’t work with us anymore/ any longer.
 The adverb long is used in front or end position in questions and negative
statements.
Have you been waiting long?
How long have you been waiting?
The word after can not be used as an adverb of time on its own, but in the form of
a compound adverb or a compound prepositional adverbial phrase such as: afterwards,
after that, after a day, after a week, the day after, the week after etc.

b. adverbs of manner show the manner in which an action or state or a quality

occurs; the usual question: how?, in what manner?
They are usually formed from an adjective+ the suffix -ly: quickly, shortly,
immediately etc.
Observation: A number of adverbs of manners ending in –ly have corresponding
–ly adjectives or vice versa.
The adjective- adverb friendly:
Compare: a friendly gesture; a lovely girl
with: He always behaves friendly.
She looks lovely in green.
A number of adjectives function as adverbs of manner without adding the –ly by
the same form:
A fast car goes fast.
A hard job. He works hard.
Observation: Manner can also be expressed with prepositional phrases of such as:
with luck, with care, on purpose, in a nice way, in a proper manner, in a deliberate
manner, by mistake etc.
The adverbs of manner are usually placed at the end of the sentence.
When placed in a front position, the adverbs of manner give emphasis on the
respective action or state as follows:
And without any further delay, they started climbing the mountain.
Observation: An adverb of manner can also modify an adjective by preceding it.
They were quietly confident.
c. adverbs of place show the place where an action takes place or a state or a
quality exists; the usual question: where?, in what place?
A special list of adverbs of place would include the following: hence, thence,
whence, hither, thither, whither.
We went by boat to Călăraşi, whence by train to Bucharest.
The little girl was running hither and thither.
The adverbs of place are usually placed at the end of the sentence.
We are going to spend the night at Peter’s place.
When there are more than one adverbial of place in the sentence, the shorter one
precedes the longer one:
We spent the night at Peter’s, in his native village.
The adverb of place is used right after the verb if there is a close link in meaning (
between the verb and the respective adverb): He went there alone.
Phrases of place often go in either order with the observation that a smaller place
usually comes before a larger place.
 When there are two adverbs, one of time and one of place, they can be placed
either way.
They left it there at eight.
They left at eight from there.
Adverbs of place often come in the sentence after a direct object or an indirect
object.
I met him here on the stairs.
I gave the book to him at school.
For emphasis, adverbs of place take first position in the sentence.
In my room upstairs I sat in front of my computer, not really knowing
what I was going to write about.

Other adverbs: of cause, reason and result show the cause, the purpose of an
action answering the questions: why?, for what reason?
Examples: consequently, on purpose, for that reason, for that purpose, therefore
etc.
An adverbial of cause can also take the form of a prepositional phrase+ other parts
of speech.
He allegedly resign because of ill health. He died of pneumonia.
Concessive adverbs are represented by such adverbs as: however, still, yet.
Although he is quite old, he is still sound of mind.
Adverbs of frequency show the repetition of an action or state and are represented
by such adverbs as: frequently, rarely, ever, never, often etc. Such adverbs usually go in
mid position of the sentence.
People are often manipulated in their opinion by mass- media.
When such adverbs are placed in front position, their degree of emphasis is
obtained and in such cases grammatical and stylistic inversion takes place or occurs with
the part of the predicate coming in front of the subject.
Never in my life have I seen such a beautiful place.