INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTION

- Profound intellectual awakening which changed man’s concept of the universe and his role
in human affairs
- Began as a scientific revolution in the middle of the 16 th century and climaxed into the
enlightenment of the 18th century
- Its emergence was caused by various factors namely the discovery of speech, invention of
writing, invention of paper, invention of printing, and The Renaissance.

I. Scientific Revolution

A. Birth of Modern Astronomy

- Prior to the 16th century, the Ptolemaic theory of astronomy was accepted
o States that the earth was fixed as the center of the universe and that the sun, moon,
stars, and planets revolved around it in circular orbits
- Copernicus disproved the theory in his book On the revolutions of the Celestial Bodies
o The sun is the center of the solar system, and that the earth, moon, stars, and
planets revolve around the sun
o Brahe, Kepler, and Galileo confirmed his theory
o Kepler
 Discovered the laws of planetary motion which states that the planets
revolve around the sun in an elliptical orbit

B. Galileo and His Contributions to Science

- Galileo perfected the telescope which enabled him to observe the heavenly bodies and
confirm the Copernican theory.
- He discovered the satellites of Jupiter, mountains on the moon, and examined the spots on
the sun.
- He also discovered the law of pendulum, the law of falling bodies (objects fall at the same
speed), and the law of acceleration
- In his treatise “The Starry Messenger”, published in 1610, he provided a different view of
the universe, a view based on his observations.

C. New Scientific Instruments

- 1500 - watch
- 1560 - magic lantern
- 1639 - Gascoigne - micrometer
- 1644 - Torricelli - barometer
- 1650 – Gueriche - air pump
- 1657 – Huygens - pendulum clock;
- 1675 – Leeuwenhoek - first microscope
- 1726 – Fahrenheit - mercury thermometer

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D. Newton and the Law of Universal Gravitation
- Invented calculus and through it, discovered the law of gravitation (the force of gravity holds
objects together)
- Formulated the binomial theorem
- Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy or Principia (book which describes the three
laws of motion)

E. Math
- Tartaglia solved the cubic equation.
- Napier invented logarithms which simplified multiplication and division of large numbers.
- Descartes assigned the symbols in algebra and also devised analytic geometry.

F. Medicine
- Paracelsus used chemicals for medicinal purposes.
- Vesalius described the human body based on the anatomy of the ape, dog, and pig. He also
studied the human cadaver. With these, he’s known as the Father of Modern Anatomy.
- Other important advances include William Harvey’s elucidation of blood circulation,
Ambroise Pare’s development of surgery as a science, Marcello Malpighi discovery of the
capillaries (allows blood flow from an artery to a vein blood flow), and Giovanni Morgagni’s
use of autopsies. Morgagni is referred to as the Father of Pathology.

G. Biological Sciences
- Carolus Linnaeus, a botanist, and George Louis de Buffon, a zoologist, made the first
classification of animals. Both of them assigned scientific names to animal species.

H. Chemistry:
- Boyle discovered Boyle’s law which states that “the volume of gas is inversely proportional
with its pressure”.
- Antoine Lavoisier, referred as the “Father of Modern Chemistry”, discovered that water is
composed of Hydrogen and Oxygen and the 23 basic elements in nature. He also formulated
the law of conservation of matter.
- Various elements and compounds were also discovered during this period. Joseph Black
discovered carbonic acid; Cavendish discovered Hydrogen; and Father Joseph Priestly
discovered oxygen

I. Geography
- Mercator represented the world on a flat map and made a terrestrial globe which is superior
to other globes.

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J. Historical Sciences
- In contrast to earlier periods in history, books based on primary sources such as written
documents in the archives and archaeological relics (coins, inscriptions, and artifacts) have
been made.
- Fray Jean Mabillon in his work On Diplomatics established the science of paleography (deals
with the deciphering, reading, and authentication of old manuscripts).

II. Enlightenment
- Impetus for political change in the 18 th century
- Involved a movement of intellectuals, known as Philosophes or Aufklarung (in German), who
were greatly impressed with the accomplishments of the Scientific Revolution
- These intellectuals advocated reason in which the scientific method is used to facilitate the
understanding of all life. The scientific method was applied to humanities and philosophy.
Intellectuals of the Enlightenment were convinced that by following newton’s reasoning,
they could discover the natural laws that governed politics, economics, justice, and religion.
- The rational, scientific way of thinking in this period brought freedom from shackles of
religion.

A. John Locke
- Theory of Knowledge
- Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)
o Denies the existence of innate ideas
o Every person was born with a tabula rasa, a blank mind
o People were molded by their senses from their surrounding world
o Changing environment and subjecting people to proper influences, they could be
changed and society can be created
o Advocated the empirical perspective but did not rule out the fact that knowledge
was limited and must be reinforced by faith
o Argument for empiricism served as the basis for the Enlightenment doctrine
 Reason is the most significant and positive capacity of a human.
 Reason allows humans to free themselves from primitive, superstitious, and
dogmatic beliefs that keep humans ignorant and irrational.
 Reason allows humans to learn and to think correctly
 Reason can lead humans to perfection and to a heavenly existence on Earth.
 Human belief should not base itself on human traditions or authority.
 Reason, endowed to humans by a creator, makes all equal and deserving of
liberty and justice.
 Humans should seek to impart and/or gain knowledge, not feelings or
emotions.

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 - Two Treatises on Government
o Argued against the theory of the divine right of kings and suggested that the
authority of rulers had a human origin and thus, limited.
o Stressed the importance of religious liberty in government and society, laying the
foundation for the principle of separation of church and state.
- “Ecraswz l’ infame” or “Crush the Infamous”
o Warning to dogmatic religion, abusive governments, and old traditions to beware
- Government formed to protect basic rights of the people, but people can withdrew their
consent for the government if the people’s rights are violated.

B. Thomas Hobbes
– stated that the government provides a social contract to restrain base human nature

C. Voltaire
- Wrote Letter on the English which praises the freedom of thought that prevailed in England
- Liberal writings and satires on the Church and the State
- Believed in God but not in miracles, dogma, and clergy
- Code of morality based on reason
- Famous for the line “I do not approve all of your opinions, but I will fight to the death for
your right to express them”
- Wrote The Ignorant philosopher (straight forward treatise on fanaticism and the executions
by the church) and the novel Candide (religious intolerance)
- God or the Creator made the laws that put the universe in order, and the evil of the world
resulted from man straying from his understanding of natural law. Mankind’s job to
rediscover those laws using reason and bring order back into the world.
- Prayer and miracles violated the natural order

D. Jean Jacques Rousseau

- Father of Modern Democracy
- Novel Emile advocates a “child-centered” education
o Children should be allowed to follow their natural inclinations
o Abolish rigid curriculum and the teacher should never impose his authority on the
children
- Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind
o People have adopted laws and governors in order to preserve their property. Such
caused enslavement of the people by the government.
- The Social Contract (1762)
o “Men was born free, but is now everywhere in chains”. The lost freedom was the
result of the evils of civilized society

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 o Popular sovereignty – men enter into a contract in which they voluntarily surrender
their individual liberty to a government for the welfare of all and they chose the one
to rule them; this contract can be changed at will. If the individual puts his particular
will (self-interest) above the general will, he should be forced to abide by the
general will, forcing him to be free.
o This can result to a failure in recognizing minorities and can promote tyranny to the
majority

E. Denis Diderot
- published the Encyclopedia or Classical dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades in Paris,
consisting of 28 volumes and was completed in 21 years
o Making was assisted by jean d’ Alembert, Baron Holbach, and Claude Helvetius
o A Compendium of the scientific, historical, and cultural knowledge of the
enlightenment, epitomizing the rational, critical, and scientific spirit of the age. It
popularized the ideas of the Enlightenment
o Change the general way of thinking and reflected the Philosophes crusade against
the old French society
o Contributors attacked religious intolerance and advocated a program for social,
legal, and political improvements
- Condemned Christianity as fanatical and unreasonable (Christianity as the worst, most
absurd, and the most atrocious in its dogma”

F. Francis Bacon
- Popularized the Inductive or experimental method
o Observation, accumulation of data, experimentation, drawing conclusions, re-
experiment for verification
-
G. Rene Descartes
- Father of Modern Rationalism (equate identity with mind and reason rather than with the
whole organism)
- Starting point of his philosophical system was to doubt everything
- Discourse on Method (1637)
o What is beyond doubt is ones own existence.
o “I think therefore I am” or “Cogito ergo sum”
o Asserted that he would accept only things that his reason said were true
- Cartesian Dualism (absolute dualism between mind and matter)
o The mind cannot be doubted but the body and material world can be doubted
o Allowed scientists to view matter as dead or inert, as something that was totally
separate from themselves and could be investigated independently by reason
o Confirm things by observation
o Material world – inductive reasoning

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 o Spiritual world – deductive reasoning
H. Montesquieu
- Use of the scientific method to the social and political arenas to ascertain the “natural laws”
governing the social and political relationships of human beings
- Three basic kinds of government: republic, monarchy, and despotism
- Spirit of the Laws
o Powers of the government should be separated in order to prevent a person from
gaining too much power
o Three branches of government: legislative, executive, and judicial
 Check and balance each other
-
I. Francois Quesnay
- laissez-faire economics
o Government removed all restraints to free trade including taxes and tariffs
o With the restraints removed, natural laws of economics would be free to operate
and society would obtain its highest good since government laws and regulations
interfere with the natural laws of a self-governing economy
o In a free-market economy, competition will bring producers to produce goods more
efficiently so they can sell quality, lower cost goods.
-
J. Adam Smith
- modern discipline of Economics
- Individuals should be free to pursue their economic interests
- Through the actions of the individuals, the society would ultimately benefit
- Also advocated laissez-fair economics
- Wealth of the Nations
o Laissez-faire economics
 The state, in no way, should interrupt the free play of natural economic
forces by government regulations on the economy, but should leave it alone
 Stated the sole functions of government: army (protection from invasion),
police force (citizens’ defense from injustice), public works such as roads
o Essential justification for capitalism
o Law of supply and demand
o Economics governed by natural laws
o Free-market economy – competitions will bring producers to produce more goods
efficient

K. Immanuel Kant (Kantianism)

- Categorical imperative – everyone should treat all actions as an end, not a means to an end
- Moral order – freedom of will guided by an absolute duty
- Knowledge of God’s existence cannot be attained by reason alone

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 - Human reason has its limits

L. What prevented the Intellectual Revolution from originating in China?

- Chinese favored living in harmony with nature rather than trying to dominate it
- Chinese civil service system drew the best and brightest into government service resulting to
lack of “manpower” in other occupations

N. Impacts of the Enlightenment

i. Enlightened despotism
- An enlightened monarch would advance the society of his state by fostering education,
economic freedom, and social justice. In general the ruler used his power to promote
the good of the people because he/she knew best
o Frederick the Great
 Prussia a major European power (merged into Germany)
 Influenced by Voltaire’s ideologies on domestic reforms, improved
education, codified laws, industry and immigration, religious tolerance
o Catherine the Great
 Russian ruler
 instituted enlightened policies in Russia
o Maria Theresa and Joseph II
 Austria
 Theresa promoted free trade and limited the power of the nobility
 Joseph II provided freedom of the press and dismantled the remnants of
serfdom
- The problem with enlightened despotism is that it was, in general, all wrong. An
absolute ruler who controlled people’s freedom wasn’t what many thinkers envisioned
the Enlightenment to be about. The people wanted more control over their freedoms
and they were not going to take no for an answer; no matter how enlightened the ruler
claimed to be.

ii. American and the French Revolutions

- The discontentment brought about by enlightened despotism among the people set the
stage for these revolutions

“The French revolution was a key factor in the emergence of a new world event. The violent upheaval and
reordering of society associated with the French revolution changed the old Europe which was largely
agrarian, dominated by kings and grounded in privileges for nobles, clergy, towns, and provinces, and
content with the pattern during medieval times. As the 18th century drew to a close, a new intellectual
ethos based on rationalism and secularism emerged. The French Revolution established a new order based
on individual rights, representative institutions, and a concept of loyalty to the nation rather than to the

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 monarch. The revolutionary upheavals of the era gave rise to new liberal and national political ideals,
summarized in the French revolutionary slogan “Liberty! Equality! Fraternity!” (Duiker and Spielvogel, 2010)

Intellectual Revolution During the 19th century

It must be taken note of that the Intellectual Revolution in this century somewhat happened
simultaneously with the Industrial Revolution.

I. Developments in Science (mostly after 1850)

A. Bacterial Revolution: reduction of mortality rate

1. Louis Pasteur
o Pasteurization: use of heat to suppress the activity of living organisms in
fermentation; reduction of food poisoning
2. Joseph Lister
o Antiseptic principle: vaccines, lesser infections in surgeries, control of other
diseases such as typhoid and cholera
3. Dimitri Mendeleev
o Devised periodic table
4. Michael Faraday
o Electromagnetism discoveries, resulted in the first dynamo (generator)

5. Ausgust Comte
o “Father of Sociology”
o -positivism: stages of intellectual activity
6. Charles Darwin
o Theory of Evolution
 Survival of the fittest
 Religious impact: Darwin’s Theory refuted literal interpretation of the
Bible; crisis in some churches
 Darwin was supported by Thomas Huxley (“Darwin’s Bulldog”)
7. Herbert Spencer
o “Social Darwinism”: application of Darwin’s laws to human society
o “Survival of the fittest” here tells why certain people were successful and others
were not
o His ideas were popular in the upper middle class
8. Sigmund Freud
o Believed that humans were highly irrational creatures
o Emphasized that sexuality was a key driving force in a person’s psychological
make-up

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 o Founder of Psychoanalysis: significance of childhood experiences and use of
hypnosis

B. New Physics
1. Marie Curie and Pierre Cure
o discovered radium: a radioactive element
2. Ernest Rutherford
o structure of the atom
3. Max Planck
o Quantum Theory: subatomic energy is emitted in uneven little spurts called
“quanta”, not in a steady stream, as previously thought
o Implication: Laws governing the universe now seemed unpredictable
4. Albert Einstein
o Theory of Relativity: time and space are relative to the viewpoint of the
observer and only the speed of light is constant for all frames of reference in the
universe
o Implication: challenged Newtonian physics

II. Philosophical and Political Thought

A. Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

o British Political and legal philosopher
o Read at 3 , learned Latin at 4, wrote Latin at 5, learned French at 6 and took Voltaire
for light reading at 8...a genius
o “An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation”
1. Happiness: focus of is ideas
a. Nature has placed mankind under the governance of 2 sovereign
masters: pain and pleasure. It’s for them alone to point out what to do.
b. Criterion of morality in order to give it meaning: In his Constitutional
Code, he criticizes the authors of “The Federalist” for saying that justice
is the “end of government”. “Why not happiness?” Benthan asks. “What
happiness is every man knows, because what pleasure is, every man
knows, and what pain is, every man knows. But what justice is... this is
what in every occasion is the subject matter of dispute.”
c. Principle of utility: contrasted with other moral standards such as
“Fitness of Things”; “Law of Nature” and “Law of Reason”... these are
words without meaning unless its related to happiness
d. For him, law pertains to future action and should be deliberately
structured to produce greatest happiness.

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 2. “The worth of the state is no more than the worth of the individuals
composing it.”

B. Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859)\

o He was an aristocratic Frenchman
o 1st political writer in the 19th century to perceive “democracy” as the “irresistible”
new form of society and government, and that the US was the world’s key
laboratory of democracy since the age of European mastery and leadership in
political inventiveness was passing away
o “Democracy in America”(1835-1840) his most famous book/most enduring
contribution to political thought: generally conceded to be the greatest work in the
U.S. written by a foreign observer
o “Tyranny of the majority”

C. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

o Enthusiastically read Tocqueville’s work
o Shared Tocqueville’s concern about the possibility of tyranny of the majority in
democracy, added that: “It is not from separate interests, real or imaginary that
minorities are in danger; but from its antipathies of religion, political party or race.”
The more perfectly each knows himself the equal of any other individual, “the more
helpless he feels against the aggregate mass; and the more incredible it appears to
him that the opinions of the world can be possibly be erroneous.”
o “On Liberty”: famous work
a. Mill explodes the illusion that the evolution of government from tyranny to
popular self-rule necessarily solves the problem of liberty. “
b. society may practice a social tyranny more formidable than many kinds of
political oppression, because social tyranny leaves fewer means of escape...
“penetrating much more deeply into the details of life and enslaving the soul
itself.”
o “Unless absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment... scientific moral and
theological...is guaranteed, a society is not completely free.”
o In championing liberty, he has a broad goal in mind: “the Greek ideal of self-
development”
a. It is the privilege of every human being to use and interpret experience in
his own way, and the act of choosing between alternatives bring man’s
moral faculties into play.”
b. A person who acts according to custom and tradition makes no choice, and
he who lets others choose his plan of life for him has no need of any other
faculty other than apelike imitation
o “Utilitarianism”: other famous work
a. Like Bentham, the ultimate good is happiness

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b. The highest form of pleasure is sympathetic affection

D. W. F. Hegel (1770-1831)
o German Christian, influenced Karl Marx
o He saw the history of as the unfolding of God’s purpose in the World and the state
as God’s instrument for moving the world
a. The state is: “the Divine idea as it exists on Earth.”... “the way of God in the
World.”
b. “All the worth which the human being possesses... all spiritual reality.. he
possesses only through the state.” The individual only has moral value
because he is part of the state.
c. He believed that human moral purpose only can be discovered in and
through a community, and that individual progress without collective
progress is illusory.
d. Thus, his view of society is not atomistic. “Freedom... inner spiritual
realization is achieved trough individual conformity w/in an ethical society,
and an ethical society is an outward manifestation of a free and rational,
moral human being.
e. He rejects social revolution: there is no revolution in nature
f. Opposes the idea of the constitution as an instrument of the government
-constitution “should not be regarded as something made, even though it
has come to being in time. It must be treated rather as something simply
existent in and by itself, as divine therefore, and constant, and so exalted
above the sphere of things that are made.”
g. “Philosophy of History”: He defined the state here as the “realization of
freedom.”

E. Karl Marx (1818-1883)

o German
o Greatest single influence in “revolutionary communism”
o “Communist Manifesto”: most influential of all his writings. He made this with the
aid of Engles.
Stages of Communism:
a. Principle of: “from each according to his ability, to each according to his work.”
b. “from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.
-both: man is expected to perform socially useful work wherein he will
contribute his best abilities
-Marx looks upon work as man’s most creative and noblest form of self-fulfillment
o “Das Kapital”: monumental analysis on the capitalist system

F. Fredrich Nietzche (1844-1900)

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 o Famous statement: “God is dead.”
-3 core concepts based on “God is dead”
a. Eternal recurrence: as the energy of the universe is finite, every possible
configuration of reality must have been experienced in the past and will be
experienced again in the future. Although humans many not live forever, they do
gain a measure of immortality through time’s endless cycles.
b. Superman or above-man: ultimate goal of civilized existence; humanity is
inherently unequal
-“Thus Spoke Zarathustra” (1883-1885): developed superman as the new type.
These men would form a new class of masters who would rule over the lowly herd.
- this indicated the need for more individuality and personality in the face of
increasing standardization. “Someone who becomes supremely himself by
overcoming what is weak or low in himself.”
c. Will to power: imposition of the will of higher ones to the lesser ones.
o He sought the “revaluation of values”... a new moral order. What had come before
was worthless, partially because of Darwinian theories showing man’s descent not
from Adam, but from animals. What was required were new moral concepts to fill
the gap left by the departure of the old. He tried to fill this gap.

III. Realism: depiction of life in a factual manner in literature and the arts

A. Literature
1. Honore de Balzac:
-“The Human Comedy”: urban society as amoral and brutal, struggle for wealth and
power
2. Gustave Flaubert
-“Madame Bovary”: portrays the provincial middle class as petty, smug and
hypocritical
3. Emile Zola: “The giant of realist literature”
-portrayed the animalistic view of working class life
-“Germinal”: his work about the hard life f the young miners in France
4. George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans)
-studied how people are shaped by their social class and their inner strivings,
conflicts and moral choices
5. Thomas Hardy
-“Tess of the d’Urbervilles”: about a woman who was ostracized for having pre-
marital sex
6. Leo Tolstoy: “Greatest Russian Realist”
-“War and Peace”: his masterpiece, about the Russian society during the Napoleonic
Wars
-Fatalistic view of human society

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 -regarded love, trust and everyday family ties as enduring values
7. Henrik Ibsen: “Father of Modern Drama”
-His plays were on the conditions of life and issues of morality that mostly
contradicted the Victorian views of the day

B. Arts
“Art for Art’s Sake”
-Artists didn’t rely on patrons to fund their works
-They had artistic freedom and made money by selling their paintings
-Includes the Romantic Period
-France was the center of art in the world
-Ordinary people became the subject of many paintings.
8. Gustave Courbet
-coined the term “realism:
-“The Stone Breakers”
9. Francois Millet
-“The Gleaners”
10. Honore Daumire
-“Third Class Carriage”
11. Edgar Degas
-“Laundry Girls Ironing”
12. Edouard Manet
-bridged realist and impressionist methods
-considered the first “modernist” painter
-“Luncheon on the Grass”
-“Olympia”

IV. Impressionism in Painting

-began in France
-artist veered from trying to perfectly capture an image
A. Claude Monet
-foremost impressionist painter
-“Impression Sunrise”
B. Pierre-Auguste Renoir
-painted subjects in candid and nude figures
-“Le Bal au Moulin de la Galete”
C. Camille Pissarro
-considred by some to be the true Father of Impressionism

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References

Cummins, R, Historysage.com. 19th Century Society: Urbanization and Intellectual Movements (1800 –
1914) [PDF document]. Retrieved from Auburn Schools Web site: http://www.auburnschools.
org/ahs/rcummins/AP%20Euro/Assignment%20Calendar/14La%20Belle%20Epoque
%20%26%20Age%20of%20Progress/15-
19thcenturysociety,urbanization,intellectualmovements.pdf

Duiker, W.J., & Spielvogel J.J. (2010). World History. 6th ed. Vol 1: To 1800. Boston, MA: Wadsworth,
Cengage Learning. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com/books?id=arxyJC05vScC&pg=PT54
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Ebenstein W., Ebenstein A.O. (2000). Great Political Thinkers: Plato to the Present. 6th ed. Fort Worth,
Tex: Harcourt College Publishers.

Hall, T.C. (2008). The Complete Idiot’s Guide to World History. New York: Alpha Books.

Rothman, N.C. (2008). Enlightenment, the. In Encyclopedia of World History (Vol. 4 Age of Revolution
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%20revolution&f=false

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