The Soul Boat and the Boat-Soul: An Inquiry into the Indigenous

“Soul”
Maria Bernadette L. Abrera, Ph.D. is a professor of History at the University of the Philippines Diliman.
She is currently the Dean of the UP College of Social Sciences and Philosophy (2017-2020) where she
also served as the Chair of the Department of History. She has been the recipient of several Professorial
Chair awards including the UP Centennial Professorial Chair (2018) and the UP Centennial Faculty Grant
(2012). Her research focus is on cultural history and the indigenous knowledge system, having written
on the indigenous belief system, the status of women in pre-colonial Philippines and traditional boat
building technology.
Bangka – Austronesian, which means boat. A term also found in
Indonesia and the Melanesian islands particular in Fiji and Samoa
In the PH, it was first recorded to refer to all kinds of small
boats usually used in rivers or in shallow coastal waters.
By the 18th Century however, it expanded including all kinds of
water vessels of varying sizes.
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For example In Ilocos Region, the Bangka was originally a small

boat comparable to the paraw, a slow-moving small water craft.
The contemporary description of banka in Ilocos likens it to a
large bilog.
Bilog – a plank-built boat with no outriggers (outrigger is a
protecting structure on a boat, designed to hold fishing line)
- Originally, it is hollowed from a single log but in the 19th
century it eventually became a large boat made of planks.
__

Today Bangka is also found in almost all of the Philippine

languages including:
Kapampangan
Hiligaynn
Sebuano
Samar-Leyte
 Sinama Languages (language of Sama-Bajau people of the Sulu
archipelago // people of sebah, Malaysia and parts of Indonesia)
Sama people are one of the most widely dispersed people on SEA
Among tha Badjau or Sama-Laut, Bangka is the general term for all
kinds of boats not use as houseboats.
Houseboats are specifically called Nipa.

In Mindanao during the 17th century, Bangka was not a small boat
since it could carry from 20-100 cavans of rice
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The Jesuit priest Francisco Combes described it as carved from a

single piece of log.
Francisco Combés (1620 – 1665) was a Spanish priest who established Christian monasteries in the
Philippines in the 17th century

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There were 2 kinds of boat in Maguindanao

Binaloy – a single log
Kumpit – plank-built
Today, the kumpit of the Sama and Tausug is a huge boat made of
planks that measures between 50 to 120 feet in length.
__

- We may infer then, that the bangka was originally a small

boat.
- As the community and its grew, so did the boats, larger
boats were built later
- It was also in Mindanao that the Bangka is first describes
as a large boat although, it is still carved out of a single
piece of log
__
During the 18th century, “Bangka” was found among Ilokano and
Tagalog, but not in the Bicol and Visayan. In fact neither term
banka nor bilog were found in the early bicol and visayan
vocabularies. Instead the Bicol term for boat was sacayan and if
it were constructed from a single log, it was called baloto.
According to the 1668 dictionary for the Visayans of Leyte and
Samar indicated there that they called as baloto what the
Tagalogs referred to as bangka

According to Jesuit Alcina (an

accomplished navigator himslef, he define
it as tge smallest, simplest, and most
common craft.
Francisco Ignacio Alcina SJ was a Spanish historian and a Jesuit missionary in the Philippines. He served
as parish priest in the Visayan Islands for 37 years. Most of those years were spent among the natives
whom he used to call "my beloved Bisayans."
Alcina found that it could be used to ride waves off Samar
islands which was one of the most dangerous waters in the island.
- He likened the sight of it to a ball floating on the waves.
However, Bangka was more than just a boat. The entire process of
construction embodied the beliefs of the Indigenous culture,
Alcia, “million superstitions” involved in cutting tree and
shaping the log
- No thing happened by chance
- Nodes were counted and determined as it would affect the
fate of the boat
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The Boat Rituals
The rituals where the boats figured are most instructive in
revealing the beliefs that lay beneath the surface. One such
religious procedure
Kibang – in tagalog, it is the rocking motion of a boat on the
waves
- As a ceremony, it’s the old tradition asking anito what luck
could befall the riders before sailing or docking
- The movement was attributed as the spirit’s response
Guibang – in Visayans, it was done before raiding or fishing
expedition. Intoning before the small baloto“guibang guibang
magtoto cami” (sway, sway if we should proceed)
If sway = GOOD FORTUNE
The greater the movement = the better one’s fortune
As the baloto swayed they’d ask who was causing the boat to
sway, a deity or an ancient spirit. When the boat swayed at the
mention name, there was their answer.
- Practiced until the present time
If the relatives or children of a person who had drowned got
sick, they’d be placed in a boat called barangay together with a
baylan (female diviner). At the place she indicate they’d throw
down a wooden chest full of clothes and other belongings of the
dead person. Right after, they would ask their ancestors to help
and heal the sick relatives
Bacalag – Visayan boat launching ritual in the 17th century.
When a mangaiao (raiding boat) was to be launched, it’d rolled
over several places of logs and at the end there was an enslaved
captive.
- This was reportedly done so that through blood of the human
sacrifice, the boat would be feared by the enemies and would
succeed in obtaining numerous captives. During the ritual,
the appeal was uttered “daoharlucsin iginbabacalagna” – a
request that people would fear the boat in the same manner
the sacrificed captive did
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In Calagan (Caraga), the bacalag ritual was performed for the

healing of a datu who was seriously ill.
Calag in Bicol and Visayan means soul, the root word in both
bacalag and calagan.
__
Combes referred to the bacalag ritual as a “revolting”
Ancient tradition (or it causes intense disgust) in caraga when
he said
- “for the boats to obtain good fortune, they promise it at
the first instance a name, usually that one of their slaves”
It would have been the name of the sacrificed slave, which
made it so repulsive to the Jesuit observer.
- Remnants of this ritual remain although in less severe form
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In Masbate City, the prow (front) of the boat to be launched is

brushed with chicken blood, while prayers are intoned
- . This is usually performed by an elderly person
// in Cavite, a boat builder reported a case doing this practice
on the boat of a businessman from Ilo-Ilo who had requested the
ritual.
// in the Movie “Muro-Ami” which was set in Bohol island and
records its fishing practices, the captain’s father brushed
chicken blood on the boat that would be used for fishing.
- That practice is also been transmitted to a modern form of
transport: the wheels of a new car are also brushed with the
chicken blood.
- The sacrifice is believed to bring the boat good fortune.
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Fisherman in the northernmost Pilippine island of Batanes offer

up a pig to transfer to the animal whatever ill-fortune may
befall them or their boats.
- When they do not find any catch, they perform the cleansing
ritual not only on themselves but also on their boat, as
they believe envy or witchcraft has made them dirty, along
with the boats and the port.
// the rituals mention above indicates a way of thinking that
boats go beyond their function of transportation.
// to understand this, we need to know the basic tenets
(principle and beliefs) of the animist belief system.
 - Animist, a belief that all natural phenomena, including
human beings, animals, planta and also rocks, lakes,
mountains, weather, and so one share one vital quality – the
soul. Or spirit that energizes them.

The Indigenous Soul

Bagobos believe that all things possess a gimokud or soul,

including man-made objects.
Similarly, the Sama of Cagayan de Tawi-Tawi believe that the
sumangat or soul is found in all nature, even inanimate things.
- Intrinsic spirit of an object may be revealed at a
particular time, according to Bottignolo, that gives the
object its desirable characteristics.
- This is why warriors for example shows reverential attitude
(magalang) towards their weapon.
- It is not simply the physical object of a metal weapon but a
blade that possesses the soul.
- The soul of that object is what makes it hard and strong,
whose strength would be revealed during the battle.
- Warriors give names to their personal weapon not as
ownership but in recognition of its animisnm.
- Forging the weapon is sacred, It needed to be done perfectly
so that the soul of the blade would not depart from the
blade itself
- Another example, the ritual called “rice-soul”. The mandaya
pray to the soul of the rice before planting so that it
would bear many grains
//
Bagobos believe that both men and animals possess two souls.
The bad sould on the left, good on the right.
- man-made objects have only one soul
Among the Ifugao, we have here the alimaduan “soulstuff”, which
is different from the soul (linawa). The alimaduan is what gives
the object its distinctive characteristics.
The term for soulstuff, alimaduan, is based on dua (two) which is
also the root for kaluluwa (soul). This would indicate the belief
in another, or a second, presence within the material object.
An example of this is aamulet or charm. Amulets are considered
animate objects, going by the terms used to refer to these:
amulets are “given food” to mean that they are prayed on, for if
they lack “food” (prayers), they will “sulk” (magtatampo) and
“leave” (maglalayas). What this boils down to is that if an
amulet owner does not offer up sufficient prayers, he will lose
the amulet. Through these terms, the concept is clarified that
the amulet is not only animate, but possesses a “soul” from
whence its power emanates. Based on the concept of the alimaduan,
one may infer the presence of the soul in an object for so long
as that object possesses the qualities that are proper to it.
// The Malays believe that human, animals, birds, plants, fishes,
crocodiles, rocks, weapons, food, clothing, ornaments, and other
objects have each their own autochthonous soul.
Inferring from this, the boat then possesses its own soul, which
is fundamentally related to the tree that been used for
construction.
- The building process and construction rituals are rooted in
the belief of the soul
- Offerings are made to the soul inhabiting the tree, so that
it would remain on the tree once transformed into a boat
Among the Ivatans of Batanes, they have this rowing song upon the
start of a sea voyage. The boatmen would address the boat, asking
it to be steady, to be forceful, and to be alert in finding land
with beautiful bay.
- Similarly, Malays pray to the soul of a boat prior to voyage
and appeal that it keeps the planks together
In the epic “Sandayo” of the Subanon of Zamboanga, the hero’s
boat Gadyong reveals that it has mind because when informed that
they were going to raid, it refused to budge. When Sandayo the
hero finally relented and said that he was going to court a
maiden, only then did the boat sail.
- The functions of thought, will, and movement are attributes
of the soul, thus the need for the hero to entreat his boat
as though it were a person
This animist belief is seen in another aspect, the boat parts.
Boats have a “face”, particularly eyes.
The boat atop the burial jar found in the Manunggul cave in
Palawan has a face at the prow, and one can see the eyes, nose,
mouth and ears. Likewise, the prow of the lipa or houseboats in
Sulu and Tawi-Tawi are called sampong (face) with a discernible
eye, brow, nose, and mouth. Even the terms used in boat
construction also refer to the face: sealing the planks is
napirnga (to have a speck in the eye) and the sealant itself,
pamota (speck, mote). According to Lorenzo-Abrera, the stern is
called sampong buli (the face behind) by the Sama.
The belief in a soul in inanimate objects, plants and animals
also explains the presence of grave goods. Since these objects
have souls, then they can accompany the dead on his journey and
be brought over to the afterlife, along with the souls of the
slaves buried with him.
- When these grave goods are completely decomposed materially,
then they can be useful to the soul of the dead.
- The souls of these objects will be used by the soul of the
dead person.
- This is why, among the Kankanay, not a single iron nail is
used in the coffin because the dead person desires that
everything should disintegrate together with his corpse.
- This could help explain why up to the 17th century, the
Spaniards would note that not a single piece of iron was
used in building the boats.

- De Loarca was among the earliest conquistadores to arrive in the Philippines;

and he even took the opportunity to travel to China. Miguel López de Legaspi,
the first Spanish governor of the country, in 1572 awarded him with
an encomienda in Oton in the island of Panay1
The encomienda was a Spanish labor system that rewarded conquerors with the labor
of particular groups of conquered non-Christian people. The laborers, in theory, were
provided with benefits by the conquerors for whom they labored, the Catholic religion
being a principal benefit
Mourning
Boats figured prominently in the death rituals as they were part
and parcel of the entire animistic belief. There were several
forms of mourning
Maglahe was the mourning indicated by fasting upon the death of a
parent or close relative
The mourner only eat bananas and sweet potatoes and drank only
tuba (coconut wine)
The actual sign of the mourning among them was wearing of armlets
made of bejucos (rattan) which covered the entire arm, with a
similar band around the neck
Morotal
It is similar to that of the men, except that the mourner—instead of going to capture or kill someone
before she is allowed to cease mourning and to eat rice again—embarks in a barangay with many
women; they have one warrior man to steer, one to bail, and one in the bow. These three warriors are
always chosen as being very valiant men, who have achieved much success in war. Thus they go to a
village of their friends, the three warriors singing all along the way, keeping time with their oars; they
recount their exploits, the slaves whom they have captured, and the men whom they have killed in
war. The vessel is laden with wine and pitarrillas (isang uri ng banga o palayok). When they reach the
village, they exchange invitations with the inhabitants, and hold a great revel (pagsasaya). After this
they lay aside their white robes, and strip the bejuco bands from their arms and necks; the mourning
ends, and they begin to eat rice again, and to adorn themselves with gold.

LARAO
Larao of the dead—that is, mourning.  One of the observances which is carried out with
most rigor is that called larao.  This rule requires that when a chief dies all must mourn him,
and must observe the following restrictions:  No one shall quarrel with any other during the
time of mourning, and especially at the time of the burial.  Spears must be carried point
downward, and daggers be carried in the belt with hilt reversed.  No gala or colored dress
shall be worn during that time.  There must be no singing on board a barangay when
returning to the village, but strict silence is maintained.  They make an enclosure around
the house of the dead man; and if anyone, great or small, passes by and transgresses this
bound, he shall be punished.  In order that all men may know of a chief’s death and no one
feign ignorance, one of the timaguas who is held in honor goes through the village and
makes announcement of the mourning.  He who transgresses the law must pay the penalty,
without fail.  If he who does this wrong be a slave—one of those who serve without the
dwelling—and has not the means to pay, his owner pays for him; but the latter takes the
slave to his own house, that he may serve him, and makes him an ayoey. They say that
these rules were left to them by Lubluban and Panas.  
C4. VSlaves were killed at the death of chief

When any chief descended from Dumaguet dies, a slave is made to die by the same death as that of
the chief. They choose the most wretched slave whom they can find, so that he may serve the chief in
the other world. They always select for this a slave who is a foreigner, and not a native; for they
really are not at all cruel. They say that the reason for their killing slaves, as we have said, at the
death of any chief is very ancient. According to their story, a chief called Marapan more than ten
thousand years ago, while easing his body asked a slave of his for some grass with which to clean
himself. The slave threw to him a large stalk of reed-grass, which seems to have hit the chief on the
knee, causing a wound. As he was at the time a very old man, he died, as they say, from the blow;
but before his death he gave orders that, when he should die, the slave and all his children should be
put to death. From this arose the custom of killing slaves at the death of a chief.

Tagalogs
Ppt
If the dead person was a warrior, a living slave would be tied
underneath the corpse to die in this manner. Songs about the
warrior’s prowess and good qualities were sung by the relatives
during the wake.

Boat coffins

Banton Boat Coffin

- Banton, romblom
- Was found in romblom
- Skeletal remains were found
- Banton burial cloth
It is now preserved in the National Museum, actually a remnant of a blanket said to be the
oldest existing cloth in the Philippines

An archeological evidence of boat-shaped coffins abound from north to south of the Philippine
islands as well as in the entire SEA region (Tenazas). While Bangka is the general term for
boats, in other minor Philipphine languages it is transposed as kabang. The tagalog term for
coffin sa kabaong.
The bicol term for house is harong which sounds similar to the
malay term for coffin, larong. This infers that the term kabaong
meant a bouthouse for the dead, intended to transport him to the
afterlife
--
If the dead had been a member of a raiding team, the coffin would
be in a shape of the boat called barangay. Animals would be
placed as rowers, with a slave to oversee everything.
If he were a renowned sailor, he would be buried in his boat,
with slaves to row him to the afterlife.
--
It is notable that the kabaong, coffin, is very similarly made as the bangka/kabang, boat. Often, boats are
simply mentioned as made of hardwood. In Butuan City, where the oldest balangays (boat) in the
Philippines were discovered, there were also excavated coffins made from the hardwood dungon
(Heretiera litorales) (Roxas-Lim 56). This hardwood is especially used to construct the boat keel. It had
also been noted that coffin planks and its cover were very tightly sewn that not even air could pass
through (Chirino 134). It meant that the coffin was likewise constructed watertight in anticipation of its
passage in the river or sea.

Significantly, burial jars were almost always found near the shore or in coastal areas. In Samar and Leyte,
the sea was within view from the site of the jars, and in Sorsogon and Tayabas, these were near the
sea.16 the burial caves, including the elevated sites in Batanes, were facing the sea.

The river and the sea served as passageways to the afterlife, thus the coffin was a boat.