CHAPTER V : Tissues

Epithelial Tissues
Connective Tissue
Muscular Tissue
Nervous Tissue

Multicellular organisms need specialized systems

Most cells in large multicellular organisms don't directly exchange substances like

nutrients and wastes with the external environment, instead, they are surrounded by

an internal environment of extracellular fluid—literally, fluid outside of cells. The

cells get oxygen and nutrients from this extracellular fluid and release waste products

into it. Humans and other complex organisms have specialized systems that maintain

the internal environment, keeping it steady and able to provide for the needs of the

cells.

Different systems of the body carry out different functions. For example, your digestive

system is responsible for taking in and processing food, while your respiratory system

—working with your circulatory system—is responsible for taking up oxygen and

getting rid of carbon dioxide. The muscular and skeletal systems are crucial for

movement; the reproductive system handles reproduction; and the excretory system

gets rid of metabolic waste.

Because of their specialization, these different systems are dependent on each other.

The cells that make up the digestive, muscular, skeletal, reproductive, and excretory

systems all need oxygen from the respiratory system to function, and the cells of the

respiratory system—as well as all the other systems—need nutrients and must get rid

of metabolic wastes. All the systems of the body work together to keep an organism up

and running.
All living organisms are made up of one or more cells. Unicellular organisms, like

amoebas, consist of only a single cell. Multicellular organisms, like people, are made

up of many cells. Cells are considered the fundamental units of life.

The cells in complex multicellular organisms like people are organized into tissues,

groups of similar cells that work together on a specific task. Organs are structures

made up of two or more tissues organized to carry out a particular function, and

groups of organs with related functions make up the different organ systems.

From left to right: single muscle cell, multiple muscle cells together forming muscle

tissue, organ made up of muscle tissue (bladder), and organ system made up of

kidneys, ureter, bladder and urethra.

At each level of organization—cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems—structure is

closely related to function. For instance, the cells in the small intestine that absorb

nutrients look very different from the muscle cells needed for body movement. The

structure of the heart reflects its job of pumping blood throughout the body, while the

structure of the lungs maximizes the efficiency with which they can take up oxygen

and release carbon dioxide.

Types of tissues

As we saw above, every organ is made up of two or more tissues, groups of similar

cells that work together to perform a specific task. Humans—and other large

multicellular animals—are made up of four basic tissue types: epithelial tissue,

connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue.

The four types of tissues are exemplified in nervous tissue, stratified squamous

epithelial tissue, cardiac muscle tissue, and connective tissue in small intestine.

Epithelial tissue consists of tightly packed sheets of cells that cover surfaces—

including the outside of the body—and line body cavities. For instance, the outer layer

of your skin is an epithelial tissue, and so is the lining of your small intestine.

Epithelial cells are polarized, meaning that they have a top and a bottom side. The

apical, top, side of an epithelial cell faces the inside of a cavity or the outside of a

structure and is usually exposed to fluid or air. The basal, bottom, side faces the

underlying cells. For instance, the apical sides of intestinal cells have finger-like

structures that increase surface area for absorbing nutrients.

Image showing three cells lining the small intestine. Each cell contains a nucleus and

is surrounded by a plasma membrane. The tops of the cells have microvilli that face

the cavity from which substances will be absorbed.

Epithelial cells are tightly packed, and this lets them act as barriers to the movement

of fluids and potentially harmful microbes. Often, the cells are joined by specialized

junctions that hold them tightly together to reduce leaks.

Connective tissue consists of cells suspended in an extracellular matrix. In most

cases, the matrix is made up of protein fibers like collagen and fibrin in a solid, liquid,

or jellylike ground substance. Connective tissue supports and, as the name suggests,

connects other tissues.

Loose connective tissue, show below, is the most common type of connective tissue.

It's found throughout your body, and it supports organs and blood vessels and links

epithelial tissues to the muscles underneath. Dense, or fibrous, connective tissue is

found in tendons and ligaments, which connect muscles to bones and bones to each

other, respectively.
Loose connective tissue is composed of loosely woven collagen and elastic fibers. The

fibers and other components of the connective tissue matrix are secreted by

fibroblasts.

Specialized forms of connective tissue include adipose tissue—body fat—bone,

cartilage, and blood, in which the extracellular matrix is a liquid called plasma.

Muscle tissue is essential for keeping the body upright, allowing it to move, and even

pumping blood and pushing food through the digestive tract.

Muscle cells, often called muscle fibers, contain the proteins actin and myosin, which

allow them to contract. There are three main types of muscle: skeletal muscle, cardiac

muscle, and smooth muscle.

From left to right. Smooth muscle cells, skeletal muscle cells, and cardiac muscle cells.

Smooth muscle cells do not have striations, while skeletal muscle cells do. Cardiac

muscle cells have striations, but, unlike the multinucleate skeletal cells, they have

only one nucleus. Cardiac muscle tissue also has intercalated discs, specialized

regions running along the plasma membrane that join adjacent cardiac muscle cells

and assist in passing an electrical impulse from cell to cell.

Skeletal muscle, which is also called striated—striped—muscle, is what we refer to as

muscle in everyday life. Skeletal muscle is attached to bones by tendons, and it allows

you to consciously control your movements. For instance, the quads in your legs or

biceps in your arms are skeletal muscle.

Cardiac muscle is found only in the walls of the heart. Like skeletal muscle, cardiac

muscle is striated, or striped. But it's not under voluntary control, so—thankfully!—

you don’t need to think about making your heart beat. The individual fibers are

connected by structures called intercalated disks, which allow them to contract in

sync.

Smooth muscle is found in the walls of blood vessels, as well as in the walls of the

digestive tract, the uterus, the urinary bladder, and various other internal structures.

Smooth muscle is not striped, striated, and it's involuntary, not under conscious

control. That means you don't have to think about moving food through your digestive

tract!

Nervous tissue is involved in sensing stimuli—external or internal cues—and

processing and transmitting information. It consists of two main types of cells:

neurons, or nerve cells, and glia.

The neurons are the basic functional unit of the nervous system. They generate

electrical signals called conducted nerve impulses or action potentials that allow the

neurons to convey information very rapidly across long distances. The glia mainly act

to support neuronal function.

Picture of neuron. The neuron has projections called dendrites that receive signals and

projections called axons that send signals. Also shown are two types of glial cells:

astrocytes regulate the chemical environment of the nerve cell, and oligodendrocytes

insulate the axon so the electrical nerve impulse is transferred more efficiently.

Organs, such as the heart, the lungs, the stomach, the kidneys, the skin, and the

liver, are made up of two or more types of tissue organized to serve a particular

function. For example, the heart pumps blood, the lungs bring in oxygen and

eliminate carbon dioxide, and the skin provides a barrier to protect internal structures

from the external environment.

Most organs contain all four tissue types. The layered walls of the small intestine

provide a good example of how tissues form an organ. The inside of the intestine is

lined by epithelial cells, some of which secrete hormones or digestive enzymes and

others of which absorb nutrients. Around the epithelial layer are layers of connective
tissue and smooth muscle, interspersed with glands, blood vessels, and neurons. The

smooth muscle contracts to move food through the gut, under control of its associated

networks of neurons.

Cross-section of the GI tract. From outside to inside: Blood vessels, networks of nerves

in smooth muscle layers, connective tissue, more smooth muscle, another layer of

connective tissue, epithelial tissue, and empty space in the middle as the path of

digested food.

Tet