V-2 Chapter 2 Final

WELL CONTROL MANUAL
Drilling & Workover VOLUME II

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CHAPTER 2 – CAUSES AND DETECTION OF KICKS
Table of Contents Back
1.0 Causes of Kicks ...........................................................................J-2

1.1 Low Density Drilling Fluid ................................................................... J-2
1.1.1 Gas Cutting ............................................................................... J-2
1.1.2 Oil or Saltwater Cutting ............................................................. J-3
1.2 Abnormal Reservoir Pressure ............................................................ J-4
1.3 Swabbing .............................................................................................. J-6
1.3.1 Balled-Up Bottomhole Assembly .............................................. J-7
1.3.2 Pulling Pipe Too Fast ................................................................ J-7
1.3.3 Poor Mud Properties ................................................................. J-7
1.3.4 Heaving or Swelling Formations ............................................... J-7
1.3.5 Large OD Tools ........................................................................ J-7
1.4 Not Keeping Hole Full ......................................................................... J-8
1.4.1 Use of Mud Log Unit ................................................................. J-8
1.4.2 Stroke Counter .......................................................................... J-8
1.4.3 Pit Volume Monitoring ............................................................... J-8
1.4.4 Flowline Monitors ...................................................................... J-9
1.5. Lost Circulation ................................................................................... J-9
1.5.1 High Mud Weight ...................................................................... J-9
1.5.2 Going into Hole Too Fast .......................................................... J-9
1.5.3 Pressure Due to Annular Circulating Friction ........................... J-9
1.5.4 Sloughing or Balled-Up Tools ................................................. J-10
1.5.5 Mud-Cap Drilling ..................................................................... J-10
2.0 Detection of Kicks .................................................................................... J-13
2.1 Positive Indicators of a Kick ............................................................. J-13
2.2 Secondary Indicators of a Kick ........................................................ J-13
2.3 Indicators of Abnormal Pressure ..................................................... J-13
2.4 Increase in Pit Volume ..................................................................... J-14
2.5 Increase in Flow Rate ...................................................................... J-14
2.6 Decrease in Circulating Pressure ................................................... J-14
2.7 Gradual Increase in Drilling Rate .................................................... J-15
2.8 Drilling Breaks ................................................................................... J-16
2.9 Increase in Gas Cutting .................................................................... J-17
2.9.1 Drilled Gas .............................................................................. J-17
2.9.2 Connection Gas ...................................................................... J-17
2.9.3 Trip Gas .................................................................................. J-17
2.10 Increase in Chlorides ........................................................................ J-18
2.11 Decrease in Shale Density ................................................................ J-18
2.12 Change in Cuttings Size and Shape ................................................ J-18
2.13 Increasing Fill on Bottom after Trips ............................................... J-18
2.14 Temperature ....................................................................................... J-18
2.15 Increasing Rotary Torque ................................................................. J-19
2.16 Tight Hole on Connections ............................................................... J-19
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Current Revision: April 2013 2-1 5 Edition
Previous Revision: May 2010
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1.0 Causes of Kicks

A kick is defined as any undesirable flow of formation fluids from the reservoir to the
wellbore, which occurs as a result of a negative pressure differential across the formation
face. Wells kick because the reservoir pressure of an exposed permeable formation is
higher than the wellbore pressure at that depth. There are many situations, which can
produce this unfavourable downhole condition. Among the most likely and recurring are:
• Low Density Drilling Fluid

• Abnormal Reservoir Pressure
• Swabbing
• Not Keeping the Hole Full on Trips
• Lost Circulation
These causes will be examined in detail in this section with emphasis placed on the human
elements of avoidance.
1.1 Low Density Drilling Fluid
The density of the drilling fluid is normally monitored and adjusted to provide the
hydrostatic pressure necessary to balance or slightly exceed the formation pressure.
Accidental dilution of the drilling fluid with makeup water in the surface pits or the
addition of drilled-up, low density formation fluids into the mud column are possible
sources of a density reduction which could initiate a kick. Diligence on the mud pits is
the best way to insure that the required fluid density is maintained in the fluids we
pump downhole.
Most wells are drilled with sufficient overbalance so that a slight reduction in the
density of the mud returns will not be sufficient to cause a kick. However, any
reduction in mud weight during circulation must be investigated and corrective action
taken. A major distinction must be drawn between density reductions caused by gas
cutting and those caused by oil or saltwater cutting.
1.1.1 Gas Cutting
The presence of large volumes of gas in the returns can cause a

drop in the average density and hydrostatic pressure of the drilling
fluid. However, the appearance of gas cut mud at the surface usually
causes over concern, and many times results in unnecessary and
sometimes dangerous over-weighting of the mud. The reduction of
bottomhole pressure due to gas cutting at the surface is illustrated in
the Table B.1.
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Table B.1 Effect of Gas-Cut Mud on Bottomhole Hydrostatic Pressure
Pressure Reduction (psi)

75 PCF Cut to 135 PCF Cut to 135 PCF Cut to
Depth (ft) 37 PCF 121 PCF 67 PCF
1000 51 31 60
5000 72 41 82
10000 86 48 95
20000 97 51 105
Notice that the total reduction in hydrostatic pressure at 20,000 feet is only about 100
psi even though mud density is cut by 50 percent at the surface. This is because gas
is very compressible and a very small volume of gas, which has an insignificant
effect on mud density downhole, will approximately double in size each time the
hydrostatic pressure is halved. Near the surface, this small volume of gas would
have expanded many times resulting in a pronounced reduction of surface density.
It is interesting to note that most gas cutting occurs with an overbalanced condition
downhole. For example, if a formation containing gas is drilled, the gas in the pore
space of the formation is circulated up the hole along with the cuttings. The
hydrostatic pressure of the gas in a cutting is greatly reduced as it moves up the
annulus, allowing the gas to expand and enter the mud column. The mud will be gas
cut at the surface, even though an overbalanced condition exists downhole. If the
amount of ‘drilled gas’ is large enough, it is even possible that a well could be flowing
at the surface as the gas breaks out and still have an overbalanced condition
downhole. However, a flowing well is always treated as a positive indication
that the well has kicked, and the well should be shut in immediately upon its
discovery.
In a balanced or slightly overbalanced condition, gas originating from cuttings could

reduce the bottomhole pressure sufficiently to initiate a kick. Gradual increases in pit
level would be observed at first, but as the influx of gas caused by the
underbalanced condition arrives at the surface, rapid expansion and pit level
increase will occur. The well should be shut in and the proper kill procedure initiated.
When gas cut mud causes a hydrostatic pressure reduction large enough to initiate a
kick, the density of the mud being pumped downhole will usually not have to be
increased to kill the well. This can be verified by shutting-in the well and confirming
that the shut-in drillpipe pressure is zero.
1.1.2 Oil or Saltwater Cutting
Oil and/or salt water can also invade the wellbore from cuttings
and/or swabbing, reduce the average mud column density, and
cause a drop in mud hydrostatic pressure large enough to initiate a
kick. However, since these liquids are much heavier than gas, the
effect on average density for the same downhole volumes is not as
great.
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Also, since liquids are only slightly compressible, little or no

expansion will occur when circulating out these liquids. However, a
given mud weight reduction measured at the surface due to oil
and/or saltwater invasions will cause a much greater decrease in
the bottomhole pressure than a similar mud which is cut by gas.
This is because the density reduction is uniform throughout the
entire mud column when it is cut by a liquid.
1.2 Abnormal Reservoir Pressure
Formation pressure is due to the action of gravity on the liquids and solids contained
in the earth's crust. If the pressure is due to a full column of salt water with average
salinity for the area, the pressure is defined as normal. If the pressure is partly due to
the weight of the overburden and is therefore greater, the pressure is known as
abnormal. Pressures below normal due to depleted zones or less than a full fluid
column to the surface are called sub normally pressured.
In the simplest case, usually at relatively shallow depth, the formation pressure is
due to the hydrostatic pressure of formation fluids above the depth of interest. Salt
water is a common formation fluid and averages about 67 pcf or 0.465 psi/ft.
Therefore, 0.465 psi/ft is considered the normal formation pressure gradient.
Normally pressured formations are usually drilled with about 70 to 75 pcf mud in the
hole.
For the formation pressure to be normal, fluids within the pore spaces must be
interconnected to the surface. Sometimes a seal or barrier interrupts the connection.
In this case, the fluids below the barrier must also support part of the rocks or
overburden. Since rock is heavier than fluids, the formation pressure can exceed the
normal hydrostatic pressure. During normal sedimentation the water surrounding the
shale is squeezed out because of the addition of overburden pressure. The available
pore space, or porosity, will decrease and, therefore, the density per unit volume will
increase with depth. However, if a permeability barrier, or if rapid deposition prevents
the water from escaping, the fluids within the pore space will support part of the
overburden load, which results in above normal pressure. This scenario is depicted
in Figure B.1.
Figure B.1 Abnormally Pressured Sand Formation

Figure B.1 Abnormally Pressured Sand Formation
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Another common cause of abnormal pressure is faulting. As can be seen in Figure

B.2, a formation originally deposited under normal pressure conditions is uplifted
2,000 ft. The pressure within the uplifted section is trapped in the formation. The
pressure in the formation is now abnormal for that depth. There may be no rig floor
warning prior to drilling into an abnormal pressure zone of this nature.
Figure B.2 Abnormal

Figure Pressure
B.2 Abnormal Due To Due
Pressure Faulting
To Faulting
Abnormal pressure can also occur as the result of depth and structure changes
within a reservoir. As shown in Figure B.3, at 3,000 ft, the formation pressure at the
gas-water contact is normal and equal to (0.465 psi/ft x 3,000 ft)=1,395 psi.
However, at the top of the structure (2,000 ft) the formation is overpressured and
approximately equal to 1,295 psi.
Figure B.3 Abnormal Pressure Due To Folding
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Example: The pressure at 3,000 ft (1,395 psi) less a 1,000 ft gas column (1,000' x .1
psi/ft) equals 1,295 psi. The mud weight required at 2,000 ft to balance this
formation is 1,295/(0.007 x 2,000') = 93 pcf.
Prior to drilling a particular well, all information regarding abnormally pressured

zones should be gathered and on hand for the drilling engineer. Seismic data can
often be helpful. Logs on nearby wells, along with the drilling reports of these wells,
should be studied. If the well is a rank wildcat in a new area, no knowledge of
pressures to be encountered may exist. In these cases pressure determination from
techniques such as plotting the ‘dc’ exponent while drilling, and pore pressure
calculations from electric logs run in the well are invaluable. Other warning signs are
available while drilling and are discussed later in this section.
Usually, abnormally pressured formations give enough warning that proper steps can
be taken. As noted elsewhere in this guide, low mud weights provide the best
indication of abnormal or high-pressure zones. Once these zones are detected, it is
normally possible to drill into them a reasonable distance while raising the mud
weight as necessary to control formation fluid entry. However, when pressure due to
mud weight approaches the fracture gradient of an exposed formation, it is good
practice to set casing. Failure to do this has been the cause of many underground
blowouts and lost or junked holes.
If abnormal pressure zones are drilled with mud weights insufficient to control the
formation, a kick situation develops. This occurs when the pressure in the formation
drilled exceeds the hydrostatic head exerted by the mud column. A pressure
imbalance results and fluids from the formation are produced into the wellbore.
1.3 Swabbing
Swabbing is a condition, which arises when pipe is pulled from the well and
produces a temporary bottomhole pressure reduction. In many cases, the
bottomhole pressure reduction may be large enough to cause the well to go
underbalanced and allow formation fluids to enter the wellbore. By strict definition,
every time the well is swabbed in, it means that a kick has been taken. While the
swab may not necessarily cause the well to flow or cause a pit gain increase, the
well has produced formation fluids into the annulus, which have almost certainly
lowered the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column. Usually, the volume of fluid
swabbed in to the well is of an insignificant amount and creates no well control
problems (e.g., a small amount of connection gas). Many times however, immediate
action will need to be taken to prevent a further reduction in hydrostatic pressure,
which could cause the well to flow on its own.
It can be very difficult at times to recognize swabbing. The most reliable method of
detection is proper hole filling. If a length of drillpipe composed of five barrels of
metal volume is pulled from the well and the hole fill-up is only four barrels, a barrel
of gas, oil, or salt water has possibly been swabbed into the wellbore. If swabbing is
indicated, even if no flow is seen, the pipe should be immediately run back to bottom
the mud circulated out, and the mud densified or conditioned before making the trip.
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A short trip is often made to determine the combined effects of bottomhole pressure
reductions, which are due to the loss of equivalent circulating density and swabbing.
When drilling under or near balanced conditions, a short trip is particularly important
since it would quickly indicate a need to raise mud density or slow pulling speeds.
Expansion of swabbed gas or flow from the formation later during the trip can be
much more difficult to overcome, possibly requiring stripping back to bottom to kill
the well.
Many downhole conditions tend to increase the likelihood that a well will be
swabbed-in when pipe is pulled. Several of these are discussed below.
1.3.1 Balled-Up Bottomhole Assembly
The drill string becomes a more efficient piston when drill collars,
stabilizers and other bottomhole assembly components are balled-
up. This causes a greater bottomhole pressure reduction, which can
swab more fluids into the wellbore. If the well is almost at balance,
only a few vertical feet of fluid swabbed-in can cause the well to flow
on its own.
1.3.2 Pulling Pipe Too Fast
The piston action is also enhanced when pipe is pulled too fast. The
driller should be sure that the pipe is pulled slowly off bottom for a
reasonable distance. However, the hole should be watched closely
at all times to be sure it is taking the correct amount of mud.
1.3.3 Poor Mud Properties
Swabbing problems are compounded by poor mud properties, such

as high viscosity and gels. Mud in this condition tends to cling to the
drill pipe as it moves up or down the hole, causing swabbing coming
out and lost circulation going in.
1.3.4 Heaving or Swelling Formations
Swabbing can result if the formations exposed either heave or swell,

effectively reducing the diameter of the hole and clearance around
the bit or stabilizers. In these formations even a clean bit acts like a
balled bit or stabilizer.
1.3.5 Large OD Tools
Drill stem testing tools, fishing tools, core barrels, or large drill collars
in small holes enhance swabbing by creating a piston action when
the pipe is pulled too fast. Extra care should be taken whenever
pulling equipment with close tolerances out of the hole.
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Good practices to prevent or minimize swabbing are aimed at keeping the mud in
good condition, pulling pipe at a reasonable speed, and using some type of effective
lubricant mud additive to reduce balling. Additives such as blown asphalt, gilsonite,
detergent, and extreme pressure additives are effective in many cases. Good
hydraulics will often help clean a balled-up bit or bottomhole assembly.
1.4 Not Keeping Hole Full
Blowouts that occur on trips are usually the result of either swabbing or not keeping
the hole full of mud. Much progress has been made in prevention, but constant
vigilance must be maintained. As drill pipe and drill collars are pulled from the hole
during tripping operations, the fluid level in the hole drops. In order to maintain fluid
level and mud hydrostatic pressure, a volume of mud equal to the volume of steel
removed must be pumped into the annulus. An accurate means of measuring the
amount of fluid required to fill the hole must be provided.
The volume of steel in a given length of collars can be as much as five times the
volume for the same length of drill pipe. The fluid level in the hole will also drop five
times farther, and the reduction in bottomhole pressure will be five times as great. If
the hole is normally filled after pulling fives stands of drill pipe, it may be necessary
to fill the hole after pulling each stand of drill collars. As a general rule, the hole
should always be filled on trips before the reduction in hydrostatic pressure
exceeds 75 psi.
It is the responsibility of the Drilling Foreman to see that the rig crews are thoroughly
trained in the necessity of keeping the hole full. Many mechanical devices have been
developed to aid in the task of keeping the hole full. These include:
1.4.1 Use of Mud Log Unit

These units are equipped with pump stroke counters, normally used
for correlating well cuttings with depth. Counters can also be used
during trips to aid in determining the proper amount of mud to keep
the hole full and to detect swabbing. However, the mud log crews
must be alerted to the need for this service during trips, when there
is no logging.
1.4.2 Stroke Counter
These counters mounted near the driller’s position enable him to

easily check his filling volume requirements. As the driller himself
operates them, there should be no communication problem.
1.4.3 Pit Volume Monitoring
Bulk mud volume checking is also very helpful, but large pits will not
show small changes; these can best be seen in a trip tank. The trip
tank should be near the rig floor and calibrated so the driller can
easily see and compare the volumes pumped into the hole vs. steel
pulled out. If the trip tank cannot be monitored from the floor, an
experienced crew hand should man it.
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1.4.4 Flowline Monitors

Besides monitoring flow while drilling, these devices detect fluid
immediately when the hole fills, so that a good comparison is
possible between pump strokes and returning fluid flow rate. Also,
these devices detect no-flow when lost circulation occurs. Their
proper use, in combination with other means, should prevent
blowouts due to not keeping the hole full or swabbing. As flowline
monitors can detect flow while the drill string is out of the hole, they
should be left on continuously.
1.5 Lost Circulation

An important cause of well kicks is the loss of whole mud to natural and/or induced
fractures and to depleted reservoirs. A drop in fluid level in the wellbore can lower
the mud hydrostatic pressure across permeable zones sufficiently to cause flow from
the formation. Some of the more common causes of lost circulation include:
1.5.1 High Mud Weight

If the bottomhole pressure exceeds the fracture gradient of the
weakest exposed formation, circulation is lost and the fluid level in
the hole drops. This reduces the effective hydrostatic head acting
against the formations that did not break down. If the mud level falls
far enough to reduce the BHP below the formation pressure, the well
will begin flowing. Thus, it is important to avoid losing circulation.
Should returns cease, loss of hydrostatic pressure can be minimized
by immediately pumping measured volumes of water into the hole.
Measuring the volumes will enable the drilling supervisor to calculate
what weight of mud the formation will support without fracturing.
Upon gaining returns, verify that the well is not flowing on its own.
1.5.2 Going into Hole Too Fast

Loss of circulation can also result from too rapid lowering of the drill
pipe and bottom assembly (drill collars, reamers, and bit). This is
similar to swabbing, only in reverse; the piston action forces the
drilling fluid into the weakest formation. This problem is compounded
if the string has a float in it and the pipe is large compared to the
hole. Particular care is required when running pipe into a hole having
exposed weaker formations and heavy mud to counter high
formation pressure.
1.5.3 Pressure Due to Annular Circulating Friction

Another item to be considered when drilling with a heavy mud near
the fracture gradient of the formation is the pressure added by
circulating friction. This can be quite large, particularly in small holes
with large drill pipes, or stabilizers inside the protective casing.
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It is sometimes necessary to reduce the pumping rate to lower the

circulating pressure. This problem can become acute when trying to
break circulation with high gel fluids.
1.5.4 Sloughing or Balled-Up Tools
Partial plugging of the annulus by sloughing shale can restrict the

flow of fluids in the annulus. This imposes a back pressure on the
formations below and can quickly cause a breakdown if pumping
continues. Annular plugging is most common around the larger
drillstring components such as stabilizers, so efforts to reduce
balling will also diminish the chances of this type of lost circulation.
1.5.5 Mud-Cap Drilling
In general, good operating practice calls for regaining circulation before

drilling ahead. However, in Saudi Aramco drilling operations there is one
notable exception, mud-cap drilling. Mud-cap drilling permits continued
drilling despite the presence of a pressured formation and a lost-circulation
zone in the same interval of open hole. Although mud-cap drilling has been
employed in a limited manner in other oil producing regions of the world,
Saudi Aramco is unique in the routine application of this methodology.
Drilling with a floating mud-cap involves drilling ahead blind (i.e., without
returns) by pumping different fluid densities down the drill string and annulus
simultaneously. All fluid is lost to the thief zone, the Shu’aiba. Figure B.4
illustrates this procedure, indicating the intervals exposed during the mud-
cap drilling operation. Employing a mud-cap in this manner provides the
option of continued drilling to the next casing point, if circulation cannot be
regained.
Note: The practice of drilling with a mud cap through hydrocarbon bearing
reservoirs is not recommended, as a kick may not be controlled
from surface (resulting in an underground blowout).
Mud-cap drilling is utilized because the troublesome Cretaceous interval,

Wasia group and Shu’aiba must be penetrated before reaching pay in the
Jurassic Arab formation, Sections A, B, C, and D. The Wasia group consists
of a series of limestones, shales and sands. Some of these shales can be
extremely water sensitive. In addition, some permeable members of the
Wasia can be abnormally pressured. Compounding these drilling
complications is the Shu’aiba limestone, which underlies the Wasia group
and is subnormally pressured and extremely permeable. Given this situation,
conventional drilling practice would suggest running and cementing casing at
the top of the Shu’aiba, but employing mud-cap drilling permits drilling to
continue to the top of pay.
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As noted above, the shale members of the Wasia can be extremely water
sensitive. Contact with water or high fluid loss mud can cause them to swell
rapidly and slough, resulting in stuck pipe. Therefore, it is a drilling
imperative that water not be permitted to contact the Wasia shales. An
added complication is that some permeable sand members of the Wasia can
be abnormally pressured, requiring mud densities ranging between 75 pcf
and 100 pcf to contain them, with the norm around 90 pcf. This abnormal
pressure is evidenced by massive water flows. If unchecked, water flows
from the Wasia would produce sloughing of water sensitive shales situated
above and below the Wasia sand members. Since the Shu’aiba is
subnormally pressured, an inexpensive low-density fluid is all that is required
to drill it. In practice, fresh water (drill water) is used to drill through the
Shu’aiba, and a low-solids, non-dispersed mud is used to mud-cap the
Wasia. The mud-cap mud is virtually untreated and is thus relatively
inexpensive for its density. Ideally then, in mud-cap drilling water is the only
fluid to contract the Shu’aiba and mud-cap fluid is the only fluid to contact
the Wasia.
A brief description of the typical mud-capping procedure follows. As drilling

progresses, water is pumped down the drill pipe to remove cuttings from
beneath the bit and around the bottomhole assembly. These cuttings and
the water are lost to the lost circulation zone. Meanwhile, mud of a density
just sufficient to kill the pressured zone is pumped slowly into the annulus.
Thus, a critical balance of pressure control is maintained. In practice, 50
barrels of premixed mud-cap mud is pumped down the annulus as soon as
circulation is lost to the Shu’aiba. Drilling proceeds blind (i.e., no returns),
pumping water down the drill string and adding 10 barrels of mud-cap mud
down the annulus every hour. If either partial or complete returns are
regained while drilling, the pumps are shut down to determine whether the
Wasia is flowing or if partial circulation has been restored. If it is determined
that partial circulation is the case (i.e., the Shu’aiba is not taking all of the
drill water), the Shu’aiba is intentionally broken down by squeezing mud-cap
mud down the annulus to avoid drill water contacting any water sensitive
shales. On the other hand, if the well is flowing, the mud-cap is not providing
sufficient hydrostatic pressure on the Wasia. The remedy is either to
increase the density of the mud-cap mud or increase the frequency of
addition of mud down the annulus. This assumes the reduction of hydrostatic
pressure is due to greater losses of mud per hour into the Shu’aiba than
originally anticipated. Prior to any trip, the drill pipe is displaced with mud-
cap mud. During a trip, 10 barrels of mud-cap mud are added every 10
stands or every 30 minutes, whichever is less. While pipe is out of the hole,
10 barrels of mud-cap mud are pumped down the hole every hour.
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Mud-capping a well is a mix of art and science, requiring diligent monitoring.

If the pump rate down the drill string is too low, stuck pipe could result. Also,
if pump rates down either side are excessive, mud losses and mud
expenses can become prohibitive. Conversely, if either injection rate is
insufficient, the well could kick. Fortunately, experience has defined the
general range of applicable pump rates for Saudi Aramco’s drilling
operations, as indicated in Fig. B.4.
Figure B.4 Mud Cap Drilling
During mud-cap drilling, all kicks or suspected kicks are handled by

increasing the injection rate of mud-cap mud down the annulus, squeezing if
necessary. If the well is still not dead at surface, the density of the mud-cap
mud is increased until the well is killed at surface. Naturally, any water flows
(i.e. kicks) simply flow into the Shu’aiba lost circulation zone. This practice
has been used extensively over the years and has been demonstrated to be
quite safe.
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2.0 Detection of Kicks

It is highly unlikely that a blowout or a well kick can occur without some warning signals. If
the crew can learn to identify these warning signals and to react quickly, the well can be
shut in with only a small amount of formation fluids in the wellbore. Smaller kick volumes
decrease the likelihood of damage to the wellbore and minimize the casing pressures.
Kick indicators are classified into two groups; positive and secondary. Any time the well
experiences a positive indicator of a kick, immediate action must be taken to shut in the
well. When a secondary indicator of a kick is identified, confirmation steps should be taken
to verify if the well is indeed kicking.
2.1 Positive Indicators of a Kick
The “Positive Indicators of a Kick” are shown to

Positive Indicators of a Kick the left. Immediate action should be taken to
shut-in the well whenever these indicators are
→ Increase in Pit Volume experienced. It is not recommended to check
→ Increase in Flow Rate for flow after a positive indicator or has been
identified.
2.2 Secondary Indicators of a Kick
Secondary Indicators of a Kick The “Secondary Indicators of a Kick” are shown

to the left. The occurrence of any of these
indicators should alert the Drilling Foreman that
→ Decrease in Circulating Pressure
the well may be kicking, or is about to kick.
→ Gradual Increase in Drilling Rate These indicators should never be ignored.
→ Drilling Breaks Instead, once realized, steps should be taken to
→ Increase in Gas Cutting determine the reason for the indication
→ Increase in Water Cutting or Chlorides (indicating a flow check if necessary).
2.3 Indicators of Abnormal Pressure
Indicators of Abnormal Pressure

“Indicators of Abnormal Pressure” are shown to
→ Decrease in Shale Density the left. Observance of any of these indicators
often means that the well is penetrating an
→ Change in Cuttings Size and Shape
abnormally pressured formation. Remedial
→ Increasing Fill on Bottom After a Trip
action may range from increasing the mud
→ Increase in Flow Line Temperature
weight to setting casing.
→ Increase in Rotary Torque
→ Increasing Tight Hole on Connections
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The following describe these indicators in detail and prescribe the proper remedial
action to take in the event of their occurrence.
2.4 Increase in Pit Volume
A gain in the total pit volume at the surface, assuming no mud materials are being
added at the surface, indicates either an influx of formation fluids into the wellbore or
the expansion of gas in the annulus. Fluid influx at the bottom of the hole shows an
immediate gain of surface volume due to the incompressibility of a fluid, (i.e., a barrel
in at the bottom pushes out an extra barrel at the surface). The influx of a barrel of
gas will also push out a barrel of mud at the surface, but as the gas approaches the
surface, an additional increase in pit level will occur due to gas expansion. This is a
positive indicator of a kick and the well should be shut in immediately any time
an increase in pit volume is detected.
All additions to the mud system should be done with the driller's knowledge. He
should also be told of each change in addition rate, particularly of water or barite.
Any change in valve settings, which could affect fluid into or out of the system,
should be noted and relayed to the driller. This is the only way to prevent
unnecessary shut in of the well. Again, the driller should always shut the well in first
and determine the reasons for a pit gain second.
2.5 Increase in Flow Rate
An increase in the rate of mud returning from the well above the normal pumping
rate indicates a possible influx of fluid into the wellbore or gas expanding in the
annulus. Flow rate indicators like the "FloSho" measure small increases in rate of
flow and can give warning of kicks before pit level gains can be detected. Therefore,
an observed increase in flow rate is usually one of the first indicators of a kick. This
is a positive indicator of a kick and the well should be shut in immediately any
time an increase in flow rate is detected.
Positive readings of a shut-in drillpipe pressure indicate that the well will have to be
circulated using the driller's or engineer's kill procedure. If the increase in flow was
due to gas expansion in the annulus, the shut-in drillpipe pressure will read zero
because no drillpipe underbalance exists.
2.6 Decrease in Circulating Pressure
Invading formation fluid will usually reduce the average density of the mud in the
annulus. If the density of mud in the drillpipe remains greater than in the annulus, the
fluids will U-tube. At the surface, this causes a decrease in the pump pressure and
an increase in the pump speed.
The same surface indications can be caused by a washout in the drillstring. To

verify the cause, the pump should be shut down and the well checked for flow.
If the flow continues, the well should be shut in and checked for drillpipe pressure to
determine whether an underbalanced condition exists.
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2.7 Gradual Increase in Drilling Rate
While drilling in the normal pressured shales of a well, there will be a uniform
decrease in the drilling rate. This assumes that bit weight, RPM, bit types, hydraulics
and mud weight remain fairly constant. This decrease is due to the increase in shale
density. When abnormal pressure is encountered, the density of the shale is
decreased with a resultant increase in porosity. These higher porosity shales will be
softer and can be drilled faster. Therefore, the drilling rate will almost always
increase as the bit enters abnormally pressured shale. This increase will not be rapid
but gradual. A penetration rate recorder simplifies detecting such changes. In
development drilling, this recorder can be used with electric logs for the area to
pinpoint the top of an abnormal pressure zone before any other indicators appears.
In areas where correlation with other wells may be difficult, calculation and plotting of
the “d” exponent can be helpful in detecting abnormal pressure. The “d” exponent is
obtained from the basic drilling equation shown below. As penetration rate is affected
by mud weight, a correction for actual mud weight must be made. This correction is
made as shown in Equation B.1.
Equation B.1 ‘d’ Exponent Equation
Log ( ) R
60N
dexp = -------------------
Log ( 12W
1000d
)
b
where:
R = Penetration Rate (ft/hr)
W = Weight on Bit (m-lbs)
Db = Bit Diameter (in)
N = Rotary Speed (rpm)
dexp = Drilling Exponent
Corrected
‘d’ Exponents
67
dc = ---------------------------- x dexp : for Saudi Aramco
Actual Mud Weight
62
dc = ---------------------------- x dexp : for Hard Rock
Actual Mud Weight
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Figure B.5 dc versus Depth
Plotting dc versus depth would result in a plot similar to the one shown in Figure B.5.
Where the plot shifted left would be where abnormal pressure was encountered. If a
mud logger is on location, he normally maintains a plot of this type.
2.8 Drilling Breaks
Abrupt changes in the drilling rate without changes in weight on bit and RPM are
usually caused by a change in the type of formation being drilled. A universal
definition of a drilling break is difficult, because of the wide variation in penetration
rates, types of formations, etB. Experience in the specific area is required. In some
sand-shale sequences, a break may be from 10 ft/hr to 50 ft/hr, or perhaps from 5
ft/hr to 10 ft/hr. In any case, while drilling in expected high-pressure areas, if a
relatively long interval of slow (shale) drilling is suddenly interrupted by faster
drilling, indicating a sand, the kelly should be picked up immediately, the
pump is shut off, and the hole observed for flow.
Very fast flow from the wellbore can result if permeability is high and mud weight is
low. Then the well must be shut in immediately. If the permeable sand formation has
only slightly higher pressure than the mud, flow may be difficult to detect. If there is
doubt and drilling is in an expected pressure area, it may be best to circulate the
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break to the surface. If the sand is abnormally pressured, the gassy mud nearing the
surface will expand, causing a rise in pit level. It may be necessary to control this
expansion through the choke manifold, with the blowout preventer closed, then
increase the mud weight before drilling ahead.
2.9 Increase in Gas Cutting
A gas detector or hot wire device provides a valuable warning signal of an impending
kick. These instruments measure changes in the relative amounts of gas in the mud
and cuttings, but do not provide a quantitative value. Increases in the gas content
can mean increase in gas content of the formation being drilled, gas from cavings
and/or an underbalanced pressure condition. Gas in the drilling mud is reported in
several different ways.
2.9.1 Drilled Gas
This is the gas, which is entrained in the rocks, which are drilled. The drilled
(or background) gas will usually increase as the bit penetrates abnormally
pressured shale. Abnormally pressured shale gas will continue to feed in
after all drilled-up gas has been removed from the mud. Occasionally drilled
gas will be slow to drop out, but will finally do so if the mud weight is high
enough to control the formation pressure.
2.9.2 Connection Gas
Connection gas is a measure of gas, which is either swabbed into

the hole while pulling up for a connection or as a result of the loss in
ECD while shutting the pumps off for a connection. It is reported in
total units observed. Connection gas can be identified by estimating
the time to pump mud from the bottom of the hole to the surface and
checking the gas detector recording at that time. The connection gas
will almost always increase when an abnormal pressure zone is
penetrated. At low mud weights, the gas increase will be gradual.
That is, one connection may show 20 units; the next, 30 units; and
the third, 40 units. Mud weight increases may be necessary, even
though there may be little or no change in background gas.
2.9.3 Trip Gas
The trip gas is very similar to connection gas except that it is a

measure of swabbed gas over an entire trip. Often a short trip of 15-
20 stands is made in order to circulate bottoms up and measure
units of swabbed gas. Excessive units of trip gas could indicate the
need for increasing the trip margin and/or reducing swab pressure.
Failure to fill the hole on trips may also cause an increase in trip gas.
The trip gas will generally increase when an abnormal-pressure
section has been penetrated and the mud weight has not been
raised. This alone is not a good indicator for abnormal pressure but
is useful with the other indications. Trip gas should be reported as
the total units observed.
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2.10 Increase in Chlorides
Invasion of the drilling mud by formation water can sometimes be detected by

changes in the average density or the salinity of the mud returning from the annulus.
Depending on the density of the mud, dilution with formation water will normally
reduce average density. If the density of the invading fluid is close to that of the mud,
the density would be unaffected, but perhaps a change in salinity will be apparent.
This would depend on the salinity contrast between the formation fluid and the mud.
Usually formation fluids are saltier than drilling muds and an influx can be detected
by marked increases of chloride content of the mud filtrate. Chloride changes alone
are not a good indicator of abnormal pressures but can be used in conjunction with
other indicators to present a clearer picture.
2.11 Decrease in Shale Density
The shale density will generally decrease when an abnormal pressure zone is
penetrated. This indicator would be good if it were possible to consistently select
cutting samples and accurately measure their bulk densities. This decrease in
density is a result of an increase in the water content within the shale.
2.12 Change in Cuttings Size and Shape
The amount of shale cuttings will usually increase, along with a change in shape,
when an abnormal pressure zone is penetrated. Cuttings from normal pressured
shales are small with rounded edges and are generally flat, while cuttings from an
abnormal pressure often become long, splintery with angular edges. As the
differential between the pore pressure and the drilling fluid hydrostatic pressure is
increased, the pressured shales will explode into the wellbore rather than being
drilled up. This change in shape, along with an increase in the amount of cuttings
recovered at the surface, could be an indication that the mud hydrostatic pressure is
too low and that a kick could occur while drilling the next permeable formation.
2.13 Increasing Fill on Bottom After Trips
Increasing fill on bottom after a trip, accompanied by an increase in trip gas, may
indicate abnormally pressured shale. This condition can also be created by not filling
the hole or poor mud properties during a trip, so it is not conclusive by itself.
2.14 Temperature
Flow line temperature often increases before an abnormal pressure zone is

penetrated. This has been observed in many parts of the world, but can be tricky.
Temperature also increases temporarily with the addition of barite or caustic, and by
changes in hydraulics, such as hole size. Sharp, stable increases in temperature,
possibly indicating abnormally pressured shale, are best seen on a relatively large-
scale depth vs. temperature plot.
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2.15 Increasing Rotary Torque
Torque sometimes increases when an abnormal shale section is penetrated due to

the pressured shales above the bit continuing to explode into the hole.
2.16 Tight Hole on Connections
A tight hole when making connections can indicate that abnormally pressured shale
is being penetrated with low mud weight. Often the hole must be reamed several
times before a connection can be made. Failure to suspect abnormal pressure when
this occurs could lead to the drill pipe sticking or a blowout if drilling is continued
without taking some corrective action.
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WELL CONTROL MANUAL

Drilling & Workover VOLUME II

CHAPTER 2 – CAUSES AND DETECTION OF KICKS

Table of Contents Back

1.0 Causes of Kicks ...........................................................................J-2

CHAPTER 2 – CAUSES AND DETECTION OF KICKS

1.0 Causes of Kicks

• Low Density Drilling Fluid

1.1 Low Density Drilling Fluid

1.1.1 Gas Cutting

The presence of large volumes of gas in the returns can cause a

CHAPTER 2 – CAUSES AND DETECTION OF KICKS

Table B.1 Effect of Gas-Cut Mud on Bottomhole Hydrostatic Pressure

Pressure Reduction (psi)

In a balanced or slightly overbalanced condition, gas originating from cuttings could

1.1.2 Oil or Saltwater Cutting

CHAPTER 2 – CAUSES AND DETECTION OF KICKS

Also, since liquids are only slightly compressible, little or no

1.2 Abnormal Reservoir Pressure

Figure B.1 Abnormally Pressured Sand Formation

CHAPTER 2 – CAUSES AND DETECTION OF KICKS

Another common cause of abnormal pressure is faulting. As can be seen in Figure

Figure B.2 Abnormal

Figure B.3 Abnormal Pressure Due To Folding

CHAPTER 2 – CAUSES AND DETECTION OF KICKS

Prior to drilling a particular well, all information regarding abnormally pressured

CHAPTER 2 – CAUSES AND DETECTION OF KICKS

1.3.1 Balled-Up Bottomhole Assembly

1.3.2 Pulling Pipe Too Fast

1.3.3 Poor Mud Properties

Swabbing problems are compounded by poor mud properties, such

1.3.4 Heaving or Swelling Formations

Swabbing can result if the formations exposed either heave or swell,

1.3.5 Large OD Tools

CHAPTER 2 – CAUSES AND DETECTION OF KICKS

1.4 Not Keeping Hole Full

1.4.1 Use of Mud Log Unit

1.4.2 Stroke Counter

These counters mounted near the driller’s position enable him to

1.4.3 Pit Volume Monitoring

CHAPTER 2 – CAUSES AND DETECTION OF KICKS

1.4.4 Flowline Monitors

1.5 Lost Circulation

1.5.1 High Mud Weight

1.5.2 Going into Hole Too Fast

1.5.3 Pressure Due to Annular Circulating Friction

CHAPTER 2 – CAUSES AND DETECTION OF KICKS

It is sometimes necessary to reduce the pumping rate to lower the

1.5.4 Sloughing or Balled-Up Tools

Partial plugging of the annulus by sloughing shale can restrict the

1.5.5 Mud-Cap Drilling

In general, good operating practice calls for regaining circulation before

Mud-cap drilling is utilized because the troublesome Cretaceous interval,

CHAPTER 2 – CAUSES AND DETECTION OF KICKS

A brief description of the typical mud-capping procedure follows. As drilling

CHAPTER 2 – CAUSES AND DETECTION OF KICKS

Mud-capping a well is a mix of art and science, requiring diligent monitoring.

Figure B.4 Mud Cap Drilling

During mud-cap drilling, all kicks or suspected kicks are handled by

CHAPTER 2 – CAUSES AND DETECTION OF KICKS

2.0 Detection of Kicks

2.1 Positive Indicators of a Kick